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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dot_matrix_printing | Dot matrix printing | Dot matrix printing, sometimes called impact matrix printing, is a computer printing process in which ink is applied to a surface using a relatively low-resolution dot matrix for layout. Dot matrix printers are a type of impact printer that prints using a fixed number of pins or wires and typically use a print head that moves back and forth or in an up-and-down motion on the page and prints by impact, striking an ink-soaked cloth ribbon against the paper. They were also known as serial dot matrix printers. Unlike typewriters or line printers that use a similar print mechanism, a dot matrix printer can print arbitrary patterns and not just specific characters.
The perceived quality of dot matrix printers depends on the vertical and horizontal resolution and the ability of the printer to overlap adjacent dots. 9-pin and 24-pin are common; this specifies the number of pins in a specific vertically aligned space. With 24-pin printers, the horizontal movement can slightly overlap dots, producing visually superior output (near letter-quality or NLQ), usually at the cost of speed.
Dot matrix printing is typically distinguished from non-impact methods, such as inkjet, thermal, or laser printing, which also use a bitmap to represent the printed work. These other technologies can support higher dot resolutions and print more quickly, with less noise. Unlike other technologies, impact printers can print on multi-part forms, allowing multiple copies to be made simultaneously, often on paper of different colors. They can also employ endless printing using continuous paper that is fanfolded and perforated so that pages can be easily torn from each other.
== History ==
In 1925, Rudolf Hell invented the Hellschreiber, an early facsimile-like dot matrix–based teletypewriter device, patented in 1929.
Between 1952 and 1954 Fritz Karl Preikschat filed five patent applications for his so-called "PKT printer", a dot matrix teletypewriter built between 1954 and 1956 in Germany. Like the earlier Hellschreiber, it still used electromechanical means of coding and decoding, but it used a start-stop method (asynchronous transmission) rather than synchronous transmission for communication. In 1956, while he was employed at Telefonbau und Normalzeit GmbH (TuN, later called Tenovis), the device was offered to the Deutsche Bundespost (German Post Office), which did not show interest.
When Preikschat emigrated to the US in 1957 he sold the rights to utilize the applications in any country (except the USA) to TuN. The prototype was also shown to General Mills in 1957. An improved transistorized design became the basis for a portable dot matrix facsimile machine, which was prototyped and evaluated for military use by Boeing around 1966–1967.
In 1968, the Japanese manufacturer OKI introduced its first serial impact dot matrix printer (SIDM), the OKI Wiredot. The printer supported a character generator for 128 characters with a print matrix of 7 × 5. It was aimed at governmental, financial, scientific and educational markets. For this achievement, OKI received an award from the Information Processing Society of Japan (IPSJ) in 2013.
In 1970 Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) introduced an impact dot matrix printer, the LA30, as did Centronics (then of Hudson, New Hampshire): the Centronics 101. The search for a reliable printer mechanism led it to develop a relationship with Brother Industries, Ltd of Japan, and the sale of Centronics-badged Brother printer mechanisms equipped with a Centronics print head and Centronics electronics. Unlike Digital, Centronics concentrated on the low-end line printer marketplace with their distinctive units. In the process, they designed the parallel electrical interface that was to become standard on most printers until it began to be replaced by the Universal Serial Bus (USB) in the late 1990s.
DEC was a major vendor, albeit with a focus on use with their PDP minicomputer line. Their LA30 30 character/second (CPS) dot matrix printer, the first of many, was introduced in 1970. In the mid-1980s, dot-matrix printers were dropping in price, and began to outsell daisywheel printers, due to their higher speed and versatility. The Apple ImageWriter was a popular consumer dot matrix printer in the 1980s until the mid-1990s.
In the 1970s and 1980s, dot matrix impact printers were generally considered the best combination of cost and versatility, and until the 1990s were by far the most common form of printer used with personal and home computers.
Increased pincount of the printhead from 7, 8, 9 or 12 pins to 18, 24, 27, or 36 permitted superior print quality, which was necessary for success in Asian markets to print legible CJKV characters. Epson's 24-pin LQ-series rose to become the new de facto standard, at 24/180 inch (per pass – 7.5 lpi). Not only could a 24-pin printer lay down a denser dot-pattern in a single pass, it could simultaneously cover a larger area and print more quickly. Although the text quality of a 24-pin was still visibly inferior to a true letter-quality printer such as a daisy wheel or laser printer, print quality was greatly superior to a 9-pin printer. As manufacturing costs declined, 24-pin printers gradually replaced 9-pin printers.
By the dawn of the 1990s, inkjet printers became more common as PC printers.
== Design ==
Dot matrix printing uses a print head that moves back-and-forth, or in an up-and-down motion, on the page and prints by impact, striking an ink-soaked cloth ribbon against the paper, much like the print mechanism on a typewriter. However, unlike a typewriter or daisy wheel printer, letters are drawn out of a dot matrix, and thus, varied fonts and arbitrary graphics can be produced.
Each dot is produced by a tiny metal rod, also called a "wire" or "pin", which is driven forward by the power of a tiny electromagnet or solenoid, either directly or through small levers (pawls). Facing the ribbon and the paper is a small guide plate named ribbon mask holder or protector, sometimes also called butterfly for its typical shape. It is pierced with holes to serve as guides for the pins. The plate may be made of hard plastic or an artificial jewel such as sapphire or ruby.
The portion of the printer that contains the pin is called the print head. When running the printer, it generally prints one line of text at a time. The printer head is attached to a metal bar that ensures correct alignment, but horizontal positioning is controlled by a band that attaches to sprockets on two wheels at each side which is then driven with an electric motor. This band may be made of stainless steel, phosphor bronze or beryllium copper alloys, nylon or various synthetic materials with a twisted nylon core to prevent stretching. Actual position can be found out either by dead count using a stepper motor, rotary encoder attached to one wheel, or a transparent plastic band with markings that is read by an optical sensor on the printer head (common on inkjets).
Because the printing involves mechanical pressure, dot matrix printers can create carbon copies and carbonless copies.
Although nearly all inkjet, thermal, and laser printers also print closely spaced dots rather than continuous lines or characters, it is not customary to call them dot matrix printers.
Dot matrix printers have one of the lowest printing costs per page.
They are able to use fanfold continuous paper with tractor holes.
Dot matrix printers create noise when the pins or typeface strike the ribbon to the paper, and sound-damping enclosures may have to be used in quiet environments.
They can only print lower-resolution graphics, with limited color performance, limited quality, and lower speeds compared to non-impact printers.
== Variations ==
The common serial dot matrix printers use a horizontally moving print head. The print head can be thought of featuring a single vertical column of seven or more pins approximately the height of a character box. In reality, the pins are arranged in up to four vertically or/and horizontally slightly displaced columns in order to increase the dot density and print speed through interleaving without causing the pins to jam. Thereby, up to 48 pins can be used to form the characters of a line while the print head moves horizontally. The printing speed of serial dot matrix printers with moving heads varies from 30 to 1550 characters per second (cps).
In a considerably different configuration, so called line dot matrix printers or line matrix printers use a fixed print head almost as wide as the paper path utilizing a horizontal line of thousands of pins for printing. Sometimes two horizontally slightly displaced rows are used to improve the effective dot density through interleaving. While still line-oriented, these printers for the professional heavy-duty market effectively print a whole line at once while the paper moves forward below the print head. Line matrix printers are capable of printing much more than 1000 cps, resulting in a throughput of up to 800 pages per hour.
A variation on the dot matrix printer was the cross hammer dot printer, patented by Seikosha in 1982. The smooth cylindrical roller of a conventional printer was replaced by a spinning, fluted cylinder. The print head was a simple hammer, with a vertical projecting edge, operated by an electromagnet. Where the vertical edge of the hammer intersected the horizontal flute of the cylinder, compressing the paper and ribbon between them, a single dot was marked on the paper. Characters were built up of multiple dots.
== Manufacturers and models ==
=== DEC ===
Unlike the LA30's 80-column, uppercase-only 5 x 7 dot matrix, DEC's product line grew. New models included:
LA36 (1974): supported upper and lower case, with up to 132 columns of text (also 30 CPS)
LA34: a lower-cost alternative to the LA36
LA38: an LA34 with more features
LA180: 180 CPS
LS120: 120 CPS
LA120: 180 CPS (and some advanced features)
LA12: a portable terminal – the DECwriter Correspondent
==== LA30 ====
The DECwriter LA30 was a 30 character per second dot matrix printing terminal introduced in 1970 by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) of Maynard, Massachusetts.
It printed 80 columns of uppercase-only 7 × 5 dot matrix characters across a unique-sized paper. The printhead was driven by a stepper motor and the paper was advanced by a noisy solenoid ratchet drive. The LA30 was available with both a parallel interface (LA30-P) and a serial interface (LA30-S); however, the serial LA30 required the use of fill characters during the carriage-return. In 1972, a receive-only variation named LA30A became available.
==== LA36 ====
The LA30 was followed in 1974 by the LA36, which achieved far greater commercial success, becoming for a time the standard dot matrix computer terminal. The LA36 used the same print head as the LA30 but could print on forms of any width up to 132 columns of mixed-case output on standard green bar fanfold paper. The carriage was moved by a much-more-capable servo drive using a DC electric motor and an optical encoder / tachometer. The paper was moved by a stepper motor. The LA36 was only available with a serial interface but unlike the earlier LA30, no fill characters were required. This was possible because, while the printer never communicated at faster than 30 characters per second, the mechanism was actually capable of printing at 60 characters per second. During the carriage return period, characters were buffered for subsequent printing at full speed during a catch-up period. The two-tone buzz produced by 60-character-per-second catch-up printing followed by 30-character-per-second ordinary printing was a distinctive feature of the LA36, quickly copied by many other manufacturers well into the 1990s. Most efficient dot matrix printers used this buffering technique.
Digital technology later broadened the basic LA36 line into a wide variety of dot matrix printers.
==== LA50 ====
The DEC LA50 was designed to be a "compact, dot matrix" printer. When in graphic mode (as opposed to text mode), the printhead can generate graphic images. When in (bitmap) graphics mode, the LA50 can receive and print Sixel graphics format.
=== Centronics 101 ===
The Centronics 101 (introduced 1970) was highly innovative and affordable at its inception. Some selected specifications:
Print speed: 165 characters per second
Weight: 155 pounds (70.3 kg)
Size: 27 ½" W x 11 ¼" H x 19 ¼ D (approx. 70 cm x 29 cm x 49 cm)
Shipping: 200 pounds (approx. 91 kg), wooden crate, unpacked by removal of 36 screws
Characters: 62: 10 numeric, 26 upper case, and 26 special characters (no lower case)
Character size: 10 characters per inch (10 "pitch")
Line spacing: 6 lines per inch (6 LPI)
Vertical control: punched tape reader for top of form and vertical tab
Forms thickness: original plus four copies
Interfaces: Centronics parallel, optional RS-232 serial
=== IBM 5103 ===
The IBM 5103 was the only IBM printer that could be attached to the IBM 5100, an early day portable computer. Printing was 8 DPI, 10 pitch, 6 LPI, and capable of printing bidirectionally from a 128-character set. Two models were offered: 80 and 120 characters per second.
==== Near Letter Quality (NLQ) ====
Near Letter Quality mode—informally specified as almost good enough to be used in a business letter—endowed dot-matrix printers with a simulated typewriter-like quality. By using multiple passes of the carriage, and higher dot density, the printer could increase the effective resolution. In 1985, The New York Times described the use of "near letter-quality, or NLQ" as "just a neat little bit of hype" but acknowledged that they "really show their stuff in the area of fonts, print enhancements and graphics."
NLQ printers could generally be set to print in "draft mode", in which case a single pass of the print head per line would be used. This produced lower quality print at much higher output speed.
== PC usage ==
In 1985, PC Magazine wrote "for the average personal computer user dot matrix remains the most workable choice". At the time, IBM sold Epson's MX-80 as their IBM 5152.
Another technology, inkjet printing, which uses the razor and blades business model (give away the razor handle, make money on the razor blade) has reduced the value of the low cost for the printer: "a price per milliliter on par with liquid gold" for the ink/toner.
=== Personal computers ===
In June 1978, the Epson TX-80/TP-80, an 8-pin dot-matrix printer mainly used for the Commodore PET computer, was released. This and its successor, the 9-pin MX-80/MP-80 (introduced in 1979–1980), sparked the popularity of impact printers in the personal computer market. The MX-80 combined affordability with good-quality text output (for its time). Early impact printers (including the MX) were notoriously loud during operation, a result of the hammer-like mechanism in the print head. The MX-80's low dot density (60 dpi horizontal, 72 dpi vertical) produced printouts of a distinctive "computerized" quality. When compared to the crisp typewriter quality of a daisy-wheel printer, the dot-matrix printer's legibility appeared especially bad. In office applications, output quality was a serious issue, as the dot-matrix text's readability would rapidly degrade with each photocopy generation.
==== PC software ====
Initially, third-party printer enhancement software offered a quick fix to the quality issue. General strategies were:
doublestrike (print each line twice), and
double-density mode (slow the print head to allow denser and more precise dot placement).
Some newer dot-matrix impact printers could reproduce bitmap images via "dot-addressable" capability. In 1981, Epson offered a retrofit EPROM kit called Graftrax to add this to many early MX series printers. Banners and signs produced with software that used this ability, such as Broderbund's Print Shop, became ubiquitous in offices and schools throughout the 1980s.
As carriage speed increased and dot density increased (from 60 dpi up to 240 dpi), with some adding color printing, additional typefaces allowed the user to vary the text appearance of printouts. Proportional-spaced fonts allowed the printer to imitate the non-uniform character widths of a typesetter, and also darker printouts. 'User-downloadable fonts' gave until the printer was powered off or soft-reset. The user could embed up to two NLQ custom typefaces in addition to the printer's built-in (ROM) typefaces.
=== Contemporary use ===
The desktop impact printer was gradually replaced by the inkjet printer. When Hewlett-Packard's US patent 4578687 expired on steam-propelled photolithographically produced ink-jet heads in 2004, the inkjet mechanism became available to the printer industry. For applications that did not require impact (e.g. carbon-copy printing), the inkjet was superior in nearly all respects: comparatively quiet operation, faster print speed, and output quality almost as good as a laser printer. By 1995, inkjet technology had surpassed dot matrix impact technology in the mainstream market and relegated dot matrix to niche applications.
As of 2021, dot matrix impact technology remains in use in devices and applications such as:
Cash registers,
ATMs,
Banking, passbook and cashier's checks,
Time cards and parking stubs,
Multi-layer contracts for signature,
Fire alarm systems,
Point-of-sale terminals,
British and Irish fire stations for turnout sheets,
Applications requiring continuous output on fan-fold paper.
Thermal printing is gradually supplanting them in some of these applications, but full-size dot-matrix impact printers are still used to print multi-part stationery. For example, dot matrix impact printers are still used at bank tellers and auto repair shops, and other applications where use of tractor feed paper is desirable such as data logging and aviation. Most of these printers now come with USB interfaces as a standard feature to facilitate connections to modern computers without legacy ports.
== Notes ==
== See also ==
Daisy wheel printing
ESC/P
Dye-sublimation printer
IBM Proprinter
Typeball printer
== References ==
== External links ==
Tomash, Erwin. "The U.S. Computer Printer Industry". jacques-andre.fr. Retrieved 2023-11-21. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alastor_(Hazbin_Hotel) | Alastor (Hazbin Hotel) | Alastor "the Radio Demon" is a fictional character created by Vivienne "VivziePop" Medrano who primarily appears in the American musical adult animated series Hazbin Hotel as one of the overlords of Hell. He was voiced by Edward Bosco and Gabriel C. Brown in the pilot and a series of music videos from 2019 to 2024, and by Amir Talai in the animated series since 2024. A constantly-smiling sinner, Alastor returns after a seven-year absence to help run a hotel known as the Hazbin Hotel, a halfway house founded by Charlie Morningstar, meant to rehabilitate the souls of those in Hell and help them earn a place in Heaven. Alastor seeks to guide and control Charlie. For a time, his soul was under the control of fellow overlord Rosie, though he has since been freed from her grasp. He is often accompanied by the hotel's bartender Husk (whose soul he owns) and housekeeper Niffty, and he is considered a rival by fellow overlord Vox and Charlie's father, Lucifer.
The character has received a positive critical reception, receiving particular attention as a prominent asexual character in media.
== Conception and creation ==
Alastor was created by Medrano during her time at School of Visual Arts in New York City, appearing unnamed on her DeviantArt page "circa. 2008". He was planned to be incorporated into her 2012 webcomic series ZooPhobia as a supporting character in a planned "Angels and Demons" story arc following his formal creation in 2011; on the arc's cancellation in 2016 and subsequent redevelopment as Hazbin Hotel, Alastor's full ZooPhobia design would not see publication.
=== Design and voice ===
In the unpublished ZooPhobia story arc Angels and Demons, Alastor was depicted as a black-and-red demonic deer able to transform into a humanoid form. He was described as "enjoy[ing] making deals and tricking mortals into service". He was a member of the "Demon Misfit Gang", who would later become the main cast of Hazbin Hotel. Short comics about ZooPhobia published to Medrano's DeviantArt and Tumblr pages would see Alastor attempt to take the place of fellow deer-boy Autumn, and to convince Damian (the webcomic's Prince of Hell) to make a deal with him, while himself being in love with "KayCee", an all-powerful ancient being.
In the Hazbin Hotel pilot, Alastor was entirely human, save for a few deer-like characteristics, including hooves and antlers. He wore a red suitcoat and had an eternal smile of sharp teeth. He was confirmed to be asexual by Medrano on her Twitter account, which was alluded to in the series itself in "Hello Rosie!". Alastor's voice actor Amir Talai has also described the character as embodying the characteristics of the "Tumblr sexyman".
Alastor was a radio show host in his life, and he died at some point in the 1930s. Upon his arrival in Hell, he gained immense amounts of power very quickly, overthrowing overlords that had dominated for centuries. His voice reflects who he was in life, having a radio static effect over it most of the time, and sound effects common in radio shows of the time occasionally play while he is speaking.
In the pilot of Hazbin Hotel, Edward Bosco was cast as the speaking voice of Alastor, and Gabriel C. Brown was cast as his singing voice. In the series, Bosco and Brown were replaced by Amir Talai.
== Fictional character biography ==
=== "That's Entertainment" (2019) ===
Alastor made his first full appearance in "That's Entertainment", the Hazbin Hotel pilot episode. Presented as an overlord of Hell, Alastor visits the "Happy Hotel" after witnessing Charlie Morningstar's televised interview about the establishment. He offers his services to help run the hotel, and states that he believes redeeming sinners is an impossible task, and he is only there to watch people try and fail to redeem themselves for his own entertainment, due to boredom with his own life. He summons two sinners, Niffty and Husk, to serve as the hotel's maid and bartender, respectively. After renovating the hotel in a musical number ("Alastor's Reprise"), Alastor uses his power to fend off an attacking Sir Pentious, before renaming the hotel the "Hazbin Hotel".
=== "A Day in the Afterlife" (2020) ===
Alastor returned in a starring role in "A Day in the Afterlife" (alternatively titled "The Radio Demon"), an official webcomic published on October 19, 2020. The comic explored a typical day for Alastor at an unspecified point in his afterlife. While attempting to purchase venison from a butcher, Alastor witnesses the butcher attempting to kill a sinner. He saves her life and consumes the butcher.
=== Hazbin Hotel (2024–present) ===
Prior to Alastor's death, he was a radio show host and serial killer in New Orleans in the 1930s. He was a mixed-race Louisiana Creole, and an only child. He made a deal with Rosie before he died, asking her to grant him the power to be the most powerful demon in Hell. She allows this, under the condition that his soul will belong to her until he does something for her in return. He dies the day after this deal is struck, being shot by a hunter whom mistook him for a deer while he was hiding a body in a forest.
In the present day, Alastor assists Charlie in running her redemption hotel. In "Overture", one week after the events of the pilot, Alastor notes it to have been seven years since he was active in Hell. In "Radio Killed the Video Star", after fending off another attack by Sir Pentious, Alastor's rival Vox learns that Alastor has returned; after losing a broadcast debate with him ("Stayed Gone"), Vox and the other "Vees" (Velvette and Valentino) seek to prevent Alastor from making a deal with Charlie, and send Sir Pentious into the hotel to spy on him. In "Scrambled Eggs", Vaggie asks Alastor to look after Sir Pentious' egg minions, which he allows to accompany him to a meeting with the other the overlords of Hell. After Velvette insinuates at the meeting that Carmilla Carmine killed an angel during the last Extermination (an annual purge of the souls of Hell by Heaven's army, led by Adam), Alastor orders one of the egg minions to spy on Carmilla and confirm this claim to be true.
In "Masquerade", Husk is revealed to have once been an overlord of Hell, who made a deal with Alastor to keep his power in exchange for his soul. In "Dad Beat Dad", after Charlie's father Lucifer arrives at the hotel and isn't impressed, he clashes with Alastor over who is the better father figure to Charlie ("Hell's Greatest Dad"), before being interrupted by Alastor's friend Mimzy. Distrustful of Mimzy, Husk takes Alastor aside while showing Lucifer the hotel to remind him not to trust her motives. On being brushed off as a "pet", Husk mentions how Alastor is "on a leash" to someone else, which Alastor threatens him never to mention again. After several loan shark demons attack the hotel in search of Mimzy, Alastor uses his powers to kill them and remind Hell of his power, before ordering Mimzy to leave. In "Hello Rosie!", following Charlie failing to pitch the hotel to Heaven again, with one month to go until the annual Extermination, Alastor convinces her to make a deal with him, telling her about Carmilla killing an angel, in exchange for a binding future favor. After Charlie sends Vaggie to acquire the information from Carmilla, Alastor brings Charlie to see his friend Rosie, the overlord of Hell in charge of Cannibal Town, and they convince the cannibals to serve as an army to defend the hotel against the angels ("Ready for This").
In "The Show Must Go On", the night before the Extermination, Alastor reminisces on the previous six months with Niffty, noting that one "could get used to" the residents of the hotel. On the Extermination's arrival the next day, a war between the angels and sinners ensues, and Alastor faces Adam himself. Overconfident, Alastor is badly wounded by Adam and forced to flee; in the aftermath of the battle, as the Vees celebrate Alastor's assumed loss and plot to take over Hell, a desperate Alastor hopes for freedom from his previous deal with Rosie and control over Hell, before cleaning himself up "with a smile" and reuniting with Charlie and her friends ("Finale").
In season two, Alastor continues to assist the hotel. In "It's A Deal", he gets into a battle with the Vees that goes poorly, ending in Alastor striking a deal with Vox, wherein Vox will own Alastor so long as the former leaves the hotel alone and doesn't touch Charlie again. In the season finale "Curtain Call," Alastor asks Charlie to do him the favor of saying that Vox is the strongest sinner in Hell, using his favor gained in season one. This frees Alastor's soul from his deal with Rosie, which is now void, as he is not the strongest sinner of Hell. Vox then briefly touches Charlie's shoulders, freeing Alastor from his deal with Vox as well. The two battle, and Vox is eventually defeated. Alastor returns to the hotel once more, though his intentions have changed, as he is no longer bound by any deals. He is seen eyeballing Lucifer.
== Promotion and reception ==
Since 2018, official clothing and merchandise based around Alastor and the cast of Hazbin Hotel designed by Medrano have been available intermittently from Shark Robot LLC. In 2024, an emote entitled "Reaper's Showtime" was added to the video game Fortnite, depicting the player character dancing with a scythe matching Alastor's color scheme, while playing the fan song "Insane". "Insane" was sung by Black Gryph0n, the singing voice of Alastor for the pilot episode.
Alastor's character in the show's pilot was received positively. Esther Liberman of BeLatina described him as "caricaturesque, impossibly rotten and flatter, like a perverse version of a third-generation descendant", while Dan Short of Animated Views called Alastor the "show-stealer" as one who is "charismatic and extravagant with smile-inducing flare while making it subtly clear he is as evil as he's feared to be", complimenting Edward Bosco's "magnificent" vocal performance and Gabriel C. Brown's "wonderfully inspired" singing voice. Reviewer Sean Cubillas for CBR described him as the embodiment of "dark humor at its quietest and best".
Alastor's character in the animated series was also received positively. Hope Mullinax of Collider praised him as "the most delightful enigma that keeps the audience guessing if he’s a friend or an antagonist waiting in the wings. Or both!", while also complimenting the "phenomenal" sound design behind Alastor and Vox, with the "shifting static of radio and VHS tracking buzz from nostalgic television sets heighten[ing] their subtextual emotions". Another reviewer, Mae Abdulbaki of ScreenRant, has said he has "a particularly intriguing character" during the series, noting his "mysterious and seemingly dangerous, yet protective and snarky" attitude. MXDWN additionally praised the "incredible chemistry" between Jeremy Jordan as Lucifer and Talai as Alastor.
== Appearances in other media ==
Gabriel C. Brown, the singing voice of Alastor in the pilot, provided vocals as Alastor in several fan-made music videos, including "Insane" in June 2021, which was reviewed by One Piece creator Eiichiro Oda as his "second-favorite song of 2023". In 2020, Hazbin Hotel and Helluva Boss songwriter Sam Haft released "Alastor's Game", in which Haft voiced Alastor.
From 2019 to 2023, Bosco and Brown would reprise their roles as Alastor in a series of skits in HuniCast, a livestreamed podcast series co-hosted by Angel Dust's pilot voice actor, Michael Kovach, and Hazbin Hotel pilot animator Ashley Nichols, often featuring the cast and crew of Hazbin Hotel and SpindleHorse Toons as guests.
== See also ==
History of LGBT characters in animation: 2010s
List of animated series with LGBT characters: 2020–present
List of fictional asexual characters
List of demons in fiction
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_5_(Kunming_Metro) | Line 5 (Kunming Metro) | Line 5 is a rapid transit line of the Kunming Metro, serving the city of Kunming, Yunnan Province, China. The line has a total length of 26.45 km (16.4 mi) and 22 stations. Phase 1 of the line was opened on 29 June 2022.
== History ==
Construction began in June 2016. The line is constructed by a consortium consisting of China Railway Construction Corp, Fourth Railway Research Institute Investment Co, and Kunming Railway Group.
== Opening timeline ==
== Rolling stock ==
The line is operated using six-car Type B trainsets produced by CRRC, with a maximum speed of 80 km/h and a capacity for 2094 passengers.
== Stations ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Rugby_Europe_Championship | 2022 Rugby Europe Championship | The 2022 Rugby Europe Championship was the sixth Rugby Europe Championship, the annual rugby union for the top European national teams outside the Six Nations Championship, and the 52nd edition of the competition (including all its previous incarnations as the FIRA Tournament, Rugby Union European Cup, FIRA Nations Cup, FIRA Trophy and European Nations Cup).
The 2022 Championship was contested by Georgia, The Netherlands, Portugal, Romania, Russia and Spain.
Georgia enter the tournament as defending champions. They topped the table after winning all of their matches in the 2021 tournament, claiming their 13th title and 10th Grand Slam as a result.
As in several other sports, Russia were disqualified after Week 3 due to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.
This year's edition of the Rugby Europe Championship doubles as the second year of the 2023 Rugby World Cup qualifiers for the European region. The winner and runner-up of the two-year cycle automatically qualify for the tournament as Europe 1 and Europe 2 respectively while the team in third place advances to the final qualification tournament as Europe 3.
== Participants ==
== Table ==
== Fixtures ==
=== Week 1 ===
Touch judges:
George Selwood (England)
Mike Woods (England)
Television match official:
Rowan Kitt (England)
Touch judges:
Manuel Bottino (Italy)
Leonardo Masini (Italy)
Television match official:
Emanuele Tomo (Italy)
Touch judges:
Ludovic Cayre (France)
Stéphane Boyer (France)
Television match official:
Denis Grenouillet (France)
=== Week 2 ===
Touch judges:
Federico Vedovelli (Italy)
Filippo Bertelli (Italy)
Television match official:
Stefano Roscini (Italy)
Touch judges:
Cédric Marchat (France)
Stéphane Crapoix (France)
Television match official:
Patrick Pechambert (France)
Touch judges:
Oisin Quinn (Ireland)
Nigel Correll (Ireland)
Television match official:
Leo Colgan (Ireland)
=== Week 3 ===
Touch judges:
Riccardo Angelucci (Italy)
Simone Boaretto (Italy)
Television match official:
Alan Falzone (Italy)
Touch judges:
Graeme Ormiston (Scotland)
Jonny Perriam (Scotland)
Television match official:
Neil Paterson (Scotland)
Georgia awarded 4 points.
=== Week 4 ===
Netherlands awarded 4 points.
Touch judges:
Gareth Newman (Wales)
Mark Butcher (Wales)
Television match official:
Elgan Williams (Wales)
Touch judges:
David Beun (France)
Christophe Bultet (France)
Television match official:
Eric Briquet-Campin (France)
=== Week 5 ===
Touch judges: Ru Campbell (Scotland) Bob Nevins (Scotland) Television match official: Andrew Mac Menemy (Scotland)
Portugal awarded 4 points.
Touch judges: Ben Breakspear (Wales) Ian Davies (Wales) Television match official: Jon Mason (Wales)
== International broadcasters ==
== See also ==
Rugby Europe International Championships
Antim Cup
Kiseleff Cup
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_Ayub_Sheikh | Muhammad Ayub Sheikh | Muhammad Ayub Sheikh is a Pakistani politician who was a member of the National Assembly of Pakistan from 2008 to 2013.
== Political career ==
He was elected to the National Assembly of Pakistan from Constituency NA-254 (Karachi-XVI) as a candidate of Muttahida Qaumi Movement (MQM) in the 2008 Pakistani general election. He received 132,648 votes and defeated Syed Suhail Abrar, a candidate of Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP).
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucas_Radebe#:~:text=After%20playing%20for%20amateur%20side,the%20Kaizer%20Chiefs%2C%20in%201989. | Lucas Radebe | Lucas Valeriu Ntuba Radebe OIS (born 12 April 1969) is a South African former professional footballer who played as a centre back.
He began playing in the than known Bophuthatswana Soccer league (BOPSOL) playing for Stocks Birds in Lehurutshe closer to Zeerust(North West Provence) before being scouted by Kaizer Chiefs in South Africa, before transferring to Leeds United, where he played 262 matches for the Yorkshire side. During his spells at these clubs, he picked up the nicknames "Rhoo" and "The Chief". He became captain of Leeds United and also of the South African national team, most notably at 2002 FIFA World Cup. Nelson Mandela said of Radebe: "This is my hero." He also captained Kaizer Chiefs during his time at Chiefs.
== Early life ==
Radebe was born to Emily and Johannes Radebe in the Diepkloof section of Soweto, near Johannesburg, as one of 11 children. He attended the local Bopasenatla Secondary School until he was 15 years old. His parents sent him to one of the former homelands in Grade 10, Bophuthatswana, as a way to keep him safe from the violent neighbourhood of Diepkloof Zone Four in Soweto. There he attended Ngotwane High School near Zeerust.
== Club career ==
=== Kaizer Chiefs ===
After playing for amateur side ICL Birds in the now-defunct Bophuthatswana Soccer League, and was spotted by Patrick Ntsoelengoe who recruited him to one of South Africa's top clubs, the Kaizer Chiefs, in 1989. Radebe originally started his career with the Kaizer Chiefs as a goalkeeper, and then switched positions to central midfield and then finally to central defence.
=== Leeds United ===
In 1994, Radebe and another South African player, Philemon "Chippa" Masinga, moved to Leeds United for a transfer fee of £250,000. Radebe was only included in the deal to keep Masinga happy; as it turned out, he became the more valuable investment.
Initially the move was not a success; Radebe did not agree with then Leeds manager Howard Wilkinson, and suffered injuries which prevented him for earning a regular first team place.
Radebe returned to the goalkeeper position in March 1996, replacing John Lukic in the position after he suffered an injury in the second half of a defeat to Middlesbrough. Radebe would again play in the goalkeeper position the following month when goalkeeper Mark Beeney was sent off for handling the ball outside his area in the 17th minute against Manchester United. Radebe was brought on as a substitute in place of Mark Ford, and despite Leeds losing 1–0, Radebe earned 'cult-hero' status at the club due to his performance.
However, when Wilkinson was replaced by George Graham, his career flourished and Radebe was made captain of the team for the 1998–99 season. Whilst he was captain, Leeds enjoyed a period of relative success; in the 1998–99 season, they finished fourth in the FA Premier League, qualifying for the UEFA Cup. During the 1999–2000 season, Leeds finished third in the Premier League and qualified for the following season's Champions League, where they eventually reached the semi-finals. During this time, Radebe turned down the chance to move to Manchester United, AC Milan and Roma. Alex Ferguson commented at the time, "Everyone should be interested in Lucas."
In 2000, he was awarded the FIFA Fair Play Award.
However, in 2000 Radebe sustained serious knee and ankle injuries, which kept him out of the game for almost two years, and subsequently found it difficult to regain his form and his place in the team.
== International career ==
Following the end of apartheid, Radebe made his debut for South African national team in their first international match on 7 July 1992 against Cameroon.
Having recently recovered from a long-term knee injury, he was a member of the South African team that won the 1996 African Cup of Nations.
Radebe was also the captain of the South African national football team during both the 1998 FIFA World Cup and the 2002 FIFA World Cup. South Africa failed to reach the knockout stages on both occasions; however Radebe did get on the score sheet in 2002.
He earned 70 caps for South Africa and scored two goals during his international career, with his last match being against England on 22 May 2003.
After retiring, Radebe was influential in South Africa's successful bid to host the 2010 World Cup. He could also be seen working as a pundit for South African television, and during ITV's coverage of the tournament.
== Style of play ==
Thebe Mabanga, a Mail & Guardian journalist, wrote that South African fans remember Radebe in his Kaizer Chiefs days as "a lanky, flamboyant central midfielder who switched to central defence with ease, snuffing out any opposition threat with exquisite, acrobatic scissor kicks and diving headers, and man-marking the most lethal strikers into silence".
== Post-playing career ==
At the end of the 2005 season, Radebe retired from professional football. Leeds held a testimonial for Radebe at Elland Road on 2 May 2005 attended by a crowd of over 37,886. Radebe also held a retirement match in Durban, South Africa between a South African Invitation XI and Lucas Radebe All Stars at Kings Park Soccer Stadium. The proceeds from both of these matches were combined with other money raised and donated to charity.
On 28 August 2006, Radebe announced that he was going back to Leeds after failing to secure a job with the World Cup hosts to be involved in the set-up of Bafana Bafana. He said he was "tired of waiting for unreliable people" who had allegedly promised him a role in the national team set up as the South African Football Association prepared to host the next World Cup in 2010.
In 2008, a local Leeds brewery asked for suggestions for a new beer; the most popular suggestion was Radebeer, showing the Leeds fans' admiration of Radebe.
On 8 October 2009, The English Football Association announced Radebe as an ambassador to help boost the 2018 World Cup bid.
A biography, Lucas: From the Streets of Soweto to Soccer Superstar by Richard Coomber was published in 2010.
In May 2010 he won the PFA Merit Award for his contribution to football.
During the 2010 FIFA World Cup, Radebe was a pundit for ITV's match coverage and also a columnist for The Daily Telegraph.
Radebe revealed in September 2010 that he would like to manage Leeds United in the future and also manage the South African national side. He said both jobs were the only coaching jobs that he would consider. In July 2012, it was announced that Radebe had accepted a position as team manager with the South African national side.
In October 2013, Radebe announced that he was set for another emotional return to the Elland Road ground at Leeds, to be presented to the crowd on Sunday, 30 October 2013.
On 23 January, it was confirmed that Boxer Josh Warrington would fight IBF world champion Lee Selby (26–1) in his first world title fight on 19 May at Elland Road with Radebe joining Warrington for the ringwalk. On 19 May, Warrington secured a split-decision victory over Selby to claim the title. With Radebe as part of Warrington's ringwalk and band Kaiser Chiefs also played songs at the event.
== Personal life ==
In 1991, he was shot whilst driving with his brother Lazarus to buy drinks for his mother but was not critically wounded. When Leeds United confirmed their interest in 1994, Radebe's decision influenced in part by an incident that had taken place three years previously.
Radebe was shopping for his mother, accompanied by his brothers, one of his sisters and her baby. While walking, they heard a gunshot, but didn't pay it much attention because, says Radebe: "In Soweto you heard shots all the time". He felt a pain in his back and he was bleeding, and his left leg went limp.
Radebe was rushed to hospital but nothing vital had been damaged. The bullet had entered his back and exited halfway down his thigh. The culprit is still unknown, it is suspected that someone was hired to shoot him rather than allow him to switch clubs.
He was voted 54th in the Top 100 Great South Africans in 2004.
His wife Feziwe died of cancer in October 2008. In December 2008, Radebe was treated for a heart complaint after collapsing while at the gym. Radebe married his second wife at the end of 2015.
== Legacy ==
Kaiser Chiefs, a British indie/britpop band, whose members are all Leeds United supporters, chose this name because Radebe is a former player of Kaizer Chiefs.
Radebe has been an ambassador of FIFA for SOS Children's Villages; he also received the FIFA Fair Play Award in December 2000 for his contribution in ridding soccer of racism as well as for his work with children in South Africa.
In April 2003, for recognition of his efforts both on an off the field, Radebe was given the Contribution to the Community Award in the Premier League 10 Seasons Awards.
On an official visit to Leeds, Nelson Mandela said of Radebe: "This is my hero."
== Career statistics ==
Sources: Soccerbase
lucasradebe.com
=== International ===
Scores and results list South Africa's goal tally first.
== Honours ==
Kaizer Chiefs
National Soccer League: 1989, 1991, 1992
Leeds United
Football League Cup runner-up: 1995–96
South Africa
African Cup of Nations: 1996
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Graeme Friedman Madiba's Boys: The Stories of Lucas Radebe and Mark Fish Comerford & Miller, United Kingdom ISBN 978-1-871204-22-3. Foreword by Nelson Mandela
== External links ==
Lucas Radebe at National-Football-Teams.com
A short documentary following Lucas back to his home town in Umlazi Township |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Vick | Michael Vick | Michael Dwayne Vick (born June 26, 1980) is an American college football coach and former professional football player. He is the head football coach for the Norfolk State Spartans. He played in the National Football League (NFL) for 13 seasons and was the all-time leader in quarterback rushing yards at the time of his retirement. Vick played college football at Virginia Tech, winning the Archie Griffin Award as a freshman, and was selected first overall by the Atlanta Falcons in the 2001 NFL draft. During his six years with the Falcons, he was named to three Pro Bowls and led the team to two playoff runs, one division title, and an NFC Championship Game appearance.
Vick's NFL career broke off in 2007 after he pleaded guilty for his involvement in a dog fighting ring and spent 21 months in federal prison. His arrest and subsequent conviction garnered Vick notoriety with the general public, which lasted throughout the rest of his career. He was released by the Falcons shortly before leaving prison.
After serving his sentence, Vick signed with the Philadelphia Eagles for the 2009 season. As a member of the Eagles for five years, he had his greatest statistical season and led the team to a division title in 2010, earning him Comeback Player of the Year and a fourth Pro Bowl selection. In his final two seasons, Vick played for the New York Jets and Pittsburgh Steelers, primarily as a backup. He officially retired in 2017 after spending the 2016 season as a free agent. After retiring as a player, Vick pursued a coaching career. He served as an advisor for the Atlanta Legends of the Alliance of American Football (AAF) in 2019. Near the end of the 2024 season, Vick was named the head football coach at Norfolk State.
== Early life ==
Vick was born in Newport News, Virginia, as the third of four children to Brenda Vick and Michael Boddie, then unmarried teenagers. His mother worked two jobs, obtained public financial assistance and had help from her parents, while his father worked long hours in the shipyards as a sandblaster and spray-painter. They were married when Michael was about five years old, but the children elected to continue to use their "Vick" surname. The family lived in the Ridley Circle Homes, a public housing project in a financially depressed and crime-ridden neighborhood located in the East End section of the port city. Local residents interviewed in a 2007 newspaper article in the Richmond Times-Dispatch noted that "not much [had] changed" nearly a decade after Vick left. One resident said that there was drug dealing, drive-by shootings, and other killings in the neighborhood, and suggested that sports were a way out and a dream for many. In a 2001 interview, Vick told the Newport News Daily Press that when he was 10 or 11, "I would go fishing even if the fish weren't biting, just to get away from the violence and stress of daily life in the projects."
Boddie's employment required a great deal of travel, but he taught football skills to his two sons at an early age. Vick was only three years old when his father, nicknamed "Bullet" for his speed during his own playing days, began teaching him the fundamentals. Michael subsequently taught the game to his younger brother, Marcus Vick.
As he grew up, Vick went by the nickname "Ookie", and learned about football from Aaron Brooks, a second cousin who was four years older. Vick and Brooks spent a lot of time at the local Boys and Girls Club.
"Sports kept me off the streets," Vick told Sporting News magazine in an interview published April 9, 2001. "It kept me from getting into what was going on, the bad stuff. Lots of guys I knew have had bad problems."
=== High school career ===
Vick first came to prominence while at Homer L. Ferguson High School in Newport News. As a freshman, he impressed many with his athletic ability; he threw for over 400 yards in a game that year. Ferguson High School was closed in 1996 as part of a Newport News Public Schools building modernization program. Vick, as a sophomore, and coach Tommy Reamon both moved to Warwick High School.
Vick was a three-year starter for the Warwick Raiders. Under Reamon's coaching, he passed for 4,846 yards with 43 touchdowns. He added 1,048 yards and 18 scores on the ground. As a senior, he passed for 1,668 yards, accounting for 10 passing and as many rushing touchdowns. During one game, he ran for six touchdowns and threw for three touchdowns.
Reamon, who had helped guide Brooks from Newport News to the University of Virginia, helped Vick with his SATs and helped him and his family choose between Syracuse University and Virginia Tech. Reamon favored Virginia Tech, where he felt better guidance was available under Frank Beamer, who promised to redshirt him and provide the freshman needed time to develop. Reamon sold Michael on the school's proximity to family and friends, and Vick chose to attend Virginia Tech. As he left the Newport News public housing projects in 1998 with a college football scholarship in hand, Vick was seen in the Newport News community as a success story.
== College career ==
=== 1999 season ===
In his first collegiate game for Virginia Tech as a redshirt freshman, against James Madison in 1999, Vick scored three rushing touchdowns in just over one quarter of play. He performed a flip to score his last touchdown but landed awkwardly on his ankle, forcing him to miss the remainder of the game and all of the following game. During the season, Vick led a last-minute game-winning drive against West Virginia in the annual Black Diamond Trophy game. He led the Hokies to an 11–0 undefeated season and to the Bowl Championship Series national title game in the Nokia Sugar Bowl against Florida State. Although Virginia Tech lost 46–29, Vick brought the team back from a 21-point deficit to take a brief lead. During the season, Vick appeared on the cover of an ESPN The Magazine issue.
Vick led the NCAA in passing efficiency in 1999, a record for a freshman (180.4) and the third-highest all-time mark. Vick won both an ESPY Award as the nation's top college player and the first-ever Archie Griffin Award as college football's most valuable player. He won the Big East Offensive Player of the Year. He was invited to the 1999 Heisman Trophy presentation and finished third in the voting behind Ron Dayne and Joe Hamilton. Vick's third-place finish matched the highest finish ever by a freshman up to that point, first set by Herschel Walker in 1980.
=== 2000 season ===
One highlight of Vick's 2000 season was his career high rushing total of 210 yards against Boston College in Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts. Against West Virginia University in the Black Diamond Trophy game, Vick accounted for 288 total yards of offense and two touchdowns in a 48–20 win. The following week, Vick led the Hokies back from a 14–0 deficit to beat Syracuse at the Carrier Dome, where the Hokies had not won since 1986. Vick put the game away with a 55-yard run with 1:34 left.
In the following game, against Pittsburgh, Vick was injured and had to miss the rest of the game. He also missed the game against Central Florida, and was unable to start against the Miami Hurricanes, who handed Virginia Tech their only loss of the season. Vick's final game while playing for Virginia Tech was against the Clemson Tigers in the Toyota Gator Bowl; Virginia Tech won and Vick was named the game's MVP. His football accomplishments in two seasons led to his induction in to the Virginia Tech Sports Hall of Fame in 2017.
Vick finished sixth in Heisman Trophy voting for the 2000 season. Vick left Virginia Tech after his redshirt sophomore season. Aware that the rest of his family was still living in their three-bedroom apartment in the Ridley Circle Homes, Vick stated that he was going to buy his mother "a home and a car." ESPN later reported that Vick used some of his NFL and endorsement earnings to buy his mother a brand-new house in an upscale section of Suffolk, Virginia.
Vick was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 2025.
=== College statistics ===
== Professional career ==
=== Atlanta Falcons ===
At his Pro Day workout, Vick ran the 40-yard dash in 4.33 seconds; his time has been clocked as low as 4.25, the fastest-ever for an NFL quarterback. Vick was selected first in the 2001 NFL draft by the Atlanta Falcons, becoming the first African-American quarterback to be taken with the top pick. The San Diego Chargers had the number-one selection, but traded it to the Atlanta Falcons the day before the draft for the Falcons' first- and third-round picks in 2001. Vick was selected in the 30th round of the 2000 Major League Baseball Draft by the Colorado Rockies, despite not playing baseball since the eighth grade.
He signed a six-year $62 million contract.
==== 2001 season ====
Vick made his NFL debut against the San Francisco 49ers on September 9, 2001, and saw limited action. He completed his first NFL pass to wide receiver Tony Martin in the second quarter against the Carolina Panthers on September 23 and scored his first NFL touchdown on a two-yard rush in the fourth quarter to help the Falcons to a 24–16 victory. Vick made his first start against the Dallas Cowboys on November 11 and threw his first touchdown pass to tight end Alge Crumpler in a 20–13 victory. He accounted for 234 of Atlanta's 255 yards in the season finale against the St. Louis Rams on January 6, 2002. In two starts and eight total games played that season, Vick completed 50 of 113 passes for 785 yards with two touchdowns and three interceptions. He rushed 31 times for 289 yards (9.3 avg.) and one touchdown.
==== 2002 season ====
Vick made 15 starts in 2002, missing one game against the New York Giants on October 13 with a sprained shoulder. He completed 231 of 421 passes for 2,936 yards and 16 touchdowns. He had 113 carries for 777 yards and eight rushing touchdowns. Vick set numerous single-game career highs during the season, including in passes completed, pass attempts, and passing yards. Vick also set a then-NFL record for most rushing yards by a quarterback in a single game with 173 against the Minnesota Vikings on December 1, broken by Colin Kaepernick (181) in 2013. He tied for third in team history for the best touchdown-to-interception ratio in a season. He had a streak of 177 passes without an interception as the Falcons finished with a 9–6–1 win-loss-tie record and reached the playoffs. On January 4, 2003, Vick led the Falcons to an upset victory over the heavily favored Green Bay Packers 27–7 in the NFC Wild Card Round. The Falcons lost 20–6 to the Donovan McNabb-led Philadelphia Eagles in the NFC Divisional Round the following week. Vick was named to his first Pro Bowl after the season.
==== 2003 season ====
Vick suffered a fractured right fibula during a preseason game before the 2003 season against the Baltimore Ravens. He missed the first 11 games of the regular season, making his debut in week 13. Vick substituted for quarterback Doug Johnson during the third quarter in a game against the Houston Texans on November 30, completing 8 of 11 passes for 60 yards and rushing for 16 yards on three carries. He started his first game of the season against the Carolina Panthers on December 7 and amassed the third-highest rushing total by a quarterback in NFL history with 141 yards on 14 carries and one touchdown. The Falcons won the game 20–14 in overtime. Vick ended the season with a 21–14 victory over the Jacksonville Jaguars on December 28 in which he completed 12 of 22 passes for 180 yards, two touchdowns, and an interception.
==== 2004 season ====
Vick returned to form in 2004, passing for 2,313 yards, 14 touchdowns, and 12 interceptions. He also added 902 rushing yards and three touchdowns as the Falcons finished with an 11–5 record. On October 31, 2004, in a game against the Denver Broncos, he became the first quarterback to throw for more than 250 yards and rush for over 100 yards in the same game. Vick set an NFL postseason record for a quarterback with 119 rushing yards in the first round of the 2004 NFL playoffs; Atlanta beat the St. Louis Rams 47–17 in the Divisional Round, but lost the following week 27–10 to the Philadelphia Eagles in the NFC Championship. Vick, whose single-season rushing total was the third-highest for a quarterback in NFL history, was named to his second Pro Bowl after leading Atlanta to their third division title at the end of the season. He signed a nine-year $130 million extension on December 23. Vick finished second in the NFL MVP voting earning one first place vote, preventing Peyton Manning to be a unanimous choice.
==== 2005 season ====
Vick made his third Pro Bowl after the 2005 season, during which he passed for 2,412 yards and 16 touchdowns while rushing for 597 rushing yards and six touchdowns. The Falcons, however, finished with an 8–8 record and missed the playoffs.
==== 2006 season ====
In 2006, Vick became the first quarterback to ever rush for over 1,000 yards in a single season. He also set a record by rushing for 8.4 yards per carry. Vick and teammate Warrick Dunn became the first quarterback-running back duo to each surpass 1,000 rushing yards in a single season. Despite Vick's record-setting season, the Falcons finished with a 7–9 record and again missed the playoffs.
=== Suspension ===
In August 2007, hours after Vick pleaded guilty to federal charges in the Bad Newz Kennels dog fighting investigation, the NFL suspended him indefinitely without pay for violating its player conduct policy. In a letter to Vick, NFL commissioner Roger Goodell said the quarterback had admitted to conduct that was "not only illegal, but also cruel and reprehensible." While Vick was technically a first-time offender under the league's personal conduct policy, Goodell handed down a harsher suspension because Vick admitted he provided most of the money for the gambling side of the dog fighting operation. Goodell left open the possibility of reinstating Vick depending on how he cooperated with federal and state authorities. Goodell had barred Vick from reporting to training camp while the league conducted its own investigation into the matter. At his July 26 arraignment, the terms of his bail barred him from leaving Virginia before the November trial– effectively ending any realistic chance of Vick playing a down in 2007.
On August 27, Falcons owner Arthur Blank said at a press conference that the Falcons would seek to recover a portion of Vick's signing bonus. He said the team had no immediate plans to cut Vick, citing salary-cap issues. It initially appeared that Goodell had cleared the way for the Falcons to release Vick, since he ruled that Vick's involvement in gambling activity breached his contract. On August 29, the Falcons sent a letter to Vick demanding that he reimburse them for $20 million of his $37 million bonus. The case was sent to arbitration, and on October 10, an arbitrator ruled that Vick had to reimburse the Falcons for $19.97 million. The arbitrator agreed with the Falcons' contention that Vick knew he was engaging in illegal activity when he signed his new contract in 2004, and that he had used the bonus money to pay for the operation.
In February 2009, the Falcons revealed that they were considering trading Vick to another NFL team. Atlanta general manager Thomas Dimitroff said NFL rules allowed teams to trade the contractual rights to suspended players. The Falcons released Vick in early June, however, making him an unrestricted free agent.
=== Philadelphia Eagles ===
After his release from prison, Vick was mentored by former Indianapolis Colts coach Tony Dungy. The prospect of his return to professional football was the subject of much conjecture as his suspension and incarceration continued. In 2007, ESPN's John Clayton said few general managers were in a strong enough position to consider taking a chance on Vick, and even then most NFL owners would be concerned about a fan and media backlash. There was also no chance of Vick resurrecting his career in the Canadian Football League, he said. Following a furor in 2007 over Ricky Williams playing there while serving a suspension, the CFL banned players currently suspended by the NFL. In any case, Clayton said it would be nearly impossible for a convicted felon to get a Canadian work visa. He did think, however, that Vick would be "unstoppable" if he decided to play in the Arena Football League.
==== 2009 season ====
Vick signed a one-year contract with the Philadelphia Eagles on August 13, 2009. The contract was worth $1.6 million, with no money guaranteed. It contained a team option for the 2010 season worth $5 million. Vick was allowed to participate in all team practices and meetings as well as the Eagles' last two preseason games. He was eligible to play in the third week of the regular season. Starting quarterback Donovan McNabb told reporters he gave coach Andy Reid the idea to sign Vick.
Vick was activated to the 53-man roster in mid-September and played sparingly for the rest of the season as McNabb's backup. In week 13 against the Atlanta Falcons, Vick both threw and ran for a touchdown, his first scores since December 2006. Vick was voted by teammates as the winner of the Ed Block Courage Award in December. The award honors players who "exemplify commitment to the principles of sportsmanship and courage". "It means a great deal to me," Vick said at the time. "I was voted unanimously by my teammates. They know what I've been through. I've been through a lot. It's been great to come back and have an opportunity to play and be with a great group of guys. I'm just ecstatic about that and I enjoy every day." The Eagles finished the season with an 11–5 record, making the playoffs. In the team's NFC Wild Card Round game against the Dallas Cowboys on January 9, 2010, Vick threw the longest touchdown pass of his career to rookie Jeremy Maclin for a 76-yard touchdown. The Eagles lost the game 34–14.
==== 2010 season ====
Reid named Donovan McNabb the Eagles' starter for the 2010 season, but McNabb was traded to the Washington Redskins and Kevin Kolb was named the starter. While relegated to a second-string role, Vick said he knew he could still play at a high level. Asked if he wanted the Eagles to pick up the second year of his contract, he said, "I hope so...I feel like I'm probably better than I ever was in my career, as far as the mental aspect of the game." The Eagles exercised his option for 2010 in March and Vick received a $1.5 million roster bonus.
Reid named Vick the Eagles' starting quarterback on September 21 after Kolb suffered a concussion, and Vick performed well in his stead. In his second game as an Eagles starter versus the Jacksonville Jaguars, Vick led the Eagles to a 28–3 win, throwing for 291 yards and three touchdowns and rushing for another touchdown. He was named the NFC Offensive Player of the Month for September. Vick suffered a rib cartilage injury in a week 4 game against Washington, and was replaced by Kolb. Vick had passed for 49 yards with three carries for 17 yards in the game prior to the injury.
In a Week 10 Monday Night Football matchup against the Washington Redskins on November 14, Vick passed for 333 yards and four touchdowns, while rushing for 80 yards and another two touchdowns. Vick threw an 88-yard touchdown pass to DeSean Jackson on the first play from scrimmage in the game, and went on to help lead the Eagles to a 59–28 victory. Vick was named the NFC Offensive Player of the Week following his performance, and the Pro Football Hall of Fame asked for his game jersey to display after he became the first player to pass for three touchdowns and rush for two touchdowns in the first half of a game. In a game later in the season against the New York Giants, Vick led a fourth-quarter rally to erase a 21-point deficit. He accounted for three touchdowns to tie the game with under two minutes left. DeSean Jackson returned the Giants' last punt of the game for a touchdown to win the game for the Eagles as time expired. Vick earned NFC Offensive Player of the Week for his game against the Giants. Vick finished the season with 3,018 passing yards, 21 touchdowns, and six interceptions with a passer rating of 100.2. He had 100 carries for 676 yards and nine touchdowns. Philadelphia finished with a 10–6 record in 2010 and made the playoffs, but lost to the eventual Super Bowl XLV champion Green Bay Packers 21–16 in the Wild Card Round.
Vick made his fourth Pro Bowl after the season and was named the Eagles' starting quarterback. The Associated Press and Sporting News named him the NFL Comeback Player of the Year. He also won the Bert Bell Award on March 4, 2011. Vick finished second in the NFL Offensive Player of the Year with 11 first place votes and NFL MVP both awarded to Tom Brady who won MVP unanimously. In early 2011, the Eagles placed their franchise tag on Vick. He signed the one-year tender on March 2. On August 29, however, Vick and the Eagles announced they had agreed on a 6-year, $100 million contract with almost $40 million in guaranteed money. Vick was ranked 20th by his fellow players on the NFL Top 100 Players of 2011.
==== 2011 season ====
In Week 4, against the San Francisco 49ers, Vick had 416 passing yards, two passing touchdowns, and one interception to go along with eight carries for 75 rushing yards. The final game of the season was a 34–10 victory on January 1, 2012, at home against Washington. Vick completed 24 of 39 passes for 335 yards and three touchdowns. In the 2011 season, Vick appeared in and started 13 games. He finished with 3,303 passing yards, 18 passing touchdowns, and 14 interceptions to go along with 76 carries for 589 rushing yards and one rushing touchdown. Led by Vick, Philadelphia finished the 2011 season with an 8–8 record. The team began with a 4–8 record before winning four games in a row to finish the season.
==== 2012 season ====
Vick came into week one of the 2012 season as the starter, despite a solid showing from rookie Nick Foles in the preseason. Vick led the Eagles to a 17–16 victory in week one against the Cleveland Browns despite throwing four interceptions. The Eagles won the following game against the Baltimore Ravens, but lost 27–6 in the third week of the season to the Arizona Cardinals. Facing former teammate Kevin Kolb, Vick completed only 17 of 37 passes with no touchdowns and two lost fumbles. The Eagles went on to beat the New York Giants, but then lost three straight games. After the third loss against the Atlanta Falcons on October 28, calls for coach Andy Reid to replace Vick with Foles intensified. Reid refused to make the move.
The Eagles lost another game against the New Orleans Saints, and Vick remained the starting quarterback for a week 10 game against the Dallas Cowboys. Vick was injured in that game, which the Eagles lost, and was replaced by Foles. On December 3, after Vick had already been sidelined for three weeks, Reid officially named Foles the starter for the remainder of the season. After a Foles injury in week 16, Vick was named the starter for the season finale against the Giants in New York. Vick went 19 of 35 for 197 yards, a touchdown, and an interception, and also ran five times for 25 yards. The Eagles, however, lost the game 42–7, to end the season with a 1–5 division record and 4–12 overall record.
==== 2013 season ====
On February 11, 2013, the Eagles and Vick agreed on a one-year restructured contract worth up to $10 million. New head coach Chip Kelly announced that Vick, Foles, and rookie Matt Barkley would compete for the starting job. After a stellar preseason, Vick was able to reclaim his starting job from Foles, who was named Vick's backup.
Vick started out well, winning his first game against Washington and throwing his first career 400-yard game in a close loss to the San Diego Chargers, with four passing touchdowns, two rushing touchdowns, and no interceptions in the two-game stretch. After that, Vick suffered losses against the Kansas City Chiefs and Denver Broncos, where he threw for one touchdown and three interceptions in that stretch (all three were thrown against Kansas City). In a game against the New York Giants, Vick was 6 of 14 for 105 yards, when he suffered a hamstring injury. Nick Foles played stellar in his place, going 8–2 as starter, while throwing 27 touchdowns and only two interceptions with a 119.0 passer rating. Vick saw his only playing time in a 15–7 loss to the Giants, where he was 6 of 9 for 30 yards and an interception, but he again suffered an injury, this time to his quadriceps, and was replaced by rookie Matt Barkley, who played even worse. Foles returned the following week, and Vick spent the rest of the season as the backup, making only one more appearance in a blowout win over the Chicago Bears.
=== New York Jets ===
Vick signed a one-year $5 million contract with the New York Jets on March 21, 2014, the same day the Jets released Mark Sanchez. The Eagles signed Sanchez one week later.
Vick chose to wear #8 as a tribute to Steve Young, although several days later he decided to change it to No. 1, as #7 was already taken by Geno Smith. Vick became the first quarterback in franchise history to wear the number. During Week 5 against the San Diego Chargers, Vick came in relief of a struggling Geno Smith following halftime and finished the game with 47 passing yards as the Jets were shut out by the Chargers, 31–0. After seven consecutive losses, Rex Ryan named Vick the starter over Smith for the Week 9 game against the Kansas City Chiefs. Vick became the first quarterback to reach 6,000 rushing yards during Week 10 in a 20–13 win over the Pittsburgh Steelers, which was one of three games that Vick started for the season.
=== Pittsburgh Steelers ===
On August 25, 2015, Vick signed a one-year contract with the Pittsburgh Steelers worth $970,000.
His signing by the Steelers caused a social media backlash by many fans, with some saying that they would never support the team again. Those who supported or were indifferent about the signing called such fans fair weather fans, and also cited that the Steelers have several players with questionable pasts, most notably Ben Roethlisberger and James Harrison. The Animal Rescue League of Western Pennsylvania made a subtle jab at the team on Twitter by saying that they were now more proud to support the Pittsburgh Penguins and subsequently moved an upcoming fundraiser event from Heinz Field to Consol Energy Center. Steelers president Art Rooney II defended the Vick signing on KDKA-TV, saying that they felt that Vick had proven himself since being released from prison. The Steelers had considered signing Vick in 2009—both Vick and Steelers head coach Mike Tomlin are from the same part of Virginia and know each other well personally—but decided against it due to potential backlash since Vick at the time hadn't proven himself following his release from prison.
In Week 3, Vick was brought into action against the St. Louis Rams after Roethlisberger sustained a knee injury that sidelined him for 4–6 weeks. In five weeks, Vick went 40 for 66 with two touchdowns and one interception, also rushing for 99 yards on 20 attempts. Vick suffered a hamstring injury in a win against the Arizona Cardinals and was replaced by Landry Jones. Vick would miss six games, and Roethlisberger eventually returned to his starting role. Vick would be inactive the remainder of the season, leading some sports commentators to speculate that Vick's playing career may be over.
=== Retirement ===
In 2016, Vick announced he would play one more season in the NFL. However, after not signing with a team all season, he officially announced his retirement from professional football on February 3, 2017. On June 12, 2017, Vick retired as an Atlanta Falcon.
=== Post-NFL career ===
On June 28, 2017, Vick began participating in the newly formed American Flag Football League, serving as captain of Team Vick. The following year, he captained the Roadrunners, who ultimately lost to Chad Johnson's team in the AFFL semifinal 26–13.
== NFL career statistics ==
=== Regular season ===
=== Playoffs ===
== Coaching career ==
=== Early career ===
During their 2017 training camp, Vick joined his former coach Andy Reid as a coaching intern with the Kansas City Chiefs after stating his previous interest in coaching. After the Chiefs concluded their 2017 training camp, he became an NFL analyst on Fox NFL Kickoff on FS1.
=== Atlanta Legends ===
On April 25, 2018, Vick was hired as offensive coordinator for the Atlanta Legends of the Alliance of American Football. Vick said, regarding becoming a coach, "I didn't think I ever wanted to coach but talking about the game at Fox, I get excited like I'm out there playing again. But, it's still not touching individuals. When the opportunity came about, I felt like I could really make a difference and give back to the game. …Once I found out it was in Atlanta, I thought it was a home run." Shortly before the season began, head coach Kevin Coyle announced Vick would no longer serve as offensive coordinator, but would still remain with the team as a consultant.
=== Norfolk State ===
On December 20, 2024, Vick was named the 19th head football coach at Norfolk State University.
== Head coaching record ==
== Legal issues ==
=== Early controversies ===
Between his selection by the Atlanta Falcons in the 2001 NFL draft and early 2007, Vick was allegedly involved in several incidents:
In early 2004, two men were arrested in Virginia for distributing marijuana. The truck they were driving was registered to Vick. Falcons coach Dan Reeves said he lectured Vick at that time on the importance of reputation, choosing the right friends, and staying out of trouble for the good of his team.
On October 10, 2004, Vick and other members of his entourage, including employee Quanis Phillips, were at Atlanta's Hartsfield International Airport on their way to board an AirTran flight. While they were passing through a security checkpoint, a security camera caught Phillips and Todd Harris picking up an expensive-appearing watch which belonged to Alvin Spencer, a security screener. After watching the theft on a videotape, Spencer filed a police report. He claimed that Billy "White Shoes" Johnson, known as the Falcons' "fixer", interfered with the investigation. Although Vick's representatives declined to make him available for an Atlanta police inquiry, Spencer got the watch back six days later.
In March 2005, Sonya Elliott filed a civil lawsuit against Vick alleging she contracted genital herpes from him in the autumn of 2002 and that he failed to inform her that he had the disease. Elliot further alleged that Vick had visited clinics under the alias "Ron Mexico" to get treatments and thus knew of his condition. On April 24, 2006, Vick's attorney, Lawrence Woodward, revealed that the lawsuit had been settled out of court under undisclosed terms. Many fans bought custom jerseys from NFL.com with Vick's #7 and the name "MEXICO" on the back. The NFL later banned customizing jerseys with the name Mexico.
After a loss to the New Orleans Saints on November 26, 2006, in the Georgia Dome, Vick made an obscene gesture at fans in an apparent reaction to booing, holding up both hands with the middle finger extended. He was fined $10,000 by the NFL and agreed to donate another $10,000 to charity.
Vick surrendered a water bottle that had a hidden compartment to security personnel at Miami International Airport on January 17, 2007. "The compartment was hidden by the bottle's label so that it appeared to be a full bottle of water when held upright," police said. Test results indicated there were no illegal substances in the water bottle and Vick was cleared of any wrongdoing. Vick announced that the water bottle was a jewelry stash box, and that the substance in question had been jewelry.
On April 24, 2007, Vick was scheduled to lobby on Capitol Hill, hoping to persuade lawmakers to increase funding for after-school programs. Vick missed a connecting flight in Atlanta on Monday to Reagan National Airport in Arlington, Virginia. He failed to show up for another seat booked for him later that evening. On Tuesday morning, he did not attend his scheduled appearance at a congressional breakfast where he was to be honored for his foundation's work with after-school projects in Georgia and Virginia. Vick's mother, Brenda, accepted the award from the Afterschool Alliance. These events occurred the day before the search warrant on Vick's property which led to Vick's eventual prosecution for dogfighting activities.
In 2007, Vick's father, Michael Boddie, made statements about possible dogfighting activities in 2001. Boddie told the Atlanta Journal-Constitution that around 2001, Vick was staging dogfights in the garage of the family's home in Newport News and kept fighting dogs in the family's backyard, including injured ones that the father nursed back to health. Boddie said his son had been urged to not engage in the activity, but continued. "This is Mike's thing," he said. "And he knows it." Within days, Vick's mother, Brenda Vick Boddie, told the Newport News Daily Press that "There was no dogfighting. There were no cages."
=== Dog fighting ===
A search warrant executed on April 25, 2007, as part of a drug investigation of Vick's cousin Davon Boddie, led to discovery of evidence of unlawful dog fighting activities at a property owned by Vick in rural Surry County in southeastern Virginia, with extensive facilities for the activity. Media attention quickly grew as state officials investigated, soon joined by federal authorities. As separate state and federal investigations progressed, more details emerged about an interstate dog-fighting ring that involved drugs and gambling. Gruesome details of abuse, torture, and execution of under-performing dogs galvanized animal rights activists and expressions of public outrage. Vick and several others were indicted on federal and Virginia state felony charges related to the operation.
==== Federal prosecution and conviction ====
In July 2007, Vick and three other men were indicted on federal felony charges of operating an unlawful interstate dog fighting venture known as "Bad Newz Kennels". Vick was accused of financing the operation, directly participating in dog fights and executions, and personally handling thousands of dollars in related gambling activities. Federal prosecutors indicated they intended to proceed under the provisions of the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO), a United States federal law that provides for extended criminal penalties and a civil cause of action for acts performed as part of an ongoing criminal organization.
By August 20, Vick and the other three co-defendants agreed to separate plea bargains for the federal charges. They were expected to each receive federal prison sentences of between one and five years. Four days later, Vick filed plea documents with the federal court. He pleaded guilty to "Conspiracy to Travel in Interstate Commerce in Aid of Unlawful Activities and to Sponsor a Dog in an Animal Fighting Venture". Vick admitted to providing most of the financing for the operation, and to participating directly in several dog fights in Virginia, Maryland, North Carolina, and South Carolina. He admitted to sharing in the proceeds from these dog fights. He further admitted that he knew his colleagues killed several dogs who did not perform well. Vick also admitted to taking part in the killings of 6–8 dogs, by hanging, beating, and drowning. The "victimization and killing of pit bulls" was considered an aggravating circumstance, allowing prosecutors to exceed the federal sentencing guidelines for the charge. Vick denied placing any side bets on the dogfights. On August 27, U.S. District Judge Henry E. Hudson accepted Vick's guilty plea, but reminded Vick that he (Hudson) was under no obligation to accept the prosecution's recommendation of a reduced sentence.
While free on bail, Vick tested positive for marijuana in a random drug test. This was a violation of the conditions of his release while awaiting sentencing in federal court. Vick's positive urine sample was submitted on September 13, 2007, according to a document filed by a federal probation officer on September 26. As a result, Hudson ordered Vick confined to his Hampton, Virginia home between 10 p.m. and 6 a.m. with electronic monitoring until his court hearing date in December. He was ordered to submit to random drug testing.
In November, Vick turned himself in early to begin accruing time-served credit against his likely federal prison sentence. He was held at Northern Neck Regional Jail in Warsaw, Virginia awaiting sentencing on the federal convictions. On December 10, Vick appeared in U.S. District Court in Richmond for sentencing. Judge Hudson said he was "convinced that it was not a momentary lack of judgment" on Vick's part, and that Vick was a "full partner" in the dog fighting ring, and he was sentenced to serve 23 months in federal prison. Hudson noted that despite Vick's claim to have accepted responsibility for his actions, his failure to cooperate fully with federal officials, coupled with a failed drug test and a failed polygraph, showed that he had not taken full responsibility for "promoting, funding and facilitating this cruel and inhumane sporting activity". Vick was assigned to Federal Correctional Institution, Leavenworth, to serve his sentence.
At the request of federal authorities before sentencing, Vick agreed to deposit nearly $1 million in an escrow account with attorneys to reimburse others for the costs of caring for the confiscated dogs, most of which were being offered for adoption on a selective basis under supervision of a court-appointed specialist. Experts said some of the animals would require special care for the rest of their lives. During the administration of his bankruptcy case, the U.S. Department of Labor complained that these funds were paid at least partially with unlawfully withdrawn monies that Vick held in trust for himself and eight other employees of MV7, a celebrity marketing company he owned.
==== State prosecution and sentencing ====
Separate Virginia charges against all four defendants in the dog-fighting case were brought following indictments by the Surry County grand jury when it met on September 25, 2007. The principal evidence considered was sworn statements of the defendants during their plea agreement process before the federal court. Vick was charged with two class-6 felonies, which each carried a maximum penalty of five years' imprisonment.
Citing the high costs and transportation logistics of proceeding while Vick was still in federal prison, state prosecutor Gerald Poindexter decided to postpone Vick's trial in Surry County Circuit Court until after Vick's release from federal custody. Vick's attorneys sought to resolve the state charges sooner. On October 14, 2008, Vick's attorney Lawrence Woodward filed a motion to enter a plea via two-way electronic video with the Surry County Courts. Vick planned to plead guilty to state charges in an effort to get early release from federal prison and enter a halfway house. The request for a trial without Vick physically present was denied, but Poindexter agreed to hold the state trial while Vick was still in federal custody if Vick bore the costs of his transportation to Virginia and related expenses.
Vick was transported to Virginia in November 2008 to face the state charges. He appeared before the Surry County Circuit Court on November 25 at a session held in neighboring Sussex County because the Surry court building was undergoing renovation. He submitted a guilty plea to a single Virginia felony charge for dog fighting, receiving a 3-year prison sentence suspended on condition of good behavior, and a $2,500 fine. In return for the plea agreement, the other charge was dropped. Michael Dwayne Vick, Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP) ID# 33765-183, was released on July 20, 2009.
==== Political activity ====
In 2011, Vick lobbied for H.R. 2492, the Animal Fighting Spectator Prohibition Act, which would have established federal misdemeanor penalties for spectators of illegal animal fighting and made it a felony for adults to bring children to fights.
== Financial troubles ==
At the end of 2006, Sports Illustrated magazine estimated Vick's annual income between his NFL salary and endorsements at $25.4 million, ranking him just below NASCAR's Dale Earnhardt Jr. in a listing of highest-earning athletes. Vick's finances suffered, however, from poor management, bad investments and lawsuits. Certified Financial Planner Michael Smith advised Vick from 2003 to 2005, but resigned after Vick took bad advice from friends, made ill-conceived investments, overspent, and otherwise undermined the wealth-building plan that Smith had created. Smith's plan was for Vick to have a net wealth of $100 million by 2010; by that date Vick was actually an estimated $18.97 million in debt.
In 2006, a $45 million lawsuit was pending in a dispute with Vick's original sports agents. Several lucrative endorsement deals soured.
After the dog fighting indictments were announced in July 2007, financial claims against Vick escalated. His financial affairs strained, Vick was unable to meet scheduled payments and other obligations. Within several months, he had been named in numerous lawsuits by banks and creditors for defaulting on loans, some of them related to business investments. The dog fighting property near Smithfield, Virginia, had been liquidated earlier, and in November 2007, Vick attempted to sell another of his homes.
In June 2008, when Vick's brother, Marcus, was arrested and jailed in Norfolk after a police chase, he listed his residence as a $1.39 million home owned by Vick in an exclusive riverfront community in Suffolk, Virginia. Construction of a new riverfront home took place on land Vick owned in another exclusive section of Suffolk. His attorneys later estimated that he was spending $30,000 a month to support seven friends and relatives, including his mother and brother, three children, and their mothers.
=== Bankruptcy ===
On July 7, 2008, Vick sought Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in U.S. Bankruptcy Court in Newport News after failing to "work out consensual resolutions with each of his creditors," according to court papers. The initial filing, which was incomplete, listed assets of less than $50 million and debts of between $10 million and $50 million. The seven largest creditors without collateral backing their claims were owed a total of $12.8 million. The three biggest unsecured creditors were Joel Enterprises Inc., owed $4.5 million for breach of contract; Atlanta Falcons, owed $3.75 million for a pro-rated signing bonus; and Royal Bank of Canada, owed $2.5 million in loans.
==== Major financial obligations ====
Joel Enterprises of Richmond was listed as one of Vick's larger creditors. Sports agents Andrew Joel and Dave Lowman claimed Vick signed a contract with their firm in 2001, nine days before he announced he was leaving Virginia Tech early and declaring himself eligible for the NFL Draft. With his mother as a witness, Vick signed a five-year marketing agreement that anticipated a wide range of endorsement activities using Vick's name, likeness, voice, and reputation. Joel's cut was 25% of all deals, excluding Vick's NFL contract, according to the agreement. Vick attempted to end the relationship with Joel Enterprises a few weeks later, and entered into another relationship with other agents. In 2005, Joel Enterprises sued Vick in Richmond Circuit Court for $45 million in compensatory and punitive damages for breach of contract. After the Virginia Supreme Court denied a Vick motion and ruled that the civil trial could proceed in December 2006, the parties agreed to submit the dispute to binding arbitration for resolution instead of a formal civil court trial. The outcome of the case was an award of $4.5 million to Joel.
The Atlanta Falcons sought to recover a portion of Vick's $37 million 2004 signing bonus. A reduced amount of $20 million was awarded to the Falcons in binding legal arbitration, which Vick disputed. The sides agreed to reduce the amount to between $6.5 and $7.5 million. The bankruptcy court was advised of this Vick-Falcons settlement agreement on April 3, 2009.
On September 20, 2007, the Royal Bank of Canada filed a civil lawsuit in the U.S. District Court in Newport News against Vick for more than $2.3 million over a loan tied to real estate. The suit claimed Vick failed to meet a September 10 deadline to repay. On May 7, 2008, the court granted a motion for summary judgment against Vick for default and breach of a promissory note and ordered him to pay the bank more than $2.5 million.
On September 26, 2007, 1st Source Bank, based in South Bend, Indiana, claimed damages of at least $2 million in a federal lawsuit, alleging Vick and Divine Seven LLC of Atlanta refused to pay for at least 130 vehicles acquired to be used as rental cars. The bank's Specialty Financing Group provided financing for rental car fleets.
Wachovia Bank also filed a federal suit in October 2007 in Atlanta seeking about $940,000 from Vick and Gerald Frank Jenkins, a business partner. The bank claimed the two men and their business, Atlantic Wine & Package LLC, defaulted on a May 2006 loan of $1.3 million to set up a wine shop and restaurant. Jenkins, a retired surgeon who owned Atlantic Wine since 2004, brought Vick in as an investor. In May 2008, the U.S. District Court in Atlanta granted a summary judgment in favor of Wachovia. The judgment of $1.11 million included the initial principal balance, interest accrued, fees, overdrawn accounts, and legal fees. The order provided that further interest could be accrued.
The United States Department of Labor filed another lawsuit in federal district court in Newport News on March 25, 2009, alleging Vick and others violated federal employee benefits laws by withdrawing $1.35 million from a retirement plan sponsored by MV7, one of Vick's companies. The money was held in trust under pension laws to fund retirement plans for nine MV7 employees. The Labor Department simultaneously filed a complaint in federal bankruptcy court to prevent Vick from discharging his alleged debt to the MV7 pension plan. The complaint alleged that some of the funds were used to pay restitution ordered in his dogfighting case.
==== Early proceedings ====
In August 2008, trustee W. Clarkson McDow Jr. was appointed to manage Vick's bankruptcy. The trustee noted in court documents that Vick "has limited ability to arrange his finances and limited ability to participate in the bankruptcy case on an in-person basis." McDow wrote in court documents that it appeared Vick had "routinely relied upon others to make financial decisions for him, giving them discretionary control over large sums of money". McDow named Mary Wong and David A. Talbot as people who had obtained broad written authority to act as his attorney-in-fact over all of his financial affairs.
Vick had hired Wong, a business manager in Omaha, Nebraska, in the fall of 2007 on the recommendation of Falcons teammate Demorrio Williams. Wong helped cash in some of Vick's investments to provide restitution funds required by the federal court in his criminal case. According to a document filed by one of Vick's attorneys, she used a power of attorney from Vick to "wrongfully remove" at least another $900,000 from his various accounts. Court papers also alleged Wong "caused certain business entities owned by [Vick] to be transferred to her." Vick learned later that Wong had been permanently barred from working with any firm that traded on the New York Stock Exchange as the result of taking more than $150,000 from two elderly widows she met while working at Wells Fargo.
Vick next turned to Talbot, a medical school graduate from Hackensack, New Jersey who claimed to have expertise in financial management. Vick later told the court he met Talbot in April 2008 through his brother, Marcus. Talbot was to be paid $15,000 per month and took possession of one of Vick's cars, an $85,000 Mercedes-Benz. Vick later discovered that Talbot's résumé contained numerous false statements. Talbot had been accused of defrauding church members in New Jersey. The New Jersey Attorney General started legal action against Talbot for securities fraud over an alleged scheme to defraud investors of more than $500,000 by offering them "asset enhancement contracts" to be used to build a new church. U.S. bankruptcy Judge Frank Santoro ordered that the Mercedes-Benz Vick gave Talbot be repossessed and sold, and that Talbot appear at a hearing on September 5.
Paul K. Campsen, one of Vick's lawyers, told the court that Vick "has supported his mother, brother, fiancée and his two children" over the years. He said Vick's financial problems included average monthly expenses of $12,225 for several large homes his family and friends were living in and a monthly income of just $277.69.
==== Reorganization plan ====
Vick's attorneys filed a first plan of reorganization through bankruptcy on November 12, 2008. Under the plan, Vick was to sell three of his six homes. Vick's expenses, meanwhile, included support payments of approximately $30,000 a month. They included $14,531 a month to his mother, $12,363 a month to his fiancée and two daughters, and $3,500 a month to his former girlfriend Tameka Taylor, with whom he had a child. Creditors challenged Vick's spending plan given his loss of salary and suspension from the NFL. Vick's attorneys told the judge on November 13 that Vick "has every reason to believe that upon his release, he will be reinstated into the NFL, resume his career and be able to earn a substantial living."
After creditors objected to the initial reorganization plan, Vick appeared in person before Santoro at a hearing in Newport News on April 2, 2009. Santoro had decided not to allow testimony by video in March, saying he needed Vick in the courtroom to assess his demeanor and credibility. Vick testified that he intended to live a better life after prison. He said his crime was "heinous" and felt "true remorse". Near the end of the hearing, Santoro rejected the plan as unsound, saying that it was too strongly predicated on Vick's return to the NFL and the substantial projected income it would bring, neither of which was assured.
The judge commended Vick for trying to work out his financial mess after years of poor choices, but told Vick the numbers did not add up. Santoro adjourned the case and told Vick to work with his advisers to create a new plan, suggesting Vick begin by liquidating one or both of his Virginia homes, as well as three of the cars he intended to keep, and "buy a house more within his means." Vick had testified that he felt obligated to provide for friends and family because of "where he had come from." Santoro told Vick that while that was commendable, "You cannot be everything to everybody. If you do, you're going to be nothing to anybody."
On April 28, attorneys met with Santoro and said they made substantial progress on a revised plan. They reported having settled all disputes with Vick's creditors, including Joel. On August 27, Santoro approved the revised reorganization plan. It was supported by all of Vick's creditors but one who was owed $13,000. Every creditor was to be paid back in six years on the condition that an estimated $9 million in assets be liquidated. Vick was allowed annual living expenses of $300,000 under the plan. He could spend up to $3,500 a month for rent in Philadelphia and $750 for "utilities and miscellaneous". He was to pay $3,712 a month on the mortgage for his house in Hampton, Virginia, where his fiancée and two children lived, and could pay up to $1,355 per month in private school tuition for his children. Vick was also given up to $472 a month in car-related expenses. His mother was allowed $2,500 per month, and his former girlfriend Tameka Taylor was allotted $3,000 per month to support their son, Mitez. Vick was not required to pay creditors during his first season with the Eagles. Vick paid his agent, Joel Segal, $32,500 in 2010, $104,000 in 2011, and would pay him $160,000 each year from 2012 to 2015 for a total of $776,500. He paid bankruptcy lawyers $748,750 in 2010, $1 million in 2011, and a total of $2.6 million.
== Endorsements ==
During his career with the Falcons, Vick became a spokesperson for many companies. He had endorsement contracts with companies including Nike, EA Sports, Coca-Cola, Powerade, Kraft, Rawlings, Hasbro, and AirTran.
Even before the animal cruelty case surfaced in 2007, however, Vick's corporate status had deteriorated. Among the negative incidents was his middle finger gesture to Atlanta football fans in 2006. Vick's first endorsement after being released from prison was a two-year deal on January 27, 2011, with Unequal Technologies, a company that produces football pads. Nike officially signed Vick again as an athlete on July 1, 2011. The company had been supplying him with complimentary gear since October 2009; his re-signing marked the first time a sponsor had brought back an athlete after dropping him.
In 2012, Vick launched a sports clothing line called V7 to be sold exclusively at Modell's. Part of the proceeds was to go to the Boys and Girls Club of Philadelphia.
== Charitable foundations ==
Vick has been a principal in two charitable foundations, the Michael Vick Foundation and The Vick Foundation. In June 2006, Vick, along with his brother Marcus and mother Brenda, established The Vick Foundation, a nonprofit organization to support at-risk youth with after-school programs in the Metro Atlanta and Hampton Roads areas. The announcement of the new organization came just before the start of the foundation's first fundraiser, the Michael Vick Golf Classic. The inaugural event was held at the prestigious Kingsmill Golf Course in James City County near Williamsburg, Virginia in partnership with The Virginia Tech Alumni Association Tidewater Chapter, and raised more than $80,000 for charity. According to its 2006 federal tax return, the Michael Vick Foundation provided 100 backpacks to poor children in Newport News and paid for an after-school program.
After the Virginia Tech massacre on April 16, 2007, Vick and the United Way donated $10,000 to assist families affected. The Vick Foundation collected donations from communities in Atlanta and Virginia to be placed in the United In Caring Fund for Victims of the Virginia Tech Tragedy and a special fund at the United Way of Montgomery, Radford, and Floyd counties, which serves the Virginia Tech area. The Vick Foundation said the money would be used to provide help with funeral expenses, transportation for family members and other support services.
== See also ==
List of NCAA major college football yearly passing leaders
Dual-threat quarterback
Racial issues faced by black quarterbacks
List of left-handed quarterbacks
== References ==
== External links ==
Norfolk State profile
Career statistics from ESPN · Yahoo Sports · Pro Football Reference
Michael Vick at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumberland_Fair | Cumberland Fair | The Cumberland Fair is an annual farmers' fair held in Cumberland, Maine, United States, at the Cumberland Fairgrounds. It is put on by the Cumberland Farmers' Club and is usually held the last week in September.
== Events ==
The annual Maine State Pumpkin and Squash Weigh-Off is held at the fair. The winner of the event receives $500. An adult is limited to one entry in the giant squash and pumpkin weigh-off. The 2015 winner of this event was Edwin Pierpont, who harvested a 1,046 pound pumpkin.
== History ==
The inaugural Cumberland Fair was held for two days, on October 10 and 11, 1868 in the center of town in the back of what is now Greely Junior High School. The land was provided by Capt. Enos Blanchard. On show were foods, handicrafts, vegetables of all shapes and sizes and also steers, especially in the traditional ox-pull. Horse racing was also featured.
There was no fair in 1919, 1942-44 nor 2020, although the latter year saw the 4H livestock show & auction go on.
== References ==
== External links ==
Cumberland Fair Web site |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mira_Sintra-Mele%C3%A7as_railway_station | Mira Sintra-Meleças railway station | Mira Sintra-Meleças Station (Portuguese: Estação Ferroviária de Mira Sintra-Meleças) is a railway station located in the city of Sintra, Portugal. Located in the Western line, it is served by all Western line services as well as a CP Lisboa Sintra Line commuter service connecting to Rossio. It is operated by CP and managed by Infraestruturas de Portugal.
== Service ==
The station is located between various towns and municipalities, and serves much of the surrounding area. Mira Sintra-Meleças operates as a terminus of Lisbon CP urban service, with trains reversing at this station to travel back towards Lisbon.
Regional and InterRegional services stop at Mira Sintra-Meleças Station roughly eight times daily in each direction.
Urban trains stop at Mira Sintra-Meleças Station at approximately 1-hour intervals on weekends and off-peak periods on weekdays. During peak periods, trains stop at Mira Sintra-Meleças Station at approximately 30-minute intervals.
== Station layout ==
A pharmacy is located inside the station, and bus service is provided by a loop on the east side of the station.
=== Platforms ===
Mira Sintra-Meleças Station is composed of two island platforms serving four tracks.
== History ==
The section of the Linha do Oeste that the station lies on entered service on 21 May 1887. A halt under the name of Meleças provided service to the area. Plans to create a proper station in the area formed in the 1990s. Mira Sintra-Meleças Station opened for revenue service on 29 November 2004. The station cost over €10 billion to build.
== Surrounding area ==
Park Rinchoa-Fitares
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Rebroff | Ivan Rebroff | Ivan Rebroff (born Hans Rolf Rippert; 31 July 1931 – 27 February 2008) was a German vocalist, allegedly of Russian ancestry, who rose to prominence for his distinct and extensive vocal range of four octaves, ranging "from a low F to a high F, one and a quarter octaves above C". An imposing figure on stage, usually bearded and dressed in Cossack clothing, his presence was enhanced by his height, being over 2 metres tall.
== Life and career ==
Rebroff was born on 31 July 1931 in Berlin (prematurely, he asserted, at seven months, on a train platform) as Hans Rolf Rippert to German parents. His parents were Paul Rippert, an engineer born in 1897 in Liebenwerda, and Luise Fenske, born in Bromberg (nowadays Bydgoszcz in modern day poland). He claimed Russian descent, and while often disputed, this has never been totally refuted. In a 1989 interview with Izvestia, he said "according to documents I am Ivan Pavlovich Rebroff" (Russian: Иван Павлович Ребров).
He studied singing at the Hochschule für Musik und Theater Hamburg. Although his knowledge and pronunciation of Russian was imperfect, he became famous for singing Russian folk songs, but also performed opera, light classics and folk songs from many other countries. He was known on stage for his gusto. He performed over 6,000 concerts in his career, including a two-year seven-day-a-week stint at the Théâtre Marigny in Paris, singing and acting, among other greats, the role of Tevye in Fiddler on the Roof. When he was well into his seventies, Rebroff still performed 13 concerts in 21 days on an Australian tour.
Rebroff described himself as international, the "connection between East and West". He was named an honorary citizen of the Greek Sporades island of Skopelos, his domicile. Rebroff was homosexual.
As well as being a singer, he was at least a reasonable violinist and keyboardist (he is pictured playing a church organ but may have also played the piano). Rebroff sang and was able to converse to a lesser or greater extent in several languages in addition to his native German; Russian, French, Italian, English, and Greek.
He died aged 76 in Frankfurt on 27 February 2008, after a long illness. Four days after his death, his brother Horst Rippert, who is nine years his senior (and by his own unsubstantiated accounts shot down Antoine de Saint-Exupéry during World War II), claimed part of Rebroff's vast fortune.
== LP discography ==
1967
Volksweisen aus dem alten Russland (Folk Songs from Old Russia)
1968
Volksweisen aus dem alten Russland 2 (Folk Songs from Old Russia Volume II)
Original Russische Liebeslieder
Na Sdarowje (Iwan Rebroff Singt Weisen Von Vodka Und Wein)
Slawische Seele (Compilation album shared with Tatjana Iwanow and Dunja Rajter)
1969
Beim Klang der Balalaika, and in French Au son des Balalaikas
Favourites from Mother Russia
Abendglocken (compilation)
Russische Weihnacht mit Ivan Rebroff
Ivan Rebroff (includes "Lara's Theme" from Doctor Zhivago)
A Russian Christmas
Un Violon sur le toit (soundtrack of French production of Fiddler on the Roof)
Russische Party (live album)
Festliche Weihnacht (with Regensburger Domspatzen boys' choir)
A Festive Christmas (Festliche Weihnacht re-issue)
1970
Kosaken müssen reiten (German-language versions)
1971
The Best of Ivan Rebroff (compilation)
Somewhere My Love (English-language versions)
Ivan Rebroff Sing Vir Ons (South African album – Gold Disk Award)
Vir Jou Suid-Afrika (South African album)
Ivan Rebroff (Opera)
Kalinka (soundtrack from the 1971 film L'Homme qui vient de la nuit, German: Das Lied der Balalaika)
Mein Russland, du bist schön (German-language versions)
Starportrait (compilation)
Zwischen Donau und Don (with Dunja Rajter)
1972
Erinnerungen an Russland (Russian-language versions)
The Best of Ivan Rebroff Volume II (compilation)
Lieder der Welt (Folk songs from around the world)
1973
Mein altes Russland (lushly arranged Russian folk songs)
25 Greatest Russian Melodies (compilation with Tatjana Iwanow (2 duets))
20 Greatest Hits (New Zealand compilation release)
1974
Russische Party 2 (live album)
Memories of Russia
1975
Ivan Rebroff at Carnegie Hall (live)
Reich' mir die Hand
Russische Lieder von Liebe und Tod (featuring Herbert Seidemann)
1976
Komm mit nach Hellas (German-language versions of Greek songs)
Die Fledermaus conducted by Carlos Kleiber – Deutsche Grammophon – with Hermann Prey, Júlia Várady, Lucia Popp, René Kollo, Bernd Weikl, Benno Kusche – Bavarian State Opera Chorus and Bavarian State Orchestra
1977
Mitternacht in Moskau (also known as Midnight in Moscow, with German and Russian versions)
1979
Ave Maria (Festliche Abendmusik Mit Ivan Rebroff)
Die Ivan Rebroff Versameling (compilation of South African tracks)
Midnight in Moscow (Russian-language version), in German Mitternacht in Moskau
1980
Zauber einer großen Stimme – 20 unvergängliche Welterfolge
Die schönsten Lieder dieser Welt (Ivan Rebroff singt 20 unvergängliche Melodien)
Katharina und Potemkin (TV musical/operetta)
The Ivan Rebroff Collection (compilation)
Der Zarewitsch (operetta)
1981
Melodien für Millionen (Ihr Wunschkonzert Mit Den Schönsten Liedern Der Welt)
1982
Ivan Rebroff (Signal record label release)
Zauber Grosse Stimmen (8xLP compilation featuring Alexandra)
1983
Taiga-Träume (Neue Lieder Und Geschichten Aus Dem Alten Rußland)
Russie Éternelle (French release)
Die Schönsten Melodien
1984
In Diesen Heiligen Hallen
1985
Live in Concert - Recitals 1968-1982
Meine Lieblingsmelodien (Swiss compilation release)
Schenk Mir Einen Wodka Ein - 16 Seiner Großen Erfolge (compilation release)
1986
Ich Bete An Die Macht Der Liebe (Festliche Abendmusik Mit Ivan Rebroff Vol. II)
Ivan Rebroff Singt Heitere Klassik
...Und Friede Auf Erden
1988
Zauber Einer Großen Stimme (Seine Größten Welterfolge)
Zijn Grootste Successen (Dutch compilation release)
1989
Perestroika - Glasnost
The Best of Ivan Rebroff - Ses Plus Grands Succès (English/French release)
1990
The Very Best of Ivan Rebroff (BBC release)
Greatest Hits (CBS release)
Stationen Einer Karriere
1991
Ses Plus Grands Succès (French release of The Very Best of Ivan Rebroff)
The Very Best of Ivan Rebroff (Volume II) (BBC release)
1992
Die Krönung Einer Großen Karriere
== CD discography ==
1976
Die Fledermaus conducted by Carlos Kleiber – Deutsche Grammophon – with Hermann Prey, Júlia Várady, Lucia Popp, René Kollo, Bernd Weikl, Benno Kusche – Bavarian State Opera Chorus and Bavarian State Orchestra
1980
Der Zarewitsch
1986
Ivan Rebroff Singt Heitere Klassik
1990
The Very Best of Ivan Rebroff
1991
The Very Best Of Ivan Rebroff (Volume II)
1996
Best of Ivan Rebroff
2002
Meine Reise um die Welt
The Great Ivan Rebroff
Ach Natascha
2003
Seine Größten Welterfolge
Golden Stars
2004
Around The World With Ivan Rebroff
2005
Stimme Aus Gold
2006
Ivan Rebroff – 75 Jahre (Meine Schönsten Lieder)
== Compilation albums ==
Festliche Weihnachten
Wunschkonzert
The Art of Ivan Rebroff
The Best of Russian Folk Songs Vol. 1
The Best of Russian Folk Songs Vol. 2
Erinnerungen an das letzte Jahrhundert
Weihnachten mit Ivan Rebroff
Die schönste Stimme Rußlands
Kosakenträume
== References ==
== External links ==
Ivan Rebroff discography at Discogs
Ivan Rebroff at IMDb
Former official website of Ivan Rebroff, via Internet Archive
Ivan Rebroff fan page
Photos of Ivan Rebroff on Skopelos island
"Im tiefen Keller" on YouTube (composed by Ludwig Fischer)
Video of concert, Sydney, 1982 on YouTube, "If I Were a Rich Man" from Fiddler on the Roof |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Say_Yes_to_the_Dress_episodes | List of Say Yes to the Dress episodes | The following is a list of episodes of the TLC reality television series, Say Yes to the Dress.
== Series overview ==
== Episodes ==
=== Season 1 (2007) ===
=== Season 2 (2008) ===
=== Season 3 (2009) ===
=== Season 4 (2009) ===
=== Season 5 (2010) ===
=== Season 6 (2011) ===
=== Season 7 (2011) ===
=== Season 8 (2012) ===
=== Season 9 (2012–13) ===
=== Season 10 (2013) ===
=== Season 11 (2014) ===
=== Season 12 (2014) ===
=== Season 13 (2015) ===
=== Season 14 (2016) ===
=== Season 15 (2017) ===
=== Season 16 (2018) ===
=== Season 17 (2019) ===
=== Season 18 (2019) ===
=== Season 19 (2020) ===
=== Season 20 (2021) ===
=== Season 21 (2022) ===
=== Season 22 (2023) ===
=== Season 23 (2025) ===
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirza_Afzal_Beg | Mirza Afzal Beg | Mirza Mohammad Afzal Beg (3 February 1929 – 11 June 1982) was a Kashmiri politician who served as the first deputy chief minister of Jammu and Kashmir from 1975 to 1977 and was a member of Constituent Assembly of India from 1946 to 1952. Beg held a ministerial position in the pre-independence government of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir from 1945 to 1947 and later served as the Revenue minister in the post-independence government led by Sheikh Abdullah from 1948 to 1953.
He established the All Jammu and Kashmir Plebiscite Front in 1955 and served its president. However, it was later merged into the present day National Conference. Beg drafted 1950 land reforms, Big Landed Estates Abolition Act during his tenure as Revenue minister. He also drafted the 1952 Delhi Agreement, and was one of the signitories of Indira–Sheikh Accord in 1975 with G. Parthasarathy. He was also a member of the Jammu and Kashmir Constituent Assembly, which was responsible for drafting the constitution of Jammu and Kashmir from 1951 to 1956.
== Early life and education ==
Beg was born to Mirza Jalaluddin Beg on 3 February 1929 in Anantnag, British India. He was the brother of Mirza Ghulam Kadir Beg and nephew of the landlord, Mirza Ghulam Muhammad Beg, a landlord in Anantnag.
He graduated from Sri Pratap College (SP College) in Srinagar. He later attended Aligarh Muslim University (AMU), where he studied law.
== Career ==
Beg began his political career in the late 1930s when he became an active member of the Jammu and Kashmir National Conference, a party led by Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah. During this period, he reportedly worked to address the grievances of the local populace and promote social justice.
In 1951, Beg was elected as a member of the Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly after contesting the 1951 constituent assembly elections. He represented Anantnag constituency from 1951 to 1953.
=== Princely state ===
Beg joined Sheikh Abdullah's Muslim Conference from its inception. In 1934 elections, he was elected to the Praja Sabha and served as the deputy leader of the parliamentary party. In 1937–38, after Gopalaswami Ayyangar became the prime minister of the state, Mirza Afzal Beg and Girdhari Lal Dogra were appointed cabinet ministers.
Soon after the 1938 election, Sheikh Abdullah, along with other members, launched an initiative to transform the Muslim Conference into an inclusive nationalist party, to be called the National Conference. The Muslim nationalist members, including Choudhry Ghulam Abbas, opposed the move. Afzal Beg is said to have counselled caution, fearing a vertical division of the party. Despite the apprehensions, the special session of the party convened in June 1939, overwhelmingly passed a resolution transforming itself into National Conference.
In 1944, Beg was appointed a cabinet minister again and given the charge of Public Works and Municipalities. In March 1946, after Pandit Ram Chandra Kak was appointed the prime minister, the National Conference pulled out of the government and launched its Quit Kashmir movement. Beg stepped down from his ministerial post for this development. He was arrested for taking part in the movement.
=== Association with Abdullah ===
Beg was a close associate of Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah, the founder of the Jammu and Kashmir National Conference (NC). Together, they reportedly played a central roles in advocating for the rights of the people of Kashmir. Beg was one of the close members in the Quit Kashmir movement of 1946, which demanded the end of autocratic rule under the Dogra dynasty. After India's independence and the accession of Jammu and Kashmir to India in 1947, Beg aligned closely with Abdullah's political strategy for maintaining the state's autonomy within the Indian union.
== Arrest and Plebiscite Front ==
In 1953, following the controversial dismissal and arrest of Sheikh Abdullah by the Indian government, Beg was also detained. During this period, the political situation in Jammu and Kashmir changed significantly, with the National Conference leadership being sidelined. After Abdullah's release, Beg formed the Plebiscite Front in 1955, advocating for a plebiscite to determine whether Jammu and Kashmir should remain part of India or join Pakistan. This movement reflected a broader sentiment of political disenchantment in the region. The Plebiscite Front, however, created significant political opposition, particularly from pro-Indian factions. It faced social boycotts and political isolation, with many of its members enduring hardships under government repression.
He was one of the key members of the movement, which sought to determine the political status of Jammu and Kashmir.
=== Reconciliation ===
Beg played a central role in the negotiations that led to the 1974 Indira–Sheikh Accord between Sheikh Abdullah and prime minister Indira Gandhi. He co-authored the Indira–Sheikh Accord with G. Parthasarathy, facilitating Abdullah's return to political power and aiming to reconcile the political status of Jammu and Kashmir with those of the Indian government. The accord acknowledged Article 370 of the Indian constitution, which guaranteed special status to Jammu and Kashmir.
While the 1974 Accord enabled a political reconciliation between the state and the central government, it was seen as a compromised decision by some people in the region. The tensions within the region persisted, and in the years following the accord, political rifts resurfaced.
On 15 February 1975, after the Plebiscite Front's Executive Council approved the accord, Beg officially announced the dissolution of the organization, bringing an end to two decades of political opposition. Following this, Sheikh Abdullah was reinstated as chief minister of Jammu and Kashmir.
=== Tenure as deputy chief and dismissal ===
Beg was one of the founding members of the Jammu and Kashmir National Conference. In 1977, he became deputy chief minister of Jammu and Kashmir from 1975 until September 1978. His tenure witnessed political challenges and internal party conflicts within the National Conference.
During his time in office, Beg focused on various administrative reforms in the region. However, tensions between him and chief minister Sheikh Abdullah began to surface, leading to political rifts within the National Conference.
In September 1978, Beg was dismissed from his position as deputy chief minister amid accusations of disloyalty. The dismissal followed a period of increasing public criticism by Beg directed toward Sheikh Abdullah and his administration. Abdullah publicly rejected attempts for rapprochement between himself and Beg.
Following his dismissal, Abdullah described Beg's actions as a "dangerous attempt" to disrupt the unity and discipline of the National Conference. Abdullah had previously named Maulvi Mohammed Yasin Hamdari, a member of the Legislative Assembly, as the chief witness to these allegations against Beg. The chief minister's refusal to engage in peace talks with Beg suggested the conflict and the implications of Beg's public denunciations of the National Conference leadership.
In response to his dismissal, Beg was unrepentant and began to formulate a new political strategy. He announced the formation of a new party called the Inqalab National Conference, intending to challenge Abdullah's leadership. Beg expressed his responsibility to combat what he described as "dynastic rule" and aimed to promote democratic norms in the region. He outlined a 20-point program for his new party, focusing on anti-corruption measures and administrative reforms.
Despite some initial success in drawing crowds to his meetings, Beg faced challenges in gaining widespread support from the electorate. Many constituents, though not known, were apprehensive about openly opposing Abdullah and his supporters due to the prevailing political climate.
Beg believed that any significant challenge to Abdullah's authority would require support from the central government. However, indications suggested that the central government preferred to maintain the status quo in Jammu and Kashmir, refraining from interference in what it considered internal political matters.
== Death ==
Beg died on 11 June 1982. He is survived by three sons and three daughters. His son Mirza Mehboob Beg is also a politician in the state.
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Das Gupta, Jyoti Bhusan (2012) [first published 1968], Jammu and Kashmir, Springer, ISBN 978-94-011-9231-6
Hussain, Syed Taffazull (2016), Sheikh Abdullah-A Biography: The Crucial Period 1905-1939. 2016 Edition, Syed Taffazull Hussain, ISBN 978-1-60481-603-7
Parashar, Parmanand (2004), Kashmir and the Freedom Movement, Sarup & Sons, ISBN 978-81-7625-514-1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayo_College | Mayo College | Mayo College (informally Mayo) is a boys-only private boarding school in Ajmer, Rajasthan, India. It was founded in 1875 and named after the 6th Earl of Mayo, who was the Viceroy of India from 1869 to 1872, making it one of the oldest public boarding schools in India.
The idea for the college was proposed in 1869 by Colonel Walter. It was founded in 1875 and Colonel Sir Oliver St John became its first principal. The founder intended to create an "Eton of India". The 2nd Baron Lytton, Viceroy of India, said in a speech on campus in 1879:
"The idea was well expressed long ago by Colonel Walter in an excellent and most suggestive report which may have influenced Lord Mayo when he founded the present college. In that very sensible report, Colonel Walter pointed out that what was then most needed for the education of India's young rulers and nobles was an Indian Eton. Mayo is India's Eton and you are India's Eton boys".
It aimed to provide the leaders of the princely states with an education similar to that given by Eton College. The British built Mayo for the sons of the Indian upper classes, particularly the princes and nobles of India. Mayo College holds the privilege of educating many members of the Indian Royal Families and also the Royal family of Oman, Said bin Taimur (the 13th Sultan of Muscat and Oman) attended Mayo College from 1922 to 1927 where he mastered English and Urdu.
== Coat of arms ==
The coat of arms was composed from the design furnished by Lockwood Kipling, a former principal of the School of Arts, Lahore, and father of Rudyard Kipling.
In the upper centre of the shield are Mayo Arms and Quarterings, a Lion Rampant and an open hand. On the right and left are the sun and the moon, typical of Suryavanshi and Chandravanshi, the two great families of Rajputs. Below are the Panch Rang, the five sacred colours of the Rajputs, Red, Gold, Blue, White and Green. In the centre is a Rajput fort – two towers connected by a curtain. The supports are on the right: a Bhil warrior with string bow and full quiver of arrows. On the left a Rajput, armed at all points, wearing a steel helmet with three plumes, a shield on his back, a dagger and katar in his belt, and a suit of chain covered with embroidered cloth and gauntlet on his hand.
The motto "Let there be Light" is derived from the Bible. The badge is a peacock, the sacred bird of Rajputana, standing on a double-edged, two-handed Rajput sword called Khanda.
== History and traditions ==
Mayo's first student, H.H. Maharaja Mangal Singh of Alwar, arrived at the school gates in October 1875 on the back of an elephant accompanied by 300 retainers and a menagerie of tigers, camels and horses.
One of the school's traditions is meeting for tea on the lawns known as Mughal Gardens immediately after the Annual Prizegiving ceremony. It is believed that M.N. Kapur (who went on to become one of Modern School New Delhi's most respected principals) did away with using a rope to divide English and Indian guests at this ceremony.
The Annual Prizegiving, one of the oldest ceremonies at Mayo, has seen chief guests including Lord Irwin, Viceroy of India, Lord Chelmsford, governor general of India, Maharaja Hari Singh, last ruler of Kashmir, Dr. Rajendra Prasad, ex-president of India, Sawai Man Singh II of Jaipur, Gayatri Devi of Jaipur, Vijayalakshmi Pandit, Zakir Hussain, ex-president of India, Karan Singh, Indira Gandhi, ex-prime minister of India, field marshal Sam Manekshaw, Sayyid Faher Bin Taimur of Oman, Birendra Shah, King of Nepal, Khushwant Singh, Madhavrao Scindia, Peter Ustinov, Jaswant Singh and LK Advani.
Other traditions at Mayo include an annual horseback parade by the students and sporting fixtures between Old Boys and current students, including a polo match.
== Mayo College General Council ==
There are more than 40 members of the Mayo College General Council including patron, life members, old boys' association representatives and MCGS old girls' representatives.
=== Council of monitors and sports captains ===
The school has a council of monitors consisting of students with posts dealing with school and house duties. There is a monitor and a prefect from each senior house. There are positions held by the students who excel in fields like academics, sports and co-curricular activities. Apart from the council of monitors, there are captains for each sport. Positions are held by the students of 12th class or, rarely, by juniors.
== Houses ==
There are twelve houses of which Eight are senior houses, 1 holding house (for Class 7) and three junior houses (for Class 4, 5 and 6)
The senior houses are Ajmer, Bharatpur, Jaipur, Jodhpur, Kashmir and Rajasthan, Bikaner & Tonk, Colvin. The holding house is Oman. The junior houses are Ajaypal, Durgadas and Prithviraj.
Each house can accommodate 60–75 students, except for Oman which has a capacity of 120–130 students.
== Sports ==
Mayo College has sporting facilities afor students and staff consisting of playing fields for football and hockey and a cricket ground with a view of the Aravali Hills and an old red sandstone pavilion.
Horse riding was discontinued after Independence and revived again in 1993 with ten horses. Today, Mayo College has more than 60 horses and close to 250 boys and girls are trained. Mayo has ten polo players who practice at the Sawai Man Singh II polo ground. Students are trained in events like Show Jumping, Pig Sticking, Tent Pegging, Dressage, etc. Mayo College has participated in national level polo competitions and produced players like Himmat Singh Bedla, Nagender Singh, Pratap Singh, Sarveshwar Singh, Dhruv Singh. The school participated in the SUPA International Polo Tournament held in the UK in 2008. Mayo College actively participates in the Jodhpur polo season and the Delhi Horse Show.
There are sports facilities for students and staff consisting of playing fields for football, hockey and a cricket ground with a view of the Aravali Hills and a beautiful old red sandstone pavilion called Bikaner Pavilion.
The modern glass-backed courts for squash or the historic Fanshawe courts, open to the sky. Mayo College has a nine-hole golf course which was built recently. It also has many basketball courts. There is a standard 400m track. Athletics is one of the major seasonal and coaching sports. There are around 17 tennis courts on the campus. There are 5 all-weather synthetic courts and 4-5 clay courts in the senior school. The junior school has 4 clay courts. The 10m Shooting Range is used by boys and girls (from Mayo Girls) of all classes and is one of the best shooting range available at any school in India.
=== Cricket ===
Mayo College Ground has hosted 19 first-class match stating in 1926 to 1986; since then, the ground has not first-class matches but regularly hosts other matches.
== Publications ==
Publications are supplied internally and sent to other public schools in India and abroad.
=== Mayoor ===
Mayoor was established in the late 1960s by the principal, Jack Gibson. It is a major bi-monthly newsletter with college news, updates and photos. The editorial team consists of an editor-in-chief who is an English teacher in the school and a team of editors from the student community. Mayoor used to have a Hindi section with articles and poems. This was removed when an independent Hindi newsletter called Paridrishya was established in 2006.
=== The Mayo Mail ===
The Mayo Mail is a weekly newsletter, established in 2008 by a group of students of Grade 7. It has become a publication which prints four fresh sheets every week and is called the "newspaper" of Mayo College. It consists of write-ups on school happenings and activities like the trademark Mayo "Tweets" and "Howlers".
=== Paridrishya ===
The independent Hindi magazine called Paridrishya was established in 2006. The magazine consists of articles, poems and jottings written by the school community. It has an editor-in-chief, who is a Hindi teacher in the school, and student editors.
=== Reflection ===
Reflection, established in 2007, is the student magazine. It is filled with poems, articles and facts that are illustrated with pictures. Reflection comes out three times a year.
=== College Magazine ===
The College Magazine is the yearbook of Mayo College. It has English and Hindi sections and contains reports, speeches, photographs, poems, articles and case studies of the school.
=== Other publications ===
Cyber Quest is the IT magazine of Mayo College that contains technology-related articles and answers.
Euphoria is an annual publication that reports on activities happening in the prize-giving function of the school.
Zephyr – An Anthology of Poems is an annual publication that comes out in the prizegiving and contains the best poems written by the students.
The Mayo Gazette is an annual publication that comes out during the prize-giving and contains the latest trivia of the school.
== School museum ==
The Danmal Mathur Museum is housed in Jhalawar House, which it shares with the Art School. The museum showcases antiques and an armoury section. It is considered one of the best collections found in any in-school museum of the world.
=== Postage stamp ===
On 12 April 1986, the Indian Postal Service released a stamp showing the main building of Mayo College. The multicoloured stamp was designed by India Security Press. The first-day cover shows the emblem of the college. The cancellation was designed by Nenu Bagga.
== Notable alumni ==
Alumni of Mayo College are known as Old Boys or Mayoites.
Additionally, the school has educated two sultans of Oman, one of whom is Said bin Taimur.
Mayo College has educated members of royal families including Bikaner, Alwar, Jammu and Kashmir, Kishangarh, Jaipur, Benares, Kangra, Udaipur, Jodhpur, Kutch, Kota and Dewas (Junior).
Sadashiv Rao II Puar of Dewas (Junior), Muhammad Mahabat Khan III of Junagadh, Yeshwant Rao Puar of Dewas (Junior), Sawai Man Singh II of Jaipur, Hari Singh of Jammu and Kashmir, Maharana Mahendra Singh Mewar, Arvind Singh Mewar of Mewar-Udaipur, Pragmulji III of Kutch, Prince Shivraj Singh of Jodhpur of Marwar-Jodhpur and Kirit Bikram Kishore Deb Barman, erstwhile Maharaja of Tripura from the second oldest continuing ruling lineage after the Mikados of Japan.
Alumni from Mayo have served in the armed forces and others serve as members of parliament and senior civil servants. Jaswant Singh is one of the few Indian politicians to have been the Minister for Defence, Finance and External Affairs; K. Natwar Singh of the Indian Foreign Service was India's Ambassador to Pakistan and as External Affairs Minister, Admiral Sunil Lanba is the former Navy Chief.
Lt. Gen. Nathu Singh Rathore, the second Indian officer to graduate from the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, was a distinguished strategist who served as a Division Commander in Burma during the Second World War. He was offered the position of Commander in Chief of the Indian Army in 1949 but declined the position in favour of his senior, K M Cariappa.
Alumni have been Indian ambassadors to Morocco, Spain, Norway, Brazil, Libya, Switzerland and France.
The vice-chairman of Tata Motors, Ravi Kant, erstwhile chairman of Shell Oil-India, Vikram Singh Mehta, erstwhile chairman emeritus of Nestlé-India, Narendra Singh of Sarila, former chairman of Air India and Indian Airlines, Probir Sen, erstwhile chairman and MD of Axis Bank, P.J. Nayak, member of the Bank of England Monetary Policy Committee, Sushil Wadhwani, the retired chief general manager and executive director of the Reserve Bank of India and erstwhile managing director of NABARD, Yashwant Thorat, as well as Rakesh Mohan, who was deputy governor of the Reserve Bank of India all studied at Mayo. Mayo also has produced academic economists like Alok Bhargava who researches on food policy issues in developing and developed countries for formulating public policies. Mayo has produced scientists such as the eminent scientist in the field of electronic materials, Amit Goyal.
Tikaraj Aishwarya Katoch of Kangra, director of Indiabulls, donated the Kangra Amphitheatre in memory of his great-grandfather Maharaja Jai Chand Katoch who was one of the first few students of Mayo College.
Actors who attended Mayo include Bobby Deol, Vivek Oberoi, Ajay Mehta, Tinnu Anand, the filmmakers Pradip Krishen (also an environmentalist and writer of Trees of Delhi), Samir Karnik, Goldie Behl, Heeraz Marfatia and the theatre personality, Amir Raza Husain.
Journalists who studied here include Vir Sanghvi, Siddharth Varadarajan and Manvendra Singh. Writers include Vikram Chandra (Red Earth & Pouring Rain, Sacred Games) and Indra Sinha (Animal's People, shortlisted for the Man Booker Prize).
Red Fashion designer Raghuvendra Rathore, Celebrity Chef Jiggs Kalra and Artist Jaideep Mehrotra also studied here.
The school has produced sportsmen including Charu Sharma, cricketer Arun Lal, Col. Bhawani Singh, HH Sawai Padmanabh Singh of Jaipur and Lokendra Singh Ghanerao (all 3 captained India at polo over the years).
Eknath Ghate, a mathematician and winner of the Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize for Science and Technology, is an alumnus of Mayo College.
Jai Pratap Singh, politician and cabinet minister in the Government of Uttar Pradesh.
== See also ==
Mayo College Girls School
Daly College
Scindia School
Rajkumar College, Raipur
Rajkumar College, Rajkot
Baldwin Boys High School
Aitchison College
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Mayp College
ESPNcricinfo
cricketarchive
wikimapia |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doris_Haddock | Doris Haddock | Doris "Granny D" Haddock (born Ethel Doris Rollins; January 24, 1910 – March 9, 2010) was an American political activist from New Hampshire. Haddock achieved national fame when, between the ages of 88 and 90, starting on January 1, 1999, and culminating on February 29, 2000, she walked over 3,200 miles (5,100 km) across the continental United States to advocate for campaign finance reform. In 2004, she ran unsuccessfully as a Democratic challenger to incumbent Republican Judd Gregg in the U.S. Senate election in New Hampshire. At age 94 at the time, Haddock was the oldest congressional candidate in U.S. history.
Haddock's walk across the country followed a southern route and took more than a year to complete, starting on January 1, 1999, in southern California and ending in Washington, D.C., on February 29, 2000.
Haddock requested a name change of her middle name to "Granny D", the name by which she had long been known. On August 19, 2004, Haddock's request was officially granted by Judge John Maher during a hearing at the Cheshire County probate court.
== Personal life ==
Ethel Doris Rollins was born in Laconia, New Hampshire, the daughter of Ethel and Carl Rollins. She attended Emerson College in Boston, Massachusetts, for three years before marrying James Haddock. Emerson students were not allowed to marry at that time, so she was expelled. She was, however, later awarded an honorary degree in 2000.
After marrying, she started a family; she had a daughter, Betty and a son, James Jr.. She worked during the Great Depression and was employed for twenty years as an executive secretary in the offices of the BeeBee Shoe factory in Manchester, New Hampshire. Haddock and her husband retired to Dublin, New Hampshire, in 1972. Her husband later developed Alzheimer's disease, dying after a ten-year struggle with the illness. At about the same time, Haddock's best friend died. During her 1999 walk across the nation, the hat that Haddock was seen in was one that belonged originally to her best friend. Haddock had eight grandchildren: Heidi, Gillian, David Bradley, William, Alice, Joseph, Lawrence, and Raphael. She also had 16 great-grandchildren: Kyle, David, Jennie, Kendall, Peyton, Matthew, Richard, Grace, Justin, William, James, Beatrix, Tucker, Mathilda, Parker, and Clay.
Haddock celebrated her 100th birthday on January 24, 2010, and died six weeks later on March 9, 2010, at her son's home in Dublin, New Hampshire, following a bout with respiratory illness.
She was a life-long member of the United Methodist Church.
== Activist career ==
In 1960, Haddock began her political activism when she and her husband successfully campaigned against planned hydrogen bomb nuclear testing in Alaska that threatened an Inuit fishing village at Point Hope. The couple retired to Dublin, New Hampshire, in 1972, and there, she served on the Planning Board and was active in the community.
=== Campaign finance reform advocate ===
After the first efforts of Senators John McCain and Russ Feingold to regulate campaign finances through eliminating soft money failed in 1995, Granny D became increasingly interested in campaign finance reform and spearheaded a petition movement. On January 1, 1999, at the age of 88, Granny D left the Rose Bowl Tournament of Roses Parade in Pasadena, California, in an attempt to walk across the United States to raise awareness of and attract support for campaign finance reform.
Granny D walked roughly ten miles each day for 14 months, traversing California, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, Arkansas, Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, West Virginia, Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia, making many speeches along the way. The trek attracted a great deal of attention in the mass media. When Granny D arrived in Washington, D.C., she was 90 years old (having begun the journey at 88 and having two birthdays en route), had traveled more than 3,200 miles, and was greeted in the capital by a crowd of 2,200 people. Several dozen members of Congress walked the final miles with her during the final day's walk from Arlington National Cemetery to the Capitol on the National Mall. A film, "Granny D
Goes to Washington," by Alidra Solday, documents her walk across America, and was broadcast on PBS stations nationwide, 2006-2008.
In the 2000 presidential election, Haddock endorsed Green Party candidate Ralph Nader.
Haddock worked closely with state representative Betty Hall, another New Hampshire grandmother, on campaign finance reform.
=== Arrest at the Capitol ===
On April 21, 2000, 90 year old Granny D, with 31 other Americans, was arrested for reading the Declaration of Independence in the Capitol and charged with the offense of Demonstrating in the Capitol Building. It was said to be a peaceable assembly, but the demonstrators were arrested by Capitol Police.
She entered a plea of guilty, then made a statement to the court reiterating "campaign finance reform" as the purpose of their demonstration.
Your Honor, the old woman who stands before you was arrested for reading the Declaration of Independence in America's Capitol Building. I did not raise my voice to do so and I blocked no hall.
...
I was reading from the Declaration of Independence to make the point that we must declare our independence from the corrupting bonds of big money in our election campaigns.
...
In my 90 years, this is the first time I have been arrested. I risk my good name --for I do indeed care what my neighbors think about me. But, Your Honor, some of us do not have much power, except to put our bodies in the way of an injustice--to picket, to walk, or to just stand in the way. It will not change the world overnight, but it is all we can do.
...
Your Honor, to the business at hand: the old woman who stands before you was arrested for reading the Declaration of Independence in America's Capitol Building. I did not raise my voice to do so and I blocked no hall. But if it is a crime to read the Declaration of Independence in our great hall, then I am guilty.
The judge sentenced Granny D and her companions to time served and a $10 administrative fee.
== Post-election ==
"Granny D" co-authored several books with Dennis Burke. These include Granny D: Walking Across America in My Ninetieth Year (Villard, 2001), Granny D: You're Never Too Old to Raise a Little Hell (Villard, 2003), and Granny D's American Century (University Press of New England, 2012). She was awarded an honorary degree by Franklin Pierce College on October 21, 2002. In 2005, she gave the commencement speech at Hampshire College.
She was the Democratic candidate for a U.S. Senate seat in New Hampshire during the 2004 election when the leading Democratic primary candidate left the race unexpectedly (days before the filing deadline), because of a campaign-finance scandal. Haddock was, at 94, one of the oldest major-party candidates to ever run for the U.S. Senate. True to her "clean elections" ideals, Haddock funded her late-entry campaign by accepting only modest private-citizen donations. She captured approximately 34 percent of the vote (221,549), losing to incumbent Republican U.S. Senator Judd Gregg, as he sought his third term. Gregg won about 66 percent (434,847) of the ballot.
In 2007, HBO released a documentary, Run Granny Run, directed by Marlo Poras, about "Granny D"'s 2004 Senate campaign. In 2009, she founded Coalition for Open Democracy. Granny D continued to be active in politics to the end of her life, and celebrated her 98th, 99th and 100th birthdays by lobbying for campaign finance reform at the New Hampshire State House.
== Awards ==
Key to the city:
In 2000, Granny D received a special Martin Luther King Award from the Manchester, New Hampshire-based Martin Luther King Coalition. She was the keynote speaker for that year's Martin Luther King Day Community Celebration in Manchester.
== Electoral history ==
Source:
== See also ==
Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act, "McCain-Feingold"
Peace Pilgrim
== References ==
== External links ==
Keynote Graduation address at Hampshire College by Doris "Granny D" Haddock
Campaign Finance Bill Draw Ires in New Hampshire
Doris Haddock at IMDb
Run Granny Run at IMDb. and "Granny D Goes to Washington."
Feature on Granny D by the International Museum of Women.
December '09 Email Interview with Granny D at Rigid Morality
August 2004 interview with Doris on Democracy Now!
Appearances on C-SPAN |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Chazy#:~:text=In%201922%20Chazy%20was%20awarded,on%20the%20three%2Dbody%20problem. | Jean Chazy | Jean François Chazy (15 August 1882, Villefranche-sur-Saône – 9 March 1955, Paris) was a French mathematician and astronomer.
== Life ==
Chazy was the son of a small provincial manufacturer and studied mathematics at the École Normale Supérieure with completion of the agrégation in 1905. He received his doctorate in 1910 with thesis Équations différentielles du troisième ordre et d’ordre supérieur don't l’intégrale générale a ses points critiques fixes. In 1911 he was maître de conférences for mechanics in Grenoble and then in Lille. In World War I he served in the artillery and became famous for accurately predicting the location of the German siege gun which bombarded Paris. After the war he was again professor in the Faculté des Sciences de Lille (which later became the Lille University of Science and Technology). Simultaneously he taught at the Institut industriel du Nord (École Centrale de Lille). In 1923 he was maître de conférences at the École centrale des arts et manufactures in Paris (as well as examiner at the École polytechnique). In 1924 he became professor for mechanics and later for celestial mechanics at the Sorbonne, where he retired in 1953 as professor emeritus.
== Work ==
He worked on celestial mechanics and especially on the three-body problem and the perihelion precession of Mercury's orbit. The problem of explaining Mercury's orbit was solved by Albert Einstein's general relativity theory.
== Honors ==
In 1922 Chazy was awarded the Valz Prize from the French Academy of Sciences for his papers on the three-body problem. He was an Invited Speaker of the ICM in 1924 at Toronto and in 1928 at Bologna. In 1937 he was elected to the Académie des Sciences in the Astronomie section. He was also a member of the Romanian Academy of Sciences and a member of the Belgian Academy of Sciences. In 1934 he was president of the Société Mathématique de France. Since 1952 he was an official member of the Bureau des Longitudes. He was made a commander of the Légion d'honneur.
== Selected works ==
La théorie de la relativité et la mécanique céleste, vol. 1, 1928, vol. 2, 1930, Gauthier-Villars, Paris
Cours de mécanique rationnelle, 2 vols., Gauthier-Villars 1933, new edns, 1941/42, 1948, 1952
Mécanique céleste: équations canoniques et variation des constantes, Presses Universitaires de France, Coll. Euclide, Paris 1953
== See also ==
Chazy equation
== References ==
O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Jean Chazy", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews
== Further reading ==
Georges Darmois, Notice sur la vie et les travaux de Jean Chazy (1882-1955), Paris: Gauthier-Villars, 1964 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Australian_Open_%E2%80%93_Main_draw_wildcard_entries#Women's_singles | 2019 Australian Open – Main draw wildcard entries | The 2019 Australian Open wildcard playoffs and entries are a group of events and internal selections to choose the eight men and eight women singles wildcard entries for the 2019 Australian Open, as well as seven male and seven female doubles teams plus eight mixed-doubles teams.
== Wildcard entries ==
=== Men's singles ===
=== Women's singles ===
=== Men's doubles ===
=== Women's doubles ===
=== Mixed doubles ===
== American Wildcard Challenge ==
The USTA awarded a wildcard to the man and woman that earned the most ranking points across a group of three ATP/Challenger hardcourt events in the October and November 2018. For the men, the events included ATP Paris, $75K Canberra, $75K Charlottesville, $75K+H Shenzhen, €106K+H Bratislava, €85K+H Mouilleron-le-Captif, $150K+H Bangalore, $150K+H Houston, $75K Champaign and $50K+H Kobe events. For the women, the events included $80K Macon, $80K Tyler and $80K Las Vegas and $150K+H Houston. For men, only the best two results from the three weeks of events were taken into account. While for women only the best three results from the four weeks of events were taken into account. The winners of the wildcard challenge were Jack Sock and Whitney Osuigwe.
=== Men's standings ===
=== Women's standings ===
== Australian Women's Wildcard Challenge ==
Tennis Australia awarded a singles wildcard and a doubles wildcard to the Australian women that earned the most ranking points across a group of two ITF hardcourt events in the October and November 2018. The events included the 2018 Bendigo Women's International and the 2018 Canberra Tennis International. The winner of the wildcards were Priscilla Hon, and Ellen Perez and Arina Rodionova.
=== Singles standings ===
=== Doubles standings ===
== Asia-Pacific Wildcard Playoff ==
The Asia-Pacific Australian Open Wildcard Play-off featured 16-players in the men's and women's singles draws and took place from 26 November to 2 December 2018 at Hengqin International Tennis Centre in Zhuhai, China.
=== Men's singles ===
==== Seeds ====
==== Draw ====
=== Women's singles ===
==== Seeds ====
==== Draw ====
=== Men's doubles ===
==== Seeds ====
==== Draw ====
=== Women's doubles ===
==== Seeds ====
==== Draw ====
== Australian Wildcard Playoff ==
The December Showdown is held annually for two weeks in December. The Showdown includes age championships for 12/u, 14/u, 16/u and 18/u age categories. It also hosts the 2019 Australian Wildcard Playoff which will be held from 10 to 16 December 2018 at Melbourne Park, offering a main draw singles wildcard for men and women and a main draw women's doubles wildcard.
=== Men's singles ===
==== Seeds ====
==== Draw ====
=== Women's singles ===
==== Seeds ====
==== Draw ====
=== Women's doubles ===
==== Seeds ====
==== Draw ====
== References ==
== External links ==
Asia/Pacific Wildcard Playoff
Australian Wildcard Playoff
USTA Wildcard Challenge |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica | Encyclopædia Britannica | The Encyclopædia Britannica (Latin for 'British Encyclopaedia') is a general-knowledge English-language encyclopaedia. It has been published since 1768, and after several ownership changes is currently owned by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. The 2010 version of the 15th edition, which spans 32 volumes and 32,640 pages, was the last printed edition. Since 2016, it has been published exclusively as an online encyclopaedia at the website Britannica.com.
Printed for 245 years, the Britannica was the longest-running in-print encyclopaedia in the English language. It was first published between 1768 and 1771 in Edinburgh, Scotland, in weekly instalments that came together to form three volumes. At first, the encyclopaedia, from edition to edition, grew quickly in size. The second edition was extended to 10 volumes, and by its fourth edition (1801–1810), the Britannica had expanded to 20 volumes. Since the beginning of the twentieth century, its size (at least in terms of total word length) has remained roughly steady, at about 40 million words.
The Britannica's rising stature as an authoritative and scholarly work helped recruit eminent contributors, and the 9th (1875–1889) and 11th editions (1911) are landmark encyclopaedias for scholarship and literary style. Starting with the 11th edition and following its acquisition by an American firm, the Britannica shortened and simplified articles to broaden its appeal to the North American market. Though published in the United States since 1901, the Britannica has for the most part maintained British English spelling.
In 1932, the Britannica adopted a policy of "continuous revision," in which the encyclopaedia is continually revised and reprinted, with every article updated on a schedule. The publishers of Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia had already pioneered such a policy.
The 15th edition (1974–2010) has a three-part structure: a 12-volume Micropædia of short articles (generally fewer than 750 words), a 17-volume Macropædia of long articles (two to 310 pages), and a single Propædia volume to give a hierarchical outline of knowledge. The Micropædia was meant for quick fact-checking and as a guide to the Macropædia; readers are advised to study the Propædia outline to understand a subject's context and to find more detailed articles.
In the 21st century, the Britannica faced strong competition: in particular from the digital and multimedia encyclopaedia Microsoft Encarta, and later from the online peer-produced encyclopaedia Wikipedia. Despite (or perhaps because of) such competition, Britannica retained its reputation for authoritative, comprehensive, structured, and scholarly treatments of included subjects. While it continued to score well in assessments of its overall quality, as compared to its competitors, it could not (as an expert-authored compilation of a limited number of articles on only important subjects), match their breadth of coverage and continuous updating.
In March 2012, it announced it would no longer publish printed editions and would focus instead on the online version.
== History ==
Past owners have included, in chronological order, the Scottish printers Colin Macfarquhar and Andrew Bell, the Scottish bookseller Archibald Constable, the Scottish publisher A. & C. Black, Horace Everett Hooper, Sears Roebuck, William Benton, and Jacqui Safra, a Swiss billionaire residing in New York.
Recent advances in information technology and the rise of electronic encyclopaedias such as Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite, Encarta and Wikipedia have reduced the demand for print encyclopaedias. To remain competitive, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. has stressed the reputation of the Britannica, reduced its price and production costs, and developed electronic versions on CD-ROM, DVD, and the World Wide Web. Since the early 1930s, the company has also promoted spin-off reference works.
=== Editions ===
The Encyclopaedia Britannica has been issued in 15 editions, with multi-volume supplements to the 3rd edition and to the 4th, 5th, and 6th editions as a group (see the Table below). The 5th and 6th editions were reprints of the 4th, and the 10th edition was only a supplement to the 9th, just as the 12th and 13th editions were supplements to the 11th. For the 15th edition (1974), the Britannica underwent a massive reorganization and became the New Encyclopaedia Britannica. The 14th and 15th editions were edited every year throughout their runs, so that later printings of each were quite different from early ones.
Throughout its history, the Britannica has had two aims: to be an excellent reference book, and to provide educational material. In 1974, the 15th edition adopted a third goal: to systematize all human knowledge.
The history of the Britannica can be divided into five eras, punctuated by changes in management or reorganization of the encyclopaedia.
==== 1768–1824 ====
In the first era (1st–6th editions, 1768–1824), the Britannica was managed and published by its founders, Colin Macfarquhar and Andrew Bell, by Archibald Constable, and by others.
The Britannica was first published in serial instalments between December 1768 and about August 1771 in Edinburgh as the Encyclopædia Britannica, or, A Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, compiled upon a New Plan. The new plan in question was an organizational one, namely to include two kinds of typographically distinct entries (articles and longer "treatises") in a single alphabetical sequence. In principle, "treatises" were to cover the arts and sciences, leaving articles to deal with their subordinate objects. The idea may have been inspired by Dennis de Coetlogon's Universal History of Arts and Sciences, an alphabetical encyclopaedia that contained only treatises. Regardless, the Britannica continued to intermix formally distinguished articles and treatises through the 10th edition.
According to Arthur Herman's book How the Scots Invented the Modern World, the Encyclopaedia Britannica is one of the most enduring legacies of the Scottish Enlightenment. It is important to be more specific, however, about how the early Britannica was and was not Scottish and a monument to the Scottish Enlightenment. The two publishers and William Smellie, whom they engaged to compile the work, were all Scots. Much of the first edition was compiled by Smellie from Scottish sources. At the same time, despite working in Edinburgh, the centre of the Scottish Enlightenment, neither Smellie nor James Tytler, the editor of the second edition, arranged for contributions from any local luminaries. Nor does the work seem to have been much noticed by participants in the Scottish Enlightenment before its third edition. Likewise, it is significant that the title chosen was the Encyclopaedia Britannica (and not the Encyclopaedia Scotorum, or 'Scottish Encyclopaedia'). Indeed, by the time of the third edition, the Britannica was starting to evolve into a symbol of Britishness.
In this era, the Britannica grew significantly in size, sales, and reputation. Just as important were changes to the way it was compiled and edited. On his tombstone, Smellie was characterized as the editor of the first edition of the Britannica, but he was not an editor in anything like the sense in which Macvey Napier, who edited the Supplement to the Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Editions, was. Smellie compiled nearly all the articles in the first edition himself, although we know he had minor help from at least one contributor, James Anderson, who wrote the articles "Dictionary, "Pneumatics," and "Smoke." For the third edition and its Supplement, editors still compiled the bulk of the articles, but they were assisted by dozens of collaborators. We know of thirty-five who wrote for the third edition, for example, some of them named in the preface, including the chemist Joseph Black and the natural philosopher John Robison. Then, by the time of the Supplement, Napier had become mostly a managing editor. He still wrote some articles, but his main job was recruiting collaborators, for the prospectus stipulated that "the various articles, in the Supplement, shall be written by the most Eminent Men, in the different departments of Science."
Several other encyclopaedias competed with the Britannica throughout this period, among them editions of Ephraim Chambers' and Abraham Rees's Cyclopædia, Coleridge's Encyclopædia Metropolitana, and David Brewster's Edinburgh Encyclopædia.
==== 1827–1901 ====
During the second era (7th–9th editions, 1827–1901), the Britannica was managed by the Edinburgh publishing firm A & C Black. Although some contributors were again recruited through friendships of the chief editors, notably Macvey Napier, others were attracted by the Britannica's reputation. The contributors often came from other countries and included the world's most respected authorities in their fields. A general index of all articles was included for the first time in the 7th edition, a practice maintained until 1974.
Production of the 9th edition was overseen by Thomas Spencer Baynes, the first English-born editor-in-chief. Dubbed the "Scholar's Edition", the 9th edition is the most scholarly of all Britannicas. After 1880, Baynes was assisted by William Robertson Smith. No biographies of living persons were included. James Clerk Maxwell and Thomas Huxley were special advisors on science. However, by the close of the 19th century, the 9th edition was outdated, and the Britannica faced financial difficulties.
==== 1901–1973 ====
In the third era (10th–14th editions, 1901–1973), the Britannica was managed by American businessmen who introduced direct marketing and door-to-door sales. The American owners gradually simplified articles, making them less scholarly for a mass market. The 10th edition was an eleven-volume supplement (including one each of maps and an index) to the 9th, numbered as volumes 25–35, but the 11th edition was a completely new work; its owner, Horace Hooper, lavished enormous effort on the project.
When Hooper fell into financial difficulties, the Britannica was managed by Sears Roebuck for 18 years (1920–1923, 1928–1943). In 1932, the vice-president of Sears, Elkan Harrison Powell, assumed presidency of the Britannica; in 1936, he began the policy of continuous revision. This was a departure from earlier practice, in which the articles were not changed until a new edition was produced, at roughly 25-year intervals, some articles unchanged from earlier editions. Powell developed new educational products that built upon the Britannica's reputation.
In 1943, Sears donated the Encyclopædia Britannica to the University of Chicago. William Benton, then a vice president of the university, provided the working capital for its operation. The stock was divided between Benton and the university, with the university holding an option on the stock. Benton became chairman of the board and managed the Britannica until his death in 1973. Benton set up the Benton Foundation, which managed the Britannica until 1996, and whose sole beneficiary was the University of Chicago. In 1968, the Britannica celebrated its bicentennial.
==== 1974–1994 ====
In the fourth era (1974–1994), the Britannica introduced its 15th edition, which was reorganized into three parts: the Micropædia, the Macropædia, and the Propædia. Under Mortimer J. Adler (member of the Board of Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica since its inception in 1949, and its chair from 1974; director of editorial planning for the 15th edition of Britannica from 1965), the Britannica sought not only to be a good reference work and educational tool, but to systematize all human knowledge. The absence of a separate index and the grouping of articles into parallel encyclopaedias (the Micro- and Macropædia) provoked a "firestorm of criticism" of the initial 15th edition. In response, the 15th edition was completely reorganized and indexed for a re-release in 1985. This second version of the 15th edition continued to be published and revised through the release of the 2010 print version. The official title of the 15th edition is the New Encyclopædia Britannica, although it has also been promoted as Britannica 3.
On 9 March 1976 the US Federal Trade Commission entered an opinion and order enjoining Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. from using: a) deceptive advertising practices in recruiting sales agents and obtaining sales leads, and b) deceptive sales practices in the door-to-door presentations of its sales agents.
==== 1994–present ====
In the fifth era (1994–present), digital versions have been developed and released on optical media and online.
In 1996, the Britannica was bought by Jacqui Safra at well below its estimated value, owing to the company's financial difficulties. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. split in 1999. One part retained the company name and developed the print version, and the other, Britannica.com Incorporated, developed digital versions. Since 2001, the two companies have shared a CEO, Ilan Yeshua, who has continued Powell's strategy of introducing new products with the Britannica name. In March 2012, Britannica's president, Jorge Cauz, announced that it would not produce any new print editions of the encyclopaedia, with the 2010 15th edition being the last. The company will focus only on the online edition and other educational tools.
Britannica's final print edition was in 2010, a 32-volume set. Britannica Global Edition was also printed in 2010, containing 30 volumes and 18,251 pages, with 8,500 photographs, maps, flags, and illustrations in smaller "compact" volumes, as well as over 40,000 articles written by scholars from across the world, including Nobel Prize winners. Unlike the 15th edition, it did not contain Macro- and Micropædia sections, but ran A through Z as all editions up through the 14th had. The following is Britannica's description of the work:
The editors of Encyclopædia Britannica, the world standard in reference since 1768, present the Britannica Global Edition. Developed specifically to provide comprehensive and global coverage of the world around us, this unique product contains thousands of timely, relevant, and essential articles drawn from the Encyclopædia Britannica itself, as well as from the Britannica Concise Encyclopedia, the Britannica Encyclopedia of World Religions, and Compton's by Britannica. Written by international experts and scholars, the articles in this collection reflect the standards that have been the hallmark of the leading English-language encyclopedia for over 240 years.
In 2020, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. released the Britannica All New Children's Encyclopedia: What We Know and What We Don't, an encyclopaedia aimed primarily at younger readers, covering major topics. The encyclopaedia was widely praised for bringing back the print format. It was Britannica's first encyclopaedia for children since 1984.
=== Dedications ===
The Britannica was dedicated to the reigning British monarch from 1788 to 1901 and then, upon its sale to an American partnership, to the British monarch and the President of the United States. Thus, the 11th edition is "dedicated by Permission to His Majesty George the Fifth, King of Great Britain and Ireland and of the British Dominions beyond the Seas, Emperor of India, and to William Howard Taft, President of the United States of America." The order of the dedications has changed with the relative power of the United States and Britain, and with relative sales; the 1954 version of the 14th edition is "Dedicated by Permission to the Heads of the Two English-Speaking Peoples, Dwight David Eisenhower, President of the United States of America, and Her Majesty, Queen Elizabeth the Second."
== Print version ==
From 1985, the Britannica consisted of four parts: the Micropædia, the Macropædia, the Propædia, and a two-volume index. The Britannica's articles are contained in the Micro- and Macropædia, which encompass 12 and 17 volumes, respectively, each volume having roughly one thousand pages. The 2007 Macropædia has 699 in-depth articles, ranging in length from two pages to 310 pages, with references and named contributors. In contrast, the 2007 Micropædia has roughly 65,000 articles, the vast majority (about 97%) of which contain fewer than 750 words, no references, and no named contributors. The Micropædia articles are intended for quick fact-checking and to help in finding more thorough information in the Macropædia. The Macropædia articles are meant as authoritative, well-written commentaries on their subjects, as well as storehouses of information not covered elsewhere. The longest article (310 pages) is on the subject of the United States, and it resulted from merging separate articles on the individual US states. A 2013 "Global Edition" of Britannica contained approximately 40,000 articles.
Information can be found in the Britannica by following the cross-references in the Micropædia and Macropædia; these are sparse, however, averaging one cross-reference per page. Readers are instead recommended to consult the alphabetical index or the Propædia, which organizes the Britannica's contents by topic.
The core of the Propædia is its "Outline of Knowledge", which aims to provide a logical framework for all human knowledge. Accordingly, the Outline is consulted by the Britannica's editors to decide which articles should be included in the Micro- and Macropædia. The Outline can also be used as a study guide, as it puts subjects in their proper perspective and suggests a series of Britannica articles for the student wishing to learn a topic in depth. However, libraries have found that it is scarcely used for this purpose, and reviewers have recommended that it be dropped from the encyclopaedia. The Propædia contains colour transparencies of human anatomy and several appendices listing the staff members, advisors, and contributors to all three parts of the Britannica.
Taken together, the Micropædia and Macropædia comprise roughly 40 million words and 24,000 images. The two-volume index has 2,350 pages, listing the 228,274 topics covered in the Britannica, together with 474,675 subentries under those topics. The Britannica generally prefers British spelling over American; for example, it uses colour (not color), centre (not center), and encyclopaedia (not encyclopedia). There are some exceptions to this rule, such as defense rather than defence. Common alternative spellings are provided with cross-references such as "Color: see Colour."
Since 1936, the contents (articles) of Britannica have been revised on a regular schedule, with at least 10% of the articles considered for revision each year. According to one Britannica website, 46% of the articles in the 2007 edition were revised over the preceding three years; however, according to another Britannica website, only 35% of the articles were revised over the same period.
The alphabetization of articles in the Micropædia and Macropædia follows strict rules. Diacritical marks and non-English letters are ignored, while numerical entries such as "1812, War of" are alphabetized as if the number had been written out ("Eighteen-twelve, War of"). Articles with identical names are ordered first by persons, then by places, then by things. Rulers with identical names are organized first alphabetically by country and then by chronology; thus, Charles III of France precedes Charles I of England, listed in Britannica as the ruler of Great Britain and Ireland. (That is, they are alphabetized as if their titles were "Charles, France, 3" and "Charles, Great Britain and Ireland, 1".) Similarly, places that share names are organized alphabetically by country, then by ever-smaller political divisions.
In March 2012, the company announced that the 2010 edition would be the last printed version. This was part of a move by the company to adapt to the times and focus on its future using digital distribution. The peak year for the printed encyclopaedia was 1990, when 120,000 sets were sold, but sales had dropped to 40,000 per annum by 1996. There were 12,000 sets of the 2010 edition printed, of which 8,000 had been sold by March 2012. By late April 2012, the remaining copies of the 2010 edition had sold out at Britannica's online store. As of 2016, a replica of Britannica's 1768 first edition is available via the online store.
== Related printed material ==
Britannica Junior was first published in 1934 as 12 volumes. It was expanded to 15 volumes in 1947, and renamed Britannica Junior Encyclopædia in 1963. It was taken off the market after the 1984 printing.
A British Children's Britannica edited by John Armitage was issued in London in 1960. Its contents were determined largely by the eleven-plus standardized tests given in Britain. Britannica introduced the Children's Britannica to the US market in 1988, aimed at ages seven to 14.
In 1961, a 16-volume Young Children's Encyclopaedia was issued for children just learning to read. My First Britannica is aimed at children ages six to 12, and the Britannica Discovery Library is for children aged three to six (issued 1974 to 1991). Compton's by Britannica, first published in 2007, incorporating the former Compton's Encyclopedia, is aimed at 10- to 17-year-olds and consists of 26 volumes and 11,000 pages.
There have been, and are, several abridged Britannica encyclopaedias. The single-volume Britannica Concise Encyclopædia has 28,000 short articles condensing the larger 32-volume Britannica; there are authorized translations in languages such as Chinese created by Encyclopedia of China Publishing House and Vietnamese.
Since 1938, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. has also published an annual Book of the Year to 'update' the encyclopaedia proper: this covers the past year's events and presents a variety of updated statistics (eg as to national populations, Nobel Prize winners, and the like). A given edition of the Book of the Year is named in terms of the year of its publication, though the volume actually covers the events and statistics of the previous year.
The company also publishes several specialized reference works, such as Shakespeare: The Essential Guide to the Life and Works of the Bard (2006).
== Optical disc, online, and mobile versions ==
The Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite 2012 DVD contains over 100,000 articles. This includes regular Britannica articles, as well as others drawn from the Britannica Student Encyclopædia, and the Britannica Elementary Encyclopædia. The package includes a range of supplementary content including maps, videos, sound clips, animations and web links. It also offers study tools and dictionary and thesaurus entries from Merriam-Webster.
Britannica Online is a website with more than 120,000 articles and is updated regularly. It has daily features, updates and links to news reports from The New York Times and the BBC. As of 2009, roughly 60% of Encyclopædia Britannica's revenue came from online operations, of which around 15% came from subscriptions to the consumer version of the websites. As of 2006, subscriptions were available on a yearly, monthly or weekly basis. Special subscription plans are offered to schools, colleges and libraries; such institutional subscribers constitute an important part of Britannica's business. Beginning in early 2007, the Britannica made articles freely available if they are hyperlinked from an external site. Non-subscribers are served pop-ups and advertising.
On 20 February 2007, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. announced that it was working with mobile phone search company AskMeNow to launch a mobile encyclopaedia. Users would be able to send a question via text message, and AskMeNow would search Britannica's 28,000-article concise encyclopaedia to return an answer to the query. Daily topical features sent directly to users' mobile phones were also planned.
On 3 June 2008, an initiative to facilitate collaboration between online expert and amateur scholarly contributors for Britannica's online content (in the spirit of a wiki), with editorial oversight from Britannica staff, was announced. Approved contributions would be credited, though contributing automatically grants Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. perpetual, irrevocable licence to those contributions.
On 22 January 2009, Britannica's president, Jorge Cauz, announced that the company would be accepting edits and additions to the online Britannica website from the public. The published edition of the encyclopaedia would not be affected by the changes. Individuals wishing to edit the Britannica website would have to register under their real name and address prior to editing or submitting their content. All edits submitted would be reviewed and checked and will have to be approved by the encyclopaedia's professional staff. Contributions from non-academic users would sit in a separate section from the expert-generated Britannica content, as would content submitted by non-Britannica scholars. Articles written by users, if vetted and approved, would also only be available in a special section of the website, separate from the professional articles. Official Britannica material would carry a "Britannica Checked" stamp, to distinguish it from the user-generated content.
On 14 September 2010, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. announced a partnership with mobile phone development company Concentric Sky to launch a series of iPhone products aimed at the K–12 market. On 20 July 2011, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. announced that Concentric Sky had ported the Britannica Kids product line to Intel's Intel Atom-based Netbooks and on 26 October 2011 that it had launched its encyclopaedia as an iPad app. In 2010, Britannica released Britannica ImageQuest, a database of images.
In March 2012, it was announced that the company would cease printing the encyclopaedia set, and that it would focus on its online version.
On 7 June 2018, Britannica released a Google Chrome extension, "Britannica Insights", which shows snippets of information from Britannica Online whenever the user performs a Google Search, in a box to the right of Google's results. Britannica Insights was also available as a Firefox extension but this was taken down due to a code review issue.
== Personnel and management ==
=== Contributors ===
The print version of the Britannica has 4,411 contributors, many eminent in their fields, such as Nobel laureate economist Milton Friedman, astronomer Carl Sagan, and surgeon Michael DeBakey. Roughly a quarter of the contributors are deceased, some as long ago as 1947 (Alfred North Whitehead), while another quarter are retired or emeritus. Most (approximately 98%) contribute to only a single article; however, 64 contributed to three articles, 23 contributed to four articles, 10 contributed to five articles, and 8 contributed to more than five articles. An exceptionally prolific contributor is Christine Sutton of the University of Oxford, who contributed 24 articles on particle physics.
While Britannica's authors have included writers such as Albert Einstein, Marie Curie, and Leon Trotsky, as well as notable independent encyclopaedists such as Isaac Asimov, some have been criticized for lack of expertise. In 1911, the historian George L. Burr wrote:
With a temerity almost appalling, [the Britannica contributor, Mr. Philips] ranges over nearly the whole field of European history, political, social, ecclesiastical... The grievance is that [this work] lacks authority. This, too—this reliance on editorial energy instead of on ripe special learning—may, alas, be also counted an "Americanizing": for certainly nothing has so cheapened the scholarship of our American encyclopaedias.
=== Staff ===
As of 2007, in the 15th edition of Britannica, Dale Hoiberg, a sinologist, was listed as Britannica's Senior Vice President and editor-in-chief. Among his predecessors as editors-in-chief were Hugh Chisholm (1902–1924), James Louis Garvin (1926–1932), Franklin Henry Hooper (1932–1938), Walter Yust (1938–1960), Harry Ashmore (1960–1963), Warren E. Preece (1964–1968, 1969–1975), Sir William Haley (1968–1969), Philip W. Goetz (1979–1991), and Robert McHenry (1992–1997).
As of 2007 Anita Wolff was listed as the Deputy Editor and Theodore Pappas as Executive Editor. Prior Executive Editors include John V. Dodge (1950–1964) and Philip W. Goetz.
Paul T. Armstrong remains the longest working employee of Encyclopædia Britannica. He began his career there in 1934, eventually earning the positions of treasurer, vice president, and chief financial officer in his 58 years with the company, before retiring in 1992.
The 2007 editorial staff of the Britannica included five Senior Editors and nine Associate Editors, supervised by Dale Hoiberg and four others. The editorial staff helped to write the articles of the Micropædia and some sections of the Macropædia.
=== Editorial advisors ===
As of 2012, Britannica had an editorial board of advisors, which included a number of distinguished figures, primarily scholars from a variety of disciplines.
The Propædia and its Outline of Knowledge were produced by dozens of editorial advisors under the direction of Mortimer J. Adler. Roughly half of these advisors have since died, including some of the Outline's chief architects – Rene Dubos (d. 1982), Loren Eiseley (d. 1977), Harold D. Lasswell (d. 1978), Mark Van Doren (d. 1972), Peter Ritchie Calder (d. 1982) and Mortimer J. Adler (d. 2001). The Propædia also lists just under 4,000 advisors who were consulted for the unsigned Micropædia articles.
=== Corporate structure ===
During much of the 20th century, the Britannica had a significant ownership stake from the University of Chicago, with many people associated with the university serving senior positions in the organization.331-332 During the mid-20th century, managers and executives at the Britannica company were lavishly rewarded due to the healthy profit encyclopaedia sales generated, with division managers at the top of the sales organization earning an average salary of $125,000 in 1958 (adjusting for inflation, some $1,362,313 in current USD).329
From 1974, the company was controlled by the Benton Foundation, of which the University of Chicago was the sole beneficiary. In January 1996, the Britannica was purchased from the Benton Foundation by billionaire Swiss financier Jacqui Safra, who serves as its current chair of the board. In 1997, Don Yannias, a long-time associate and investment advisor of Safra, became CEO of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
In 1999, a new subsidiary company, Britannica.com Incorporated, was created to develop digital versions of the Britannica; Yannias assumed the role of CEO in the new company, while his former position at the parent company remained vacant for two years. Yannias' tenure at Britannica.com Incorporated was marked by missteps, considerable lay-offs, and financial losses. In 2001, Yannias was replaced by Ilan Yeshua, who reunited the leadership of the two companies. Yannias later returned to investment management, but remains on Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc's Board of Directors.
In 2003, former management consultant Jorge Aguilar-Cauz was appointed President of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Cauz is the senior executive and reports directly to the Britannica's Board of Directors. Cauz has been pursuing alliances with other companies and extending the Britannica brand to new educational and reference products, continuing the strategy pioneered by former CEO Elkan Harrison Powell in the mid-1930s.
=== Sales and marketing ===
Although prior to 1920 the Britannica was primarily sold by mail-order, after that time the Britannica was almost exclusively sold by door-to-door salesmen, who often used high-pressure sales tactics or outright deception in order to secure purchases of the expensive work,317-330 from which they gained a significant commission. This commission in the United States in 1971 was $120–200 (around $932-$1553 adjusted for inflation) per sale. These high-pressure sales tactics resulted in high levels of turnover among Britannica salesmen, with the company often exaggerating the ease of making a sale to employees, as well as engaging in deceptive job advertising in order to entice people to become salesmen.317-330 The Britannica was sued several times by the American Federal Trade Commission for deceptive practices.317-330 These practices were common among American encyclopaedia companies.317-330 The development of the significant sales force began in 1932, with most senior leadership of the company by the late 20th century coming from the sales division.
While early on the Britannica was marketed to adults and in particular during the 19th and early 20th centuries, to an elite educated audience,152-153 by the mid 20th century, the Britannica (as well as other American encyclopaedias) were primarily marketed to middle-class parents who wished to seek a good education for their children, despite the text not being aimed at a child's reading level.317-330 During the 20th century, the Britannica differentiated itself from other encyclopaedias by using its long pedigree to present itself as a premium brand. Once the encyclopaedia was purchased, it was typically only opened a few times a year by an average owner.
== Competition ==
As the Britannica is a general encyclopaedia, it does not seek to compete with specialized encyclopaedias such as the Encyclopaedia of Mathematics or the Dictionary of the Middle Ages, which can devote much more space to their chosen topics. In its first years, the Britannica's main competitor was the general encyclopaedia of Ephraim Chambers and, soon thereafter, Rees's Cyclopædia and Coleridge's Encyclopædia Metropolitana. In the 20th century, successful competitors included Collier's Encyclopedia, the Encyclopedia Americana, and the World Book Encyclopedia. Nevertheless, from the 9th edition onwards, the Britannica was widely considered to have the greatest authority of any general English-language encyclopaedia, especially because of its broad coverage and eminent authors. The print version of the Britannica was also thus significantly more expensive than its competitors.
Since the early 1990s, the Britannica has faced new challenges from digital information sources. The Internet, facilitated by the development of search engines, has grown into a common source of information for many people, and provides easy access to reliable original sources and expert opinions, thanks in part to initiatives such as Google Books, MIT's release of its educational materials and the open PubMed Central library of the National Library of Medicine.
The Internet tends to provide more current coverage than print media, due to the ease with which material on the Internet can be updated and then made available to users. In rapidly changing fields such as science, technology, politics, culture and modern history, the Britannica has struggled to stay up to date, a problem first analysed systematically by its former editor Walter Yust. Eventually, the Britannica turned to focus more on its online edition.
=== Print encyclopaedias ===
The Encyclopædia Britannica has been compared with other print encyclopaedias, both qualitatively and quantitatively. A well-known comparison is that of Kenneth Kister, who gave a qualitative and quantitative comparison of the 1993 Britannica with two comparable encyclopaedias, Collier's Encyclopedia and the Encyclopedia Americana. For the quantitative analysis, ten articles were selected at random—circumcision, Charles Drew, Galileo, Philip Glass, heart disease, IQ, panda bear, sexual harassment, Shroud of Turin and Uzbekistan—and letter grades of A–D or F were awarded in four categories: coverage, accuracy, clarity, and recency. In all four categories and for all three encyclopaedias, the four average grades fell between B− and B+, chiefly because none of the encyclopaedias had an article on sexual harassment in 1994. In the accuracy category, the Britannica received one "D" and seven "A"s, Encyclopedia Americana received eight "A"s, and Collier's received one "D" and seven "A"s; thus, Britannica received an average score of 92% for accuracy to Americana's 95% and Collier's 92%. In the timeliness category, Britannica averaged an 86% to Americana's 90% and Collier's 85%.
=== Digital encyclopaedias on optical media ===
The most notable competitor of the Britannica among CD/DVD-ROM digital encyclopaedias was Encarta, now discontinued, a modern multimedia encyclopaedia that incorporated three print encyclopaedias: Funk & Wagnalls, Collier's, and the New Merit Scholar's Encyclopedia. Encarta was the top-selling multimedia encyclopaedia, based on total US retail sales from January 2000 to February 2006. Both occupied the same price range, with the 2007 Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate CD or DVD costing US$40–50 and the Microsoft Encarta Premium 2007 DVD costing US$45.
The Britannica disc contains 100,000 articles and Merriam-Webster's Dictionary and Thesaurus (US only) and offers primary and secondary school editions. Encarta contained 66,000 articles, a user-friendly Visual Browser, interactive maps, math, language, and homework tools, a US and UK dictionary, and a youth edition. Like Encarta, the digital Britannica has been criticized for being biased towards United States audiences; the United Kingdom-related articles are updated less often, maps of the United States are more detailed than those of other countries, and it lacks a UK dictionary. Like the Britannica, Encarta was available online by subscription, although some content could be accessed for free.
=== Wikipedia ===
The main online alternative to Britannica is Wikipedia. The key differences between the two lie in accessibility; the model of participation they bring to an encyclopaedic project; their respective style sheets and editorial policies; relative ages; the number of subjects treated; the number of languages in which articles are written and made available; and their underlying economic models: unlike Britannica, Wikipedia is not-for-profit, does not carry advertising on its site, and is not connected with traditional profit- and contract-based publishing distribution networks.
Britannica's articles either have known authorship or a set of possible authors (the editorial staff). With the exception of the editorial staff, most Britannica's contributors are experts in their field—some are Nobel laureates. By contrast, the articles on Wikipedia are written by people of unknown degrees of expertise; most do not claim any particular expertise, and of those who do, many are anonymous and have no verifiable credentials. It is for this lack of institutional vetting or certification that former Britannica editor-in-chief Robert McHenry noted his belief in 2004 that Wikipedia could not hope to rival the Britannica in accuracy.
In 2005, the journal Nature chose articles from both websites in a wide range of science topics and sent them to what it called "relevant" field experts for peer review. The experts then compared the competing articles—one from each site on a given topic—side by side, but were not told which article came from which site. Nature got back 42 usable reviews. The journal found just eight serious errors, such as general misunderstandings of vital concepts: four from each site. It also discovered many factual errors, omissions or misleading statements: 162 in Wikipedia and 123 in Britannica, an average of 3.86 mistakes per article for Wikipedia and 2.92 for Britannica.
Although Britannica was revealed as the more accurate encyclopaedia, with fewer errors, in its rebuttal, it called Nature's study flawed and misleading and called for a "prompt" retraction. It noted that two of the articles in the study were taken from a Britannica yearbook and not the encyclopaedia, and another two were from Compton's Encyclopedia (called the Britannica Student Encyclopedia on the company's website).
Nature defended its story and declined to retract, stating that, as it was comparing Wikipedia with the web version of Britannica, it used whatever relevant material was available on Britannica's website. Interviewed in February 2009, the managing director of Britannica UK said: Wikipedia is a fun site to use and has a lot of interesting entries on there, but their approach wouldn't work for Encyclopædia Britannica. My job is to create more awareness of our very different approaches to publishing in the public mind. They're a chisel, we're a drill, and you need to have the correct tool for the job.
For the 15th anniversary of Wikipedia, the Telegraph published two opinion pieces which compared Wikipedia to Britannica and falsely claimed that Britannica had gone bankrupt in 1996. In a January 2016 press release, Britannica responded by calling Wikipedia "an impressive achievement" but argued that critics should avoid "false comparisons" to Britannica in terms of differing models and purposes.
== Critical and popular assessments ==
=== Reputation ===
Since the 3rd edition, the Britannica has enjoyed a popular and critical reputation for general excellence, though this reputation has not been without its critics. The 3rd and 9th editions were pirated for sale in the United States, beginning with Dobson's Encyclopædia. On the release of the 14th edition, Time magazine dubbed the Britannica the "Patriarch of the Library". In a related advertisement, naturalist William Beebe was quoted as saying that the Britannica was "beyond comparison because there is no competitor". References to the Britannica can be found throughout English literature, most notably in one of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's favourite Sherlock Holmes stories, "The Red-Headed League". The tale was highlighted by the Lord Mayor of London, Gilbert Inglefield, at the bicentennial of the Britannica.
The Britannica has a reputation for summarizing knowledge. To further their education, some people have devoted themselves to reading the entire Britannica, taking anywhere from three to 22 years to do so. When Fat'h Ali became the Shah of Persia in 1797, he was given a set of the Britannica's 3rd edition; after reading the complete set, he extended his royal title to include "Most Formidable Lord and Master of the Encyclopædia Britannica".
Writer George Bernard Shaw has claimed to have read the complete 9th edition, except for the science articles; Richard Evelyn Byrd took the Britannica as reading material for his five-month stay at the South Pole in 1934; and Philip Beaver read it during a sailing expedition. More recently, A. J. Jacobs, an editor at Esquire magazine, read the entire 2002 version of the 15th edition, describing his experiences in the well-received 2004 book The Know-It-All: One Man's Humble Quest to Become the Smartest Person in the World. Only two people are known to have read two independent editions: the author C. S. Forester and Amos Urban Shirk, an American businessman who read the 11th and 14th editions, devoting roughly three hours per night for four and a half years to read the 11th.
=== Awards ===
The CD/DVD-ROM version of the Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite, received the 2004 Distinguished Achievement Award from the Association of Educational Publishers. On 15 July 2009, Encyclopædia Britannica was awarded a spot as one of "Top Ten Superbrands in the UK" by a panel of more than 2,000 independent reviewers, as reported by the BBC.
=== Coverage of topics ===
Topics are chosen in part by reference to the Propædia "Outline of Knowledge". The bulk of the 15th edition of the Britannica is devoted to geography (26% of the Macropædia), biography (14%), biology and medicine (11%), literature (7%), physics and astronomy (6%), religion (5%), art (4%), Western philosophy (4%), and law (3%). A complementary study of the Micropædia found that geography accounted for 25% of articles, science 18%, social sciences 17%, biography 17%, and all other humanities 25%. Writing in 1992, one reviewer judged that the "range, depth, and catholicity of coverage [of the Britannica] are unsurpassed by any other general Encyclopaedia."
The Britannica does not cover topics in equal detail; for example, the whole of Buddhism and most other religions is covered in a single Macropædia article, whereas 14 articles are devoted to Christianity, comprising nearly half of all religion articles. The Britannica covers 50,479 biographies, 5,999 of them about women, with 11.87% being British citizens and 25.51% US citizens. However, the Britannica has been lauded as the least biased of general Encyclopaedias marketed to Western readers and praised for its biographies of important women of all eras.
It can be stated without fear of contradiction that the 15th edition of the Britannica accords non-Western cultural, social, and scientific developments more notice than any general English-language encyclopedia currently on the market.
=== Criticism of editorial decisions ===
Harvey Einbinder in the Myth of the Britannica criticized the 11th edition for the inaccessibility of the text for laymen, saying that many of its articles were too technical for people unfamiliar to the subject to understand.152-153 He made similar criticisms of many of the mathematics and science articles of the then-current 14th edition.236-250
On rare occasions, the Britannica has been criticized for its editorial choices. Given its roughly constant size, the encyclopaedia has needed to reduce or eliminate some topics to accommodate others, resulting in controversial decisions. The initial 15th edition (1974–1985) was faulted for having reduced or eliminated coverage of children's literature, military decorations, and the French poet Joachim du Bellay; editorial mistakes were also alleged, such as inconsistent sorting of Japanese biographies. Its elimination of the index was condemned, as was the apparently arbitrary division of articles into the Micropædia and Macropædia. Summing up, one critic called the initial 15th edition a "qualified failure ... [that] cares more for juggling its format than for preserving." More recently, reviewers from the American Library Association were surprised to find that most educational articles had been eliminated from the 1992 Macropædia, along with the article on psychology. Harvey Einbinder in The Myth of the Britannica criticized the practice of condensing entries in the 14th edition, which usually involved simply removing large amounts of the text rather than attempting to condense it by rewriting, resulting in what he considered to be considerable reduction in the quality of the articles.151-168
Some very few Britannica-appointed contributors are mistaken. A notorious instance from the Britannica's early years is the rejection of Newtonian gravity by George Gleig, the chief editor of the 3rd edition (1788–1797), who wrote that gravity was caused by the classical element of fire. The Britannica has also staunchly defended a scientific approach to cultural topics, as it did with William Robertson Smith's articles on religion in the 9th edition, particularly his article stating that the Bible was not historically accurate (1875).
=== Other criticisms ===
The Britannica has received criticism, particularly as editions become outdated. It is expensive to produce a completely new edition of the Britannica, and its editors delay for as long as fiscally sensible (usually about 25 years).
For example, despite continuous revision, the 14th edition became outdated after 35 years (1929–1964). When American physicist Harvey Einbinder detailed its failings in his 1964 book, The Myth of the Britannica, the encyclopaedia was provoked to produce the 15th edition, which required 10 years of work. Editors have struggled at times to keep the Britannica current: one 1994 critic writes, "It is not difficult to find articles that are out-of-date or in need of revision", noting that the longer Macropædia articles are more likely to be outdated than the shorter Micropædia articles. Information in the Micropædia is sometimes inconsistent with the corresponding Macropædia article(s), mainly because of the failure to update one or the other. The bibliographies of the Macropædia articles have been criticized for being more out-of-date than the articles themselves.
In 2005, a 12-year-old schoolboy in Britain found several inaccuracies in the Britannica's entries on Poland and wildlife in Eastern Europe. In 2010, an entry about the Irish Civil War, which incorrectly described it as having been fought between the north and south of Ireland, was discussed in the Irish press following a decision by the Department of Education and Science to pay for online access.
Writing about the 3rd edition (1788–1797), Britannica's chief editor George Gleig observed that "perfection seems to be incompatible with the nature of works constructed on such a plan and embracing such a variety of subjects." In March 2006, the Britannica wrote, "we in no way mean to imply that Britannica is error-free; we have never made such a claim". However, the Britannica sales department had previously made a well-known claim in 1962 regarding the 14th edition that "[i]t is truth. It is unquestionable fact." The sentiment of the 2006 statement was also reflected in the introduction to the first edition of the Britannica, written by its original editor William Smellie:
With regard to errors in general, whether falling under the denomination of mental, typographical or accidental, we are conscious of being able to point out a greater number than any critic whatever. Men who are acquainted with the innumerable difficulties attending the execution of a work of such an extensive nature will make proper allowances. To these we appeal, and shall rest satisfied with the judgment they pronounce.
== Edition summary ==
== See also ==
Encyclopædia Britannica Films
Great Books of the Western World
List of encyclopedias by branch of knowledge
List of encyclopedias by date
List of encyclopedias by language § English
List of online encyclopedias
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
== External links ==
Official website
Works by or about Encyclopædia Britannica at the Internet Archive
Works by Encyclopædia Britannica at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
Encyclopaedia Britannica at the National Library of Scotland, first ten editions (and supplements) in PDF format.
Encyclopaedia Britannica at the Online Books Page, hosted by the library of University of Pennsylvania, currently including the 1st–13th editions in multiple formats.
3rd edition, (1797, first volume, use search facility for others) at Bavarian State Library
7th edition (1842) coloured scan via HathiTrust
8th edition (1860, index volume, use search facility for others) at Bavarian State Library
9th Edition (1878), published by Charles Scribner's Sons on the Internet Archive
9th and 10th (1902) editions; Archived 22 November 2018 at the Wayback Machine on 1902Encyclopedia.com
The Reader's Guide to the Encyclopaedia Britannica (1913) on Project Gutenberg—A handbook containing sixty-six courses of systematic study or occasional reading. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raylene_Keightley | Raylene Keightley | Raylene May Keightley (born 19 November 1961) is a South African judge of the Supreme Court of Appeal. She was appointed to the bench in the Gauteng High Court in January 2016 after a career as a legal academic and practising lawyer. She was admitted as an attorney in 1986 and as an advocate in 2006.
Born in the Eastern Cape, Keightley began her career at the University of Cape Town and University of the Witwatersrand, where she taught law between 1988 and 1999. Thereafter she spent seven years at the Asset Forfeiture Unit of the National Prosecuting Authority. From 2006 to 2015, she practised law at the Johannesburg Bar, with a stint as the director of the Centre for Applied Legal Studies between 2008 and 2011. She was appointed to the bench by President Jacob Zuma in 2016 and was elevated to the Supreme Court by President Cyril Ramaphosa in 2024.
== Early life and education ==
Keightley was born on 19 November 1961 in Kokstad in the former Cape Province. She matriculated at Umtata High School in Mthatha and went on to the University of Natal, where she completed a BA and LLB in 1984. Between 1987 and 1988, she completed an LLM at the University of Cambridge, winning Gonville and Caius College's Sir William McNair Prize for the best LLM student.
== Legal and academic career ==
From 1985 to 1986, between her LLB and her LLM, Keightley was a candidate attorney at the firm of Balsillie, Watermeyer and Cawood in Cape Town; she was admitted as an attorney in 1986. Upon her return to South Africa from Cambridge in 1988, she joined the law faculty at the University of Cape Town, where she taught until 1995, first as a lecturer and then, from 1991, as a senior lecturer. In 1996, she moved to Johannesburg, becoming a senior lecturer at the University of the Witwatersrand's School of Law. She was promoted to professor in 1999 and also served as an assistant dean in that year.
Thereafter, however, Keightley returned to legal practice. Between 1999 and 2001, she was senior state advocate in the Asset Forfeiture Unit of the National Prosecuting Authority. In 2001, she was admitted as an advocate of the High Court of South Africa and was promoted to the position of deputy director of Public Prosecutions in the Asset Forfeiture Unit. She left that job in 2003 to become the unit's regional head in Johannesburg.
In July 2006, Keightley left the National Prosecuting Authority to serve her pupillage at the Johannesburg Bar. Between 2006 and 2015, she was a practising advocate at the bar, first at the Island Group of Advocates and then at Thulamela Chambers. At the same time, from 2008 to 2011, she returned to the University of the Witwatersrand to serve as the director of the university's Centre for Applied Legal Studies. She also served on several occasions as an acting judge in the Gauteng Division of the High Court; she served on the bench, both in Johannesburg and in Pretoria, for four periods between October 2013 and August 2015.
== Gauteng High Court: 2015–2024 ==
In October 2015, the Judicial Service Commission shortlisted and interviewed Keightley for one of six permanent vacancies in the Gauteng High Court. The commission recommended her for appointment after the interviews were held, and in December, President Jacob Zuma confirmed her appointment with effect from 1 January 2016.
The following year, in October 2017, Keightley handed down a landmark ruling on the unconstitutionality of corporal punishment by parents, finding that neither religious defences nor the common-law defence of "reasonable chastisement" sufficed to overrule the best interests of the child and justify corporal punishment. Her ruling was upheld by the Constitutional Court in September 2019 in Freedom of Religion South Africa v Minister of Justice and Constitutional Development. Other notable rulings by Keightley include a July 2019 ruling which prohibited the application of set-off to credit agreements under the National Credit Act, as well as an October 2022 ruling which reinstated Mpho Phalatse as the Mayor of Johannesburg following an unconstitutional vote of no confidence.
Keightley was an acting judge in the Supreme Court of Appeal for two terms between July 2023 and March 2024. During that time, the court heard an appeal of an Equality Court decision which found that it was not hate speech for the Economic Freedom Fighters to sing 'Dubul' ibhunu’ (“Kill the Boer”). Ahead of the appeal, the appellant, political lobby group AfriForum, lodged a formal request that Keightley should recuse herself from the matter. According to AfriForum, Keightley had "demonstrated bias" against it in 2018, when Keightley, presiding in a previous unrelated High Court dispute, said that AfriForum was “barking up the wrong tree” and even suggested to counsel that “next time you in front of me with [AfriForum] you might to wish to apply for my recusal”.The application for recusal was refused.
== Supreme Court of Appeal: 2024–present ==
In May 2024, the Judicial Service Commission recommended Keightley for permanent elevation to the Supreme Court of Appeal. After her appointment was confirmed by President Cyril Ramaphosa, she joined the bench on 1 July 2024.
== Personal life ==
Keightley is married to prominent advocate and former acting justice of the Constitutional Court, Alan Dodson SC, with whom she has three sons.
== References ==
== External links ==
Raylene May Keightley at Supreme Court of Appeal
R. M. Keightley at Judges Matter
Interview with Womanity |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Ramsay#:~:text=William%20Ramsay%20formed%20pyridine%20in,synthesis%20of%20a%20heteroaromatic%20compound. | William Ramsay | Sir William Ramsay (; 2 October 1852 – 23 July 1916) was a Scottish chemist who discovered the noble gases and received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1904 "in recognition of his services in the discovery of the inert gaseous elements in air" along with his collaborator, John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh, who received the Nobel Prize in Physics that same year for their discovery of argon. After the two men identified argon, Ramsay investigated other atmospheric gases. His work in isolating argon, helium, neon, krypton, and xenon led to the development of a new section of the periodic table.
== Early life ==
Ramsay was born at 2 Clifton Street in Glasgow on 2 October 1852, the son of civil engineer and surveyor, William C. Ramsay, and his wife, Catherine Robertson. The family lived at 2 Clifton Street in the city centre, a three-storey and basement Georgian townhouse. The family moved to 1 Oakvale Place in the Hillhead district in his youth. He was a nephew of the geologist Sir Andrew Ramsay.
He was educated at Glasgow Academy and then apprenticed to Robert Napier, a shipbuilder in Govan. However, he instead decided to study Chemistry at the University of Glasgow, matriculating in 1866 and graduating in 1869. He then undertook practical training with the chemist Thomas Anderson and then went to study in Germany at the University of Tübingen with Wilhelm Rudolph Fittig where his doctoral thesis was entitled Investigations in the Toluic and Nitrotoluic Acids.
Ramsay went back to Glasgow as Anderson's assistant at Anderson College. He was appointed as Professor of Chemistry at the University College of Bristol in 1879 and married Margaret Buchanan in 1881. In the same year he became the Principal of University College, Bristol, and somehow managed to combine that with active research both in organic chemistry and on gases.
== Career ==
William Ramsay formed pyridine in 1876 from acetylene and hydrogen cyanide in an iron-tube furnace in what was the first synthesis of a heteroaromatic compound. In 1887, he succeeded Alexander Williamson as the chair of Chemistry at University College London (UCL). It was here at UCL that his most celebrated discoveries were made. As early as 1885–1890, he published several notable papers on the oxides of nitrogen, developing the skills that he needed for his subsequent work. On the evening of 19 April 1894, Ramsay attended a lecture given by Lord Rayleigh. Rayleigh had noticed a discrepancy between the density of nitrogen made by chemical synthesis and nitrogen isolated from the air by removal of the other known components. After a short conversation, he and Ramsay decided to investigate this. In August Ramsay told Rayleigh he had isolated a new, heavy component of air, which did not appear to have any chemical reactivity. He named this inert gas "argon", from the Greek word meaning "lazy". In the following years, working with Morris Travers, he discovered neon, krypton, and xenon. He also isolated helium, which had only been observed in the spectrum of the sun, and had not previously been found on earth. In 1910 he isolated and characterised radon.
During 1893–1902, Ramsay collaborated with Emily Aston, a British chemist, in experiments on mineral analysis and atomic weight determination. Their work included publications on the molecular surface energies of mixtures of non-associating liquids.
Ramsay was elected an International Member of the American Philosophical Society in 1899.
He was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (KCB) in the 1902 Coronation Honours list published on 26 June 1902, and invested as such by King Edward VII at Buckingham Palace on 24 October 1902.
In 1904, Ramsay received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
That same year, he was elected an International Member of the United States National Academy of Sciences. Ramsay's standing among scientists led him to become an adviser to the Indian Institute of Science. He suggested Bangalore as the location for the institute.
Ramsay endorsed the Industrial and Engineering Trust Ltd., a company that claimed it could extract gold from seawater, in 1905. It bought property on the English coast to begin its secret process. The company never produced any gold.
Ramsay was the president of the British Association in 1911–1912.
== Personal life ==
In 1881, Ramsay was married to Margaret Johnstone Marshall (née Buchanan), daughter of George Stevenson Buchanan. They had a daughter, Catherine Elizabeth (Elska) and a son, William George, who died at 40.
Ramsay lived in Hazlemere, Buckinghamshire, until his death. He died in High Wycombe, Buckinghamshire, on 23 July 1916 from nasal cancer at the age of 63 and was buried in Hazlemere parish church.
== Legacy ==
A blue plaque at number 12 Arundel Gardens, Notting Hill, commemorates his life and work.
The Sir William Ramsay School in Hazlemere and Ramsay grease are named after him.
There is a memorial to him by Charles Hartwell in the north aisle of the choir at Westminster Abbey.
In 1923, University College London named its new Chemical Engineering department and seat after Ramsay, which had been funded by the Ramsay Memorial Fund. One of Ramsay's former graduates, H. E. Watson was the third Ramsay professor of chemical engineering.
On 2 October 2019, Google celebrated his 167th birthday with a Google Doodle.
== See also ==
Clan Ramsay
== References ==
Secondary sources
Morris Travers (1956). The Life of Sir William Ramsay. London: Arnold. ISBN 978-0-7131-2164-3. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
John Meurig Thomas (2004). "Argon and the Non-Inert Pair: Rayleigh and Ramsay". Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 43 (47): 6418–6424. Bibcode:2004ACIE...43.6418T. doi:10.1002/anie.200461824. PMID 15578783.
Lord Rayleigh; William Ramsay (1894–1895). "Argon, a New Constituent of the Atmosphere". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. 57 (1): 265–287. doi:10.1098/rspl.1894.0149. JSTOR 115394.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Theodore W. Richards (1917). "Sir William Ramsay, K. C. B.". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 56 (1): iii–viii3. JSTOR 983962.
== External links ==
William Ramsay on Nobelprize.org including the Nobel Lecture 12 December 1904 The Rare Gases of the Atmosphere from Nobelprize.org website
The Gases of the Atmosphere at Project Gutenberg
The Gases of the Atmosphere at the Internet Archive
Sir William Ramsay School Archived 4 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine
Ramsay biography at the Wayback Machine (archived 11 January 2006)
Eponymous school Archived 4 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine
Web genealogy article on Ramsay
Chemical genealogy
victorianweb biography
chemeducator biography
7/23/1904;This Photograph of Sir William Ramsay Was Taken in His Laboratory Specially for the Scientific American
Works by or about William Ramsay at the Internet Archive
Works by William Ramsay at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1992_Ghanaian_presidential_election | 1992 Ghanaian presidential election | Presidential elections were held in Ghana on 3 November 1992. They were the first contested elections held in the country since 1979, and only the fourth contested elections of any sort since the country gained independence in 1957.
Jerry Rawlings, who had led the country since taking power in a 1981 coup, had grudgingly agreed to hold multiparty elections earlier in the year. Rawlings ran as the candidate of the Progressive Alliance, which included his National Democratic Congress, and won 58.4% of the vote, enough to win without the need for a runoff. Voter turnout was 50.2%.
The opposition accused Rawlings and his supporters of engaging in massive fraud, including ballot-box stuffing and altering results after they were certified. Nonetheless, international observers pronounced the elections free and fair.
== Results ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Dickson_White | Andrew Dickson White | Andrew Dickson White (November 7, 1832 – November 4, 1918) was an American historian and educator who co-founded Cornell University, one of eight Ivy League universities in the United States, and served as its first president for nearly two decades. He was known for expanding the scope of college curricula. A politician, he had served as New York state senator and was later appointed as U.S. ambassador to Germany and Russia.
He was one of the founders of the conflict thesis, which states that science and religion have historically been in conflict, and tried to prove it over the course of approximately 800 pages in his History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom.
== Early life and education ==
White was born on November 7, 1832, in Homer, New York, to Clara (née Dickson) and Horace White. Clara was the daughter of Andrew Dickson, a New York State Representative in 1832 and his wife. Horace was the son of Asa White, a farmer from Massachusetts, and his wife. Their once-successful farm was ruined by a fire when Horace was 13.
Despite little formal education and struggles with poverty after his family lost their farm, Horace White became a businessman and wealthy merchant. In 1839, he opened what became Syracuse Savings Bank in Syracuse. Horace and Clara White had two children: Andrew Dickson and his brother. Andrew was baptized in 1835 at the Calvary Episcopal Church on the town green in Homer.
One of Andrew's cousins, Edwin White, became an artist of the Luminism style and Hudson River School. His nephew was Horace White, governor of New York.
Beginning in the fall of 1849, White enrolled as an undergraduate at Geneva College, known today as Hobart and William Smith Colleges, at the insistence of his father. He was inducted as a member of Sigma Phi Society in 1850 and he served as editor of the fraternity's publication, The Flame. White remained active in the fraternity for the rest of his life, founding the Cornell chapter and serving as the national president from 1913 to 1915. In his autobiography, he recalled that he had felt that his time at Geneva was "wasted" by being at the small Episcopalian school instead of at "one of the larger New England universities". White dropped out in 1850.
After a period of estrangement, White persuaded his father to let him transfer to Yale College. At Yale, White was a classmate of Daniel Coit Gilman, who later served as the first president of Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore. The two were members of the Skull and Bones secret society and would remain close friends. They traveled together in Europe after graduation and served together on the Venezuela Boundary Commission (1895–1896). His roommate was Thomas Frederick Davies Sr., who later became the third bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of Michigan, 1889–1905. Other members of White's graduating year included Edmund Clarence Stedman, the poet and essayist; Wayne MacVeagh, Attorney General of the United States and U.S. Ambassador to Italy; and Hiram Bingham II, the missionary, collectively comprising the so-called "famous class of '53." According to White, he was deeply influenced in his academic career and life by Professor Noah Porter (later, Yale's president), who personally instructed him in rhetoric and remained a close personal friend until Porter's death.
He also served as an editor of The Lit., known today as the Yale Literary Magazine. He belonged to Linonia, a literary and debating society. As a junior, White won the Yale literary prize for the best essay, writing on the topic "The Greater Distinctions in Statesmanship;" this was a surprise as traditionally a senior was chosen for the winning essay. Also as a junior, White joined the junior society Psi Upsilon. In his senior year, White won the Clark Prize for English disputation and the De Forest prize for public oratory, speaking on the topic "The Diplomatic History of Modern Times". Valued at $100, the De Forest prize was then the largest prize of its kind at any educational institution, American or otherwise. In addition to academic pursuits, White was on the Yale crew team, and competed in the first Harvard–Yale Regatta in 1852.
After graduation, White traveled and studied in Europe with his classmate Daniel Coit Gilman. Between 1853 and 1854, he studied at the Sorbonne, the Collège de France, and the University of Berlin. He also served as the translator for Thomas H. Seymour, the U.S. Ambassador to Russia, following Gilman's term as translator, although he had not studied French (the language of diplomacy and the Russian royal court) prior to his studies in Europe. After he returned the United States, White enrolled at Yale to earn a MA and be inducted into Phi Beta Kappa in 1856.
== Career ==
=== Academia ===
In October 1858, White accepted a position as a professor of History and English literature at the University of Michigan, where he remained on faculty until 1863. White made his lasting mark on the grounds of the university by enrolling students to plant elms along the walkways on The Diag. Between 1862 and 1863, he traveled to Europe to lobby France and Britain to assist the United States in the American Civil War or at least not to aid the Confederate States.
=== Founding of Cornell University ===
In 1863, White returned to reside in Syracuse for business reasons. In November, he was elected to the New York State Senate on the Union Party ticket. In the Senate, White met the fellow upstate Senator Ezra Cornell, a self-taught Quaker farmer from Ithaca who had made a modest fortune in the telegraph industry. Around then, the senators were called on to decide how best to use the higher education funding provided by the Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act, which allocated timberland in the Midwest, which states could sell as they saw fit. Through effective management by Cornell, New York, generated about $2.5 million (equivalent to $64 million in today dollars) from its allotted scrip, a greater yield per acre than any state except perhaps California. The senators initially wanted to divvy the funds among the numerous small state colleges of their districts. White fervently argued that the money would be more effectively used if it endowed only one university. Ezra Cornell agreed and told White, "I have about half a million dollars more than my family will need: what is the best thing I can do with it for the State?" White immediately replied, "The best thing you can do with it is to establish or strengthen some institution of higher learning." The two thus combined their efforts to form a new university.
White pressed for the university to be located on the hill in Syracuse, the current location of Syracuse University, because of the city's transportation hub. That could help attract faculty, students, and other persons of note. However, as a young carpenter working in Syracuse, Cornell had been robbed of his wages, and insisted for the university to be in his hometown of Ithaca. He proposed to donate land on his large farm on East Hill, overlooking the town and Cayuga Lake. White convinced Cornell to give his name to the university "in accordance with [the] time-honored American usage" of naming universities after their largest initial benefactors. On February 7, 1865, White introduced a bill "to establish the Cornell University" and, on April 27, 1865, after months of debate, Governor Reuben E. Fenton signed into law the bill endowing Cornell University as the state's land-grant institution.In 1865, White also authored "...The Negro's Right to Citizenship - a very detailed legal, ethical and logical argument for citizenship for the Negro." A staunch abolitionist, White was also the author of "abolition of Slavery the Right of Government under the War Powers Act" as well as several other legal arguments in favor of the Negro."
White became the school's first president and served as a professor in the Department of History. He commissioned Cornell's first architecture student, William Henry Miller, to build his president's mansion on campus.
White was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1869 and American Antiquarian Society in 1884.
In 1891, Leland and Jane Stanford asked White to serve as the first president of Stanford University, which they had founded in Palo Alto, California. Although he refused, he recommended his former student David Starr Jordan.
=== Conflict thesis ===
At the time of Cornell's founding, White announced that it would be "an asylum for Science—where truth shall be sought for truth's sake, not stretched or cut exactly to fit Revealed Religion." Until then, most of America's private universities had been founded as religious institutions and generally were focused on the liberal arts and religious training.
In 1869, White gave a lecture on "The Battle-Fields of Science" in which he argued that history showed the negative outcomes resulting from any attempt on the part of religion to interfere with the progress of science. Over the next 30 years, he refined his analysis, expanding his case studies to include nearly every field of science over the entire history of Christianity but also narrowing his target from "religion" through "ecclesiasticism" to "dogmatic theology."
The final result was the two-volume A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom (1896) in which he asserted the conflict thesis of science being against dogmatic theology. Initially less popular than John William Draper's History of the Conflict between Religion and Science (1874), White's book became an influential text in the 19th century on the relationship between religion and science. White's conflict thesis has been widely rejected among contemporary historians of science. The warfare depiction remains a popular view among critics of religion.
=== Diplomat ===
While at Cornell, in 1871, he took leave to serve as a Commissioner to Santo Domingo, along with Benjamin Wade and Samuel Howe, at the request of President Ulysses Grant to determine the feasibility of an American annexation of the Dominican Republic. Their report (available here) supported the annexation, but Grant was unable to gain sufficient political support to take further action.
Later, White was appointed as the American ambassador to Germany (1879–1881). After returning to the United States, he was elected as the first president of the American Historical Association (1884–1886). Upstate New York Republicans nominated him for governor in 1876 and for Congress in 1886, but he did not win either primary.
Following his resignation in 1885 as Cornell's president, White served as the minister to Russia (1892–1894), president of the American delegation to The Hague Peace Conference (1899), and again as ambassador to Germany (1897–1902).
In 1904, White published his Autobiography, which he had written while he was relaxing in Italy after his retirement from the Department of State with the change in administrations. Cornell's third president, Jacob Gould Schurman, was appointed as ambassador to Germany from 1925 to 1929.
At the onset of World War I, White supported the German cause within Europe because he had strong professional and emotional ties to Germany. By the summer of 1915, he retreated from this position and refrained from offering any support either publicly or privately. In the fall of 1916, President Woodrow Wilson appointed White to a peace commission to prepare a treaty with China. As of December 1916, White had reduced some of his obligations, resigning from the Smithsonian Board of Regents and the trustees of the Carnegie Institution.
=== Bibliophile ===
Over the course of his career, White amassed a sizable book collection. His library included an extensive section on architecture, which then represented the largest architecture library in the United States. He donated all 4,000 books to the Cornell University Library for the purpose of teaching architecture as well as the remainder of his 30,000-book collection.
In 1879, White enlisted George Lincoln Burr, a former undergraduate assistant for one of his seminars, to manage the rare books collection. Though Burr would later hold other positions at the university, such as Professor of History, he remained White's collaborator and head of this collection until 1922 by traveling over Europe, locating and amassing books that White wanted. In particular, he built the collections on the Reformation, witchcraft, and the French Revolution. Today, White's collection is housed primarily in the Cornell Archives and in the Andrew Dickson White Reading Room (formally known as the "President White Library of History and Political Science") at Uris Library on the Ithaca Campus. The A.D. White Reading Room was designed by William Henry Miller, who had also designed White's mansion on campus.
While serving in Russia, White made the acquaintance of author Leo Tolstoy. Tolstoy's fascination with Mormonism sparked a similar interest in White, who had previously regarded the Latter-Day Saints (LDS) as a dangerous cult. Upon his return to the United States, White took advantage of Cornell's proximity to the religion's birthplace in Palmyra to amass a collection of LDS memorabilia (including many original copies of the Book of Mormon); it is unmatched by any other institution outside the church itself and its flagship Brigham Young University.
== Personal life ==
White married twice. His first marriage, on September 27, 1857, was to Mary Amanda Outwater (February 10, 1836 – June 8, 1887), daughter of Peter Outwater and Lucia M. Phillips of Syracuse. Mary's maternal grandmother Amanda Danforth, daughter of Asa Danforth Jr. and wife of Elijah Phillips Jr., was the first white child born in what would become Onondaga County, New York. Her great-grandfathers included General Asa Danforth, an early pioneer of upstate New York and leader of the State Militia, as well as Elijah Philips Sr., who had responded to the alarm to Lexington, Massachusetts, in 1775 and later served as the High Sheriff of Onondaga County.
Andrew and Mary had three children together: Frederick Davies White, who committed suicide in his forties in 1901 after a prolonged series of illnesses; Clara (White) Newbury, who died before her father; and Ruth (White) Ferry. After his wife died in 1887, White went on a lecture tour and traveled in Europe with his close friend, Daniel Willard Fiske, librarian at Cornell.
After three years as a widower, in 1890, White married Helen Magill, the daughter of Edward Magill, Swarthmore College's second president. She was the first woman in the United States to earn a Ph.D. Like her husband, Helen was a social scientist and educator; the two met at a conference where she was presenting a paper. Together, Helen and Andrew had three children.
== Death and legacy ==
On October 26, 1918, White suffered a slight paralytic stroke following a severe illness of several days. On the morning of Monday, November 4, White died at home in Ithaca. Three days later, on November 7, on what would have been White's 86th birthday, White was interred at Sage Chapel on the Cornell campus. The chapel was filled to capacity by faculty, trustees, and other well-wishers.
White's body resides in a sarcophagus in the Memorial Room with those of other persons deemed influential in the founding and early years of the university, including co-founder Ezra Cornell and benefactor Jennie McGraw-Fiske. His marble sarcophagus was designed in the popular Art Nouveau style. It features crests of countries and institutions that played important roles in White's life. For example, the adjacent picture shows the crests of the two countries where White was an ambassador; the coat of arms of Imperial Germany is on left and Saint George, a variation on the coat of arms of Moscow, representing Russia, is on the right.
The sarcophagus was completed in 1926 by sculptor Lee Oskar Lawrie (1877–1963), who also created sculptures adorning Myron Taylor Hall at Cornell. Lawrie is perhaps best known for his Atlas statue at Rockefeller Center in New York City.
In his will, White left $500,000 ($10.5 million in 2024) to Cornell University, in addition to the considerable sums donated to the institution earlier in his life.
=== Cornell University ===
In his 1904 autobiography, The Autobiography of Andrew Dickson White, White wrote:
During my life, which is now extending beyond the allotted span of threescore and ten, I have been engaged after the manner of my countrymen, in many sorts of work, have become interested in many conditions of men have joined in many efforts which I hope have been of use; but, most of all, I have been interested in the founding and maintaining of Cornell University, and by the part, I have taken in that, more than by any other work of my life I hope to be judged.
Until at least the mid-20th century, Cornell undergraduates with the surname 'White' were traditionally given the nickname 'Andy' in reference to White. Notably, E. B. White, author of the world-famous children's book Charlotte's Web, continued to go by the nickname 'Andy' for the rest of his life after his undergraduate years at Cornell.
== Legacy and honors ==
Historian Benjamin G, Rader argues that in creating Cornell:White championed nondenominationalism, coeducation, an
elective curriculum, and academic freedom. These positions won him a lasting reputation as a pioneer in the history of higher education.
According to professor Geoffrey Blodgett, White confronted a series of complex challenges in his long career:Above all, the creation from scratch of a large, high-quality, coeducational, nonsectarian public university in the cockpit of post-Civil War, educational politics was an organizational chore of awesome subtlety for man of White's genteel background and soaring ideals."
White was awarded numerous honorary degrees, including:
University of Michigan, LL.D. (1867)
Cornell University, LL.D. (1886)
Yale University, LL.D. (1887)
Columbia University, L.H.D. (1887)
University of Jena, Ph.D. (1889)
St. Andrew's University, LL.D. (October 1902)
Johns Hopkins University, LL.D. (1902)
University of Oxford, D.C.L. in connection with the Bodleian Library tercentenary (October 1902)
Dartmouth College, LL.D. (1906)
== Gallery ==
== Ancestry ==
== Selected bibliography ==
Outlines of a Course of Lectures on History (1861).
Syllabus of Lectures on Modern History (1876).
Fiat Money Inflation in France: How It Came, What It Brought, and How It Ended; To Which is Added an Extract from Macaulay Showing the Results of the Tempering with the Currency of England. New York: D. Appleton and Company. 1896. Retrieved May 18, 2024 – via Internet Archive.
A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom, 2 vols. (1896), online at Gutenberg text file.
Seven Great Statesmen in the Warfare of Humanity with Unreason (1910).
The Autobiography of Andrew Dickson White (1911), online at Autobiography of Andrew Dickson White: Vol. 1, Vol. 2
Fiat Money Inflation in France: How It Came, What It Brought, and How It Ended 3rd Edition, Libertarian Press (PDF) (3rd ed.). New York: D. Appleton and Company. 1933 – via mises.org. , e-text
== See also ==
Andrew Dickson White House
== References ==
=== Citations ===
=== Sources ===
== Further reading ==
"Sketch of Andrew Dickson White" in Popular Science Monthly Volume 48, February 1896
Altschuler, Glenn C. (March 1979). Andrew D. White—Educator, Historian, Diplomat. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-1156-4.
Altschuler, Glenn C. (1999) "White, Andrew Dickson (1832-1918), university president and diplomat " American National Biography
Beach, Mark B. "Andrew Dickson White as ex-president: The plight of a retired reformer." American Quarterly 17.2 (1965): 239-247.[Beach, Mark B. "Andrew Dickson White as ex-president: The plight of a retired reformer." American Quarterly 17.2 (1965): 239-247. online]
Drechsler, Wolfgang J. M. (1989). Andrew D. White in Deutschland: der Vertreter der USA in Berlin, 1879–1881 und 1887–1902 (Andrew D. White in Germany. The Representative of the United States in Berlin, 1879–1881 and 1897–1902). Stuttgart: H.-D. Heinz. ISBN 978-3-88099-624-3.
Lindberg, David C. and Numbers, Ronald L. (1986). "Introduction". In Lindberg and Numbers (eds.). God and nature: historical essays on the encounter between Christianity and science. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-05692-3.
Lindberg, David C.; Numbers, Ronald L. (1987). "Beyond War and Peace: A Reappraisal of the Encounter between Christianity and Science". Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith. 39 (3): 140–149. OCLC 61313836.
Engst, Elaine D.; Dimunation, Mark (1996). A Legacy of Ideas: Andrew Dickson White and the Founding of the Cornell University Library. An exhibition celebrating the Thirty-Seventh Preconference of the Rare Books and Manuscripts Section of the Association of College and Research Libraries, a Division of the American Library Association. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Library.
Ungureanu, James C. Science, Religion, and the Protestant Tradition: Retracing the Origins of Conflict. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2019.
== External links ==
Cornell University links
"Office of the Presidency: Andrew Dickson White". Cornell University. Retrieved October 5, 2007. Brief history of White
"Presidents Exhibition: Andrew Dickson White, Presidency". Cornell University Library. Retrieved October 5, 2007.
"Presidents Exhibition: Andrew Dickson White, Inauguration". Cornell University Library. Retrieved October 5, 2007.
"Andrew Dickson White Collection of Architectural Photographs". Cornell University Library. Retrieved October 5, 2007.
"Andrew Dickson White Library". Cornell University Library. Retrieved October 5, 2007.
"Andrew Dickson White's Book Collection". Cornell University Library. Retrieved October 5, 2007.
"Andrew Dickson White and the History of Cornell's College of Architecture, Art, and Planning". Cornell University Library. Archived from the original on August 20, 2007. Retrieved October 5, 2007.
"How Cornell's First President Transformed Higher Education". Cornellians. Retrieved April 29, 2025.
Other links
Works by Andrew Dickson White at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Andrew Dickson White at the Internet Archive
Works by Andrew Dickson White at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
"Famous People of the Finger Lakes". ilovethefingerlakes.com. Archived from the original on September 28, 2007. Retrieved October 5, 2007. History of White [Ezra Cornell, Andrew Dickson White and the Establishment of Cornell University]
"The Mythical Conflict between Science and Religion". bede.org.uk. Archived from the original on October 15, 2007. Retrieved October 5, 2007. Addresses White's scholarship.
A.D. White's Architectural Photos A collection within the Flickr stream of Cornell University Library. Specifically includes A.D. White's photographs of European, Latin American, and Middle Eastern architecture.
"U-M Heritage: Professor White's Trees". Michigan Today. Archived from the original on June 6, 2010. Retrieved July 31, 2010. Essay and slideshow about White's lasting mark on the University of Michigan's campus. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul-%C3%89mile_Pissarro#:~:text=After%20his%20death%20in%201972,P%C3%A8re%20Lachaise%20Cemetery%20in%20Paris. | Paul-Émile Pissarro | Paul-Émile Pissarro, also Paulémile Pissarro or Paul Émile Pissarro (22 August 1884 in Éragny-sur-Epte, France – 20 January 1972 in Clécy in the department of Calvados, France) was a French impressionist and neo-impressionist painter. He came from the Pissarro family of artists.
== Life ==
Paul-Émile Pissarro was the fifth and youngest son of the impressionist painter Camille Pissarro and his wife Julia (née Vellay). His siblings were Lucien, Jeanne, Félix, Georges Henri Manzana, Ludovic Rodolphe and Jeanne (Cocotte).
He grew up in the artistic surroundings of the family household in Paris.
Encouraged by his father, he began to draw at an early age. The White Horse, which he drew at five years of age, was praised by the art critic Octave Mirbeau. Camille was also impressed and kept the drawing for his private collection.
At fifteen Paul-Émile went to the academy in Gisors, but left again after a few months to accompany his father on a painting tour of Le Havre, Dieppe and Rouen.
On his return to Paris he went to a private art academy, unlike his siblings, who were mainly taught by their father.
On his father's death in 1903, Paul-Émile returned to his mother in Éragny.
The painter Claude Monet, who lived in the nearby Giverny, had been one of Camille's closest friends and was Paul-Émiles godfather;
after Camille's death he became a teacher and close friend to Paul-Émile.
Paul-Émile frequently visited Giverny, where Monet taught him painting and gardening, encouraging him to follow in his father's footsteps: "Work! Study! Do as your father did".
Along with his brother Ludovic Rodolphe, Pissarro exhibited for the first time in 1905, showing his impressionist landscape Bords de l'Epte à Éragny in the Salon des Indépendants of the Société des Artistes Indépendants.
While his father had encourage Paul-Émile's artistic efforts, his mother urged him to take up a conventional career.
From 1908 on Pissarro worked first as a car mechanic and then as a designer or laces and cloths.
In his spare time he continued to paint.
His brother Lucien, who lived in London, asked Paul-Émile to send him some watercolours for sale.
Encouraged by British interest and the sale of his works, he left his position in the lace factory with the intention of devoting himself to painting.
With his wife Berthe (née Bennaiché) he moved to Burgundy.
By the outbreak of the First World War he had just seriously started working as an artist.
On account of his health he was freed from military service, which left him free to travel and to paint during the war.
His brother arranged exhibitions for him in the New English Art Club (NEAC), the Baillie Gallery and at the Allied Artists Association in London.
Paul-Émile's work was heavily influenced by the painter Paul Cézanne, whose style his father had urged upon him. Paul-Émile met Cézanne several times in Paris,
and his influence became evident in Pissarro's green-gold classical compositions from around 1918 onward.
Cézanne also inspired his later use of palette knives rather than brushes.
He also experimented with etching and printing, and made various woodcuts, some of which were first displayed in 1919 by Malcolm C. Salaman.
By the 1920s Paul-Émile Pissarro was established as a neo-impressionist painter.
In this period he shared a studio in Paris with the artist Kees van Dongen.
With him and the painters Maurice de Vlaminck, André Dunoyer de Segonzac and Raoul Dufy he travelled and painted in summer, spending winter in Paris.
In 1924 he bought a house in Lyons-la-Forêt, a small village near Éragny, whose garden (designed by Monet) and surroundings offered him subjects for paintings,
in particular the pastures, meadows and hills through which the river Epte peacefully flows.
In the late 1920s and early 1930s Paul-Émile finally found his person style and reached the summit of his artistic development.
In 1930, on the recommendation of Raoul Dufy, he travelled for the first time in the Suisse Normande where the river Orne,
runs through the valley between Clécy and Le Vey.
The blue hills, green meadows and peaceful waters of the river provided Pissarro with a new environment for his artistic work.
He set up a studio in a houseboat – a converted rowing boat in his garden on the banks for the Orne – in which he could concentrate on his favourite subject, reflections in still waters.
In this period he abandoned unmixed colours and deployed a palette with many mixed colours until finally he used brushes less and less and palette knives more and more.
In 1935 Pissarro separated from his wife Berthe.
In 1937, together with his second wife Yvonne Beaupel, he bought the house in Clécy in which he lived for the rest of his life.
He had three children with Yvonne, Hugues Claude, Yvon and Véra; both sons also became artists.
Many of the works that he produced in Clécy were exhibited in the following thirty years in the Salon des Indépendants.
In 1967 Paul-Émile Pissarro had his first solo exhibition in the United States, in the Wally Findlay gallery in New York,
which brought broader recognition for his work and a degree of success as a painter which few other members of the Pissarro family achieved.
After his death in 1972 Paul-Émile Pissarro's works were exhibited internationally several times.
He was buried in the Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris.
== Work ==
Paul-Émile Pissarro painted portraits and landscapes. He painted small villages in the Midi such as Treignac et Uzerche, the forests of Normandy and the Marais Poitevin.
=== Selected works ===
== Critical reception ==
In New York, the Arts Magazine reported in 1970:
Paulemile (sic!) Pissarro's landscapes have no stylistic connections with those of his famous father. This is particularly true of his color, which does not interpret light and shade in terms of complementary hues. What Paulemile seeks is the solidity that Impressionism dissolved into colored light.
== Literatur ==
Stern Art Dealers: Paulémile Pissarro, 1884–1972, Retrospective Exhibition: Stern Art Dealers, London, 24th November to 20th December 1997. London 1997
Anne Thorold, Kristen Erickson: Camille Pissarro and his family: the Pissarro collection in the Ashmolean Museum. Biografie und Autobiografie. Ashmolean Museum, 1993, p. 74
Adrian M. Darmon (ed.): Around Jewish Art: A Dictionary of Painters, Sculptors, and Photographers Carnot, 2003, ISBN 2-84855-011-2. Entry Paulémile Pissarro, p. 93 → online
(in French) Charles Kunstler: Trente-neuf reproductions de tableaux dont trois portraits par C. Pissarro. Girard & Brunino, Paris 1928
(in German) W. G.: Pissarro, Paul Emile. In: Ulrich Thieme, Felix Becker (editors): Allgemeines Lexikon der Bildenden Künstler von der Antike bis zur Gegenwart. Band 27, E. A. Seemann, Leipzig 1933, S. 110.
(in German) Hans Vollmer: Pissarro, Paul Emile in Allgemeines Lexikon der bildenden Künstler des XX. Jahrhunderts Vol 3: 3: K–P, p. 596. E. A. Seemann, Leipzig 1956
== Links ==
Gemälde von Paul Émile Pissarro In: Stern Pissarro Gallery → online
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lillian_Ngoyi | Lillian Ngoyi | Lilian Masediba Matabane Ngoyi, "Ma Ngoyi", OMSG (25 September 1911 – 13 March 1980) was a South African anti-apartheid activist. She was the first woman elected to the executive committee of the African National Congress, and helped launch the Federation of South African Women.
Prior to becoming a machinist at a textile mill, where she was employed from 1945 to 1956, Ngoyi enrolled to become a nurse. In 1962, she was given her first banning order and would not be permitted to leave her house in Orlando, Soweto for the rest of her life, except for a three year period from 1972-1975.
== Early life ==
Ngoyi was born in Bleared Street, Pretoria. She was the only daughter of Annie and Isaac Matabane, and three brothers, Lawrence, George and Percy. Her grandfather, on her mother's side, was Johannes Mphahlele, a member of the royal Mphahlele household, who became a Methodist evangelist, working alongside Samuel Mathabathe. Ngoyi's mother worked as a washerwoman and her father was a mineworker. Ngoyi attended Kilnerton Primary School until Standard Two.
In 1928, she moved to Johannesburg to train as a nurse at City Deep Mine Hospital, and completed three years of training in general nursing. During this time, she met and married a van driver, John Gerard Ngoyi, in 1934. They had a daughter, Edith Ngoyi. Lilian's husband died in a motor car accident in 1937, after which she became a seamstress, working both from home and in garment factories at various times. From the 1950s onwards, she lived in Orlando, Soweto, with her mother and her children.
== Political activism ==
Having been drawn into politics via her work in the Garment Workers' Union of South Africa in the 1940s, Ngoyi first joined the African National Congress (ANC) as an associate member during the 1950 Defiance Campaign, and would be arrested for using post office facilities reserved for white people. Ngoyi would train in the non-violent protest strategies of Satyagraha to resist the Urban Area's Act, and the expanded pass system of the Natives Act. Ngoyi joined the ANC Women's League in 1952; she was at that stage a widow with children and an elderly mother to support, and worked as a seamstress. A year later she was elected as President of the Women's League. In 1954, she helped to found the Federation of South African Women (FEDSAW) and was elected to the national executive of the ANC; she was the first woman to be elected to national office in the organisation.
On 9 August 1956, Ngoyi led a women's march along with Helen Joseph, Rahima Moosa, Sophia De Bruyn, Motlalepula Chabaku, Bertha Gxowa and Albertina Sisulu of 20,000 women to the Union Buildings of Pretoria in protest against the apartheid government requiring women to carry passbooks as part of the pass laws. Ngoyi would command the crowd to be in complete silence for 30 minutes. This march remains the largest women's demonstration in the history of South Africa.
Lilian Ngoyi was also a transnational figure who recognised the potential influence that international support could have on the struggle against apartheid and the emancipation of black women. With this in mind she had, in 1955, embarked on an illegal journey to Lausanne, Switzerland, in order to participate in the World Congress of Mothers held by the Women's International Democratic Federation (WIDF). Accompanied by her fellow activist Dora Tamana, and as an official delegate of FEDSAW, she embarked on a journey that would see an attempt to stow away on a boat leaving Cape Town under "white names", defy (with the help of a sympathetic pilot) segregated seating on a plane bound for London and gain entry to Britain under the pretext of completing her course in Bible studies. She would visit England, Germany, Switzerland, Romania, China and Russia, meeting women leaders often engaged in left-wing politics, before arriving back in South Africa a wanted woman.
Ngoyi would periodically lead ANC rallies against passes and on larger protests of issues in Pretoria. Ngoyi would continue to unite women, leading the third FSW conference in 1961, telling the women that "Freedom does not come walking towards you - it must be won. As women we must go on playing our part."
Ngoyi was known as a strong orator and a fiery inspiration to many of her colleagues in the ANC. She was among the 156 Treason Trialists arrested in December 1956, and was finally acquitted of the charges against her in 1960. She was rearrested more than once in the early 1960s, and spent 71 days in solitary confinement in 1963. Ngoyi spent a total of 15 years living under three five-year banning orders, which included restrictions that confined her to her home in Orlando, Soweto, and prevented her from meeting any other banned persons. Additional conditions of the banning orders included being forbidden to attend public gatherings, make speeches or be quoted; even at her own home, she was not permitted to be with more than one person at the same time. The first two banning orders were imposed in 1962 and 1967, and when the second banning order expired in 1972, she was able to meet colleagues and friends again, and travelled to Durban and Cape Town. She would travel to Robben Island to visit ANC contemporary Nelson Mandela in prison, where Mandela would commend her leadership in various organisations. In 1975, a banning order against her was imposed again; however, this time its conditions did allow her some communication with the outside world. In the last decade of Ngoyi’s life, she would have to depend on gifts from friends and contemporaries to survive.
== Memorials and honours ==
The Koos Beukes Clinic at the Chris Hani Baragwanath Hospital in Soweto has been renamed Lilian Ngoyi Community Clinic in her honour.
On 16 November 2004, the South African Ministry of the Environment launched the lead ship in a class of environmental patrol vessels named Lillian Ngoyi in her honour.
On 9 August 2006, the 50th anniversary of the march on Pretoria, Strijdom Square from which the women marched was renamed Lilian Ngoyi Square. 9 August is commemorated in South Africa as Women's Day.
In 2009, a residence hall at Rhodes University was renamed in her honour.
In 2012, Van der Walt Street in Pretoria was renamed Lilian Ngoyi Street. Other roads in Cape Town, Thembisa, Berea, Durban, and Hartbeesfontein have been named in her honour.
The City of Johannesburg decided to honour Mme Lilian Masediba Ngoyi by renaming the Bree Street in Johannesburg after her in 2014 – the street named Lilian Ngoyi Street.
== References ==
== External links ==
ANC historical documents
Bernstein, Hilda, 1975. For Their Triumphs and for Their Tears – Women in Apartheid South Africa, International Defence & Aid Fund, London, United Kingdom.ok
"Women's Anti-Pass Law Campaigns in South Africa" Archived 4 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine, About.com
Women's Day March – 9 August 1956 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultimate_Kho_Kho | Ultimate Kho Kho | Ultimate Kho Kho, abbreviated as UKK is an Indian franchise-based kho-kho league. Hosted by the Kho Kho Federation of India, it was founded in 2022. The first season had a viewership of 64 million, 41 million of which came from India, making UKK the third-most viewed non-cricket sports tournament in India after the Pro Kabaddi League and the Indian Super League.
== History ==
Several changes were made to the standard rules of kho-kho in UKK in order to make the game more exciting and presentable on television. Sony Pictures Network India signed a 5-year deal to broadcast UKK, and will invest ₹200 crore (US$24 million) into the league over the 5 years.
There are plans to launch a women's version of UKK in a few years' time. Future editions of UKK will expand to have eight to ten teams (potentially including a team from Northeast India), with venues in multiple cities to be used. It was confirmed that for Season 3, some foreign players will participate.
Before the start of the second season, UKK became the first Indian sports league to secure private equity-based funding, receiving it from a UK-based group.
== Format ==
UKK uses a modified set of rules referred to by the International Kho Kho Federation as the "fast format", as opposed to the standard "test format". The following modifications apply:
Only 7 players from the attacking (chasing) team are on the field.
The playing field is only 22 meters long and 16 meters wide.
2 points are scored per tag.
A 30-second break is taken between the dismissal of one batch and the entry of the next batch.
If a batch of defenders can avoid being completely dismissed for at least 3 minutes (known as a "Dream Run"), they earn 1 point, and then an extra point for every 30 seconds survived afterwards.
One attacking player (known as the wazir) may run in any direction when acting as the active attacker.
The attacking team can take a powerplay in each of their attacking turns during which they have two wazirs. Each powerplay lasts until all 3 defenders of the current batch are out.
Each team's turn to score/defend lasts 7 minutes, with the break time between turns also shortened.
Tiebreaker (named "Minimum Chase"): Each team gets one additional turn to score (with the powerplay being active), and the team that scores its first point the fastest wins.
The game is split into two innings, each of which is split into two turns of seven minutes each. An interval of 3 minutes is taken after the end of the first inning, while a break of 2 minutes is taken after the end of the first and third turns respectively.
== Teams ==
== Editions and results ==
== Team performance ==
=== By season ===
=== By position ===
== Awards ==
== See also ==
Kho Kho World Cup
Sport in India
Pro Kabaddi League
World Chase Tag
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merce_Cunningham#Merce_Cunningham_Dance_Company | Merce Cunningham | Mercier Philip Cunningham (April 16, 1919 – July 26, 2009) was an American dancer and choreographer who was at the forefront of American modern dance for more than 50 years. He frequently collaborated with artists of other disciplines, including musicians John Cage, David Tudor, Brian Eno, and graphic artists Robert Rauschenberg, Bruce Nauman, Andy Warhol, Roy Lichtenstein, Frank Stella, and Jasper Johns; and fashion designer Rei Kawakubo. Works that he produced with these artists had a profound impact on avant-garde art beyond the world of dance.
As a choreographer, teacher, and leader of the Merce Cunningham Dance Company, Cunningham had a profound influence on modern dance. Many dancers who trained with Cunningham formed their own companies. They include Paul Taylor, Remy Charlip, Viola Farber, Charles Moulton, Karole Armitage, Deborah Hay, Robert Kovich, Foofwa d'Imobilité, Kimberly Bartosik, Flo Ankah, Jan Van Dyke, Jonah Bokaer, and Alice Reyes.
In 2009, the Cunningham Dance Foundation announced the Legacy Plan, a plan for the continuation of Cunningham's work and the celebration and preservation of his artistic legacy.
Cunningham earned some of the highest honours bestowed in the arts, including the National Medal of Arts and the MacArthur Fellowship. He also received Japan's Praemium Imperiale and a British Laurence Olivier Award, and was named Officier of the Légion d'honneur in France.
Cunningham's life and artistic vision have been the subject of numerous books, films, and exhibitions, and his works have been presented by groups including the Paris Opéra Ballet, New York City Ballet, American Ballet Theatre, White Oak Dance Project, and London's Rambert Dance Company.
== Biography ==
Merce Cunningham was born in Centralia, Washington, in 1919, the second of three sons. Both of his brothers followed their father, Clifford D. Cunningham, into the legal profession. Cunningham first experienced dance while living in Centralia. He took a tap dance class from a local teacher, Mrs Maude Barrett, whose energy and spirit taught him to love dance. Her emphasis on precise musical timing and rhythm provided him with a clear understanding of musicality that he implemented in his later dance pieces. He attended the Cornish College of the Arts in Seattle, headed by Nellie Cornish, from 1937 to 1939 to study acting, but found drama's reliance on text and miming too limiting and concrete. Cunningham preferred the ambiguous nature of dance, which gave him an outlet for exploration of movement. During this time, Martha Graham saw Cunningham dance and invited him to join her company. In 1939, Cunningham moved to New York City and danced as a soloist in the Martha Graham Dance Company for six years. He presented his first solo concert in New York in April 1944 with composer John Cage, who became his lifelong romantic partner and frequent collaborator until Cage's death in 1992.
In the summer of 1953, as a teacher in residence at Black Mountain College, Cunningham formed the Merce Cunningham Dance Company.
Throughout his career, Cunningham choreographed more than 200 dances and over 800 Events, or site-specific choreographic works. In 1963 he joined with Cage to create the Walker Art Center's first performance, instigating what would be a 25-year collaborative relationship with the Walker. In his performances, he often used the I Ching to determine the sequence of his dances and, often, dancers were not informed of the order until the night of the performance. In addition to his role as choreographer, Cunningham performed as a dancer in his company into the early 1990s.
In 1968 Cunningham published his book Changes: Notes on Choreography, edited by Francis Starr, containing various sketches of his choreography. A mural, located in Washington Hall on the campus of Centralia College, was created in honor of Cunningham.
Cunningham continued to live in New York City and lead his dance company as Artistic Director until his death. He presented his last work, a new work, Nearly Ninety, in April 2009, at the Brooklyn Academy of Music, New York, to mark his 90th birthday. Later that year he died in his home at the age of 90.
== Merce Cunningham Dance Company ==
Cunningham formed Merce Cunningham Dance Company (MCDC) at Black Mountain College in 1953. Guided by its leader's radical approach to space, time and technology, the company has forged a distinctive style, reflecting Cunningham's technique and illuminating the near limitless possibility for human movement.
The original company included dancers Carolyn Brown, Viola Farber, Marianne Preger-Simon, Paul Taylor, and Remy Charlip, and musicians John Cage and David Tudor. In 1964 the Cunningham Dance Foundation was established to support his work.
MCDC made its first international tour in 1964, visiting Europe and Asia.
From 1971 until its dissolution in 2012, the company was based in the Westbeth Artists Community in the West Village; for a time Cunningham himself lived a block away at 107 Bank Street, with John Cage.
On July 20, 1999, Merce Cunningham and Mikhail Baryshnikov performed together at the New York State Theater for Cunningham's 80th birthday.
In its later years, the company had a two-year residency at Dia Beacon, where MCDC performed Events, Cunningham's site-specific choreographic collages, in the galleries of Richard Serra, Dan Flavin, and Sol LeWitt, among others. In 2007, MCDC premiered XOVER, Cunningham's final collaboration with Rauschenberg, at Dartmouth College in New Hampshire. In 2009, MCDC premiered Cunningham's newest work, Nearly Ninety, at the Brooklyn Academy of Music. The company concluded its farewell tour on December 31, 2011, with a performance at the Park Avenue Armory.
== Artistic philosophy ==
=== Collaboration ===
Merce Cunningham Dance Company frequently collaborated with visual artists, architects, designers, and musicians.
Many of Cunningham's most famous innovations were developed in collaboration with composer John Cage, his life partner. Cunningham and Cage used chance procedures to generate material, discarding many artistic traditions of narrative and form. Famously, they asserted that dance and its music should not be intentionally coordinated with one another.
John Cage, after his death, was succeeded in the role of music director by David Tudor. After 1995, MCDC's music director was Takehisa Kosugi. MCDC commissioned more work from contemporary composers than any other dance company. Its repertory included works by musicians ranging from Cage and Gordon Mumma to Gavin Bryars, as well as popular bands like Radiohead, Sigur Rós and Sonic Youth.
The company also collaborated with an array of visual artists and designers. Robert Rauschenberg, whose famous "Combines" reflect the approach he used to create décor for several MCDC's early works, served as the company's resident designer from 1954 through 1964. Jasper Johns followed as Artistic Advisor from 1967 until 1980, and Mark Lancaster from 1980 through 1984. The last Advisors to be appointed were William Anastasi and Dove Bradshaw in 1984. Other artists who have collaborated with MCDC include Daniel Arsham, Tacita Dean, Liz Phillips, Rei Kawakubo, Roy Lichtenstein, Bruce Nauman, Ernesto Neto, Frank Stella, Benedetta Tagliabue, and Andy Warhol.
=== Chance operations ===
John Cage and I became interested in the use of chance in the 50s. I think one of the very primary things that happened then was the publication of the "I Ching", the Chinese book of changes, from which you can cast your fortune: the hexagrams.
Cage took it to work in his way of making compositions then; and he used the idea of 64—the number of the hexagrams —to say that you had 64, for example, sounds; then you could cast, by chance, to find which sound first appeared, cast again, to say which sound came second, cast again, so that it's done by, in that sense, chance operations. Instead of finding out what you think should follow—say a particular sound—what did the I Ching suggest? Well, I took this also for dance.
I was working on a title called, "Untitled Solo", and I had made—using the chance operations—a series of movements written on scraps of paper for the legs and the arms, the head, all different. And it was done not to the music but with the music of Christian Wolff.
Cunningham valued the process of a work over the product. Because of his strong interest in the creation of the choreography he used chance procedures in his work. A chance procedure means that the order of the steps or sequence is unknown until the actual performance and is decided by chance. For instance in his work Suite by Chance he used the toss of a coin to determine how to put the choreographed sequences together. Indeterminacy was another part of Cunningham's work. Many of his pieces had sections or sequences that were rehearsed so that they could be put in any order and done at any time. Although the use of chance operations was considered an abrogation of artistic responsibility, Cunningham was thrilled by a process that arrives at works that could never have been created through traditional collaboration. This does not mean, however, that Cunningham considered every piece created in this fashion a masterpiece. Those dances that did not "work" were quickly dropped from the repertory, while those that did were celebrated as serendipitous discoveries.
Cunningham used "non-representational" choreography which simply emphasizes movement, and does not necessarily represent any historical narrative, emotional situation, or idea. Such non-representational dance appears in many styles throughout history, but was not commonly used by ballet or Martha Graham, Cunningham's primary influences. In the use of chance procedures, Cunningham abandoned the more traditional structured form of dance. He did not believe that dance needs a beginning, middle or end.
==== Examples in works ====
In Sixteen Dances for Soloist and Company of Three (1951), Cunningham used Indeterminacy for the first time in this piece; the changing element for each show was the sequence of the sections.
In Field Dances (1963), Cunningham experimented with giving the dancer more freedom. Each dancer was given a sequence of movements with which they could do as they pleased. This included exiting and entering at will, executing it in any order and as many times as desired.
In Story (1963), Cunningham experimented with the variables of costumes and sets. Before each performance dancers chose an outfit from a pile of second-hand clothes picked out by the designer, Robert Rauschenberg. Rauschenberg was also responsible for creating a new set for every show with items he found in the theatre.
Suite by Chance (1953) was his first work made entirely through chance procedures. Charts were created listing elements such as space, time, and positions. A coin was then tossed to determine each of these elements.
Canfield (1969) was created by using playing cards. Each movement was assigned a playing card and chosen randomly.
=== Use of technology ===
Cunningham's lifelong passion for exploration and innovation made him a leader in applying new technologies to the arts. He began investigating dance on film in the 1970s, and after 1991 choreographed using the computer program LifeForms, a software made by Zella Wolofsky, Tom Calvert, and Thecla Schiphorst. Cunningham explored motion capture technology with digital artists Paul Kaiser and Shelley Eshkar to create Hand-drawn Spaces, a three-screen animation that was commissioned by and premiered at SIGGRAPH in 1998. This led to a live dance for the stage, BIPED, for which Kaiser and Eshkar provided the projected decor. In 2008, Cunningham released his Loops choreography for the hands as motion-capture data under a Creative Commons license; this was the basis for the open-source collaboration of the same name with The OpenEnded Group.
Cunningham was one of the first choreographers to begin experimenting with film. He created an original work for the video Westbeth (1974) in collaboration with filmmaker Charles Atlas The computer program later became DanceForms and uses avatars of dancers with color-coded limbs as a platform for choreography.
In 2009, Cunningham's interest in new media led to the creation of the behind-the-scenes webcast Mondays with Merce.
=== Perspective ===
The use of stage space also changed in Cunningham's choreography. The "front and centre" spot traditionally coveted by soloists no longer exists in his works. Dance can take place on any part of the stage; it need not even be frontally oriented, but can be viewed from any angle (at performances in Cunningham's studio, for instance, audiences are seated in an L-shaped configuration). The viewer's focus is never directed to a particular spot; he must often decide among many centres of activity.
Merce Cunningham saw randomness and arbitrariness as positive qualities because they exist in real life.
Most of Cunningham's choreographic process works to break the boundaries of "putting on a show", the removal of centre stage is an example of this—without a focal point for the audience, no one dancer or step holds the most value and can be seen as arbitrary ... or not.
== Legacy Plan ==
The Cunningham Dance Foundation announced the Legacy Plan in June 2009. The Plan provided a roadmap for the future of the Merce Cunningham Dance Company, as envisioned by Cunningham. The first of its kind in the dance world, the plan represented Cunningham's vision for continuing his work in the upcoming years, transitioning his company once he was no longer able to lead it, and preserving his oeuvre.
The Legacy Plan included a comprehensive digital documentation and preservation program, which ensures that pieces from his repertory can be studied, performed and enjoyed by future generations with knowledge of how they originally came to life. By other provisions of the plan, the Merce Cunningham Trust, established by Cunningham to serve as the custodian for his works, controls his dances for licensing purposes; Cunningham associates prepared detailed records of the dances so they could be licensed and given authentic productions by other companies. The Legacy Plan also outlined a final international tour for the company, and, ultimately, the closure of the Cunningham Dance Foundation and Merce Cunningham Dance Company and the transfer of all assets to the Merce Cunningham Trust. From Merce's death at age 90 through the Board's last meeting in 2012, the Legacy Plan implemented his wish that the company complete a worldwide legacy tour and then close. The final performance of the Merce Cunningham Dance Company was on December 31, 2011, at the Park Avenue Armory in New York City.
The final meeting of the board of directors for the Merce Cunningham Dance Company was held March 15, 2012, in Cunningham's studio at the top of the Westbeth building in the West Village.
== Exhibitions ==
There have been numerous exhibitions dedicated to Cunningham's work. Also, his visual art was represented by Margarete Roeder Gallery until her death on December 11, 2023.
The major exhibition Invention: Merce Cunningham & Collaborators at the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts closed on October 13, 2007.
Merce Cunningham: Dancing on the Cutting Edge, an exhibition of recent design for MCDC, opened at the Museum of Contemporary Art, North Miami, in January 2007.
A trio of exhibitions devoted to John Cage, Robert Rauschenberg, and Merce Cunningham, curated by Ron Bishop, was shown in the spring of 2002 at the Gallery of Fine Art, Edison College, Fort Myers, Florida.
A major exhibition about Cunningham and his collaborations, curated by Germano Celant, was first seen at the Fundació Antoni Tàpies in Barcelona in 1999, and subsequently at the Fundação de Serralves, Porto, Portugal, 1999; the Museum Moderner Kunst Stiftung Ludwig, Vienna, 2000; and the Museo d'Arte Contemporanea, Castello di Rivoli, Turin, 2000.
Five Friends: John Cage, Merce Cunningham, Jasper Johns, Robert Rauschenberg, Cy Twombly is an exhibition focused on their friendship and collaboration in different artistic genres. The exhibit was a collaboration between Museum Brandhorst and Museum Ludwig; it was displayed at the Museum Brandhorst April 10-August 17, 2025 and Museum Ludwig October 3, 2025-January 11, 2026. The catalog was published in both English and German. ISBN 978-3-8296-1043-8
== Selected works ==
Cunningham choreographed almost 200 works for his company.
== Honors and awards ==
== See also ==
List of dancers
== Footnotes ==
== Sources ==
Bredow, Moritz von. 2012. "Rebellische Pianistin. Das Leben der Grete Sultan zwischen Berlin und New York." (Biography, 368 pp, in German). Schott Music, Mainz, Germany. ISBN 978-3-7957-0800-9 (Biography on pianist Grete Sultan, John Cages's and Merce Cunningham's close friend. Many aspects regarding Cage and Cunningham!)
Bremser, M. (Ed) (1999), Fifty Contemporary Choreographers. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10364-9
Cunningham, Merce (1968), Changes/Notes on Choreography. Something Else Press.
Cunningham, M. and Lesschaeve, J. (1992), The Dancer and the Dance. Marion Boyars Publishers. ISBN 0-7145-2931-1
Vaughan, David (1999), Merce Cunningham: Fifty Years. Aperture. ISBN 0-89381-863-1
Vaughan, D. and Cunningham, M. (2002), Other Animals. Aperture. ISBN 978-0-89381-946-0
Kostelanetz, R. (1998), Merce Cunningham: Dancing in Space and Time. Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-306-80877-3
Brown, Carolyn (2007), Chance and Circumstance: Twenty Years with Cage and Cunningham. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-394-40191-1 Biography 53750
== External links ==
Merce Cunningham Trust
Merce Cunningham Dance Company
The Merce Cunningham Dance Foundation, Inc. Records 1938 - 2003
Archival footage of the Merce Cunningham Dance Company performing in Sounddance in 2009 at Jacob's Pillow.
Archive footage of the Merce Cunningham Dance Company performing Cunningham's piece Banjo in 1955 at Jacob's Pillow
Merce Cunningham Film & Video at Electronic Arts Intermix
Merce Cunningham at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maddalena_Casulana#:~:text=A%20total%20of%2066%20madrigals,programming%20for%20International%20Women's%20Day. | Maddalena Casulana | Maddalena Casulana (c. 1544 – c. 1590) was an Italian composer, lutenist and singer of the late Renaissance. She is the first female composer to have had a whole book of her music printed and published in the history of western music, dedicated to her female patron Isabella de' Medici.
== Life and work ==
Extremely little is known about her life, other than what can be inferred from the dedications and writings on her collections of madrigals. Most likely she was born at Casole d'Elsa, near Siena, from the evidence of her name. She received her musical education and early experiences in Florence.
Her first work dates from 1566: four madrigals in a collection, Il Desiderio, which she produced in Florence. Two years later she published in Venice her first actual book of madrigals for four voices, Il primo libro di madrigali, which is the first printed, published work by a woman in western music history. Also that year Orlando di Lasso conducted Nil mage iucundum at the court of Albert V, Duke of Bavaria in Munich; however the music has not survived.
She evidently was close to Isabella de' Medici, and dedicated some of her music to her. In 1570, 1583 and 1586 she published other books of madrigals, all at Venice. Sometime during this period she married a man named Mezari, but no other information is known about him, or where she (or they) were living. Evidently she visited Verona, Milan and Florence, based on information contained in dedications, and likely she went to Venice as well, since her music was published there and numerous Venetians commented on her abilities. She made at least one voyage to the French imperial court in the 1570s.
The following line in the dedication to her first book of madrigals, to Isabella de' Medici, shows her feeling about being a female composer at a time when such a thing was rare: "[I] want to show the world, as much as I can in this profession of music, the vain error of men that they alone possess the gifts of intellect and artistry, and that such gifts are never given to women."
== Style ==
Her style is moderately contrapuntal and chromatic, reminiscent of some of the early work by Marenzio as well as many madrigals by Philippe de Monte, but avoids the extreme experimentation of the Ferrara school composers such as Luzzaschi and Gesualdo. Her melodic lines are singable and carefully attentive to the text. Casulana favoured dramatic dialogue in her polyphonic vocal works. This is demonstrated in her madrigal, "Morte - Che voi - Te Chiamo?", in which she alternates different voices to highlight the questions and answers of the text.
Other composers of the time, such as Philippe de Monte, thought highly of her; that Lassus conducted a work of hers at a wedding in Bavaria suggests that he also was impressed with her ability. A total of 66 madrigals by Casulana have survived.
In 2022 it was announced that a further 17 madrigals have been added to her surviving repertoire, with twelve of the pieces being performed for the first time in 400 years on 8 March 2022, by the Fieri Consort, as part of the BBC Radio 3's programming for International Women’s Day. The discoveries were made by Laurie Stras, Professor of Music at the Universities of Southampton and Huddersfield, who identified the lost alto partbook of Casulana's 1583 book of five-voice madrigals in the Russian State Library in Moscow, thought to have been looted from the Gdańsk Library of the Polish Academy of Sciences during the Second World War, and still bearing Gdańsk's catalogue numbers.
== Discography ==
Bonds, Mark Evan. A History of Music in Western Culture. Vol. 1. Pearson/Prentice Hall, 2014, 6 compact discs accompany text of same title. Originally released in 2010.
Briscoe, James R., comp. New Historical Anthology of Music by Women.. Indiana University Press, 2004, 3 compact discs accompanying an anthology of scores. Originally released in 1991.
I canti di Euterpe, sec. XVI. Ensemble Laus contentus.Recorded in 1998. La bottega discantica, Discantica 37, 1998, compact disc.
English and Italian Renaissance Madrigals. Virgin 7243 5 61671 2 4, 1999, 2 compact discs. Originally released in 1987.
The Excellence of Women: Casulana & Strozzi, The Fieri Consort, 2024, Fieri Records.
Frauensaiten: die weibliche Seite der Musik. The Hilliard Ensemble, et al. EMI Electrola 7243 4 78380 2 6, 1997, compact disc. Originally released as LP in 1955.
Full Well She Sang: Women’s Music from the Middle Ages & Renaissance. Marquis MAR 81445, 2013, compact disc. Originally released in 1991.
Italian Renaissance Madrigals. EMI Classics CDC 7 54435 2, 1992, compact disc.
Understanding Music: Student's Compact Disc Collection. Sony Music Special Products A3 24952, 1996, 3 compact discs accompany textbook of same title.
Verklingend und ewig: Raritäten aus der Herzog August Bibliothek Wolfenbüttel. Capella Augusta Guelferbytana, Mädchenchor Hannover (Gudrun Schröfel, cond.); Knabenchor Hannover (Jörg Breiding, cond.). Recorded July 4–9, 2011. Rondeau ROP6054, 2011, compact disc.
== Work Index ==
This index provides a list of Casulana's works and a reference from the original publication. Available recordings are provided in the third column.
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Bridges, Thomas W. "Maddalena Casulana". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Edited by Stanley Sadie. Washington, D. C.: Grove's Dictionaries of Music, 1980.
Bridges, Thomas W. "Madelana Casulana" in The Norton/Grove Dictionary of Women Composers. Edited by Julie Anne Sadie and Rhian Samuel. New York: W. W. Norton, 1995.
Chater, James. "'Such sweet sorrow': The Dialogo di partenza in the Italian Madrigal." Early Music 27, no. 4 (November 1999): 576–88, 590–99.
Deutsch, Catherine. Maddalena Casulana: Music Advocating for Women in Early Modern Italy. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2025.
Gough, Melinda J. "Marie de Medici's 1605 ballet de la reine and the Virtuosic Female Voice." Early Modern Women 7 (2012): 127–56.
Hadden, Nancy. "Changing Women: Performers, Patrons and Composers in Renaissance Europe." IAWM Journal 18, no. 1 (June 2012):14–20.
Heere-Beyer, Samantha E. "Claiming Voice: Madalena Casulana and the Sixteenth-Century Italian Madrigal." MM thesis, University of Pittsburgh, 2009.
LaMay, Thomasin. "Composing from the Throat: Madalena Casulana's Primo libro de madrigali, 1568." In Musical Voices of Early Modern Women: Many-Headed Melodies. Edited by Thomasin LaMay. Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2005.
LaMay, Thomasin. "Madalena Casulana: My Body Knows Unheard of Songs." In Gender, Sexuality, and Early Music. Edited by Todd C. Borgerding. New York: Routledge, 2002, 41–72.
Lindell, Robert. "Music and Patronage at the Court of Rudolf II." In Music in the German Renaissance: Sources, Styles, and Contexts. Edited by John Kmetz. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
MacAuslan, Janna and Kristan Aspen. "Noteworthy Women: Renaissance Women in Music." Hot Wire (1993): 12–13. EBSCOhost (accessed October 18, 2016).
Newcomb, Anthony. "Giovanni Maria Nanino’s Early Patrons in Rome." The Journal of Musicology 30, no. 1 (2013): 103–27.
Pendle, Karin. "Musical Women in Early Modern Europe." Women & Music: a History, Indiana University Press, 2001.
Pescerelli, Beatrice, ed. I madrigali di Maddalena Casulana. Florence: L.S. Olschki, 1979.
Pescerelli, Beatrice. "Maddalena Casulana". In The Historical Anthology of Music by Women. Edited by James R. Briscoe. Bloomington: Indiana U P, 1986.
Willimann, Joseph. "'Indi non piùdes io': Vom Verzichten und Begehren: Die Madrigale von Maddalena Casulana." Musik & Ästhetik 10, no. 37 (2006): 71–97.
== External links ==
Free scores by Maddalena Casulana at the International Music Score Library Project (IMSLP)
Free scores by Maddalena Casulana in the Choral Public Domain Library (ChoralWiki)
Il secondo libro de madrigali a quattro voci, Vinegia, 1570
Casula, Madalena (1567). Bonagionta da San Genesi, Giulio (ed.). "Amorosetto Fiore". Terzo libro del desiderio. Madrigali a quattro voci di Orlando Lasso et d'altri eccel. Musici con un dialogo a otto. Venice: Gallica: 16. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maulana_Azad#Partition_of_India | Maulana Azad | Abul Kalam Ghulam Muhiyuddin (11 November 1888 – 22 February 1958), better known as Maulana Azad and sometimes referred as Abul Kalam Azad, was an Indian writer, activist of the Indian independence movement and statesman. A senior leader of the Indian National Congress, following India's independence, he became the first Minister of Education in the Indian government. His contribution to establishing the education foundation in India is recognised by celebrating his birthday as National Education Day across India.
As a young man, Azad composed poetry in Urdu, as well as treatises on religion and philosophy. He rose to prominence through his work as a journalist, publishing works critical of the British Raj and espousing the causes of Indian nationalism. Azad became the leader of the Khilafat Movement, during which he came into close contact with the Indian leader Mahatma Gandhi. After the failure of the Khilafat Movement, he became closer to the Congress. Azad became an enthusiastic supporter of Gandhi's ideas of non-violent civil disobedience, and worked to organise the non-co-operation movement in protest of the 1919 Rowlatt Acts. Azad committed himself to Gandhi's ideals, including promoting Swadeshi (indigenous) products and the cause of Swaraj (Self-rule) for India. In 1923, at an age of 35, he became the youngest person to serve as the President of the Indian National Congress.
In October 1920, Azad was elected as a member of foundation committee to establish Jamia Millia Islamia at Aligarh in U. P. without taking help from British colonial government. He assisted in shifting the campus of the university from Aligarh to New Delhi in 1934. The main gate (Gate No. 7) to the main campus of the university is named after him.
Azad was one of the main organizers of the Dharasana Satyagraha in 1931, and emerged as one of the most important national leaders of the time, prominently leading the causes of Hindu–Muslim unity as well as espousing secularism and socialism. He served as Congress president from 1940 to 1945, during which the Quit India rebellion was launched. Azad was imprisoned, together with the entire Congress leadership. He also worked for Hindu–Muslim unity through the Al-Hilal newspaper.
== Biography ==
=== Early life ===
Azad was born on 11 November 1888 in Mecca, then a part of the Ottoman Empire, now a part of Saudi Arabia. His real name was Abul Kalam Ghulam Muhiyuddin, but he eventually became known as Maulana Abul Kalam Azad. Azad's forefathers had come to India from Herat. His father was a Muslim scholar who lived in Delhi with his maternal grandfather, as his father had died at a very young age. During the Indian Rebellion of 1857, he left India and settled in Mecca. His father Muhammad Khairuddin bin Ahmed Al Hussaini wrote twelve books, had thousands of disciples, and claimed noble ancestry, while his mother was Sheikha Alia bint Mohammad, the daughter of Sheikh Mohammad bin Zaher AlWatri, himself a reputed scholar from Medina who had a reputation that extended even outside of Arabia.
Azad settled in Calcutta with his family in 1890.
=== Education and influences ===
Azad was home-schooled by the teachers hired by his family. Following fluency in Arabic as a first language, Azad began to master several other languages including Bengali, Hindustani, Persian, and English. He was also trained in the Madhabs of Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i and Hanbali fiqh, Shariat, mathematics, philosophy, world history, and science by tutors hired by his family. An avid and determined student, the precocious Azad was running a library, a reading room, and a debating society before he was twelve; wanted to write on the life of Al-Ghazali at twelve; was contributing learned articles to Makhzan (a literary magazine) at fourteen; was teaching a class of students, most of whom were twice his age, when he was fifteen; and completed the traditional course of study at the age of sixteen, nine years ahead of his contemporaries, and brought out a magazine at the same age. At the age of thirteen, he was married to a young Muslim girl, Zulaikha Begum. Azad compiled many treatises interpreting the Qur'an, the Hadis, and the principles of Fiqh and Kalam.
=== Early journalistic career ===
Azad began his journalistic endeavours at an early age. In 1899 at the age of eleven he started publishing a poetical journal Nairang-e-Aalam at Calcutta and was already an editor of a weekly Al-Misbah in 1900. He contributed articles to Urdu magazines and journals such as Makhzan, Ahsanul Akhbar, and Khadang e Nazar.
In 1903, he brought out a monthly journal, Lissan-us-Sidq. It was published between December 1903 to May 1905 until its closure due to shortage of funds. He then joined Al-Nadwa, the Islamic theological journal of the Nadwatu l-Ulama on Shibli Nomani's invitation. He worked as editor of Vakil, a newspaper from Amritsar from April 1906 to November 1906. He shifted to Calcutta for a brief period where he was associated with Dar-ul-Saltunat. He returned to Amritsar after few months and resumed the editorship of Vakil, continuing to work there until July 1908.
=== Struggle for Indian Independence ===
In 1908, he took a trip of Egypt, Syria, Turkey and France where he came into contact with several revolutionaries such as followers of Kamal Mustafa Pasha, members of Young Turk Movement and Iranian revolutionaries. Azad developed political views considered radical for most Muslims of the time and became a full-fledged Indian nationalist. In his writing, Azad proved to be a fierce critic of both the British government and Muslim politicians; the former for its racial discrimination and refusal to provide for the needs of the Indian public, and the later for focusing on communal issues before matter of common-self interest (Azad pointedly rejected the All-India Muslim League's communal separatism). However, his views changed considerably when he met ethnically oriented Sunni revolutionary activists in Iraq and was influenced by their fervent anti-imperialism and Arab nationalism. Against common Muslim opinion of the time, Azad opposed the partition of Bengal in 1905 and became increasingly active in revolutionary activities, to which he was introduced by the prominent Hindu revolutionaries Aurobindo Ghosh and Shyam Sundar Chakravarty. Azad initially evoked surprise from other revolutionaries, but Azad won their praise and confidence by working secretly to organise revolutionaries activities and meetings in Bengal, Bihar and Bombay (now called Mumbai).
==== Al-Hilal and Khilafat movement ====
He established an Urdu weekly newspaper in 1912 called Al-Hilal from Calcutta, and openly attacked British policies while exploring the challenges facing common people. Espousing the ideals of Indian nationalism, Azad's publications were aimed at encouraging young Muslims into fighting for independence and Hindu-Muslim unity. With the onset of World War I, the British stiffened censorship and restrictions on political activity. Azad's Al-Hilal was consequently banned in 1914 under the Press Act.
In 1913, he was founding member of the Anjuman-i-Ulama-i-Bangala, which would become the Jamiat Ulema-e-Bangala branch of the Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind in 1921. His work helped improve the relationship between Hindus and Muslims in Bengal, which had been soured by the controversy surrounding the partition of Bengal and the issue of separate communal electorates.
In this period Azad also became active in his support for the Khilafat agitation to protect the position of the Sultan of Ottoman Turkey, who was considered the Caliph or Khalifa for Muslims worldwide. The Sultan had sided against the British in the war and the continuity of his rule came under serious threat, causing distress amongst Muslim conservatives. Azad saw an opportunity to energise Indian Muslims and achieve major political and social reform through the struggle.
Azad started a new journal, the Al-Balagh, which also got banned in 1916 under the Defence of India Regulations Act and he was arrested. The governments of the Bombay Presidency, United Provinces, Punjab and Delhi prohibited his entry into the provinces and Azad was moved to a jail in Ranchi, where he was incarcerated until 1 January 1920.
==== Non-co-operation Movement ====
Upon his release, Azad returned to a political atmosphere charged with sentiments of outrage and rebellion against British rule. The Indian public had been angered by the passage of the Rowlatt Acts in 1919, which severely restricted civil liberties and individual rights. Consequently, thousands of political activists had been arrested and many publications banned. The killing of unarmed civilians at Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar on 13 April 1919 had provoked intense outrage all over India, alienating most Indians, including long-time British supporters, from the authorities. The Khilafat struggle had also peaked with the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I and the raging Turkish War of Independence, which had made the caliphate's position precarious. India's main political party, the Indian National Congress came under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi, who had aroused excitement all over India when he led the farmers of Champaran and Kheda in a successful revolt against British authorities in 1918. Gandhi organised the people of the region and pioneered the art of Satyagraha— combining mass civil disobedience with complete non-violence and self-reliance.
Taking charge of the Congress, Gandhi also reached out to support the Khilafat struggle, helping to bridge Hindu-Muslim political divides. Azad and the Ali brothers – Maulana Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali – warmly welcomed Congress support and began working together on a programme of non-co-operation by asking all Indians to boycott British-run schools, colleges, courts, public services, the civil service, police and military. Non-violence and Hindu-Muslim unity were universally emphasised, while the boycott of foreign goods, especially clothes were organised. Azad joined the Congress and was also elected president of the All India Khilafat Committee. Although Azad and other leaders were soon arrested, the movement drew out millions of people in peaceful processions, strikes and protests.
This period marked a transformation in Azad's own life. Along with fellow Khilafat leaders Mukhtar Ahmad Ansari, Hakim Ajmal Khan and others, Azad grew personally close to Gandhi and his philosophy. The three men founded the Jamia Millia Islamia in Delhi as an institution of higher education managed entirely by Indians without any British support or control. Both Azad and Gandhi shared a deep passion for religion and Azad developed a close friendship with him. He adopted the Islamic prophet Muhammad's ideas by living simply, rejecting material possessions and pleasures. Becoming deeply committed to ahimsa (non-violence) himself, Azad grew close to fellow nationalists like Jawaharlal Nehru, Chittaranjan Das and Subhas Chandra Bose. He strongly criticised the continuing suspicion of the Congress amongst the Muslim intellectuals from the Aligarh Muslim University and the Muslim League.
In 1921, he started the weekly Paigham which was also banned by December 1921. He along with the editor of Paigham, Abdul Razzak Mahilabadi was arrested by the government and sentenced to one year imprisonment.
During the course of 1922, both the Khilafat and the non cooperation movement suffered blow while Azad and other leaders like the Ali brothers were in jail. The movement had a sudden decline with rising incidences of violence; a nationalist mob killed 22 policemen in Chauri Chaura in 1922. Fearing degeneration into violence, Gandhi asked Indians to suspend the revolt and undertook a five-day fast to repent and encourage others to stop the rebellion. Although the movement stopped all over India, several Congress leaders and activists were disillusioned with Gandhi. By 1923, Ali brothers grew distant and critical of Gandhi and the Congress. Azad's close friend Chittaranjan Das co-founded the Swaraj Party, breaking from Gandhi's leadership. Despite the circumstances, Azad remained firmly committed to Gandhi's ideals and leadership.
In 1923, he became the youngest man to be elected Congress president. Azad led efforts to organise the Flag Satyagraha in Nagpur. Azad served as president of the 1924 Unity Conference in Delhi, using his position to work to re-unite the Swarajists and the Khilafat leaders under the common banner of the Congress. In the years following the movement, Azad travelled across India, working extensively to promote Gandhi's vision, education and social reform.
==== Congress leader ====
Azad served on the Congress Working Committee and in the offices of general secretary and president many times. The political environment in India re-energised in 1928 with nationalist outrage against the Simon Commission appointed to propose constitutional reforms. The commission included no Indian members and did not even consult Indian leaders and experts. In response, the Congress and other political parties appointed a commission under Motilal Nehru to propose constitutional reforms from Indian opinions. In 1928, Azad endorsed the Nehru Report, which was criticised by the Ali brothers and Muslim League politician Muhammad Ali Jinnah. Azad endorsed the ending of separate electorates based on religion, and called for an independent India to be committed to secularism. At the 1928 Congress session in Guwahati, Azad endorsed Gandhi's call for dominion status for India within a year. If not granted, the Congress would adopt the goal of complete political independence for India. Despite his affinity for Gandhi, Azad also drew close to the young radical leaders Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhash Bose, who had criticised the delay in demanding full independence. Azad developed a close friendship with Nehru and began espousing socialism as the means to fight inequality, poverty and other national challenges. Azad decided the name of Muslim political party Majlis-e-Ahrar-ul-Islam. He was also a friend of Syed Ata Ullah Shah Bukhari, founder of All India Majlis-e-Ahrar. When Gandhi embarked on the Dandi Salt March that inaugurated the Salt Satyagraha in 1930, Azad organised and led the nationalist raid, albeit non-violent on the Dharasana salt works to protest the salt tax and restriction of its production and sale. The biggest nationalist upheaval in a decade, Azad was imprisoned along with millions of people, and would frequently be jailed from 1930 to 1934 for long periods of time. Following the Gandhi–Irwin Pact in 1931, Azad was amongst millions of political prisoners released. When elections were called under the Government of India Act 1935, Azad was appointed to organise the Congress election campaign, raising funds, selecting candidates and organising volunteers and rallies across India. Azad had criticised the Act for including a high proportion of un-elected members in the central legislature, and did not himself contest a seat. He again declined to contest elections in 1937, and helped head the party's efforts to organise elections and preserve co-ordination and unity amongst the Congress governments elected in different provinces.
At the 1936 Congress session in Lucknow, Azad was drawn into a dispute with Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Dr. Rajendra Prasad and C. Rajagopalachari regarding the espousal of socialism as the Congress goal. Azad had backed the election of Nehru as Congress president, and supported the resolution endorsing socialism. In doing so, he aligned with Congress socialists like Nehru, Subhash Bose and Jayaprakash Narayan. Azad also supported Nehru's re-election in 1937, at the consternation of many conservative Congressmen. Azad supported dialogue with Jinnah and the Muslim League between 1935 and 1937 over a Congress-League coalition and broader political co-operation. Less inclined to brand the League as obstructive, Azad nevertheless joined the Congress's vehement rejection of Jinnah's demand that the League be seen exclusively as the representative of Indian Muslims.
==== Quit India Movement ====
In 1938, Azad served as an intermediary between the supporters of and the Congress faction led by Congress president Subhash Bose, who criticised Gandhi for not launching another rebellion against the British and sought to move the Congress away from Gandhi's leadership. Azad stood by Gandhi with most other Congress leaders, but reluctantly endorsed the Congress's exit from the assemblies in 1939 following the inclusion of India in World War II. Nationalists were infuriated that Viceroy Lord Linlithgow had entered India into the war without consulting national leaders. Although willing to support the British effort in return for independence, Azad sided with Gandhi when the British ignored the Congress overtures. Azad's criticism of Jinnah and the League intensified as Jinnah called Congress rule in the provinces as "Hindu Raj", calling the resignation of the Congress ministries as a "Day of Deliverance" for Muslims. Jinnah and the League's separatist agenda was gaining popular support amongst Muslims. Muslim religious and political leaders criticised Azad as being too close to the Congress and placing politics before Muslim welfare. As the Muslim League adopted a resolution calling for a separate Muslim state (Pakistan) in its session in Lahore in 1940, Azad was elected Congress president in its session in Ramgarh. Speaking vehemently against Jinnah's Two-Nation Theory—the notion that Hindus and Muslims were distinct nations—Azad lambasted religious separatism and exhorted all Muslims to preserve a united India, as all Hindus and Muslims were Indians who shared deep bonds of brotherhood and nationhood. In his presidential address, Azad said:
"Full eleven centuries have passed by since then. Islam has now as great a claim on the soil of India as Hinduism. If Hinduism has been the religion of the people here for several thousands of years, Islam also has been their religion for a thousand years. Just as a Hindu can say with pride that he is an Indian and follows Hinduism, so also we can say with equal pride that we are Indians and follow Islam. I shall enlarge this orbit still further. The Indian Christian is equally entitled to say with pride that he is an Indian and is following a religion of India, namely Christianity."
In face of increasing popular disenchantment with the British across India, Gandhi and Patel advocated an all-out rebellion demanding immediate independence. Azad was wary and sceptical of the idea, aware that India's Muslims were increasingly looking to Jinnah and had supported the war. Feeling that a struggle would not force a British exit, Azad and Nehru warned that such a campaign would divide India and make the war situation even more precarious. Intensive and emotional debates took place between Azad, Nehru, Gandhi and Patel in the Congress Working Committee's meetings in May and June 1942. In the end, Azad became convinced that decisive action in one form or another had to be taken, as the Congress had to provide leadership to India's people and would lose its standing if it did not.
Supporting the call for the British to "Quit India", Azad began exhorting thousands of people in rallies across the nation to prepare for a definitive, all-out struggle. As Congress president, Azad travelled across India and met with local and provincial Congress leaders and grass-roots activists, delivering speeches and planning the rebellion. Despite their previous differences, Azad worked closely with Patel and Dr. Rajendra Prasad to make the rebellion as effective as possible. On 7 August 1942 at the Gowalia Tank in Mumbai, Congress president Azad inaugurated the struggle with a vociferous speech exhorting Indians into action. Just two days later, the British arrested Azad and the entire Congress leadership. While Gandhi was incarcerated at the Aga Khan Palace in Pune, Azad and the Congress Working Committee were imprisoned at a fort in Ahmednagar, where they would remain under isolation and intense security for nearly four years. Outside news and communication had been largely prohibited and completely censored. Although frustrated at their incarceration and isolation, Azad and his companions attested to feeling a deep satisfaction at having done their duty to their country and people.
Azad occupied the time playing bridge and acting as the referee in tennis matches played by his colleagues. In the early mornings, Azad began working on his classic Urdu work, the Ghubhar-i-Khatir. Sharing daily chores, Azad also taught the Persian and Urdu languages, as well as Indian and world history to several of his companions. The leaders would generally avoid talking of politics, unwilling to cause any arguments that could exacerbate the pain of their imprisonment. However, each year on 26 January, which was then considered Poorna Swaraj (Complete Independence) Day, the leaders would gather to remember their cause and pray together. Azad, Nehru and Patel would briefly speak about the nation and the future. Azad and Nehru proposed an initiative to forge an agreement with the British in 1943. Arguing that the rebellion had been mistimed, Azad attempted to convince his colleagues that the Congress should agree to negotiate with the British and call for the suspension of disobedience if the British agreed to transfer power. Although his proposal was overwhelmingly rejected, Azad and a few others agreed that Gandhi and the Congress had not done enough. When they learnt of Gandhi holding talks with Jinnah in Mumbai in 1944, Azad criticised Gandhi's move as counter-productive and ill-advised.
==== Partition of India ====
With the end of the war, the British agreed to transfer power to Indian hands. All political prisoners were released in 1946 and Azad led the Congress in the elections for the new Constituent Assembly of India, which would draft India's constitution. He headed the delegation to negotiate with the British Cabinet Mission, in his sixth year as Congress president. While attacking Jinnah's demand for Pakistan and the mission's proposal of 16 June 1946 that envisaged the partition of India, Azad became a strong proponent of the mission's earlier proposal of 16 May. The proposal advocated a federal system with a limited central government and autonomy for the provinces. The central government would have Defence, Foreign Affairs and Communication while the provinces would win all other subjects unless they voluntarily relinquished selected subjects to the Central Government. Additionally, the proposal called for the "grouping" of provinces on religious lines, which would informally band together the Muslim-majority provinces in the West as Group B, Muslim-majority provinces of Bengal and Assam as Group C and the rest of India as Group A. While Gandhi and others expressed scepticism of this clause, Azad argued that Jinnah's demand for Pakistan would be buried and the concerns of the Muslim community would be assuaged. Under Azad and Patel's backing, the Working Committee approved the resolution against Gandhi's advice. Azad also managed to win Jinnah's agreement to the proposal citing the greater good of all Indian Muslims.
Azad had been the Congress president since 1939, so he volunteered to resign in 1946. He nominated Nehru, who replaced him as Congress president and led the Congress into the interim government. Azad was appointed to head the Department of Education. However, Jinnah's Direct Action Day agitation for Pakistan, launched on 16 August sparked communal violence across India. Thousands of people were killed as Azad travelled across Bengal and Bihar to calm the tensions and heal relations between Muslims and Hindus. Despite Azad's call for Hindu-Muslim unity, Jinnah's popularity amongst Muslims soared and the League entered a coalition with the Congress in December, but continued to boycott the constituent assembly. Later in his autobiography, Azad indicated Patel having become more pro-partition than the Muslim League, largely due to the League's not co-operating with the Congress in the provisional government on any issue.
Azad had grown increasingly hostile to Jinnah, who had described him as the "Muslim Lord Haw-Haw" and a "Congress Showboy." Muslim League politicians accused Azad of allowing Muslims to be culturally and politically dominated by the Hindu community. Azad continued to proclaim his faith in Hindu-Muslim unity:
"I am proud of being an Indian. I am part of the indivisible unity that is Indian nationality. I am indispensable to this noble edifice and without me this splendid structure is incomplete. I am an essential element, which has gone to build India. I can never surrender this claim."
Amidst more incidences of violence in early 1947, the Congress-League coalition struggled to function. The provinces of Bengal and Punjab were to be partitioned on religious lines, and on 3 June 1947 the British announced a proposal to partition India on religious lines, with the princely states free to choose between either dominion. The proposal was hotly debated in the All India Congress Committee, with Muslim leaders Saifuddin Kitchlew and Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan expressing fierce opposition. Azad privately discussed the proposal with Gandhi, Patel and Nehru, but despite his opposition was unable to deny the popularity of the League and the unworkability of any coalition with the League. Faced with the serious possibility of a civil war, Azad abstained from voting on the resolution, remaining silent and not speaking throughout the AICC session, which ultimately approved the plan.
Azad, committed to a united India until his last attempt, was condemned by the advocates of Pakistan, especially the Muslim League.
=== Post-Independence career ===
India's partition and independence on 15 August 1947 brought with it a scourge of violence that swept the Punjab, Bihar, Bengal, Delhi and many other parts of India. Millions of Hindus and Sikhs fled the newly created Pakistan for India, and millions of Muslims fled for West Pakistan and East Pakistan, created out of East Bengal. Violence claimed the lives of an estimated one million people, almost entirely in Punjab. Azad took up responsibility for the safety of Muslims in India, touring affected areas in Bengal, Bihar, Assam and the Punjab, guiding the organisation of refugee camps, supplies and security. Azad gave speeches to large crowds encouraging peace and calm in the border areas and encouraging Muslims across the country to remain in India and not fear for their safety and security. Focusing on bringing the capital of Delhi back to peace, Azad organised security and relief efforts, but was drawn into a dispute with the Deputy prime minister and Home Minister Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel when he demanded the dismissal of Delhi's police commissioner, who was a Sikh accused by Muslims of overlooking attacks and neglecting their safety. Patel argued that the commissioner was not biased, and if his dismissal was forced it would provoke anger amongst Hindus and Sikhs and divide the city police. In Cabinet meetings and discussions with Gandhi, Patel and Azad clashed over security issues in Delhi and Punjab, as well as the allocation of resources for relief and rehabilitation. Patel opposed Azad and Nehru's proposal to reserve the houses vacated by Muslims who had departed for Pakistan for Muslims in India displaced by the violence. Patel argued that a secular government could not offer preferential treatment for any religious community, while Azad remained anxious to assure the rehabilitation of Muslims in India, secularism, religious freedom and equality for all Indians. He supported provisions for Muslim citizens to make avail of Muslim personal law in courts.
Azad remained a close confidante, supporter and advisor to prime minister Nehru, and played an important role in framing national policies. Azad masterminded the creation of national programmes of school and college construction and spreading the enrolment of children and young adults into schools, to promote universal primary education. He was elected to the lower house of the Indian Parliament, the Lok Sabha in 1952 from Rampur Lok Sabha seat. In 1957 he re-contested Rampur and also dually contested the Gurgaon Lok Sabha seat in Punjab (modern-day Haryana), where he won on both seats. Gurgaon had a significant Muslim Meo population making it a safe seat for Azad.
Azad supported Nehru's socialist economic and industrial policies, as well as the advancing social rights and economic opportunities for women and underprivileged Indians. In 1956, he served as president of the UNESCO General Conference held in Delhi. Azad spent the final years of his life focusing on writing his book India Wins Freedom, an exhaustive account of India's freedom struggle and its leaders. About 30 of the pages of this book were published about 30 years after Azad's death in 1988 as per his own wish.
As India's first Minister of Education, he emphasised on educating the rural poor and girls. As Chairman of the Central Advisory Board of Education, he gave thrust to adult literacy, universal primary education, free and compulsory for all children up to the age of 14, girl's education, and diversification of secondary education and vocational training.
Addressing the conference on All India Education on 16 January 1948, Maulana Azad emphasised,
We must not for a moment forget, it is a birthright of every individual to receive at least the basic education without which he cannot fully discharge his duties as a citizen.
He oversaw the setting up of the Central Institute of Education, Delhi, which later became the Department of Education of the University of Delhi as "a research centre for solving new educational problems of the country". Under his leadership, the Ministry of Education established the first Indian Institute of Technology in 1951 and the University Grants Commission in 1953., He also laid emphasis on the development of the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore and the Faculty of Technology of the Delhi University. He foresaw a great future in the IITs for India:I have no doubt that the establishment of this Institute will form a landmark in the progress of higher technological education and research in the country.
== Literary works ==
Azad wrote many books including India Wins Freedom, Ghubar-e-Khatir, and Tazkirah Tarjumanul Quran (Urdu تذکرہ ترجمان القُران).
=== Ghubar-e-Khatir ===
Ghubar-e-Khatir (Sallies of Mind), (Urdu: غُبارِخاطِر) is one of the most important works of Azad, written primarily during 1942 to 1946 when he was imprisoned in Ahmednagar Fort in Maharashtra by British Raj while he was in Bombay (now Mumbai) to preside over the meeting of All India Congress Working Committee.
The book is basically a collection of 24 letters he wrote addressing his close friend Maulana Habibur Rahman Khan Sherwani. These letters were never sent to him because there was no permission for that during the imprisonment and after the release in 1946, he gave all these letters to his friend Ajmal Khan who let it published for the first time in 1946.
Although the book is a collection of letters but except one or two letters, all other letters are unique and most of the letters deal with complex issues such as existence of God, the origin of religions, the origin of music and its place in religion, etc.
The book is primarily an Urdu language book; however, there are over five hundred of couplets, mostly in Persian and Arabic languages. It is because, Maulana was born in a family where Arabic and Persian were used more frequently than Urdu. He was born in Mekkah, given formal education in Persian and Arabic languages but he was never taught Urdu.
It is often said that his book India Wins Freedom is about his political life and Ghubar-e-Khatir deals with his social and spiritual life.
== Legacy and influence ==
The Ministry of Minority Affairs of the central Government of India set up the Maulana Azad Education Foundation in 1989 on the occasion of his birth centenary to promote education amongst educationally backward sections of the Society. The Ministry also provides the Maulana Abul Kalam Azad National Fellowship, an integrated five-year fellowship in the form of financial assistance to students from minority communities to pursue higher studies such as M.Phil. and PhD In 1992 government of India honoured by giving posthumously Bharat Ratna.
Numerous institutions across India have also been named in his honour. Some of them are the Maulana Azad Medical College in New Delhi, the Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology in Bhopal, the Maulana Azad National Urdu University in Hyderabad, Maulana Azad Centre for Elementary and Social Education (MACESE Delhi University), the Maulana Azad College, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad Institute of Asian Studies, and Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology in West Bengal, Maulana Azad College of Engineering and Technology in Patna, Bab – e – Maulana Abul Kalam Azad (Gate No. 7), Jamia Millia Islamia, a central (minority) university in New Delhi, the Maulana Azad Library in the Aligarh Muslim University in Aligarh and Maulana Azad Stadium in Jammu. His home housed the Maulana Abul Kalam Azad Institute of Asian Studies earlier, and is now the Maulana Azad Museum. The National Education Day, an annual observance in India to commemorate the birth anniversary of Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, the first education minister of independent India, who served from 15 August 1947 until his death on 22 February 1958. The National Education Day of India is celebrated on 11 November every year in India.
He is celebrated as one of the founders and greatest patrons of the Jamia Millia Islamia. Azad's tomb is located next to the Jama Masjid in Delhi. In recent years great concern has been expressed by many in India over the poor maintenance of the tomb. On 16 November 2005 the Delhi High Court ordered that the tomb of Maulana Azad in New Delhi be renovated and restored as a major national monument. Azad's tomb is a major landmark and receives large numbers of visitors annually.
Jawaharlal Nehru referred to him as Mir-i-Karawan (the caravan leader), "a very brave and gallant gentleman, a finished product of the culture that, in these days, pertains to few". Mahatma Gandhi remarked about Azad by counting him as "a person of the calibre of Plato, Aristotle and Pythagorus".
Azad was portrayed by actor Virendra Razdan in the 1982 biographical film, Gandhi, directed by Richard Attenborough.
A television series, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, aired on DD National in the 1990s and starred Mangal Dhillon in the title role. DD Urdu aired Seher Hone Tak, a docudrama television series by Lavlin Thadani based on his life and political career, with Aamir Bashir portraying the role of Azad. It was later shortened and re-released as the film Aashiq-e-Vatan - Maulana Azad. Woh Jo Tha Ek Massiah Maulana Azad, a 2019 biographical film about Azad was directed by Rajendra Gupta Sanjay and Sanjay Singh Negi, with Linesh Fanse playing the title role.
His birthday, 11 November is celebrated as National Education Day in India.
Commemorative stamps released by India Post (by year):
== See also ==
Cyrus the Great as Dhul-Qarnayn, a theory proposed by Azad
Indian Council for Cultural Relations, international cultural promotion organization founded by Azad
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Cited sources ==
Gandhi, R (1990). Patel: A Life. Navajivan, Ahmedabad.
Pant, Vijay Prakash (2010). "MAULANA ABUL KALAM AZAD: A Critical Analysis Life and Work". The Indian Journal of Political Science. 71 (4): 1311–1323. ISSN 0019-5510. JSTOR 42748956.
Qaiyoom, Nishat (2012). "Maulana Azad's Journalistic Crusade Against Colonialism". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 73: 678–685. ISSN 2249-1937. JSTOR 44156263.
Douglas, Ian Henderson (1993). Abul Kalam Azad: An Intellectual and Religious Biography. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-563279-8.
== Further reading ==
== External links ==
Abul Kalam Azad at Encyclopædia Britannica
APJ Abdul Kalam Scholarship Archived 30 April 2019 at the Wayback Machine
Azad's Careers – Roads taken and roads not taken – Lineages of the Present: Ideology and Politics in Contemporary South Asia By Aijaz Ahmad
An Introduction to Abul Kalam Azad & collection of his quotes – Eminent Indian freedom fighters Vol2 Chapter 11 p. 310 By S.K. Sharma
Abu'l Kalam Azad, Chapter 44, pp. 325–333, Modernist Islam, 1840–1940: a sourcebook By Charles Kurzman
National Education Day 2012 Celebrated at Sangam University Bhilwara Rajasthan
Some Rare Speeches of Maulana Azad in the Audio Archives of Bhatkallys.com |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1922_Memorial_Cup | 1922 Memorial Cup | The 1922 Memorial Cup final was the fourth junior ice hockey championship of the Canadian Amateur Hockey Association. The Eastern Canada champions, the Fort William War Veterans , played the Western Canada champions, Regina Patricias, for the Memorial Cup in a two-game, total goal series, at Shea's Amphitheatre in Winnipeg, Manitoba. Fort William won their first Memorial Cup, defeating Regina 8 goals to 7.
== Background ==
This was the first Memorial Cup championship played outside Toronto and was set for Shea's Amphitheatre in Winnipeg, Manitoba.
Fort William had defeated the Kenora Thistles and then played Toronto Aura Lee, winners of the George Richardson Memorial Trophy as Eastern Canadian champions, which they did in a one game playoff 5-3. To save money, the game was held in Fort William, with the winner to continue west to Winnipeg where the Memorial Cup would be contested. Toronto had expected to easily win, and there were reports their luggage had already been sent forward before their loss to Fort William. Regina, winners of the Abbott Cup as Western Canadian champions, had defeated the Calgary Hustlers in an interprovincial series, and then the University of Manitoba Junior Hockey Team in a two-game total goal series; Manitoba won the first game 4-1, while Regina won the second 5-0, winning the series with 6 goals to 4.
== Scores ==
The first game was played on March 20, 1922, and was won by Fort William 5-4. The second game was on March 22, ending in a 3-3 tie. As a result Fort William won the series on total goals, 8-7.
== Winning roster ==
Walter Adams (captain), Johnny Bates, Jerry Bourke, Ted D'Arcy, Chic Enwright, Alex Phillips, Fred Thornes, Clark Whyte. Coach: Stan Bliss
== References ==
=== Bibliography ===
== External links ==
Memorial Cup Archived June 2, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
Canadian Hockey League |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_Aishwarya_of_Nepal | Queen Aishwarya of Nepal | Aishwarya Rajya Laxmi Devi Shah (Nepali: ऐश्वर्य राज्य लक्ष्मी देवी शाह) (7 November 1949 – 1 June 2001) was Queen of Nepal from 1972 until her death in 2001. She played a significant role as the consort of King Birendra and was a prominent figure in the royal family throughout her lifetime.
Queen Aishwarya is regarded by many Nepalese as an influential figure, known for her steadfast presence. During the pre-1990 era of absolute monarchy, she was often considered to be a central influence behind the throne. While her sense of style shaped the cultural ideal for many, her influence went beyond appearance. She was seen as a figure of composure and support alongside her husband during a period of both political change and royal tradition.
In addition to her public role, Queen Aishwarya was a patron of the arts and made contributions to the cultural landscape of Nepal. She was known for her literary works and involvement in music, composing and writing songs under the pen-name "Chandani Shah".
== Education ==
She had her school education at St. Helen's Convent of Kurseong, India, and St Mary's of Jawalakhel, Nepal. She passed S.L.C. from Kanti Ishwari Rajya Laxmi High School in 1963. She was enrolled in the Tribhuvan University-affiliated school, Padmakanya College and graduated in arts in 1967.
== Family life ==
Queen Aishwarya was born into the aristocratic Rana family, which had ruled Nepal as hereditary Prime Ministers for 104 years until the 1950s. She was the eldest daughter of General Kendra Shumsher Jang Bahadur Rana (1921–1982) and Shree Rajya Lakshmi Shah (1926–2005). She had two brothers, Suraj Shumsher Jang Bahadur Rana and Uday Shumsher Jang Bahadur Rana, and two sisters, Komal Rajya Lakshmi Devi Shah and Prekshya Rajya Lakshmi Devi Shah.
In 1970, Aishwarya married her second cousin, then-Crown Prince Birendra of Nepal, becoming Crown Princess. Both of her sisters also married into the Shah family and became princesses by marriage—Komal married Gyanendra, who later became King, while Prekshya married Dhirendra, the youngest brother of Birendra and Gyanendra.
Following Aishwarya's death in 2001, her younger sister Komal became Nepal's queen consort, a position she held until the monarchy was abolished in 2008.
== Queen of Nepal ==
After King Mahendra's death in 1972, Birendra ascended the throne, and Aishwarya became Queen consort. The couple formally assumed their roles that year, with their coronation taking place in 1975. During their reign, they traveled extensively and hosted numerous royal dignitaries from around the world.
Queen Aishwarya was known for her intelligence, eloquence, and active involvement in social and cultural initiatives. She organized various cultural and charitable programs and played a significant role in supporting King Birendra throughout his reign.
During the 1970s and 1980s, as Nepal faced growing political tension and movements from anti-monarchist groups, Queen Aishwarya was the subject of various rumours. Her strong presence and influence were sometimes perceived as dominance over King Birendra. Known for her outspoken and assertive nature, she was often contrasted with her more reserved husband. During the period of absolute monarchy, she was perceived as a key influence in the palace, with some believing she advocated for retaining absolute rule. However, in 1990, King Birendra ultimately agreed to transition Nepal to a constitutional monarchy, relinquishing his absolute powers.
The extent of Queen Aishwarya's influence remains debated, but over time, perceptions of her shifted. While she was once seen as a dominant figure, later accounts described her as a steadfast companion to King Birendra, whose popularity and stature grew throughout his reign.
== Literary works ==
She was interested in literature and, under the pen-name Chadani Shah, wrote dozens of poems, which have been collected under the title Aphnai Akash Aphnai Paribesh. The anthology is prefaced with criticisms about Chadani Shah's writing by veteran critics of Nepalese literature. She was also a song writer, and her songs were frequently aired by Radio Nepal and Nepal Television.
== Murder ==
Queen Aishwarya was shot dead along with her husband, King Birendra; her son, Prince Nirajan; her daughter, Princess Shruti; and seven other royal family members in the June 1, 2001 palace massacre. It is widely believed that the motive for the murder was the strong opposition to the Crown Prince's proposed marriage to Devyani Rana. Queen Aishwarya's face was so badly disfigured by the gunshot wound that, for the widely attended state funeral procession, it was covered by a porcelain mask bearing her likeness.
== Honours ==
=== National ===
Kingdom of Nepal:
Member with Collar of the Order of Mahendra
Member Grand Cross of the Order of Honour
Member Grand Cross of the Order of the Benevolent Ruler
Member Grand Cross of the Order of Gorkha Dakshina Bahu
King Birendra Investiture Medal (24 February 1975)
Commemorative Silver Jubilee Medal of King Birendra (31 January 1997)
=== Foreign ===
Denmark: Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the Dannebrog
Egypt: Grand Cross of the Order of the Virtues, Special Class
Finland: Grand Cross of the Order of the White Rose
France: Grand Cross of the Order of National Merit
Germany: Grand Cross Special Class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Japan: Dame Grand Cordon of the Order of the Chrysanthemum
Lao Royal Family: Dame Grand Cross of Royal Order of the Million Elephants and the White Parasol
Pakistan: Grand Cross of the Order of Excellence
Socialist Republic of Romania: Grand Cross of the Order of 23 August
Spain:
Dame Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III
Dame Grand Cross of the Order of Isabella the Catholic
Thailand: Dame Grand Cordon of the Order of Chula Chom Klao (1986)
Yugoslavia: Grand Cross Great Star of the Order of the Yugoslav Star
== References ==
== External links ==
"Aishwarya: Nepal's forceful queen" 5 June 2001, BBC news |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlos_Gardel_(Buenos_Aires_Underground) | Carlos Gardel (Buenos Aires Underground) | Carlos Gardel is a station on Line B of the Buenos Aires Underground.
The station is located in the Balvanera barrio, at the intersection of Avenida Corrientes and Calle Agüero. It was opened on 17 October 1930 as part of the inaugural section of the line between Federico Lacroze and Callao.
== Overview ==
Carlos Gardel station runs under the Abasto de Buenos Aires, one of Buenos Aires' most prominent landmarks. There is an underground connection that makes it possible to access the shopping centre from the subway station without going outside to street level.
Although initially when this station was first opened in 1930 it was named Agüero after the road it crosses, it was later renamed Carlos Gardel, after the famous tango singer. He was known as "El Morocho del Abasto" (The Brunette boy from Abasto).
== Gallery ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Media related to Carlos Gardel (Buenos Aires Underground) at Wikimedia Commons |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habba_Khatoon#:~:text=An%20underpass%20in%20Mughalpura%2C%20Lahore,titular%20role%20of%20the%20queen. | Habba Khatoon | Habba Khatoon (Kashmiri pronunciation: [habɨ xoːt̪uːn]; born Zoon Rather (Kashmiri pronunciation: [zuːn]) ; sometimes spelt Khatun), also known by the honorary title The Nightingale of Kashmir, was a Kashmiri Muslim poet and ascetic in the 16th century. She was the consort of King Yousuf Shah Chak, but attained immortality as the queen of song.
Habba Khatoon's music pushed her poetry gradually into learned circles and those who had fled on the works of immortals like Firdausi, Omar and Hafez were bound to raise their eyebrows at first. This wobbling of Habba Khatoon under her peculiar compulsions and with her own limitations created the symphony of romantic words running side by side with mystic poetry till it over stripped and outshone it.
== Early life ==
Habba Khatoon as a figure has been introduced to generations of Kashmiris through folklore and oral traditions. She is said to have been born in the village of Chandur, (Kashmiri: Tsandhor) in the Pampore town of the Pulwama district in Kashmir. Her birth name was Zoon Rather or Zuni (Kashmiri: زوٗن, romanized: zūn, lit. 'Moon'). According to the oral tradition, she was called Zoon because of her immense beauty. Although a peasant, she learnt how to read and write from the village Alimah.
Some circles who have disputed this fact associate her birth with the small glen of Gurez to the north of the valley of the Jhelum. Tradition links a spot near Tsoorawan in Gurez with the poet and it is known even now as the 'hillock of Habba Khatoon'. They take their stand on a legend that Habba Khatoon was born to a petty chieftain in Gurez who passed her on to a Kashmiri trader Hayaband in lieu of the liquidation of his debts. Hayaband married her to his son Habalal, hence the name— Habba Khatoon.
Yet, It is held that the 'hillock' of Habba Khatoon came to be associated with her because of her later contacts when she visited Gurez as the consort of Yusuf Shah Chak.
Abdi Rathar of Chandhur, her father, was a well-to-do farmer and was a man gifted with unusual courage and foresight. Notwithstanding the expected back-talk and open criticism, he made arrangements for the education of his daughter at the hands of a village maulvi. Habba Khatoon received instruction in the study of the Quran and, of course, the Persian classics which, owing to the patronage at the court had become the rage of the times. No further details of this period of her life are available. Perhaps she read Gulistan and Bostan which was the usual fare of pupils in Persian in Kashmir till recently. However, her name spread well beyond the village boundaries and Abdi Rathar's Zoon was referred to as an extraordinary child in hamlets other than Chandhur.
In the course of time, her parents thought of marrying Zoon. Few girls could be better endowed for a happy married life. She came from a well-to-do family and was educated and accomplished. She was highly beautiful and could sing in a sweet, enchanting voice. She could work at home and on the farm to bring prosperity to her family. Her parents selected a peasant boy, Aziz Lone, as her husband. His tastes and interests had nothing in common with Zoon's and there is hardly any doubt that he was a dull-witted, matter-of-fact a boorish young peasant. Nature tricked her into song and glory through Aziz Lone who was stolid to her charm and apathetic to her love. Despite this Habba Khatoon was fondly devoted to him in love and fidelity and left no stone unturned in trying to evoke a suitable response from her husband. With all her beauty of form and mellifluous voice she worked like a slave at her husband's home and their lands. She would so to the stream to fetch water for the household, go to the uplands in search of firewood and wild edible roots, ply the spinning-wheel and do other chores in the tradition of the old times. But there was no appreciation for all this. Instead, her mother in-law and perhaps her husband too were always on the look out for a slip on her part-of course, innocent and unwitting to give them a handle to taunt her, abuse her and perhaps be labour her. If she broke an earthenware water-pot by accident she was asked to replace it or pay for a new one.
The situation was pretty bad for her and she realized that life in such an atmosphere was worse than death. She could not make out how her death would profit him. In her song— 'Tche Kyoho Vaatiyo Myaeni Marnai' (What do you stand to gain by my death?) contemplates such an act but concludes on a note of self-introspection but neither the display of emotion in abandon not admonition brought any relief to Zoon in her predicament and Aziz continued to be indifferent to her.
Translation:
In such circumstances women approach saintly people credited with mystic powers for help. Zoon also must have sought the help of such men, among them one Khwaja Masud. He is said to have given her consolation and predicted a better future for her. He, it is said, also coined for her the name Habba Khatoon which Zoon adopted. But nothing brought even a streak of conjugal delight in the life of Habba Khatoon and she continued to address her laments to her husband.
One of her most famous songs Wolo Myaeni Poshay Madano (Come, my flowery Cupid) graphically representing the state of her mind at the time is surcharged with melancholy, bitterness against the wild talk of the people and vexation at the indifference of her husband. Her complaint is:
Translation:
== Later life ==
According to legend, one day Yousuf Shah Chak, the last independent emperor of Kashmir, was out hunting on horseback. He heard Zoon singing under the shade of a chinar tree, and the couple met and fell in love. The oral tradition describes Zoon as Yousuf Shah Chak's queen consort, although there is scholarly debate about whether she was in fact a lower status mistress or member of his harem. She entered the palace in about 1570, and at some point changed her name to become Habba Khatoon (Kashmiri: حَبہٕ خوتوٗن).
Here was the young peasant woman slaving for her loaf, neglected and loathed by her husband, abhorred by his mother and a victim of people's gossip, being entreated by the heir-apparent to take her exalted place in his palace. She had sought love from Aziz Lone which he denied her: she was in need of affection from his mother which she did not give; she expected normal regard and courtesy from society which treated her with disdain. And now she was being offered all this and more. Need less to say that she accepted the offer and entered the palace in circa 1570 Habba Khatoon was of an age when Kashmir suffered much political, social and economic distress. The dynasty of the Sultans distinguished by rulers like the mighty Shahab-ud-Din and the illustrious Zain-ul-Abdin had grown feeble and power passed into the hands of feudal barons who keenly competed with one another in the bid to exercise power in the name of a puppet here or a pretender there.
Habib Shah, the last of the Sultans, was so weak and naive that in 1554 he was deprived of his crown while in full court and nobody raised even a little finger in his support. The throne was next occupied by Ali Khan, a member of the powerful Chak clan. Who are the Chaks? Whatever their origin, in course time, they seem to have settled in the Gilgit Hunza region as conquerors or refugees. Since then the region is known as Dardistan. But these Chaks entered Kashmir as refugees from Dardistan (Gilgit-Hunza region) in the reign of Sahadev (1305-34 A.D.) in the wake of their ruthless chief. Though energetic, Ali Khan Chak was intrepid and was occupied all the time in meeting revolts and confrontations. The Chaks were Shias and the brunt of their proselytising zeal fell on both the Hindus and the Sunni-Muslims. What was worse, the Sunni-Shia rivalry took an ugly turn and distressing form, leading to an extensive cleavage between the two sections of the population, and sympathies of the masses were alienated. A more serious development was the allurement felt by the hawk-eyed Mughal, Akbar, for the beautiful valley of Kashmir. Because of their mutual bickerings and quarrels, disgruntled Kashmiri leaders often sought assistance from the emperor, or his satraps, who encouraged defections and destabilisation.
Habba Khatoon reached the palace when dark clouds of apathy and disdain were rolling against Kashmiri language and art. Another princess with a less forceful character would have found her sensibility smothered and perhaps fallen in line with the average literati in upholding Persian at the cost of Kashmiri. But Haba Khatoon's devotion to her own language and culture proved stronger.
Yousuf Shah Chak had gained an invaluable treasure in Habba Khatoon, a paragon of beauty, and was deeply attached to her. He spent most of his time in her company, absorbed in her music and poetry. He brought about the fulfilment of her frozen love and became the focus of her life, her gratitude and her devotion. Towns and villages were no longer enough to satisfy the craving of the royal couple and they sought the company of nature in its naked beauty, matchless grandeur and unparalleled sublimity. The credit for the discovery of the far-famed queen of the hills, Gulmarg, is given to Yusuf Shah and his consort who spent much of their leisure in its sylvan glades. They patronised such pleasure spots as Aharabal, Achabal and Sonamarg. They sought enjoyment of hature as far away as the Gurais valley where a hillock has been named after Habba Khatoon. Some of these pleasure spots, especially Ahrabal and Achabal of the Pir Panjal region, attained celebrity in the reign of Jehangir subsequently.
== The fall of Chaks ==
Ghazi Chak, the first Chak Sultan of Kashmir had a fiery temper which made him excessively unbearable and obnoxious to his subjects. The Emperor Akbar despatched Mirza Qara Bahadur, at the head of a large body of troops to invade the country in order to deliver its inhabitants from the yoke of the tyrant. The army of Qara Bahadur was defeated. The fact remains that this defeat demoralised the Mughals to such an extent that for another 25 years Akbar made no serious attempt to capture Kashmir. In spite of annex the valley continued unabated. Ghazi Shah's body was leprous and after his campaign in Ladakh it became worse and he abdicated in favour of his brother Hussain Khan Shah whom he found master of the situation. Hussain Shah was a poet and, it was said, a man of liberal and secular views but Akbar was watching the condition in Kashmir and his agents sent reports to him. Many selfish and disgruntled leaders, often at loggerheads with each other, sought help from the Emperor.
The Mughals were consolidating their hold on the Indian sub-continent during the second half of the sixteenth century and their eyes now turned to Kashmir. Yusuf Shah Chak who ascended the throne in 1579 A.D. did not display the leadership that was the need of the hour and internal feuds took such a serious turn that he lost the throne in 1580 when he had been king for only a year and two months. With his overthrow the wheel of Habba Khatoon's fortunes changed. Yusuf made several attempts to regain the throne but could make no progress. Within six months there was another occupant on the throne and Yusuf continued to be confined to the wings. At last, he approached the emperor Akbar for armed assistance. Akbar who was watching the developments with no unconcern gave asylum to the fugitive prince and attached him to the grand army. Thereafter he practically slept over Yusuf's plea for assistance to recover his lost kingdom. It was an unexpected trial of Yusuf's diplomacy and perseverance. At home Habba Khatoon was forlorn. Yusuf had left Kashmir with high hopes of returning in a few weeks with Mughal troops and funds to fight the enemies and recover his throne. But weeks slipped by, months, and yet Habba Khatoon had no indication that of him coming back. The absence of her husband once a again raised in her mind the spectre of her beloved being snatched from her. Her intense love would not let her rest in peace while Yusuf was away. Then Akbar helped Yusuf Shah Chak who gave his escort Raja Man Singh a slip and recovered the kingdom of Kashmir after a series of manoeuvres at Sopore in 1581 A.D.
Though later in the year 1586 A.D the Mughals marched into Kashmir and finally annexed it.
She lived after Yusuf's exit from Kashmir for nearly twenty years, or such is the tradition, moving from place to place with no attachments or possessions. Probably, she composed lyrics also but the hankering in her heart has been stilled. There is sorrow in her wail, there is regret and there is bitterness, but there is also resignation.
In her wailing song for her lost husband— Harmukh Bartal she recites:
Translation:
== Poetic tradition ==
Although Persian influences had infiltrated the Kashmiri language long before Habba Khatoon, her lyrics offer few examples of her wholeheartedly embracing them. Words of Persian origin are used sparingly in her poetry. Most of the Persian and Arabic words found in her work, such as 'shamaa' (candle), 'ishq' (love) and 'burqa' (veil), had entered the vernacular long before she was born. Using the language spoken by most men and women does not detract from her poetry. In fact, her poetry gains power, appeal and sincerity, impressing readers and listeners alike with its sweet, musical quality. This gives readers an impression of authenticity, as they recognise the strength and variety of their own language in her lyrics, unaided by outside influences. Habba Khatoon deliberately used Persian to revive Kashmiri music, which had been neglected due to a lack of patronage. As Yousuf Shah was a patron of the arts, Habba Khatoon received training from renowned practitioners in the performance of ghazals and songs in the Iranian style. With her remarkable intelligence and rare melodious voice, she became a notable musician in her own right, even among Persian masters. Kashmiri music, cultivated by Harshdev in the 12th century and others, had become heavily influenced by Persian and Central Asian music, incorporating a variety of exotic instruments. As Habba Khatoon was adept in both styles, it was only natural that she would make her own contribution, which she did in the form of a new musical composition known as Raasti-Kashmiri, modelled on Raasti-Farsi, which is sung in the last quarter of the night. She also earned renown for her mastery of a Persian raga known as Muqaami-Iran. Her poems Harmukh Bartal, Char kar myon maalinyo, Vaervain saeth vaar chas no and many others are wailings known as Yadhaaq in Kashmiri.
== Legacy ==
The taqleqkar (pioneer) of loal poetry has been praised by Kalhana in his book- Rajtarangini:
The hillock in Gurez Valley, Kashmir is named after Habba Khatoon.
An underpass in Mughalpura, Lahore has been named after Habba Khatoon. The Indian Coast Guard named the ship CGS Habba Khatoon after her.
=== In film ===
Habba Khatoon (1978) is an Indian Kashmiri-language television film directed by Bashir Badgami for Doordarshan. It starred Rita Razdan in the titular role of the queen. Doordarshan also aired Habba Khatoon, another television show in Hindi on DD National about the poet.
Mrinal Kulkarni portrayed her role in the Indian television series Noorjahan, which aired on DD National from 2000-2001.
Zooni is an unreleased Indian Hindi-language film by Muzaffar Ali that was supposed to release in 1990 but was eventually shelved. Earlier unsuccessful attempts in Indian cinema to portray her life on screen included one by Mehboob Khan in the 1960s and in the 80s by B. R. Chopra.
== See also ==
Kashmiri literature
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Habba Khatoon by Muhammad Yousuf Taing, J&K Academy of Languages, Art & Culture (JAACL)
Zoon by J.N Wali
Habba Khatoon (1909) by Muhammad Amin Kamil
Haba Khatoon (1968) by Shyam Lal Sadhu
Habba Khatoon: The Nightingale of Kashmir (1994) by S.N Wakhlu
Feminism Across Cultures: A Comparative Study of Habba Khatoon and Emily Brontë (2019) by Asma Shaw
Wakhlu, S. N. (1994). Habba Khatoon: the nightingale of Kashmir. South Asia Publications. ISBN 8174330054. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clan_Boyd | Clan Boyd | Clan Boyd is a Scottish clan of the Scottish Lowlands and is recognized as such by the Lord Lyon King of Arms.
== History ==
=== Origins of the clan ===
The name Boyd is said to be descriptive, being derived from the Scottish Gaelic buidh which means fair or yellow. It could also be the genitive of hailing from the Isle of Bute—Bhoid in Gaelic. The progenitor is said to have been Robert, son of Simon and nephew of Walter fitz Alan, the first High Steward of Scotland. This theory however is challenged by genealogist, William Anderson, who points out that most of the friends and dependents of the High Stewards were of Norman origin and it is therefore unlikely that they would use a Celtic nickname for one of their own family. Anderson believed the name to be of either Norman or Saxon origin. The historian, George Fraser Black, asserts that the first Boyds were vassals of a Norman family, the de Morvilles, for their lands around Largs and Irvine. Black also states that the surname Boyd may be derived from the Scottish Gaelic for the Isle of Bute which is Bòd. Black gives an example of the Marquess of Bute in Scottish Gaelic being Morair Bhoid. Modern sources give the Isle of Bute in Scottish Gaelic as Eilean Bhòid.
In 1205 Robert de Boyd (or Robertus de Boyd) witnessed a contract between the Lord of Eglinton and the burgh of Irvine. Robert de Boyte is listed on the Ragman Rolls, giving homage to Edward I of England in 1296.
=== Wars of Independence, Norway and England ===
The prominence of the Boyds in early Scottish history began with the Battle of Largs in 1263, when Robert Boyd was given a key assignment to take a detachment of men and clear Vikings from the high ground overlooking the beach—as Robert departed to the north, King Alexander III called out "Confido!" (I trust) and indicated the same with his first two fingers of his right hand raised and thumb crossing the palm—a royal gesture and utterance, that subsequently became the clan motto and symbol according to clan history. The high ground the Boyd detachment took as part of a flanking action at Largs was called Gold Berry Hill. Robert Boyd and his infantry were successful in surprising the detachment of Norsemen and caused them to retreat in such haste and panic it helped lead to the disastrous melee at the beach for King Haakom's men. The name "Gold Berry" was often written beneath the early heraldic family shield for this reason. In the 1290s, the Boyds began their association with another Ayrshire legend, William Wallace, fighting alongside other independence-seeking Scots clans to dislodge the English during the dark days following the death of Alexander III with no clear royal successor. In 1306 Duncan Boyd was executed for supporting the cause of Scottish Independence. During the later years of the Wars of Scottish Independence, Sir Robert Boyd, probable grandson of the Robert Boyd from the Battle of Largs fame, who survived as a trusted commander of William Wallace, was a strong supporter of King Robert the Bruce and was one of the key commanders at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314. (The clan's Bannockburn Shield, a field of cobalt blue with a red and white checker medieval counting board originated at this time and is one of the relics of Dean Castle) He was rewarded for his gallantry, with lands that had been confiscated off the Balliols, including Kilmarnock, Bodington and other substantial lands in Ayrshire, adding to the ancestral lands earned at Largs a half century before.
=== 15th century and clan conflicts ===
Sir Thomas Boyd, 8th chief of Clan Boyd is recorded as having killed Sir Alan Stewart of Darnley in a feud that was in its third year. Boyd himself was killed in revenge by Alexander Stewart, brother of Alan, on 9 July 1439 at Craignaucht Hill in the parish of Dunlop. Stewart had set upon Boyd in open battle in which Boyd was killed along with many men on either side. Boyd's force consisted of only 100 men, where as Stewart's force consisted of three detachments each of seventy men. Boyd's scout only saw one of the Stewart detachments and so the Boyds were expecting their enemy to be inferior in number. However the battle was joined by the other two Stewart detachments which meant that the Boyds were outnumbered by more than two to one. The battle was so fierce that both sides would retire only to re-counter again at the sound of a trumpet. The battle eventually went in favour of the Stewarts of Darnley, however it did not end the feud as another of the Stewarts was later killed in revenge by the Boyds in the town of Dumbarton.
=== 15th century and royal relations ===
The chief of the clan was raised to the peerage under the title Lord Boyd of Kilmarnock by James II of Scotland. On the death of that king, Robert Boyd, 1st Lord Boyd was appointed as one of the regents to the young James III of Scotland. Boyd's younger brother was appointed as the military tutor to the new king. Lord Boyd was also later appointed as Great Chamberlain while his son, Thomas, was married to Princess Mary, the king's sister and was given the title Earl of Arran. The family's success naturally brought them powerful enemies and those opposed to the Boyds began conspiring against them. In 1469 Lord Boyd along with his son, Thomas, and his brother, Alexander were summoned to appear before the king and Parliament to answer charges made against them. Lord Boyd realizing that he faced death escaped to England, while his brother Alexander was executed. His son, Thomas, the Earl of Arran, had been on state business abroad and upon learning of the reversal of his family's fortunes accepted his exile but was well received in royal courts throughout Europe.
James Boyd, 2nd Lord Boyd, 11th chief of the clan, was killed in a feud with Hugh Montgomerie, 1st Earl of Eglinton in 1484. He was succeeded by his uncle, Alexander Boyd, 3rd Lord Boyd, 12th chief, who was a favourite of James IV of Scotland who made him Bailie and Chamberlain of Kilmarnock.
=== 16th century ===
Alexander's son was Robert Boyd, 4th Lord Boyd who according to historian William Boyd had the estates and honours of Lord Boyd restored to him in 1536 by James V of Scotland. Although according to the Collins Scottish Clan & Family Encyclopedia the estates and honours were restored during the reign of Mary, Queen of Scots. Robert had two children, Robert and Margaret. Margaret married Neil Montgomery of Lainshaw, but the connection between the two families was not friendly and her father Robert Boyd, along with Mowat of Busbie, assassinated Neil Montgomery at Irvine in 1547 in revenge for the death of his cousin, James Boyd, in 1484.
The Boyd family were restored to royal favour when Robert Boyd, a descendant of the first Lord Boyd received confirmation of all the family's estates and honours from Mary, Queen of Scots. After the Queen's escape from Lochleven Castle, Lord Boyd was one of the first to join her and fought for her at the Battle of Langside. He later made many visits to her when she was held captive in England. He died in 1590.
=== 17th century and Civil War ===
During the Wars of the Three Kingdoms the Clan Boyd supported the royalist cause. They were rewarded after the Restoration (1660) when William, Lord Boyd was created Earl of Kilmarnock.
=== 18th century and Jacobite risings ===
The third earl opposed the Jacobite rising of 1715 and commanded a regiment of Ayrshire volunteers for the government. However his son, the fourth earl, did support the Jacobite rising of 1745 and fought for Charles Edward Stuart at the Battle of Culloden in 1746, after he had made him a member of the Privy Council with the rank of general. Boyd was captured at the Battle of Culloden and taken to the Tower of London. He was beheaded on Tower Hill on 18 August 1746. All of the Boyd titles were then forfeited, however his eldest son succeeded through his mother to the title of Earl of Erroll and changed his surname to Hay. (See: James Hay, 15th Earl of Erroll).
=== Modern history ===
The 22nd Earl of Errol died in Kenya in 1941. His daughter was entitled to succeed in the earldom of Erroll and the chiefship of the Clan Hay but was excluded from the barony of Kilmarnock which could only pass to males. Consequently, the brother of the 22nd Earl resumed the surname of Boyd and succeeded to the barony of Kilmarnock.
== Clan Chief ==
Alastair Boyd, 7th Baron Kilmarnock and Chief of Clan Boyd, died 19 March 2009. The barony and the chiefship pass to his brother Dr. Robin Boyd, who has not yet claimed either title.
=== Chiefly arms ===
Quarterly, 1st Azure a fess chequy Argent and Gules (for Boyd), 2nd Argent three inescutcheons Gules (for Hay), 3rd Argent three gillyflowers Gules within a double tressure flory counter flory Vert (for Livingston), 4th Sable a bend between six billets Or (for Callendar).
=== Crest badge ===
The crest badge used by members of House of Boyd contains the motto CONFIDO ("I trust"). The blazon of the crest is A dexter hand erect in pale having the outer fingers bowed inwards. The crest badge is the heraldic property of the chief, though any member of the clan may wear this badge to show allegiance to the chief and family.
== Clan castles ==
Dean Castle, previously known as Kilmarnock Castle was the seat of the chiefs of Clan Boyd who were Barons, Lords and Earls of Kilmarnock.
Portencross Castle was given to the Boyds of Kilmarnock by Robert the Bruce.
Bedlay Castle was built by the Boyds in the sixteenth century but they sold it to the Roberton family in 1642 and it later passed to the Clan Campbell.
Badenheath Castle was owned by Robert Boyd of Badenheath who supported Queen Mary at the Battle of Langside in 1568 but the castle passed to the Coupers in the later 17th century and was completely demolished in 1953.
Brodick Castle was held by the Boyds when they were Earls of Arran from 1467 to 1469. It is now owned by the National Trust for Scotland and is open to the public.
Callendar House was originally a property of the Livingstones but in 1715 it was leased by William Boyd, 4th Earl of Kilmarnock. After the earl was executed for treason the property went to the Clan Forbes and is now open to the public, standing in a public park.
Law Castle in the north-east of West Kilbride in Ayrshire was long held by the Clan Boyd but was sold to the Bonties in 1670.
Little Cumbrae Castle
Penkill Castle was long held by the Boyds but went to William Bell Scott who restored it in 1857.
Pitcon Castle near Dalry in Ayrshire was originally held by the Pitcon family and then by the Boyds until they sold it to the MacRaes in the 1770s.
Trabboch Castle was held by the Boyds in the 14th century until about 1450 when it passed to the Clan Douglas and then to the Clan Boswell. Another source states that the castle was forfeited by the Boyds to the Crown following their fall from royal favour in 1469.
== References ==
== External links ==
House of Boyd Society Inc.
The Lordship & Barony of Kilmarnock.
Video and commentary on the ambush of the Boyds at Craignaught Hill in 1439.
Video footage of Trabboch Castle. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benny_Hinn | Benny Hinn | Toufik Benedictus "Benny" Hinn (born 3 December 1952) is an Israeli-born American-Canadian televangelist, best known for his regular "Miracle Crusades"—revival meeting or faith healing summits that are usually held in stadiums in major cities, which are later broadcast worldwide on his television program, This Is Your Day.
== Biography ==
Hinn was born in Jaffa, in 1952, in the then-newly established state of Israel to parents born in Palestine who had Greek, Palestinian, and Armenian heritage. He was raised within the Eastern Orthodox tradition and baptized by the patriarch of Jerusalem.
Soon after the 1967 Arab–Israeli War ("The Six-Day War"), Hinn's family emigrated to Toronto, Ontario, Canada, in 1968 where he attended Georges Vanier Secondary School. He did not graduate. In his books, Hinn states falsely that his father was the mayor of Jaffa at the time of his birth and that he was socially isolated as a child and had a stutter, and he was a first-class student.
In 1972, he claimed to become a born-again Christian. Hinn has written that on 21 December 1973, he traveled by charter bus from Toronto to Pittsburgh to attend a "miracle service" conducted by evangelist Kathryn Kuhlman. Although he never met her personally, he often attended her "healing services" and has often cited her as an influence in his life. In 1974, he was invited to speak about his spiritual experience at Trinity Pentecostal Church in Oshawa and claimed to have been cured of his stuttering.
== Ministry ==
On moving to the United States, Hinn traveled to Orlando, Florida, where he founded the Orlando Christian Center in 1983. Eventually, he began claiming that God was using him as a conduit for healings, and began holding healing services in his church. These new "Miracle Crusades" were soon held at large stadiums and auditoriums across the United States and the world, the first nationally televised service being held in Flint, Michigan, in 1989. In 1990, he also launched a new daily talk show called This Is Your Day, which to this day airs clips of supposed miracles from Hinn's Miracle Crusades. The program premiered on the Trinity Broadcasting Network of Paul Crouch, who would become one of Hinn's most outspoken defenders and allies. Hinn's ministry began to rapidly grow from there, winning praise as well as criticism from fellow Christian leaders. In 1999, he stepped down as pastor of the Orlando Christian Center, moving his ministry's administrative headquarters to Grapevine, Texas, a suburb of Fort Worth, while hosting This Is Your Day from a television studio in Orange County, California, where he now lives with his family. His former church was renamed Faith World Church under the leadership of Clint Brown, who merged his Orlando church with Hinn's.
Benny Hinn is the author of a number of Christian books. As of 2013, his television series This Is Your Day was among the world's most-watched Christian programs, airing on various Christian television networks, including the Trinity Broadcasting Network (TBN), Daystar Television Network, Grace TV, and The God Channel. However, TBN dropped Hinn's program in 2016, and Daystar stopped airing it in 2017. As of April 2025, Hinn's website lists Kenneth Copeland's Victory Channel as the only network broadcasting This Is Your Day, with a single weekly airing.
Hinn conducts regular "Miracle Crusades"—revival meeting / faith healing events held in sports stadiums in major cities throughout the world. Hinn claims to have spoken to one billion people through his crusades, including memorable crusades with attendance of 7.3 million people (in three services) in India, the largest healing service in recorded history. In February 2024, Hinn held a Healing the Nation Crusade at Nyayo National Stadium in Nairobi, Kenya, attended by an estimated 500,000 people, including Kenyan President William Ruto and First Lady Rachel Ruto. Evander Holyfield, who was diagnosed with a non-compliant left ventricle, has credited his healing to Benny Hinn, stating that through God working through Hinn, he was healed as he had "a warm feeling" go through his chest as Hinn touched him.
Hinn has maintained a recurring presence at Jesus Image, a charismatic ministry based in Orlando, Florida, founded by his son-in-law Michael Koulianos. Hinn has preached at numerous events and Sunday services hosted by the ministry, including an evening service that was live streamed on June 22, 2025. He is also listed as a teaching author on the Jesus Image website, underscoring both his ongoing prominence and the theological alignment between the two ministries.
== Theology and practices ==
Hinn’s theology places strong emphasis on the anointing, which he claims is a divine empowerment capable of tangibly affecting bodies and being ministered through touch, gestures, or breath. Contemporary reporting has documented how this is expressed at his services: he has been observed blowing on attendees, rubbing or flicking his suit jacket toward the crowd, and making sweeping arm gestures, after which people fall or stagger, phenomena he attributes to the Holy Spirit’s power. Hinn cites healing evangelist Kathryn Kuhlman as a formative influence, linking his understanding of the Holy Spirit’s power and ministry style to her meetings and writings.
=== Slain in the Spirit ===
A recurring feature of Hinn’s events is the phenomenon commonly called slaying in the Spirit, in which participants fall backward, often into the arms of attendants (“catchers”), after prayer or physical contact on stage. A 1987 report described a civil suit after an attendee was allegedly knocked into a bystander during a service where Hinn “was striking people on the forehead, claiming they were ‘slain of the spirit.’"
Scholars of religion and culture have analyzed such charismatic manifestations in broader Pentecostal/charismatic contexts, variously interpreting them through lenses of embodiment, suggestion, ritual, and trance rather than exclusively supernatural causation. Investigative writer Joe Nickell reported from a Hinn crusade that the responses resembled hypnotic suggestion and role-expectation, a view he contrasted with participants’ supernatural interpretations.
=== Faith healing ===
Hinn frequently frames disease-curing miracles as central to his ministry. He names specific conditions—such as cancer, blindness, spinal ailments, and emotional afflictions—as being healed through prayer, touch, or decree at his crusades. In his Buffalo, New York crusade, for example, he named ailments by back, leg, cancer, and claimed they were being healed in the moment. Critics argue that such claims lack independent medical verification and rely heavily on performative, psychosocial, or suggestive elements rather than measurable physiological change. Joe Nickell, attending a Hinn event, reported that the pattern of responses aligned with expectation and suggestion: people “behave just as if ‘hypnotized’” rather than undergoing demonstrable healing.
== Missions ==
Benny Hinn Ministries claims to support 60 mission organizations across the world and several orphanages around the world, and claims to house and feed over 100,000 children a year and support 45,000 children daily because of his donors.
Benny Hinn Ministries donated $100,000 for relief supplies for Hurricane Katrina victims in 2005, and $250,000 to the tsunami relief effort in 2007.
== Criticism and controversy ==
In March 1993 Inside Edition reported on Hinn's $685,000 Orlando home and Mercedes-Benz, despite him having previously claimed a "modest lifestyle". An employee of Inside Edition also faked a healing from cerebral palsy which was shown on Hinn's regular broadcast.
A controversial aspect of Hinn's ministry is his teaching on, and demonstration of, a phenomenon he dubs "The Anointing"—the power purportedly given by God and transmitted through Hinn to carry out supernatural acts. At his Miracle Crusades, he has allegedly healed attendees of blindness, deafness, cancer, AIDS, and severe physical injuries. However, investigative reports by the Los Angeles Times, NBC's Dateline, CBC's The Fifth Estate, and the Nine Network's 60 Minutes have called these claims into question.
Hinn has also caused controversy for theological remarks and claims he has made during TV appearances. In 1999, he appeared on the Trinity Broadcasting Network claiming that God had given him a vision predicting the resurrection of thousands of dead people after watching the network—laying out a scenario of people placing their dead loved ones' hands on TV screens tuned into the station—and suggesting that TBN would be "an extension of Heaven to Earth".
In July 2024, the Trinity Foundation expressed skepticism about Hinn's actual net worth, which various websites have alleged to be $60 million, noting the large drop in ratings for his TV viewership.
=== 1987 Oklahoma lawsuit and safety concerns ===
In August 1987, Benny Hinn and his ministry were named in a lawsuit filed in Oklahoma County District Court after an 85-year-old woman, Ruth L. McClung, died 15 days after being injured during one of his faith-healing crusades. According to court documents cited by The Washington Post and The Oklahoman, the suit alleged that another attendee was struck on the forehead by Hinn during a service at the Myriad Convention Center in Oklahoma City and fell backward into McClung, fracturing her hip. Family members asserted that Hinn and his associates failed to render aid or summon emergency medical help after the incident and sought $5 million in damages from Hinn and World Outreach Church, his affiliated ministry at the time.
=== A Question of Miracles ===
In April 2001, HBO aired a documentary entitled A Question of Miracles that focused on Hinn and a well-documented fellow Word-of-Faith German minister based in Africa, Reinhard Bonnke. Both Hinn and Bonnke offered full access to their events to the documentary crew, and the documentary team followed seven cases of reputed miracle healings from Hinn's crusade over the next year. The film's director, Antony Thomas, told CNN's Kyra Phillips that they did not find any cases where people were actually healed by Hinn. Thomas said in a New York Times interview that "If I had seen miracles [from Hinn's ministry], I would have been happy to trumpet it ... but in retrospect, I think they do more damage to Christianity than the most committed atheist."
=== "Do You Believe in Miracles" ===
In November 2004, the CBC Television show The Fifth Estate did a special titled "Do You Believe in Miracles" on the apparent transgressions committed by Hinn's ministry.
With the aid of hidden cameras and crusade witnesses, the producers of the show demonstrated Hinn's apparent misappropriation of funds, his fabrication of the truth, and the way in which his staff chose crusade audience members to come on stage to proclaim their miracle healings. In particular, the investigation highlighted the fact that the most desperate miracle seekers who attend a Hinn crusade—the quadriplegics, the brain-damaged, virtually anyone with a visibly obvious physical condition—are never allowed on stage; those who attempt to be in the line of possible healings are intercepted and directed to return to their seats.
At one Canadian service, hidden cameras showed a mother who was carrying her muscular dystrophy-afflicted daughter, Grace, being stopped by two screeners when they attempted to get into the line for a possible blessing from Hinn. The screeners asked the mother if Grace had been healed, and when the mother replied in the negative, they were told to return to their seats; the pair got out of line, but Grace, wanting "Pastor Benny to pray for [her]", asked her mother to support her as she tried to walk as a show of "her faith in action", according to the mother. After several unsuccessful attempts at walking, the pair left the arena in tears, both mother and daughter visibly upset at being turned aside and crying as they explained to the undercover reporters that all Grace had wanted was for Hinn to pray for her, but the staffers rushed them out of the line when they found out Grace had not been healed. A week later at a service in Toronto, Baptist evangelist Justin Peters who wrote his Masters in Divinity thesis on Hinn and has attended numerous Hinn crusades since 2000 as part of his research for his thesis and for a seminar he developed about the Word of Faith movement entitled A Call for Discernment, also demonstrated to the hidden cameras that "people who look like me"—Peters has cerebral palsy, walks with arm-crutches, and is obviously and visibly disabled—"are never allowed on stage ... it's always somebody who has some disability or disease that cannot be readily seen." Like Grace and her mother, Peters was quickly intercepted as he came out of the wheelchair section (there is one at every crusade, situated at the back of the audience far away from the stage and never filmed for Hinn's TV show) in an attempt to join the line of those waiting to go onstage, and was told to take a seat.
=== Ministry Watch issues "Donor Alert" ===
In March 2005, Ministry Watch issued a Donor Alert against the ministry citing a lack of financial transparency among other possible problems. Benny Hinn Ministries is not a member of the Evangelical Council for Financial Accountability.
=== Senate investigation ===
In 2007, United States Senator Chuck Grassley announced an investigation of Hinn's ministry by the United States Senate Committee on Finance. In a letter to BHM, Grassley asked for the ministry to divulge financial information to the Senate Committee on Finance to determine if Hinn made any personal profit from financial donations, and requested that Hinn's ministry make the information available. The investigation also scrutinized five other televangelists: Paula White, Kenneth Copeland, Eddie L. Long, Joyce Meyer, and Creflo Dollar. In December 2007, Hinn said he would not respond to the inquiry until 2008. The ministry subsequently responded to the inquiry, and Grassley said that "... Benny Hinn [has] engaged in open and honest dialogue with committee staff. They have not only provided responses to every question but, in the spirit of true cooperation, also have provided information over and above what was requested."
The investigation concluded in 2011 with no penalties or findings of wrongdoing. The final report raised questions about personal use of church-owned luxury goods and a lack of financial oversight on the ministries' boards, which are often populated with family and friends of the televangelist. Hinn's group reported to the committee that it complied with tax regulations and had made changes in compensation and governance procedures.
=== Prosperity theology ===
In 2017, pastor Costi Hinn, a nephew of Hinn, came forward with a testimony of his time spent in Hinn's ministry and what made him leave. In the testimony, Costi Hinn described the expensive cars and lavish houses that he and his family members owned, and the luxury that surrounded their travel. Costi Hinn criticized the prosperity gospel and teachings of his uncle, writing among other things that healings only seemed to work in the crusades, where music created an atmosphere, and that many of their prophecies contradicted the Bible. He has since written a book on the topic titled God, Greed, and the (Prosperity) Gospel. In the book, Costi Hinn calls the prosperity gospel "damning and abusive", exploitative of the poor and vulnerable, and "arguably the most hateful and abusive kind of false teaching plaguing the church today".
In September 2019, he said that Benny Hinn no longer believed in prosperity theology and decided to stop teaching it.
== Personal life ==
Hinn married Suzanne Harthern on 4 August 1979. The couple have four children. She filed divorce papers in California's Orange County Superior Court on 1 February 2010, citing "irreconcilable differences".
In July 2010, Hinn and fellow televangelist Paula White were photographed leaving a hotel in Rome holding hands. Both Hinn and White denied allegations in the National Enquirer that the two were engaged in an affair. Hinn was sued in February 2011 by the Christian publishing house Strang Communications, which claimed that a relationship with White did occur and that Hinn had violated the morality clause of his contract with the company.
In May 2012, Hinn announced that he and Suzanne had begun reconciliation during the Christmas season of 2011, stating that the split had been caused by her addiction to prescription drugs and antidepressants and citing his busy schedule and lack of time for his wife and children. Benny and Suzanne remarried on 3 March 2013, at the Holy Land Experience theme park, in a traditional ceremony lasting over two hours and attended by approximately 1,000 well-wishers, including many visiting Christian leaders. Jack Hayford referred to the remarriage as "a miracle of God's grace". However, in July 2024, Suzanne would once again file for divorce, this time in the Hillsborough County Court in Tampa, Florida.
== Published works ==
Benny Hinn (1999). Kathryn Kuhlman: Her Spiritual Legacy and Its Impact on My Life. W Pub Group. ISBN 0-7852-7888-5.
Benny Hinn (1991). Good Morning, Holy Spirit. Word Pub. ISBN 9780850092295.
Benny Hinn (April 2000). He Touched Me: an Autobiography. Nelson Books. ISBN 0-7852-7887-7.
Benny Hinn (1997). The Anointing. Nelson Books. ISBN 0-7852-7168-6.
Benny Hinn (1997). Welcome, Holy Spirit: How You Can Experience the Dynamic Work of the Holy Spirit in Your Life. Nelson Books. ISBN 0-7852-7169-4.
Benny Hinn (1996). This Is Your Day for a Miracle. Orlando, FL: Creation House. ISBN 0-88419-391-8.
Benny Hinn (October 1996). The Biblical Road to Blessing. Nashville, Tenn: Thomas Nelson Inc. ISBN 0-7852-7517-7.
Benny Hinn (1998). Miracle of Healing. Nashville, Tenn: J. Countryman. ISBN 0-8499-5399-5.
Benny Hinn (2001). The Blood. Lake Mary, FL: Charisma House. ISBN 0-88419-763-8.
Benny Hinn (2002). Going Deeper with the Holy Spirit. Benny Hinn Ministries. ISBN 1-59024-039-1.
Benny Hinn (1993). Lord, I Need a Miracle. Nashville, Tenn: Thomas Nelson Inc. ISBN 0-8407-6251-8.
Benny Hinn (6 July 2005). Total Recovery: Supernatural Restoration and Release. Dallas, Texas: Clarion Call Marketing, Inc. ISBN 1-59574-038-4.
== See also ==
Charismatic movement
Kathryn Kuhlman
List of television evangelists
Prosperity Gospel
Televangelism
Word of Faith
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Ministry Watch Report on Benny Hinn
This is Your Day with Benny Hinn – Daystar Television – Benny Hinn on Daystar Television
RICHES Podcast Documentaries: Calvary Assembly and Benny Hinn, Part 1 Archived 5 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine
RICHES Podcast Documentaires: Calvary Assembly and Benny Hinn, Part 2 Archived 5 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/369_A%C3%ABria | 369 Aëria | 369 Aëria provisional designation 1893 AE, is a metallic asteroid and the parent body of the Aeria family. It orbits in the central region of the asteroid belt, rotates every 4.778 hours and measures approximately 65 kilometers in diameter. The asteroid was discovered on 4 July 1893, by French astronomer Alphonse Borrelly at the Marseille Observatory in southeastern France. It was named for "Air", one of the four classical elements: earth, water, air and fire.
== Orbit and classification ==
Aëria is the parent body of the Aeria family (539), a small asteroid family of less than 300 known members, while the Lightcurve Data Base dynamically groups it to the much larger Eunomia family (502). Named members of the Aeria family include 1184 Gaea, 3324 Avsyuk, 130066 Timhaltigin and 144303 Mirellabreschi.
Aëria orbits the Sun in the central main-belt at a distance of 2.4–2.9 AU once every 4 years and 4 months (1,577 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.10 and an inclination of 13° with respect to the ecliptic. The body's observation arc begins at Marseille on 6 July 1893, two nights after its official discovery observation.
== Physical characteristics ==
In the Tholen classification, Aëria is a metallic M-type asteroid. This agrees with the more generic X-type, assigned to members of the Aeria family.
=== Rotation period ===
Several rotational lightcurves of Aëria have been obtained from photometric observations since 1984, when it was first observed at ESO's La Silla Observatory in Chile. Lightcurve analysis gave a consolidated rotation period of 4.778 hours with a brightness amplitude between 0.04 and 0.13 magnitude (U=2/2/3/2/1).
=== Diameter and albedo ===
According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite and the NEOWISE mission of NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, Aëria measures between 60.00 and 73.77 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.127 and 0.1919.
The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link adopts the results obtained by IRAS, that is, an albedo of 0.1919 and a diameter of 60.0 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 8.52.
=== Occultation events ===
Aëria has been observed by astronomers during at least two occultation events: the first in December 2015 and the other in February 2018. These provided information on the size and shape of the asteroid.
== Naming ==
This minor planet was named after "Air", one of the four classical elements: earth, water, air and fire. It is thought that the asteroid's name may have also been inspired by the two letters of its provisional designation, 1893 AE.
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Asteroid Lightcurve Database (LCDB), query form (info Archived 16 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine)
Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, Google books
Asteroids and comets rotation curves, CdR – Observatoire de Genève, Raoul Behrend
Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (1)-(5000) – Minor Planet Center
369 Aëria at AstDyS-2, Asteroids—Dynamic Site
Ephemeris · Observation prediction · Orbital info · Proper elements · Observational info
369 Aëria at the JPL Small-Body Database |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pok%C3%A9mon_Diamond_and_Pearl#:~:text=Pok%C3%A9mon%20Contests%20are%20events%20in,the%20Game%20Boy%20Advance%20games. | Pokémon Diamond and Pearl | Pokémon Diamond Version and Pokémon Pearl Version are role-playing video games developed by Game Freak and published by The Pokémon Company and Nintendo for the Nintendo DS in 2006. They are the first installments in the fourth generation of the Pokémon video game series. They were first released in Japan on September 28, 2006, and released in North America, Australia, and Europe in 2007. Pokémon Platinum, a third version, was released two years later in each region. Remakes titled Pokémon Brilliant Diamond and Shining Pearl were released for the Nintendo Switch worldwide on November 19, 2021. A prequel, Pokémon Legends: Arceus, was released for the Nintendo Switch on January 28, 2022.
Like previous Pokémon games, Diamond and Pearl chronicle the adventures of a young Pokémon Trainer as they train and battle Pokémon while also thwarting the schemes of a criminal organization called Team Galactic. The games added many new features, such as Internet play over the Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection, changes to battle mechanics and Pokémon Contests, along with the addition of 107 new Pokémon. The games are independent of each other but feature largely the same plot, and while both can be played separately, it is necessary to trade between them in order to complete the games' Pokédex.
Development of Diamond and Pearl was announced at a Nintendo press conference in the fourth calendar quarter of 2004. The games were designed with features of the Nintendo DS in mind. It was forecasted to be released in Japan in 2005, but ultimately shipped in 2006, the 10th anniversary year of the franchise. In promotion of the games, Nintendo sold a limited-edition Nintendo DS Lite in Japan, and held a release party celebrating their North American release.
The games received generally favorable reviews. Most critics praised the addition of Wi-Fi features and graphics, and felt that the gameplay, though it had not received much updating from previous games, was still engaging. The games enjoyed more commercial success than their Game Boy Advance predecessors: with around 18 million units sold worldwide, Diamond and Pearl have sold over 2 million more units than their predecessors Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire and almost 6 million more units than Pokémon FireRed and LeafGreen, while also outselling their successors, Pokémon Black and White, by over 2 million copies. The games are among the most successful Pokémon games of all time.
== Gameplay ==
Pokémon Diamond and Pearl are role-playing video games with adventure elements. The basic mechanics of the games are largely the same as their predecessors. As with all Pokémon games for handheld consoles, the gameplay is in a third-person overhead perspective, and consists of three basic screens: a field map, in which the player navigates the main character; a battle screen; and the menu, in which the player configures their party, items, or gameplay settings. Players begin the game with no Pokémon or Poké Balls but are given the choice of three Pokémon as a part of the storyline. Once Poké Balls are obtained, the player can capture more Pokémon. Players can use their Pokémon to deal damage to other Pokémon in battle. Whenever the player encounters a wild Pokémon or is challenged by a trainer to a battle, the screen switches to a turn-based battle screen where the Pokémon fight. During the battle, the player may use a move, use an item, switch the active Pokémon, or flee. Fleeing is not an option during battles against trainers. All Pokémon have hit points (HP); whenever a Pokémon's HP is reduced to zero, it faints and cannot battle unless revived at a Pokémon Center or with an item. If the player's Pokémon defeats the opposing Pokémon by causing it to faint, it receives experience points. After accumulating enough experience points, it will level up; most Pokémon evolve into a new species of Pokémon whenever they reach a certain level. Pokémon's stats also increase every time it levels up, and they will also learn new moves at certain levels as well. If a Pokémon is prevented from evolving it will learn new moves faster.
Apart from battling, capturing Pokémon returns as a critical component of Pokémon gameplay. Although other trainers' Pokémon cannot be captured, the player can use different kinds of Poké Balls on a wild Pokémon during battle. A successful capture adds the Pokémon to the player's active party or stores it if the player already has a maximum of six Pokémon in their party. Factors in the success rate of capture include the HP of the target Pokémon and the strength of the Poké Ball used; the lower the target's HP and the stronger the Poké Ball, the higher the success rate of capture is. Also, inflicting certain status effects such as sleep or paralysis adds a multiplier to the capture rate, making it easier to capture wild Pokémon. Each species has a capture rate of its own as well.
=== New features ===
As with other generations of Pokémon games, Diamond and Pearl retain the basic gameplay of their predecessors while introducing additional new features. The day-night cycle makes a return and has increased from three times of day in Gold and Silver to five time periods in Diamond and Pearl: morning, day, afternoon, evening, and night. Diamond and Pearl also introduce several changes to battle mechanics. In previous generations, Pokémon moves were classified as "physical" or "special" based on their type; for example, all Fire-type moves were special and all Ground-type moves were physical. In Diamond and Pearl, however, moves are categorized into three groups. Attacks that make physical contact with the opponent are "physical", attacks that do not make physical contact are "special", and moves that do not deal damage are classified as "status".
Some of the games' new features capitalize on the Nintendo DS's features. The Pokétch, a simulated smartwatch, resides on the DS's bottom screen and hosts various applications including a clock, calculator, map, counter, and a drawing pad. These applications are obtained throughout the game. Beneath Sinnoh's surface is the Underground, a large area used for wireless multiplayer gaming; in it, players can create and decorate secret bases, first featured in Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire, and participate in minigames. The items mined in the Underground can then be transferred into the player's bag in the main game. Diamond and Pearl also employ support for the Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection (since discontinued), allowing players to communicate through voice chat, trade, and battle online. The main system for trade is the Global Trade Station, which allows players to trade with people around the world. Players can search for any Pokémon that they have seen in the game and can offer their own; if another player is offering the requested Pokémon and is looking for the offered Pokémon, the trade occurs immediately. A trade does not have to be instant; an offer can be left for other players to browse and complete, even while the player is offline. Certain species of Pokémon traded internationally will have a Pokédex entry in the language of the game it originated from. According to Pokémon art director Ken Sugimori, the Global Trade Station was the new feature he was most pleased with.
Pokémon Contests are events in which the player's Pokémon compete in a show to win ribbons and, in Diamond and Pearl, they consist of three stages, two more than the Contests of the Game Boy Advance games. In the Visual Competition stage, players use the Nintendo DS's touchscreen to place accessories on their Pokémon to boost a particular trait, such as "Cool" or "Cute", and earn points. In the Dance Competition stage, the player must tap buttons on the touchscreen in rhythm with the music. The final stage, Acting Competition, is similar to Pokémon Contests of the Game Boy Advance games; Pokémon use their moves to appeal to the judges and crowd. Like Pokéblocks in the third-generation games, baked goods called Poffins can be made from berries and fed to Pokémon to boost a particular trait, and therefore, the likelihood of success in a relevant Contest.
=== Connectivity to other devices ===
In addition to compatibility with each other, Diamond and Pearl offer compatibility with the third generation Pokémon games, Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire, Emerald, and FireRed and LeafGreen. They are also compatible with Pokémon Ranger and Pokémon Battle Revolution. After earning the National Pokédex in Diamond and Pearl, the player can "Migrate" Pokémon from the Game Boy Advance games to Diamond and Pearl by inserting a Game Boy Advance cartridge into the Game Boy Advance cartridge slot of the Nintendo DS while Diamond or Pearl is in the DS slot. After six Pokémon are uploaded from the cartridge, they are sent to the Pal Park, an area where the player can capture the transferred Pokémon. Pokémon uploads are restricted to six every twenty-four hours per Game Boy Advance cartridge, and the player must capture the uploaded Pokémon before performing another transfer. Pokémon transferred to Diamond and Pearl this way cannot be sent back to a Game Boy Advance cartridge. After completing a special mission in Pokémon Ranger, the player will be able to send a Manaphy egg or Riolu from Ranger to Diamond or Pearl. Finally, players can wirelessly upload Pokémon from Diamond and Pearl to the Wii games Pokémon Battle Revolution and My Pokémon Ranch.
== Story ==
=== Setting ===
Diamond and Pearl are set in the fictional region of Sinnoh, an island based on the Japanese island of Hokkaido. Sinnoh is not directly connected to any other Pokémon region. It is characterized by large, snow-covered mountains; Mt. Coronet, a part of a mountain range, divides Sinnoh in half. Unlike previous regions, Sinnoh has a "northern" feel to it because it is the first region with snow-covered routes. Sinnoh is also characterized by its waterways with three main lakes, Verity, Acuity, and Valor, that form a triangle. Unlike the Hoenn region, however, which is mostly water routes, only 30 percent of Sinnoh's landscape comprises waterways. Underneath Sinnoh's surface is the Sinnoh Underground, which is a large maze of caves and tunnels.
=== Plot ===
The games chronicle the adventures of a new Pokémon Trainer who strives to become the Pokémon League Champion by collecting and training Pokémon. Like most games in the series, Diamond and Pearl feature eight Pokémon Gyms led by Gym Leaders, professional trainers whose expertise lies in a particular Pokémon type. Gym Leaders serve as bosses and reward skilled trainers with Gym Badges, the key to the advancement of the plot. As with all core games, the protagonist must also thwart the schemes of a crime syndicate, in this case, Team Galactic, who plan to use Pokémon to create a new universe just for themselves, while destroying the current one.
As with all other mainline Pokémon games, Diamond and Pearl begin in the protagonist's hometown. After viewing a television report about a media-conducted search for a red Gyarados, which was spotted at a faraway lake, the protagonist and their best friend, Barry by default, travel together to check the local lake for a Pokémon like it. They spot Professor Rowan, a Pokémon evolution researcher, and his assistant, the playable character not selected in the game: Lucas (boy) or Dawn (girl). After a short discussion, the professor and his assistant leave the lake, leaving a briefcase behind. When they are attacked by a wild Starly each, the protagonist and their rival decide to examine the briefcase. They are then given a choice of one of three Pokémon found within—the Grass-type Turtwig, the Fire-type Chimchar, or the Water-type Piplup—and proceed to battle the attacking Pokémon. After defeating the Starly, Lucas or Dawn retrieves and returns the briefcase to the professor. Noticing that a bond has been forged between the young protagonist and his or her chosen Pokémon, Rowan offers it to them, asking that they embark on a journey and fill their Pokédex.
The protagonist encounters the antagonistic group, Team Galactic, early in the game, when he or she must save Professor Rowan from some of their thugs; however, their motives are unclear until later. The player encounters Team Galactic again when they take over a wind farm and when they set up a base in Eterna City, before eventually taking over Sinnoh's three lakes in an attempt to capture the Mirage Pokémon Uxie, Azelf, and Mesprit. Shortly after the player earns their seventh Gym Badge, Team Galactic captures the Mirage Pokémon and imprisons them inside the science laboratory of the Team Galactic Headquarters Building, where its members extract crystals from the Pokémon to create the Red Chain, an object that can control the legendary Pokémon Palkia in Pearl, or Dialga in Diamond. After releasing the trio, the protagonist can access the Spear Pillar, an ancient ruin atop Mt. Coronet, where the leader of Team Galactic summons Dialga or Palkia. The legendary Pokémon's powers begin to overwhelm Sinnoh, causing the newly free Uxie, Azelf, and Mesprit to attempt to stop it. The player then battles Palkia or Dialga, and after defeating or capturing the Pokémon, Sinnoh returns to normal. Afterward, the player continues their journey, eventually reaching the Sinnoh League. After defeating all Elite Four members, they battle the Sinnoh League Champion, a blonded woman named Cynthia, who had appeared before in the game. After the protagonist defeats Cynthia, they become the new Sinnoh League Champion, finishing the main story. In the post-game, a new island to explore contains Pokémon not seen in the main game and has some new stores and a tournament center. The protagonist's old friend, who challenged them to battles multiple times before, will also be waiting for them here and will challenge them to one more battle.
== Development ==
Pokémon Diamond and Pearl were developed by Game Freak and Junichi Masuda served as game director. The game's music was scored by Hitomi Sato and Junichi Masuda under the supervision of Go Ichinose, with a few other fanfares composed by Morikazu Aoki. According to The Pokémon Company's Tsunekazu Ishihara, the games were designed with the DS's unique features in mind, such as the Wi-Fi capabilities and slot for Game Boy Advance cartridges. The command buttons in the battle screen are large and color-coded; according to Masuda, this feature would facilitate gameplay for players unable to read. Also, the touchscreen interface was designed to encourage players to use their fingers rather than the stylus to manipulate the screen. Though most of the graphics in Diamond and Pearl are 2D, some of the background elements are 3D. The decision to retain 2D graphics in Diamond and Pearl drew criticism; in response, Tsunekazu Ishihara said that "we wanted to maintain the original idea of Pokémon being a game that you played on this big map" and explained that physically, the games were in three dimensions but was designed to "maintain the original feel of the game". Responding to criticism over the use of Friend Codes in the games, Ishihara explained that it was a security measure taken to ensure that players would not be able to chat with strangers over the Wi-Fi connection. Nintendo released a statement detailing glitches found in Japanese releases of Diamond and Pearl. The glitches caused players to be stuck in an in-game wall or lose saved data. Nintendo released patches to certain retailers in Japan to fix these glitches.
In mid 2020, dataminers leaked the source code for Diamond and Pearl, revealing a collection of unused sprites and scrapped designs for new Pokémon. They were first leaked onto ResetEra, and were part of a series of Nintendo-related leaks of unfinished builds of games in development.
== Release ==
Development of Pokémon Diamond and Pearl was announced at a Nintendo press conference in the fourth calendar quarter of 2004 alongside the reveal of Pokémon Dash and details on the Japanese launch of the Nintendo DS. Masuda stated it would "become a new type of game that offers a number of new forms of play" and that he was determined to create "the ultimate [Pokémon] version". Though Diamond and Pearl were expected to be released in Japan by 2005, Nintendo revealed that the developers were still working on aspects of the gameplay and that the games would not be released until 2006. The company said that Diamond and Pearl would be able to communicate with Pokémon games for the Game Boy Advance, allowing players to transfer their Pokémon to the new games. Nintendo also announced that the games would make full use of the Wi-Fi capabilities of the DS, allowing 16 players to communicate wirelessly at one time. Further information concerning the games was not released until mid-2006, when Nintendo President Satoru Iwata mentioned that connectivity with Pokémon Battle Revolution was also still in development; new features such as the Pokétch and time sensitivity were also mentioned.
The games were released in Japan on September 28, 2006. To commemorate the release, Nintendo sold a limited-edition DS Lite in Japanese Pokémon Center stores and through the Pokémon fan club by mail. The console featured the games' mascots Dialga and Palkia painted in silver and gold respectively on a metallic black finish. A two-disc soundtrack, Nintendo DS Pokémon Diamond & Pearl Super Music Collection, was also released in Japan on December 22, 2006. It peaked at #253 on Japan's Oricon charts and charted for one week. On December 20, 2006, Nintendo of America announced that the North American release of the games was slated for April 22, 2007, and that those who pre-ordered their copies of the games would receive special DS styluses branded with some of the new Pokémon. Shortly before the games' North American release, The Pokémon Company presented a limited demo of the games for Nintendo's booth at the Game Developer's Conference. To celebrate the games' North American release, Nintendo held a release party at the Nintendo World Store in New York City's Rockefeller Plaza. Nintendo of Europe announced a release date of July 27, 2007, for the European Union, and Nintendo Australia announced a June 21 release date. A launch event was held in GAME stores at Hamleys to celebrate the European release of the games. The event, held on July 26, 2007, offered a chance to purchase the games one day before their official release date and featured an appearance by band McFly. To celebrate the Australian release of the games, Nintendo launched the nationwide Nintendo DS Connection Tour 07; each stop in the tour featured events such as Pokémon Trading Card Game competitions and Pokémon trivia games.
The success of the games revived the popularity of the Pokémon brand. George Harrison, then Nintendo of America's vice president of marketing, noted that the games were attracting "players of all ages"—from younger children to "grown men and women" and older players who "played the original Pokémon games". As a result, Pokémon USA opened a temporary boutique in the Times Square Toys "R" Us that sold exclusively Pokémon licensed merchandise including Jakks Pacific-created action figures, plush toys, backpacks, and clothing. Ronald Boire, president of Toys "R" Us, stated that the store planned to open temporary boutiques in all 585 of its domestic locations. Other Pokémon merchandise included a BattleDome Playset and a talking Pokédex. Additionally, Pokémon USA partnered with Burger King in 2008 to launch a promotional campaign in which Burger King included exclusive Pokémon trading cards and accessories with Kids Meals. The promotion lasted from July 7 to August 3 in the United States and continued through the fall internationally.
=== Pokémon Platinum ===
Pokémon Platinum Version is the third version after Pokémon Diamond and Pearl developed by Game Freak and published by The Pokémon Company and Nintendo for the Nintendo DS handheld game console. It was released on September 13, 2008, in Japan, March 22, 2009, in North America, May 14, 2009, in Australia, and May 22, 2009, in Europe.
Pokémon Platinum has been met with generally positive reception, holding aggregate scores of 84 and 83.14% at Metacritic and GameRankings respectively. It was praised for the additions and changes made to Diamond and Pearl by publications such as IGN, Nintendo Power, and GamePro, though it has been criticized for being too similar to them. IGN included it as the ninth-best Nintendo DS game ever made, as well as nominating it as one of the best DS role-playing games of 2009. It was the fastest-selling game in Japan at the time, shifting 7.6 million copies overall.
== Reception ==
Pokémon Diamond and Pearl garnered slightly higher ratings than FireRed and LeafGreen and Ruby and Sapphire. The highest score given was a 92 by UK Official Nintendo Magazine, while the lowest was a 67 by Game Revolution. Official Nintendo Magazine would later go on to rank the game 20th in a list of the greatest Nintendo games. Ryan Davis of GameSpot gave the games an 8.5/10, "Great", and called the games "the most well-rounded Pokémon games to date." IGN and GameZone also gave the games an 8.5/10. The UK Official Nintendo Magazine gave the games 92%, and GameSpy gave them a 4.5/5. The games received slightly lower reviews from ComputerAndVideoGames.com than Ruby and Sapphire had, but earned an "A−" grade from 1UP.com, an improvement from Ruby and Sapphire's "B−".
Most reviewers felt that though the gameplay and storyline had not changed much since the first games, Diamond and Pearl were still engaging. Ryan Davis of GameSpot said, "[I]t's a little surprising how well the formula holds up in Diamond and Pearl, which is a testament to the strong fundamentals of the series as well as the quality of the execution." The games' Wi-Fi connectivity also earned largely positive reviews. 1UP.com called the addition of wireless connectivity the games' "biggest improvements". GameSpot and GameSpy both listed the addition of online play as one of the positive points of the games and called the system "robust" and "probably the most significant new feature." ComputerAndVideoGames.com said of the Global Trade Center, "Suddenly, Pokémon feels properly alive for the first time since playgrounds were abuzz with monsters in the late '90s – and you'll instantly forgive Game Freak their technical stubbornness the first time you switch on your DS and find the level 100 Munchlax you craved is on your cart."
The graphics generally received positive reviews. GameSpot praised the blend of 2D and 3D graphics, and GameZone said that the graphics were "better than what I had originally imagined" and that "a Pokemon title hasn't ever looked this good on a handheld." GameSpy felt that the graphics, though simple, made the game "a pleasure to explore". ComputerAndVideoGames.com, however, said that "the so-called '3D' isn't up to much: it's just a viewpoint shuffle, with DS's gutsy engine taking a nice long nap between the odd hypnotic windfarm or fog effect." The audio was not so well-received: IGN felt that the cries made by the Pokémon "still screech with the flair of the original Game Boy" and that the music, while "more advanced", was "not much beyond [Game Boy Advance] quality". GameZone also felt that the sounds had not been updated, saying "This [the audio] is the only area that hasn't taken one step forward. It remains stagnant and doesn't show any progression over the GBA titles". GameSpot cited the games' "recycled" sounds as one of the negative points.
=== Sales ===
First released in Japan in 2006, Pokémon Diamond and Pearl have the most successful launch week of games in the Pokémon series, and the best launch week for any Nintendo DS game for the country alone. Within forty-six days, the games sold three million units, becoming the fastest DS games to do so; by the end of the year, the number increased to five million units in just under three months, making Diamond and Pearl the best-selling Pokémon games in Japan. In the United States, pre-orders for Diamond and Pearl passed 533,000, almost twice the pre-sale numbers for FireRed and LeafGreen. Within five days of release, the games sold around one million copies and were the fastest-selling Pokémon games ever until the release of Pokémon Platinum. The games were the seventh-best-selling video games of 2007, with around 4.27 million units sold in the United States; in early 2009 sales passed 5.3 million units. As of September 30, 2017, Pokémon Diamond and Pearl combined have sold 17.67 million copies worldwide, making their sales totals around one million higher than those of Ruby and Sapphire and around six million higher than those of FireRed and LeafGreen. The games also boosted sales of hardware in the United States, spurring the sales of 471,000 DS units and causing the sales of video games in April 2007 to rise 20% from April 2006. In Europe, the games sold around 1.6 million units within just seven weeks of their release and topped the charts in Spain, Germany, and the United Kingdom. Additionally, there have been more than 10 million Pokémon trades via Wi-Fi.
=== Awards ===
At G4's G-phoria 2007, the games won "Best Handheld Game", and were nominated for "Best RPG". In 2008 Pokémon Diamond and Pearl were nominated for the British Academy of Film and Television Arts Children's Kids Vote Award. In IGN's Best of 2007 Awards, Diamond and Pearl were named the best Nintendo DS online multiplayer games and the best Nintendo DS RPG games of the year. In the 2006 Famitsu Game Awards, Diamond and Pearl won the Best Hit award and tied with Final Fantasy XII for the Game of the Year award.
Competitive battling in Pokémon became much more popular with Diamond and Pearl. The physical special split allowed Pokémon such as Gengar and Gyarados to use their higher attacking stat and gave special/physical coverage moves to formerly all-physical/special types, and online play made Pokémon battling possible all over the world.
== Legacy ==
=== Remakes and prequel ===
Pokémon Brilliant Diamond and Shining Pearl are enhanced remakes of the games and were released for the Nintendo Switch on November 19, 2021. Pokémon Legends: Arceus is an action role-playing game which serves as a prequel to Diamond and Pearl and is set in an older version of the Sinnoh region known as the Hisui region. It was released for the Nintendo Switch on January 28, 2022. Both games were initially revealed in a Pokémon Presents presentation on February 26, 2021.
Brilliant Diamond and Shining Pearl were produced by ILCA, and acted as "faithful" remakes to Diamond and Pearl, with the addition of game mechanics introduced in later titles. The games were released to "mixed" or average reviews, with positivity being directed towards its faithful nature, and criticism towards the lack of Pokémon Platinum features and how the game handled newer features being meshed with older ones. Additionally, its graphics art-style, which made characters in the overworld resemble "chibis" received mixed responses from critics. As of May 2022, the games had sold over fourteen million copies.
Pokémon Legends: Arceus, while maintaining core gameplay mechanics, changed how the overworld was traversed, with players being able to freely explore five different areas or "biomes" of Hisui. Players can actively interact with Pokémon in the overworld, with hostile Pokémon capable of attacking and injuring the player character. Players can engage with Pokémon in battle from the overworld. The game received "generally favorable reviews" from critics, with many praising the new gameplay style and direction, with criticism being directed towards the game's art-style. The game was nominated for Best RPG at The Game Awards. By May 2022, the game had shifted over twelve million copies.
=== Related games ===
Pokémon Battle Revolution is the first Wii incarnation of the Pokémon video game franchise. The game uses wireless connection in order to connect to the Nintendo DS, allowing players to use their Pokémon from Diamond and Pearl in the game's various modes.
My Pokémon Ranch is a Wii game developed by Ambrella and released via the WiiWare download service. First released on March 25, 2008, in Japan, it was later made available in North America on June 9, 2008, and in Europe on July 4, 2008, for 1,000 Wii Points, equivalent to US$10.00. Like the GameCube's Pokémon Box: Ruby and Sapphire, Pokémon Ranch allows players to store and arrange Pokémon from Diamond and Pearl. Pokémon transferred from those games to My Pokémon Ranch are rendered in 3D and can interact with the player's Miis.
== Footnotes ==
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rastriya_Swatantra_Party | Rastriya Swatantra Party | The Rastriya Swatantra Party (Nepali: राष्ट्रिय स्वतन्त्र पार्टी, lit. 'National Independence Party', abbr. RSP) is a centrist political party in Nepal. The party was running as a coalition partner in Prachanda-led government with four cabinet ministries from 6 March 2024 to 12 July 2024.
Previously, it remained as a junior ally in the Prachanda-led government from 26 December 2022 until 5 February 2023. The party was announced by Rabi Lamichhane in June 2022 and registered with the Election Commission of Nepal on 1 July 2022, ahead of the 2022 Nepalese general election. The RSP was the fourth-largest national party in Nepal following the 2022 election.
== History ==
=== Formation-present ===
On 16 June 2022, Rabi Lamichhane resigned as managing director of Galaxy 4K television and announced that he would be contesting in the 2022 general elections for a seat at the House of Representatives. On 21 June 2022, he announced the formation of Rastriya Swatantra Party along with a 21-member central committee. The party was formally registered in the Election Commission on 1 July 2022 with Rabi Lamichhane as the founding president and a bell inside a circle as its election symbol.
The party fielded FPTP candidates in 131 constituencies and submitted a closed list of prospective 107 PR lawmakers for seats of House of Representatives amidst the 2022 general elections. The party did not field any candidates for provincial assemblies. The party selected candidates through primary elections. While the party emerged as the fourth-largest party in the House of Representatives, it secured victory in seven constituencies of which four were in Kathmandu, one in Lalitpur and two in Chitwan. It received 10.70% of the party list vote and became one of the seven national parties in the Federal Parliament. The party was allotted with 13 seats through the proportional representation system, bringing their total parliamentary strength in the House of Representatives to 20. Later the party won Tanahun 1 constituency where the party fielded Swarnim Wagle who later advocated in parliament for decreasing the number of army in country.
Party president Rabi Lamichhane fled from the Nakkhu jail during the 2025 Nepalese Gen Z protests later to which he gave justification that it was per the decision of Ministry of Home Affairs. Later the credibility was rejected by the prison administration while he faced mass criticism for indirectly promoting prisoned criminals to run away from prison. Party leaders remained divided on dissolving the parliament where leaders including Sobita Gautam condemned possibility of any such moves. Party joint general secretary and former MP Sumana Shrestha resigned from the post and later from party membership on 14 September 2025 in the awake of protests citing culture of leader worship in the party. Later party chief whip Santosh Pariyar left the party to form Pragatisheel Loktantrik Party citing that development of a personality could never lead to development of Nation.
== Organization ==
The party had announced that it would have no sister organizations and only have members, not cadres. It had also announced that primary elections would be held to select candidates for elections from the party.
== Ideology ==
The party supports constitutional socialism, market socialism, progressivism, political pragmatism, participatory democracy, economic liberalism and political freedom. The party has been described as centrist by different members within the party.
== Ministry responsible ==
=== Under Dahal Cabinet ===
==== From 6 March 2024 to 12 July 2024 ====
==== From 17 January 2023 to 5 February 2023 ====
== Policy platform ==
=== Natural order of the economy ===
The party endorses a "capitalistic" economy policy with individual rights. Industrial and commercial activities are off-limits to the government, which cannot interfere with economic relations between individuals, groups, classes, or entire nations. The party supports the idea that economic freedom will drive the economy to the prosperity and so does the planning and interference by the government disrupt the economy and have adverse effects.
=== Electoral reform ===
It also supports the introduction of recall elections, the right to reject and a provision for absentee ballots. The party also supports a directly elected prime minister and directly elected chief ministers for the seven provinces of Nepal.
The party in its manifesto for the 2022 elections also supported the idea of a non-partisan president elected by an expanded electoral college which would incorporate elected representatives from ward chairs to federal lawmakers and also touted the idea of the chairman of the National Assembly acting as the de facto vice-president. The party also seeks to end political appointments in constitutional bodies and has called for the Constitutional Council to be scrapped and for appointments to constitutional bodies be recommended by the National Assembly and confirmed by the House of Representatives instead. The party has also called for the dissolution of provincial assemblies, district co-ordination committees and has stood in favour of a provincial council which would be elected by the heads of local governments in the province. The party chair Rabi Lamichhane did not cast his vote at the 2022 provincial elections.
=== Economic and social welfare ===
The party sees the private sector, co-operatives and the public sector as the three pillars of the economy. The party favors competition and seeks to establish a growing role of the private sector as an alternative to the public sector in order to deliver services to the people and for economic growth. The party wants to end income tax for people in the lowest octile of earners in the country. The party also seeks to establish food banks in every ward in the country and to guarantee nutrition assistance for people living under the poverty line by issuing them ration cards. The party also seeks to expand the current social welfare system and to include private insurance companies in the social welfare system.
=== Healthcare ===
The party supports the establishment of a single-payer healthcare system and the establishment of at least one laboratory and a 750-bed hospital in each of the seven provinces, a 50 to 100-bed hospital in each of the 77 districts, a 6 to 25-bed hospital in each local unit and a clinic in each ward in the country. The party also wants to establish a centralized national ambulance service, health and quality assurance accreditation board, a food and drug department, a central disease board and a health innovation & development board. The party also wants to create a health workers act for public healthcare workers.
=== Corruption ===
The party seeks to crackdown on corruption by introducing a Whistleblower Protection Act to protect whistleblowers and by establishing an Anti-Corruption Police under the Commission for the Investigation of Abuse of Authority.
=== Women and sexual minorities ===
The party has also called for the establishment of shelters for victims of abuse and the creation of a fund to help victims of human trafficking, domestic violence and acid attack victims. The party also seeks to promote entrepreneurship among women and sexual minorities by establishing funds for businesses where at least sixty percent of the shareholders or employees are female or of a sexual minority group.
== Electoral performance ==
=== 2022 general election ===
The party nominated 131 candidates for the First Past the Post seats for the 2022 Nepalese general election.
== Leadership ==
=== Party Chairman ===
Rabi Lamichhane (2023–present)
=== Deputy Chairman ===
Dol Prasad Aryal (2023–present) (acting chairman)
Swarnim Wagle (2023–present)
=== Joint Secretary ===
Sumana Shrestha (2023-2025)
Deepak Bohara (2025–present)
=== Deputy Leader of the Parliamentary Party ===
Biraj Bhakta Shrestha (2023–present)
=== Chief Whip ===
Santosh Pariyar (2023–present)
=== General secretary ===
Mukul Dhakal (June 2022- July 2024)
Kabindra Burlakoti (July 2024–present)
=== Spokesperson ===
Manish Jha (2023–present)
=== List of Deputy Prime Ministers ===
== Members of Parliament ==
=== Pratinidhi Shabha (2022-dissolution) ===
This MPs list is based on the order of power holdings within the party and ministry level and length of presence in the meeting of house of representatives.
== See also ==
Politics of Nepal
Ujyaalo Nepal Party
Pragatisheel Loktantrik Party
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolling_Stone%27s_500_Greatest_Songs_of_All_Time | Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time | "The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time" is a recurring song ranking compiled by the American magazine Rolling Stone. It is based on weighted votes from selected musicians, critics, and industry figures. The first list was published in December 2004 in a special issue of the magazine, issue number 963, a year after the magazine published its list of "The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time". In 2010, Rolling Stone published a revised edition, drawing on the original and a later survey of songs released up until the early 2000s.
Another updated edition of the list was published in 2021, with more than half the entries not having appeared on either of the two previous editions; it was based on a new survey and did not factor in the surveys conducted for the previous lists. The 2021 list was based on a poll of more than 250 artists, musicians, producers, critics, journalists, and industry figures. They each sent in a ranked list of their top 50 songs, and Rolling Stone tabulated the results. In 2024, a revised version of the list was published, with the addition of songs from the 2020s.
== Top 10 songs ==
2004 and 2010 revision
2021 and 2024 revision
== Statistics ==
=== 2004 list ===
Of the 500 songs, 351 are from the United States and 120 from the United Kingdom; followed by Canada with 13; Ireland with 12 entries (of which 8 were composed by U2); Jamaica with 7; Australia with two (AC/DC); Sweden (ABBA) and France (Daft Punk) each with one.
The list includes only songs written in English, with the sole exception of "La Bamba" (number 345), sung in Spanish by the American singer-songwriter Ritchie Valens.
Although the list is "of all time", few songs written prior to the 1950s are included; some that are listed are Robert Johnson's "Crossroads" (1936), in the version recorded by Cream, and Hank Williams' "I'm So Lonesome I Could Cry" (1949). "The House of the Rising Sun", listed in the version by English rock band the Animals, was recorded at least as early as 1934. Muddy Waters' "Rollin' Stone" (1950) is based on an earlier song, dating to the 1920s.
There is one instrumental on the list: "Green Onions" by the American band Booker T. and the M.G.'s (number 181).
The number of songs from each of the decades represented in the 2004 version is as follows:
The Beatles are the most represented musical act, with 23 songs on the list. John Lennon, Paul McCartney and George Harrison are also represented as solo artists. Lennon is the only artist to appear twice in the top 10, as a member of the Beatles and as a solo artist. The Beatles are followed by the Rolling Stones (14); Bob Dylan (13); Elvis Presley (11); U2 (8); the Beach Boys and Jimi Hendrix (7); Led Zeppelin, Prince, Sly and the Family Stone, James Brown, and Chuck Berry (6); Elton John, Ray Charles, the Clash, the Drifters, Buddy Holly, and the Who (5).
The artists not included on the list of the top 100 artists but having the most songs featured in the list are the Animals, Blondie, and the Isley Brothers, each with three songs.
The album with the most entries on the list (excluding compilation albums) is Are You Experienced by the Jimi Hendrix Experience with four songs on the list: "Purple Haze" (number 17), "Foxy Lady" (number 152), "Hey Joe" (number 198) and "The Wind Cries Mary" (number 370).
Three songs appear on the list twice, performed by different artists: "Mr. Tambourine Man", performed by Bob Dylan (number 107) and by the Byrds (number 79); "Blue Suede Shoes" by Elvis Presley (number 430) and by Carl Perkins (number 95), and "Walk This Way" by Aerosmith (number 346) and by Run-DMC (number 293).
The shortest tracks are "Rave On!" by Buddy Holly (1:47), "Great Balls of Fire" by Jerry Lee Lewis (1:52), and Eddie Cochran's "C'mon Everybody" (1:53).
The longest tracks are "The End" by the Doors (11:41), "Desolation Row" by Bob Dylan (11:21), and "Marquee Moon" by Television (9:58).
Love is the most frequent word used in the songs' lyrics, with 1,057 occurrences, followed by I'm (1,000), oh (847), know (779), baby (746), got (702), and yeah (656).
=== 2010 list ===
In May 2010, Rolling Stone compiled an update, published in a special issue and in digital form for the iPod and iPad. The list differs from the 2004 version, with 26 songs added, all of which are songs from the 2000s except "Juicy" by The Notorious B.I.G., released in 1994. The top 25 remained unchanged, but many songs down the list were given different rankings as a result of the inclusion of new songs, causing consecutive shifts among the songs listed in 2004. The highest-ranked new entry was Gnarls Barkley's "Crazy" (number 100).
The number of songs from each decade in the updated version is as follows:
Two songs by U2 and two by Jay-Z were added to the list. Jay-Z is featured in two other new songs on the list: "Crazy in Love" by Beyoncé, and "Umbrella" by Rihanna.
The only artist to have two songs dropped from the list is the Crystals; their "Da Doo Ron Ron" (previously number 114) was the highest-ranked song to have been dropped.
=== 2021 list ===
The most represented musical act is once again the Beatles (12), followed by Bob Dylan, David Bowie, the Rolling Stones (7), Prince, Beyoncé (6) and Bruce Springsteen (5).
The album with the most entries on the list (excluding compilation albums) is Born to Run by Bruce Springsteen with three songs on the list: "Born to Run" (number 27), "Thunder Road" (number 111) and "Jungleland" (number 298).
The most represented year is 1971, with 21 songs from that year in the Top 500, including 6 in the Top 100.
Daddy Yankee's "Gasolina" was listed as released in 2010 by mistake, when it was released in 2004.
Six songs were added back to the list after being removed: "Lose Yourself" by Eminem (number 167), "One Nation Under a Groove" by Funkadelic (number 210), "More Than A Feeling" by Boston (number 212), "The Boys are Back in Town" by Thin Lizzy (number 272), "Da Doo Ron Ron" by the Crystals (number 366), and "Lola" by the Kinks (number 386).
The highest entry for a newly added song is "Dreams" by Fleetwood Mac at number 9.
The highest entry not in the English language is "Gasolina" by Daddy Yankee at number 50.
Thirty songs from the 2010s were added, with the highest entry being "Dancing On My Own" by Robyn at number 20.
The highest entry for a song from 2020 is "Safaera" by Bad Bunny at number 329.
The highest entry from the previous lists to be excluded is "Hound Dog" by Elvis Presley, originally placed at number 19. The original version by Big Mama Thornton is, however, present at number 318 after being absent from the earlier iterations of the list.
The longest song on the list is "Walk On By" by Isaac Hayes (12:00) (number 312), and the shortest is "Old Town Road" by Lil Nas X (1:53) (number 490). The live version of "Whipping Post" by the Allman Brothers Band (number 410) is specifically referenced in the article and is 22:40, almost twice as long as any other song on the list if counted.
Four songs are featured twice on the list, performed by different artists: "Walk On By" by Dionne Warwick (number 51) and Isaac Hayes (number 312), "Gloria" by Them (number 413) and Patti Smith (number 97), "Mr. Tambourine Man" by Bob Dylan (number 164) and the Byrds (number 230) and "Killing Me Softly with His Song" by Roberta Flack (number 273) and Fugees (number 359).
=== 2024 list ===
=== Artists with multiple songs (2024 edition) ===
11 songs
The Beatles
7 songs
6 songs
5 songs
Bruce Springsteen
4 songs
3 songs
2 songs
== See also ==
The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's selection of 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll
Rockism and poptimism
Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time
Rolling Stone's 100 Greatest Music Videos of All Time
== References ==
== External links ==
"500 Greatest Songs of All Time" by Rolling Stone magazine (updated version of the list)
"Dylan track voted 'greatest song'". BBC News. 2004-11-17. Retrieved 2009-11-08. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Voevodsky | Vladimir Voevodsky | Vladimir Alexandrovich Voevodsky (, Russian: Влади́мир Алекса́ндрович Воево́дский; 4 June 1966 – 30 September 2017) was a Russian-American mathematician. His work in developing a homotopy theory for algebraic varieties and formulating motivic cohomology led to the award of a Fields Medal in 2002. He is also known for the proof of the Milnor conjecture and motivic Bloch–Kato conjectures and for the univalent foundations of mathematics and homotopy type theory.
== Early life and education ==
Vladimir Voevodsky's father, Aleksander Voevodsky, was head of the Laboratory of High Energy Leptons in the Institute for Nuclear Research at the Russian Academy of Sciences. His mother Tatyana was a chemist. Voevodsky attended Moscow State University for a while, but was expelled without a diploma for refusing to attend classes and failing academically. He received his Ph.D. in mathematics from Harvard University in 1992 after being recommended without even applying and without a formal college degree, following several independent publications; he was advised there by David Kazhdan.
While he was a first year undergraduate, he was given a copy of "Esquisse d'un Programme" (submitted a few months earlier by Alexander Grothendieck to CNRS) by his advisor George Shabat. He learned the French language "with the sole purpose of being able to read this text" and started his research on some of the themes mentioned there.
== Work ==
Voevodsky's work was in the intersection of algebraic geometry with algebraic topology. Along with Fabien Morel, Voevodsky introduced a homotopy theory for schemes. He also formulated what is now believed to be the correct form of motivic cohomology, and used this new tool to prove Milnor's conjecture relating the Milnor K-theory of a field to its étale cohomology. For the above, he received the Fields Medal at the 24th International Congress of Mathematicians held in Beijing, China.
In 1998 he gave a plenary lecture (A1-Homotopy Theory) at the International Congress of Mathematicians in Berlin. He coauthored (with Andrei Suslin and Eric M. Friedlander) Cycles, Transfers and Motivic Homology Theories, which develops the theory of motivic cohomology in some detail.
From 2002, Voevodsky was a professor at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey.
In January 2009, at an anniversary conference in honor of Alexander Grothendieck, held at the Institut des Hautes Études Scientifiques, Voevodsky announced a proof of the full Bloch–Kato conjectures.
In 2009, he constructed the univalent model of Martin-Löf type theory in simplicial sets. This led to important advances in type theory and in the development of new univalent foundations of mathematics that Voevodsky worked on in his final years. He worked on a Rocq (then: Coq) library UniMath using univalent ideas.
In April 2016, the University of Gothenburg awarded an honorary doctorate to Voevodsky.
== Death and legacy ==
Voevodsky died on 30 September 2017 at his home in Princeton, New Jersey, aged 51, from an aneurysm. He was survived by his daughters, Diana Yasmine Voevodsky and Natalia Dalia Shalaby.
== Selected works ==
Voevodsky, Vladimir; Suslin, Andrei; Friedlander, Eric M. (2000). Cycles, transfers, and motivic homology theories. Annals of Mathematics Studies. Vol. 143. Princeton University Press. ISBN 9781400837120.
Mazza, Carlo; Voevodsky, Vladimir; Weibel, Charles A. (2011). 'Lecture notes on motivic cohomology. Clay Mathematics Monographs. Vol. 2. American Mathematical Society. ISBN 9780821853214.
== Notes ==
== References ==
Friedlander, Eric M.; Rapoport, Michael; Suslin, Andrei (2003). "The mathematical work of the 2002 Fields medalists" (PDF). Notices Amer. Math. Soc. 50 (2): 212–217.
== Further reading ==
More information about his work can be found on his website.
The Voevodsky memorial page contains a near complete listing of his published and unpublished papers, talks, and works-in-progress.
== External links ==
Vladimir Voevodsky on GitHub Contains the slides of many of his recent lectures.
По большому филдсовскому счету Интервью с Владимиром Воеводским и Лораном Лаффоргом
Julie Rehmeyer, Vladimir Voevodsky, Revolutionary Mathematician, Dies at 51, New York Times, 6 October 2017
O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Vladimir Voevodsky", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews
Vladimir Voevodsky at the Mathematics Genealogy Project |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merata_Mita#Death | Merata Mita | Merata Mita (19 June 1942 – 31 May 2010) was a New Zealand filmmaker, producer, and writer, and a key figure in the growth of the Māori screen industry. Mita was the first indigenous woman and the first woman in New Zealand to solely write and direct a dramatic feature film Mauri (1988).
== Early life ==
Mita was born on 19 June 1942 in Maketu in New Zealand's Bay of Plenty. She was the third of nine children and had a traditional rural Māori upbringing. She was from the Māori iwi of Ngāti Pikiao and Ngāi Te Rangi.
== Filmmaking career ==
Mita taught at Kawerau College for eight years, where she began using film and video to reach high school students characterised as "unteachable", many of them Māori and Pacific Islander. She learned that the film and video equipment helped her students with their education as it was a form of oral storytelling, where they could express themselves through various art forms, such as drawing and image. This experience led to Mita's interest in filmmaking. She initially started her filmmaking career by working with film crews as a liaison person, with her first documenta. Through these jobs, she discovered that foreign filmmakers had the access to tell the stories of Māori people, where she then decided to become a filmmaker herself. Mita started her technical education by having jobs as a sound assistant and a sound recordist. Over time, people started to take note of her contributions as part of the film crew. The experience eventually led her into a lengthy career in the film and television industry. Later on, she moved to Hawaii in 1990 and taught documentary film making at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa.
In 1987, Mita debuted with her first feature-length film, Mauri (1988). The film presents a sharp contrast with the mainstream production industry at its time. Opposite to the common settler narratives in New Zealand cinema, Mauri spikes a challenge to the state authority to reinforce their historical commitment to bi-culturalism and honor the Treaty of Waitangi. Its title, meaning cycles of life and spiritual connection to the indigenous land, is a bold statement of the Maori identity that reaffirms cultural soverignty and confronts the white Pakeha audience to learn a new mode of storytelling on screen.
=== Acting ===
Mita played the role of 'Matu' in the New Zealand feature film Utu (1983), which was directed by her husband Geoff Murphy, starred Anzac Wallace, and featured veteran Māori actor Wi Kuki Kaa. She also acted in The Protesters, a teleplay written by Rowley Habib.
== Political activism through Maori filmmaking ==
Mita's filmmaking has been classified as "Fourth Cinema," a term that was made by New Zealand filmmaker, Barry Barclay. "Fourth Cinema" is described as indigenous cinema created by indigenous filmmakers for indigenous audiences. From the inception of the New Zealand film industry up until the 1970s, cinematic portrayals of the Maori were almost exclusively crafted by the male Pakeha, or white European New Zealanders. Maori culture was frequently overlooked and reduced to various myths and fantasies that reflected colonial sentiments of desire for subjugation and control. The 1970s marked a turning point in the nation's history, as the treatment of the Maori came under increasing scrutiny. This shift was partly influenced by the emergence of international movements such as the women's liberation movement, anti-racist movements, and LGBT movements. However, it was primarily driven by the large-scale post-war migration of Māori from their rural and coastal ancestral territories into the Pākehā-dominated urban areas. According to Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand, proportions of Maori residents in urban areas had a 37% increase from 1945 to 1966. Moving into these new urban areas made it challenging for many Māori to pass on their cultural traditions to the next generation and consequently, many began to lose their roots and felt pressured to integrate into Pākehā society.
This paved the way for the Māori Renaissance, a transformative movement aimed at expressing the Māori perspective on their challenges and preserving their identity and traditions. Author Stephen Turner writes that the hill in Mita's film Mauri (1988) "[...] has filmic agency. I see it as a central figure and actor, and the vehicle for the 'mauri' (the principle or force of life) of the film's title [...] Fourth Cinema is a medium through which things pass, enabling people and place to be recollected and connected in the viewing experience."
Merata Mita made boldly political films throughout her career as a director and producer. In one of her early interviews, she explicitly expressed the close-knit connection between her personal life and political filmmaking.PL: Most of your films have been about Maori and trade-union struggles, but you don't call yourself a political film-maker ... MM: Well, it's such a narrow definition. I think any aspect of life is political. As soon as you open your mouth you are in the arena of politics, so I've been brought up knowing that being Maori is political, being a woman is political. I don't want to wear an elitist label that removes me from the people I know, the struggles I'm involved with. The things that I film are things that I'm actively involved with, I'm not the detached observer running around with the camera merely observing things. I film the struggles that I've had experience in first-hand, like the Maori land occupations, anti-apartheid and anti-racist struggles, like being a worker in a factory.Mita was determined to make films that were about feminist decolonisation and indigenisation. She made films that represented Māori people and their culture, which were specifically made for Māori audiences. These films were made as a way to encourage young Māori and indigenous filmmakers after viewing these films, which portrayed their people authentically. In 1972, she was a co-director with Ramai Te Miha Hayward of To Love A Māori (1972). An accomplished documentary director and producer for more than 25 years, Mita made landmark documentary films such as Bastion Point: Day 507 (1980), about the eviction of Ngāti Whātua from their traditional land. At the time of the protest, Merata's team was the only media permissioned with filming access from the iwi (tribe), making this a significant case for the Māori control of the image. She also made the feature-length documentary Patu! (1983), about the violent clashes between anti-apartheid protesters and the police during the controversial 1981 South African Springboks rugby tours in New Zealand and Hotere (2001) documented the life and work of well-known Māori artist Ralph Hotere. She also directed the music video Waka for hip-hop artist Che Fu.
== Biographic work ==
In 1998, Mita was the subject of a documentary in the television series, Rangatira: Merata Mita – Making Waves, directed by Hinewehi Mohi.
In October 2014, NZ on Air announced funding for a biographical film, Te Taki A Merata Mita – How Mum Decolonised The Screen, to be directed by her son Heperi Mita, for cinematic release and screening on Māori Television. On 28 November 2018, the documentary was accepted into the Sundance Film Festival in their 2019 programme.
== International influence ==
Mita's influence among indigenous filmmakers internationally was considerable, through film organisations and film festivals in which she mentored, such as the Sundance Film Festival's Native Film Initiative, the National Geographic All Roads Indigenous Film Festival, the Corporation for Public Broadcasting's consortium Pacific Islanders in Communications, and through her teaching at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa. In 2016, the Merata Mita Fellowship was created by the Sundance Institute for native or indigenous filmmakers globally at any stage of their career or production.
== Recognition and awards ==
Some of Mita's recognition and awards included the Amiens International Film Festival's "MRAP Award" for her documentary, Patu!, in 1983, Rimini Film Festival's "Best Film" for Mauri in 1989, Flaherty Seminar's "Leo Dratfield Award for Commitment and Excellence in Documentary" in 1996, Taos Film Festival's "Mountain Award for excellence, commitment, and innovation" in 1999, the Te Waka Toi, part of the Creative New Zealand Te Tohu Toi Ke – "Making a difference" Award (2009), and the 2010 New Year Honours, when she was appointed a Companion of the New Zealand Order of Merit for her services to the film industry. Mita was also nominated for Asia Pacific Screen Awards' "Best Children's Feature Film" with Ainsley Gardiner, Cliff Curtis and Emanuel Michael, for the film, Boy, in 2010, and for Aotearoa Film and Television Awards' "Best Director - Television Documentary" for Saving Grace - Te Whakarauora Tangata in 2011. National Geographic All Roads Festival's "Merata Mita Award" is an annual award that recognises a "Legacy of Outstanding Storytelling" was established in Mita's honour in 2010.
== Personal life ==
Mita had seven children: Rafer, Richard, Rhys, Lars, Awatea, Eruera and Hepi. Her fourth son, Lars, died as an infant at the age of 11 months. Her son Hepi Mita from her longtime relationship with Geoff Murphy produced a documentary Merata: How Mum Decolonised the Screen on his mother's cinematic legacy which was released in 2018.
== Death ==
Mita died suddenly on 31 May 2010, after collapsing outside the studios of Māori Television.
== Works ==
Mita directed or collaborated on numerous films and television shows, including:
=== Films ===
The Hammer and the Anvil (1979) – Co-director, co-producer
Karanga Hokianga (1979) – Director, co-editor
Bastion Point: Day 507 (1980) – Co-director, co-editor
Kinleith '80 (1981) – Community liaison
Keskidee Aroha (1981) – Co-director, co-producer
The Bridge: A Story of Men in Dispute (1982) – Co-director, Sound
Utu (1983) – Role: Matu, Cultural Advisor
Patu! (1983) – Director, producer
Mauri (1988) – Director, writer, producer
Mana Waka (1990) – Director, sound designer, writer
The Shooting of Dominick Kaiwhata (1993) – Director, Producer
Dread (1996) – Director, writer
Te Paho (1997) – Director, writer
Hotere (2001) – Director, writer, producer
The Land Has Eyes (2004) – Executive Producer
Spooked (2004) – Producer, Second Unit Director, Role: Fred’s wife
Boy (2010) – Co-producer
Saving Grace - Te Whakarauora Tangata (2011) – Director
Merata: How Mum Decolonised the Screen (2018) – Subject
=== Television shows ===
Women - Māori Women in a Pākehā World (Episode Four) (1977) – Subject
Karanga Hokianga ki o Tamariki (1979) – Director, producer
Koha (1980-1981) – Director Producer
Titiro Mai (1980-1985) – Presenter
One of those Blighters (1982) – Role: Sue
New Streets - South Auckland, Two Cities (1982) – Research
Making Utu (1982) – Subject
Loose Enz - The Protestors – Role: Ru
New Streets - Auckland Fa’a-Samoa (1982) – Research
Koha - Mauri (1987) – Subject
Kaleidoscope - NZ Cinema, the Past Decade (1987) – Subject
Koha - Nga Pikitia Māori (1987) – Subject
Solidarity (1992) – Executive Producer
Witi Ihimaera (1997) – Interviewer, Consultant Producer
Rangatira: Merata Mita - Making Waves (1998) – Project Advisor, Subject
The Magnificent Seven (1998) – Second Unit Director
Frontseat - Series Two, Episode 10 (2006) – Subject
Kete Aronui - Merata Mita (2007) – Subject
50 Years of New Zealand Television: 7 - Taonga TV (2010) – Subject
50 Years of New Zealand Television: 2 - The Whole World’s Watching (2010) – Subject
Taku Rākau e (2010) – Producer
50 Years of New Zealand Television: 1 - From One Channel to One Hundred (2010) – Subject
Hautoa Mā! The Rise of Māori Cinema (2016) – Subject
== External links ==
Chloe Cull, Considering Merata Mita's Legacy, in Love Feminisms, Enjoy Public Art Gallery, 2015
Brannavan Gnanalingam, A Magnificent Salvage: Mana Waka, Lumiere Reader, 2011
Lamche, Pascale; Mita, Merata (1984). "Interview with Merata Mita". Framework: The Journal of Cinema and Media (25): pages 2–11. ISSN 0306-7661.
Biography at NZ On Screen
Watch Patu clip at NZ On Screen
Patu! background at the NZ Film Archive
Merata Mita at IMDb
Merata: How Mum Decolonised the Screen Film (Trailer) – 2018 at NZ On Screen
Sundance Institute. “Sundance Institute Announces New Merata Mita Fellowship For Indigenous Artists and 2016 Recipient.”, 2016
Turner, Stephen (2013). "9. Reflections on Barry Barclay and Fourth Cinema". In Hokowhitu, Brendan; Devadas, Vijay (eds.). The Fourth Eye: Māori Media in Aotearoa New Zealand. University of Minnesota Press. pp.162–178. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5749/j.ctt4cggdb.13.
Alice Webb-Liddall, “Merata Mita: the godmother of indigenous film.” The Spinoff, May 2, 2021.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%BCrksat_2A | Türksat 2A | Türksat 2A, a.k.a. Eurasiasat 1, was a Turkish communications satellite as part of a project to form an instant network with two geosynchronous satellites that are supervised by the companies Türksat A.Ş. in Turkey and Eurasiasat SAM in Monaco.
Türksat 2A was launched by Arianespace atop an Ariane-44P H10-3 launch vehicle on January 10, 2001, at 21:39 UTC from ELA-2 at the Guiana Space Centre in Kourou, French Guiana. The spacecraft was successfully placed into geostationary transfer orbit and then shifted to 42°E position, co-locating with Türksat 1C, which was launched in 1996. Its broadcast traffic entered service on February 1, 2001.
Turksat 2A was designed for covering Europe, Turkey on west spot and Turkey and Central Asia including Middle East and Russia on east spot so as to serve simultaneously within that region, and to provide direct connection between Europe and Central Asia. It is based on the Alcatel Spacebus 3000B3 series having an on-orbit mass of 3,530 kg (7,780 lb) with 9,200 W power. The communications payload consists of 36 Ku band transponders consisting of 22 pieces of 33 MHz fixed beam transponders and 10 transponders of 36 MHz bandwidth with two additional steerable beams.
== See also ==
Türksat (satellite)
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contract_Law_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China#:~:text=The%20Contract%20Law%20of%20the,the%20People's%20Republic%20of%20China. | Contract Law of the People's Republic of China | The Contract Law of the People's Republic of China was a law in the PRC that came into force on October 1, 1999, and was abolished on Jan 1, 2021 with the enforcement of Civil Code of the People's Republic of China. It is the main source of contract law in the PRC. The most recent version combines many parts of Chinese contract law that were previously parts of other substantive laws, and has led to increased legal uniformity. The law includes both general and specific provisions and also has the legal rules that relate to the formation, fulfilment and breach of contracts. The law allows for various different types of contracts that can be entered into.
"The principles of the freedom of contract, of good faith, and of the fostering of transactions have informed and guided the formulation of the Contract Law and are embodied in many of its major provisions."
The main purpose of the law is stated in Article 1: "This Law is enacted for the purpose of protecting the legitimate rights and interests of the parties to contracts, maintaining the socio-economic order and promoting the socialist modernization."
Article 2 has the definition for a contract: "For the purpose of this Law, a contract means an agreement on the establishment, alteration or termination of a civil right-obligation relationship between natural persons, legal persons or other organizations as subjects with equal status. Agreements on establishing such personal relationships as marriage, adoption and guardianship shall be governed by the provisions of other laws."
The Contract Law contains 23 chapters and 428 articles.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samba,_Jammu_and_Kashmir | Samba, Jammu and Kashmir | Samba is a town, municipal committee, and administrative headquarter of Samba district of Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir in the disputed Kashmir region. Samba has its own railway station on the Jammu-Delhi railway line.
== Geography ==
Samba is located at 32.57°N 75.12°E / 32.57; 75.12 and has an average elevation of 384 m (1,260 ft). Samba is situated in the Shivalik Hills alongside the National Highway 1-A on the bank of the Basantar River, at a distance of 40 km (25 mi) from the city of Jammu. Samba District borders Udhampur District to the north, Kathua District to the east, Tehsils Jammu and Bishnah of Jammu District to the west, and the International Border Pakistan to the south.
== Demographics ==
=== Overview ===
According to a report released by Census India 2011, the Samba Municipal Committee has population of 12,700, of which 6979 (55%) are males while 5721 (45%) are females. There are 1365 children under seven years old, or 10.75% of the population. There are 2566 households in the city,
=== Caste distribution ===
By caste, 71% of Samba residents are from general caste, 28.57% are from schedule caste, and 0.04% are schedule tribes.
=== Religion ===
In Samba, Hinduism is the dominant religion, while, Christians, Muslims and Sikhs are the minorities.
=== Population growth ===
The city's population decreased by 20.2% from 2001 to 2011. According to the 2001 census, Samba's total population was about 16,000. The female population growth rate was −8.1%, which was 19.9% higher than male population growth rate of −28%. The general caste population decreased by 27.9%, the schedule caste population increased by 8.5%, and the child population decreased by 24.7% between the two censuses.
=== Sex ratio ===
According to the 2011 census, Samba has 820 females per 1000 males compared to the state average of 889 females per 1000 males. For children under seven years old, there are 806 girls per 1000 boys in the city, compared to the state average of 862 girls per 1000 boys. Between 2001 and 2011, Samba's overall sex ratio and child sex ratio have increased by 177 females per 1000 males and 36 girls per 1000 boys, respectively.
=== Employment ===
In the census, a worker is defined as a person who does business or performs any job, service, cultivation, or labour activity. Of the population, 4356 (34%) are engaged in work or business activities. 91.80% of workers are engaged in Main Work (full-time), and 8.20% of workers are engaged in Marginal Work (part-time).
By sex, 3885 workers are males while 471 workers are females.
== Terrorist attacks ==
On 26 September 2013, militants impersonating army personnel attacked the Hiranagar Police Station. After the attack, the militants commandeered a truck to Samba, located 18 km (11 mi) from Hiranagar. The militants entered the army cantonment and opened fire. In a day-long operation and combat search, all three militants were killed. Twelve others, including a lieutenant colonel, were killed in this incident.
== Higher educational institutes ==
Higher educational institutes in Samba include the following:
Bhargava Law College
Central University of Jammu
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rana_Ayyub#:~:text=as%20Hindu%20terrorists.-,Awards%20and%20recognition,award%20for%20excellence%20in%20journalism. | Rana Ayyub | Rana Ayyub (born 1 May 1984) is an Indian journalist and opinion columnist with The Washington Post. She is author of the investigative book Gujarat Files: Anatomy of a Cover Up.
== Background and family ==
Rana Ayyub was born in Mumbai, India. Her father Mohammad Ayyub Waqif, was a writer with Blitz, a Mumbai-based magazine, and a member of the progressive writers movement. Her uncle, Abdul Haq Azmi, was a distinguished scholar of Hadith and served as a senior professor at Darul Uloom Deoband.
She contracted polio at the age of five, leaving her left hand and right leg immobile, and eventually recovered from the disease. When Mumbai witnessed riots in 1992–93, Ayyub's father was warned by a Sikh friend that local men were coming after his daughters. Rana, nine at the time, fled with her sister to stay with the Sikh friend's relatives for three months before reuniting with their family in Deonar, a Muslim-majority suburb, which is where she largely grew up. Ayyub is a practising Muslim.
She graduated in English literature from Sophia College, Mumbai where she was a classmate of Richa Chada and Shuchi Talati.
== Career ==
=== Investigative journalist at Tehelka ===
Ayyub worked for Tehelka (lit. "commotion/uproar"), a Delhi-based investigative and political news magazine. By her own account, a report by her was instrumental in sending Amit Shah, a close associate of Narendra Modi, to jail for several months in 2010.
At Tehelka, Ayyub worked as an investigative journalist and her big assignment was to carry out the sting operation upon which her book Gujarat Files was based. At the end of the sting operation, the management of Tehelka refused to publish any story written by Rana or based on the data collected by her. Ayyub continued to work with Tehelka for several months more. In November 2013, her boss Tarun Tejpal, the editor-in-chief and major shareholder of Tehelka, was accused of sexual harassment by one of his journalist subordinates. Ayyub resigned from Tehelka in protest against the organisation's handling of the charge against Tejpal. She now works independently.
=== Opinions writer at The Washington Post ===
In September 2019, Washington Post nominated Ayyub as Contributing Global Opinions Writer with the paper.
In 2021, on the BBC show HARDtalk, Ayyub explained that she is in a position to express critical views about the government because she writes of international media, given that Indian media publications are censoring their journalists.
In October 2020, HarperCollins India published an open letter written by Ayyub, to protest the controversial appointment of Actor Gajendra Chauhan as the Chairman of Film and Television Institute of India (FTII), as part of the book Inquilab: A Decade of Protest which contains speeches, lectures and letters said to "capture the most important events and issues of the past ten years."
== Notable work ==
=== The Gujarat sting operation ===
As an investigative journalist working with Tehelka, Rana Ayyub took up a project to conduct a prolonged sting operation aimed at snaring politicians and government officials of Gujarat and get them to reveal any potential cover-ups regarding the Gujarat riots of 2002. Rana Posing as Maithili Tyagi, a filmmaker from the American Film Institute, and set about befriending her intended targets. She spent around ten months in disguise, and got paid a regular monthly salary from Tehelka during this period. However, at the end of the exercise, the management of Tehelka felt that the recordings which she had made over the months did not provide any new or sensational information, that the data gathered by her was of inadequate quality, and that they could not publish any story on the basis of the new data.
==== The book ====
In her book Gujarat Files: Anatomy of a Cover Up, Ayyub documented the verbatim transcripts of recordings, made using a concealed recording device, of many bureaucrats and police officers of Gujarat. The recordings were made in the course of an undercover investigation to reveal the views of bureaucrats and police officers on encounter killings and the aftermath of the 2002 Gujarat violence. Ayyub had been posing as 'Maithili Tyagi', a student of the American Film Institute, having an ideological affinity for the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh's beliefs, to enable her to make the recordings.
==== Dispute with Tehelka ====
Tarun Tejpal and Shoma Chaudhury have disputed Ayyub's claim that her story on fake encounters in Gujarat, which was the result of an eight-month long undercover investigation, was dropped by them. According to Tejpal, Ayyub's story was "incomplete". According to Chaudhury, Ayyub's story "did not meet the necessary editorial standards." Ayyub has responded to Tejpal and Chaudhury's assertions by noting that:I must say I am not the only one to complain about dropped stories in Tehelka, the list is fairly big… Shoma Choudhury and Tarun Tejpal of Tehelka cited editorial decisions and gaps. The book is a bestseller and is getting rave reviews for its content. Let the reader be the judge.
==== Reception ====
Historian Ramachandra Guha had called Ayyub's Gujarat Files "a brave book." Jyoti Malhotra has noted that many journalists have privately applauded Ayyub's courage in authoring Gujarat Files. Priya Ramani has commented: "The abuses from the paid foot soldiers on Twitter bounce off her spiral curls smoothly." Reflecting on the procedure used by Ayyub in composing Gujarat Files, Nilanjan Mukhopadhyay has observed: "Going undercover and interviewing many who had been in the thick of gruesome extra-constitutional operations required bravado and this must be appreciated."
Ayyub's investigation of the alleged Gujarat fake encounters has been listed by Outlook magazine as one of the twenty greatest magazine stories of all time across the world.
In 2018, Ayyub was awarded the "most Resilient Global journalist" by Dutch non-profit Free Press Unlimited for resisting attempts to stifle her work.
In the Haren Pandya murder case, the Supreme Court of India dismissed Rana Ayyub's book, stating that "it is based upon surmises, conjectures, and suppositions and has no evidentiary value." Ayyub termed the court's comments "puzzling", stating that the CBI had used her work as evidence in other related cases, and noting that no officer or bureaucrat had denied her claims or taken her to court.
=== Reporting from Kashmir ===
In 2019, Ayyub accompanied Dexter Filkins from The New Yorker on a trip to Kashmir to report on the violence by the government towards the Kashmiri population following the revocation of the special status of Kashmir by the Modi-led Indian government. Their report of torture inflicted on the Kashmiri population, including minors, sharply contrasted with official accounts from the Indian state and state media, which portrayed the region as calm. Prior to their report, the Indian government’s claims could not be verified due to a full communication blackout and a de facto curfew imposed in Kashmir.
== Controversies ==
=== Judicial proceedings ===
In February 2022, Ayyub received scrutiny after the Enforcement Directorate (ED) locked assets worth over ₹1.77 crore of hers. This was done in relation to a money laundering case filed against her, for allegedly embezzling funds she acquired from the public in the name of charity. ED stated that Ayyub had transferred those funds to other accounts for personal spendings.
The Income Tax Appellate Tribunal (ITAT) in Mumbai has pointed out that only 10 per cent of the COVID relief funds were used for relief work, and the rest of the funds were transferred to her father's and sister's accounts and then transferred again to her personal account.
The money laundering charges against Ayyub have been described as sham charges by international observers. According to commentators, the money laundering allegations are part of a broader campaign by the Indian authorities aimed at intimidating Ayyub and silencing her criticism of Modi's government.
FIR was filed against Ayyub in Dharwad due to her alleged comments against anti-hijab protestors as Hindu terrorists.
In 2022, UN experts have called on the Indian government to stop the judicial harassment against Ayyub, that included twice freezing Ayyub's bank account. The experts labelled the accusations related to the funds raised by Ayyub for pandemic relief work as "the bogus allegations [that] can be traced back to a far-right social media group."
== Awards and recognition ==
In October 2011, Rana Ayyub received the Sanskriti award for excellence in journalism.
The 'Citation of Excellence' was conferred to Rana Ayyub in the 2017 edition of the Global Shining Light Award for her undercover investigation revealing state's top officials’ complicity during the 2002 Gujarat Riots.
Actress Richa Chadda claimed to have been inspired by Rana Ayyub, who is also her friend, in 2016 film Chalk n Duster, where she plays a journalist.
In 2018, Ayyub was awarded the Most Resilient Journalist Award by Free Press Unlimited for continuing her work "despite being harassed both online and offline and receiving death threats."
In 2019, Ayyub has been listed as one of ten global journalists who face maximum threats to their lives by the Time magazine.
In February 2020, Ayyub was awarded with McGill Medal for journalistic courage at University of Georgia's Grady College.
Ayyub is the 2020 Voices of Courage and Conscience Awardee from the Muslim Public Affairs Council of America.
In 2021, Ayyub received the Excellence in International Journalism and Human Rights Award by Texas Tech University College of Media and Communication.
In 2021, Ayyub was awarded the Overseas Press Club Award for best commentary on international news for her op-eds in The Washington Post.
On 28 June 2022, Ayyub was awarded the International John Aubuchon Award by the National Press Club.
On 23 October 2024, Ayyub was awarded Canadian Journalists for Free Expression (CJFE) International Press Freedom Award.
== Threats ==
Online violence against Ayyub is primarily driven by Twitter users aligned with Hindu nationalism and the ruling BJP. An International Center for Journalists (ICFJ) report found that Twitter has failed to address the abuse against her while withholding some of her tweets at the demand of the Indian Government. As per ICFJ's analysis, Ayyub receives abuse within 14 seconds of posting a tweet.
In 2018, Ayyub was at the receiving end of multiple death and rape threats on twitter. Her personal details were made public and a deepfake pornographic video was released. In April 2018 she filed a complaint with Delhi Police, who subsequently decided to close the case in August 2020 saying that "despite efforts the culprits could not be identified yet."
Several United Nations Special Rapporteurs, associated with the Human Rights Council have intervened in her case three times, warned of the "serious risk" to her life, and called on the authorities in India to "act urgently to protect" her from death threats following an online hate campaign. The US State department's 2020 Human Rights Report specifically mentions the online trolling and death threats faced by Ayyub. In its report documenting online attacks against journalists around the world, the international non-profit Reporters Without Borders discussed the hate speech unleashed against Ayyub and called on the government and Delhi police to protect her.
In 2022, Trads (members of Hindu nationalist alt-right groups) had created Bulli Bai, an app for fake online auction of Muslim women in India with intention to denigrate and harass the minorities. Ayyub and several prominent women journalists in India were targeted. They were also targeted with thousands of hate messages by the secret app Tek Fog allegedly used by the BJP supporters. The app was used to spread right wing propaganda online.
in November 2024, Ayyub was doxxed, and her phone number was leaked by a right-wing account on X. As a result, she received hundreds of calls and messages and states that she received no respite despite filing a complaint with the police.
In November 2025, Ayyub received threats of violence against her and her father from an unknown international number. Rana claimed that these threats were made to intimidate her into writing a column on the 1984 anti-Sikh riots that occurred after the assassination of Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi.
== References ==
== External links ==
Media related to Rana Ayyub at Wikimedia Commons
Rana Ayyub on Twitter
Rana Ayyub at Washington Post |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aga_Khan_Award_for_Architecture | Aga Khan Award for Architecture | The Aga Khan Award for Architecture (AKAA) is an architectural prize established by Aga Khan IV in 1977. It aims to identify and reward architectural concepts that successfully address the needs and aspirations of Muslim societies in the fields of contemporary design, social housing, community development and improvement, restoration, reuse and area conservation, as well as landscape design and improvement of the environment.
The award is associated with the Aga Khan Trust for Culture (AKTC), an agency of the Aga Khan Development Network (AKDN).
== Prize ==
The Aga Khan Award for Architecture is presented in three-year cycles and has a monetary prize totalling US$1 million that is shared by multiple winning projects. It recognizes projects, teams, and stakeholders in addition to buildings and people.
=== Chairman's Award ===
The Chairman's Award is given in honour of accomplishments that fall outside the mandate of the Master Jury. It recognises lifetime achievements of individuals and has been presented four times: in 1980 to Egyptian architect and urban planner Hassan Fathy, in 1986 to Iraqi architect and educator Rifat Chadirji, in 2001 to Sri Lankan architect Geoffrey Bawa, and in 2010 to historian of Islamic art and architecture Oleg Grabar.
== History ==
The Aga Khan Award for Architecture was established by the Aga Khan IV (Prince Karim al-Husseini) in 1977. At the time, very few architectural prizes of international scope existed. It has been noted that the award emerged from "the Aga Khan's sadness at the state of architecture in the Islamic world of the 1970s", and his conviction of the importance that the built environment holds in shaping a society's quality of life.
Twenty years earlier, upon inheriting the seat of Imamat of the Shia Ismaili Muslims, the Aga Khan had become responsible for the wellbeing of the Ismaili community, which mostly live in the developing countries of Asia, Africa and the Middle East. He was concerned at the absence of design thinking that could respond to specific challenges in those parts of the world.
A relentless push for development had led to cheap copies of foreign architectural designs that held no connection or respect for the places where they were being built. The Aga Khan also worried about the rapid disappearance of centuries of distinctive architectural tradition that embodied a continuity of Islamic values, resulting in an absence of "architecture that could speak to and about the Muslim world".
These problems were most acutely felt during the planning of the Aga Khan University and teaching hospital in Karachi. Questions raised in this process – including the need for a contemporary visual language for the Islamic built environment, as well as for architects trained in modern technologies and sensitive to the diversity, values, and dignity of Muslim culture – would inform the creation of the Award.
=== Reviving creativity ===
By the 1970s, the decline of the built environment of Muslim societies and loss of cultural identity had become apparent to others as well. From the outset, the Aga Khan recruited several people to help define the award. Among the first were Oleg Grabar a professor at the Harvard Department of Fine Arts, William Porter then Dean of the MIT School of Architecture and Planning, architectural historian Renata Holod, and Pakistani architect Hasan Udhin Khan. They were joined by others, including Nader Ardalan, Hugh Casson, Charles Correa, and Hassan Fathy.
Members of the team travelled widely – from Morocco to Indonesia. They debated the cultural role of architecture, the parameters of the award and how to structure its processes. The award was shaped by consultations held with chambers of architects and ministries of urbanism and culture. The first Aga Khan Award for Architecture Seminar was held during April 1978 in Aiglemont, Gouvieux, France. Subsequent seminars have been held in Istanbul, Jakarta, Fez, Amman, Beijing, Dakar, Sana'a, Cairo, Granada and elsewhere.
In seeking to define what "Islamic architecture" meant, it became apparent that no singular definition was to be found. Instead, the seminars brought to light the diversity of what constituted Islamic architecture. This was recognized as a strength and a dormant source of creativity that the Award would seek to revive.
=== Knowledge from architecture ===
Unlike conventional prizes that applaud the accomplishments of individual architects, the Aga Khan Award selects projects that improve the quality of life and recognizes all those who have a role in realizing them. This includes clients, builders, artisans, and decision makers. Architecture is viewed as a collaborative endeavour in which architects play a role.
In the four decades since its establishment, the Award has documented more than 9,000 projects and actively contributed to the architectural discourse. It has promoted the view that architecture is deeply connected with society and can respond to issues that are of local, national and even international relevance.
The Award has brought together practitioners from different geographies and fields like philosophy, social sciences, and the arts, who have served as jurors, steering committee members, technical reviewers, or attended seminars.
== Award process ==
The Aga Khan Award runs in three-year cycles and is governed by a steering committee chaired by the Aga Khan. A new committee is constituted each cycle to establish the eligibility criteria for projects, provide thematic direction concerning current concerns, and to develop plans for the long-term future of the award. The committee is also responsible for seminars and field visits, the award ceremony, publications and exhibitions. At the commencement of each cycle, the steering committee is convened to select a master jury that is diverse in its perspectives and has in past cycles included sociologists, philosophers, artists as well as architects.
In each cycle, submissions are received from a global network of approximately 500 nominators – women and men who live in Muslim societies and whose identities are kept anonymous throughout the award process. Independent nominations are also accepted per the award's published guidelines and procedures. Several hundred submissions are typically received in each cycle, and the master jury narrows the field to a short-list.
Professional, technical reviewers visit the short-listed projects to understand the living impact of each one on people and the surrounding area. They prepare exhaustive documentation, providing fact-based analysis for the master jury's consideration.
Over the decades, many notable figures have served on the award's steering committees and master juries, including Homi K. Bhabha, Frank Gehry, Zaha Hadid, Glenn Lowry, Fumihiko Maki, Jacques Herzog, Ricardo Legoretta and Farshid Moussavi. The award is administered from Geneva as part of the Aga Khan Trust for Culture, and Farrokh Derakhshani has served as Director of the Award since 1982.
== Promotion ==
The Aga Khan Foundation funded the television series Architects on the Frontline which was about entries to the competition. The media watchdog Ofcom criticised BBC World News for breaking United Kingdom broadcasting rules with the series, which praised the competition; viewers were not informed that it was sponsored content.
== Award cycles ==
Prizes totalling up to US$1m are presented every three years to projects selected by the Master Jury. Since 1977, documentation has been compiled on over 7500 building projects located throughout the world, of which over 100 projects have received awards.
=== First (1978–1980) ===
The 1980 award ceremony took place at the Shalimar Gardens in Lahore, Pakistan. During this cycle, the Chairman's Award was given to Hassan Fathy in recognition of his lifelong commitment to architecture in the Muslim world. Prominent architect Muzharul Islam was a member of the Master Jury of the first Aga Khan Award for Architecture.
Award recipients:
Kampung Improvement Programme, Jakarta, Indonesia
Pondok Pesantren Pabelan, Central Java, Indonesia
Ertegün House, Bodrum, Turkey
Library and conference center of the Turkish Historical Society, Ankara, Turkey
Mughal Sheraton Hotel, Agra, India
Conservation of Sidi Bou Saïd, Tunis, Tunisia
Restoration of the Rüstem Pasha Caravanserai, Edirne, Turkey
National Museum, Doha, Qatar
Ali Qapu, Chehel Sutun, and Hasht Behesht Restoration, Isfahan, Iran
Halawa House, Agamy, Egypt, by Abdel-Wahed El-Wakil
Medical Centre, Mopti, Mali
Courtyard Houses, Agadir, Morocco
Water Towers, Kuwait City, Kuwait
Intercontinental Hotel and Conference Centre, Mecca, Saudi Arabia, by Rolf Gutbrod and Frei Otto
Agricultural Training Centre, Nianing, Senegal
=== Second (1981–1983) ===
The 1983 award ceremony took place at the Topkapı Palace in Istanbul.
Award recipients:
Great Mosque of Niono, Mali
Šerefudin's White Mosque, Visoko, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Ramses Wissa Wassef Arts Centre, Giza, Egypt
Nail Çakirhan Residence, Akyaka Village, Muğla, Turkey
Hafsia Quarter I, Tunis, Tunisia
Tanjong Jara Beach Hotel and Rantau Abang Visitors' Centre, Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia
Résidence Andalous, Sousse, Tunisia
Hajj Terminal, King Abdulaziz International Airport, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, by Fazlur Khan
Tomb of Shah Rukn-i-'Alam, Multan, Pakistan
Darb Qirmiz Quarter, Cairo, Egypt
Restoration of Azem Palace, Damascus, Syria
=== Third (1984–1986) ===
The 1986 award ceremony took place at El Badi Palace in Marrakesh, Morocco. The brief prepared by the Steering Committee for this award cycle focused on the preservation and continuation of cultural heritage, community building and social housing, and excellence in contemporary architectural expression.
Six winners were chosen from among 213 entries. The conservation of Mostar Old Town and restoration of Al-Aqsa Mosque were examples of cultural heritage, the first theme, while the Yama Mosque and Bhong Mosque were noted for their innovation in translating traditional techniques and materials to meet contemporary requirements. The Social Security Complex and Dar Lamane Housing address the issues of community and social housing while remaining sensitive to local culture. The Chairman's Award for Lifetime Achievements was given to Iraqi architect Rifat Chadirji.
Award recipients:
Social Security Complex, Istanbul, Turkey
Dar Lamane Housing, Casablanca, Morocco
Conservation of Mostar Old Town, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Restoration of Al-Aqsa Mosque, Noble Sanctuary, East Jerusalem, Palestine
Yaama Mosque, Yaama, Tahoua, Niger
Bhong Mosque, Bhong, Rahim Yar Khan District, Pakistan
=== Fourth (1987–1989) ===
The 1989 award ceremony took place at the Citadel of Salah Ed-Din in Cairo.
The fourth cycle of the award considered 241 project nominations. Of these, 32 were short-listed for technical review and the Master Jury selected 11 winners. Two themes were noted as areas of focus in this cycle: Revival of past vernacular traditions, and projects that reflect the efforts of individual patrons and of non-governmental organisations in improving society.
Projects such as the Great Omari Mosque and the Rehabilitation of Asilah seek to reconstruct and preserve heritage buildings for continued use, demonstrating the significance of these spaces within their communities. Meanwhile, the Grameen Bank Housing Programme and Sidi el-Aloui Primary School apply architectural solutions to address current socioeconomic issues.
Award recipients:
Great Omari Mosque (Sidon, Lebanon)
Rehabilitation of Asilah (Asilah, Morocco)
Grameen Bank Housing Programme (various locations in Bangladesh)
Citra Niaga Urban Development (Samarinda, East Kalimantan, Indonesia)
Gürel Family Summer Residence (Çanakkale, Turkey)
Hayy Assafarat Landscaping and al-Kindi Plaza (Riyadh, Saudi Arabia)
Sidi el-Aloui Primary School (Tunis, Tunisia)
Corniche Mosque (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia), by Abdel-Wahed El-Wakil
Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Riyadh, Saudi Arabia)
National Assembly Building (Sher-e-Bangla Nagar, Dhaka, Bangladesh), by Louis Kahn
Institut du Monde Arabe (Paris, France), by Jean Nouvel and Architecture-Studio
=== Fifth (1990–1992) ===
The 1992 award ceremony took place at the Registan Square in Samarkand, Uzbekistan.
Uzbek government also released a postal stamp to commemorate the award ceremony & restoration of Registan Square in Partnership with Aga Khan Trust for Culture.
Award recipients:
Kairouan Conservation Programme (Kairouan, Tunisia)
Palace Parks Programme (Istanbul, Turkey)
Cultural Park for Children (Cairo, Egypt)
East Wahdat Upgrading Programme (Amman, Jordan)
Kampung Kali Code (Yogyakarta, Indonesia)
Stone Building System (Daraa Governorate, Syria)
Demir Holiday Village (Bodrum, Turkey)
Pan African Institute for Development (Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso), by Association pour le Développement d'une Architecture et d'un Urbanisme Africains (A.D.A.U.A. – Association for the Development of African Architecture and Urban Planning)
Entrepreneurship Development Institute of India (Ahmedabad, India), by Bimal Hasmukh Patel
=== Sixth (1993–1995) ===
The 1995 award ceremony took place at the Kraton Surakarta in Surakarta, Indonesia.
Award recipients:
Restoration of Bukhara Old City, Uzbekistan
Conservation of Old San'a', Yemen
Hafsia Quarter II, Tunis, Tunisia
Khuda-ki-Basti Incremental Development Scheme, Hyderabad, Pakistan
Aranya Community Housing [1], Indore, India, by B.V. Doshi
Great Mosque and Redevelopment of the Old City Centre Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
Menara Mesiniaga, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Kaédi Regional Hospital, Kaedi, Mauritania, by ADAUA.
Mosque of the Grand National Assembly, Ankara, Turkey
Alliance Franco-Sénégalaise, Kaolack, Senegal
Re-Forestation Programme of the Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey
Landscaping Integration of the Soekarno-Hatta Airport, Cengkareng, Indonesia
=== Seventh (1996–1998) ===
The 1998 award ceremony took place at the Alhambra in Granada, Spain. The Master Jury selected seven winning projects of the 424 presented. During this cycle, special emphasis was placed on projects that responded creatively to the emerging forces of globalization. Issues such as demographic pressure, environmental degradation, and the crisis of the nation-state, and the changes in lifestyle, cultural values, and relationships among social groups and between governments and people at large they prompted, were considered.
Of the winning projects, the rehabilitation of the Old City of Hebron and Slum Networking of Indore City sought to reclaim community space in environments strained by social, physical, and environmental degradation. The Lepers Hospital created a sustainable and dignified shelter for a marginalized segment of society. The remaining projects were recognized for their contribution in evolving an architectural vocabulary in response to contemporary social and environmental challenges.
Award recipients:
Rehabilitation of the Old City of Hebron, Palestine
Slum Networking of Indore, India by Himanshu Parikh
Lepers Hospital, Chopda Taluka, Lasur, India by Per Christian Brynildsen and Jan Olav Jensen
Salinger Residence, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
Tuwaiq Palace, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
Alhamra Arts Council, Lahore, Pakistan, by Nayyar Ali Dada
Vidhan Bhavan, Bhopal, India by Charles Correa
=== Eighth (1999–2001) ===
The 2001 Award Presentation Ceremony took place at the Citadel of Aleppo in Syria. During this cycle, the Chairman's Award was given to Geoffrey Bawa to honour and celebrate his lifetime achievements in and contribution to the field of architecture.
Award recipients:
New Life for Old Structures (various locations, Iran)
Aït Iktel (Abadou, Morocco)
Kahere Eila Poultry Farming School (Koliagbe, Guinea)
Nubian Museum (Aswan, Egypt)
SOS Children's Village (Aqaba, Jordan), by Ja'afar Tuqan
Olbia Social Centre of Akdeniz University (Antalya, Turkey), by Cengiz Bektaş
Bagh-e-Ferdowsi (Tehran, Iran)
Datai Hotel (Langkawi, Malaysia)
=== Ninth (2002–2004) ===
The 2004 award ceremony took place at the Humayun's Tomb in New Delhi, India.
During the ninth cycle, 378 projects were nominated. Of these, 23 were site-reviewed, and the Master Jury selected seven award recipients. Notable among the recipients are the Sandbag Shelter Prototypes, developed by Nader Khalili to enable victims of natural disasters and war to build their own shelter using earth-filled sandbags and barbed wire. The resulting structures – made up of arches, domes and vaulted spaces built using superadobe techniques – provide earthquake resistance, shelter from hurricanes and flood resistance, while being aesthetically pleasing.
Other winning projects include a primary school in Gando, Burkina Faso, that combines high-caliber architectural design with local materials, techniques and community participation. The Bibliotheca Alexandria in Egypt and the Petronas Towers in Malaysia are examples of high-profile landmark buildings.
Award recipients:
Bibliotheca Alexandrina, Alexandria, Egypt, by Norwegian architectural office Snøhetta
Primary School, Gando, Burkina Faso, by Diébédo Francis Kéré
Sandbag Shelter Prototypes (various locations), developed by Nader Khalili
Restoration of Al-Abbas Mosque (Asnaf, Yemen)
Old City of Jerusalem Revitalisation Programme, East Jerusalem, Palestine
B2 House, Ayvacik, Turkey, by Han Tümertekin
Petronas Towers, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, by César Pelli
=== Tenth (2005–2007) ===
The 2007 Award Presentation Ceremony was held at the Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
This cycle marked the 30th anniversary of the award. A total of 343 projects were presented for consideration, and 27 were reviewed on site by international experts.
The award recipients were:
Samir Kassir Square, Beirut, Lebanon
Rehabilitation of the City of Shibam, Yemen
Central Market, Koudougou, Burkina Faso
University of Technology Petronas, Bandar Seri Iskandar, Malaysia, by Foster + Partners
Restoration of the Amiriya Madrasa, Rada, Yemen
Moulmein Rise Residential Tower, Singapore, by WOHA Architects
Royal Netherlands Embassy, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, by Dick Van Gameren, Bjarne Mastenbroek
Rehabilitation of the Walled City, Nicosia, Cyprus
METI School in Rudrapur, Dinajpur, Bangladesh, by Anna Heringer
=== Eleventh (2008–2010) ===
The 2010 Award Presentation Ceremony was held at the Museum of Islamic Art, Doha, Qatar. A total of 401 projects were nominated of which 19 were shortlisted.
The Chairman's Award went to Oleg Grabar.
The award recipients were:
Wadi Hanifa Wetlands Project, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
Revitalisation of nineteenth and early twentieth-century architectural heritage of Tunis, Tunisia
Research Centre and Museum, Madinat Al-Zahra, Cordoba, Spain, by Nieto Sobejano Arquitectos
Ipekyol Textile Factory, Edirne, Turkey
Bridge School, Xiashi, Fujian, China
=== Twelfth (2011–2013) ===
The 2013 Award ceremony was held at the Castle of São Jorge in Lisbon, Portugal in September 2013.
The winning projects are:
Emergency Salam Centre for Cardiac Surgery, Khartoum, Sudan, by Italian practice Studio Tamassociati, completed in 2010
Revitalisation of Birzeit Historic Centre, Birzeit, Palestine
Hassan II Bridge (Rabat-Salé Infrastructure Project, Rabat and Salé, Morocco
Rehabilitation of Tabriz Bazaar, Tabriz, Iran
Islamic Cemetery, Altach, Austria, by Austrian architect Bernardo Bader, inaugurated in 2012
=== Thirteenth (2014–2016) ===
The 2016 Award ceremony for the six winners was held in Al-Ain, UAE on 6 November 2016:
Bait Ur Rouf Mosque in Uttara, Dhaka, Bangladesh by Marina Tabassum
Friendship Centre in Gaibandha, Bangladesh by Kashef Mahboob Chowdhury / URBANA
Hutong Children's Library and Art Centre in Beijing China, by ZAO/standardarchitecture and Zhang Ke
Superkilen in Copenhagen, Denmark by Bjarke Ingels Group, Topotek 1, and Superflex
Tabiat Pedestrian Bridge in Tehran, Iran by Diba Tensile Architecture / Leila Araghian and Alireza Behzadi
Issam Fares Institute in Beirut, Lebanon by Zaha Hadid Architects
=== Fourteenth (2017–2019) ===
The 2019 Award ceremony was held on 13 September 2019 in Kazan, Tatarstan, Russia:
Revitalization of Muharraq in Muharraq, Bahrain
Arcadia Education Project in South Kanarchor, Bangladesh
The Palestinian Museum in Birzeit, West Bank
Public Spaces Development Programme in Kazan, Republic of Tatarstan, Russia
Alioune Diop University Teaching and Research Unit in Bambey, Senegal, by IDOM
Wasit Wetland Centre in Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
=== Fifteenth (2020–2022) ===
The 2022 Award ceremony was held on 31 October 2022 in Muscat, Oman:
Urban River Spaces in Jhenaidah, Bangladesh
Community Spaces in Rohingya Refugee Response in Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh
Banyuwangi International Airport, Blimbingsari in East Java, Indonesia
Argo Contemporary Art Museum and Cultural Centre in Tehran, Iran
Renovation of Niemeyer Guest House in Tripoli, Lebanon
Kamanar Secondary School in Thionck Essyl, Senegal
=== Sixteenth (2023–2025) ===
The award ceremony was held in Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan on 15 September 2025. The winners were announced on 2 September 2025:
Khudi Bari, in various locations in Bangladesh, by Marina Tabassum Architects
West Wusutu Village Community Centre, in Hohhot, China, by Inner Mongolian Grand Architecture Design Co. Ltd / Zhang Pengju
Revitalisation of Historic Esna in Egypt, by Takween Integrated Community Development
Majara Residence and Community Redevelopment, in Hormuz Island, Iran by ZAV Architects
Jahad Metro Plaza, in Tehran, Iran by KA Architecture Studio
Vision Pakistan, in Islamabad, Pakistan, by DB Studios
Wonder Cabinet, in Bethlehem, Palestine by AAU Anastas
== See also ==
Aga Khan Historic Cities Support Programme, another architectural initiative of the Aga Khan Trust for Culture.
Islamic architecture
List of architecture prizes
== References ==
== Sources ==
"Middle East Delights of Muslim architecture – BBC News, October 10, 1998". 10 October 1998. Retrieved 6 December 2006.
"A Counterpoint of Cloth and Stone, Clark, A., Saudi Aramco World, Nov/Dec 1999: 2–7". Archived from the original on 29 December 2006. Retrieved 6 December 2006.
"Elegant Solutions, Swan, S., Saudi Aramco World, Jul/Aug 1999: 16–27". Archived from the original on 29 December 2006. Retrieved 6 December 2006.
"Shaking Up Architecture, Lawrence, L. A., Saudi Aramco World, Jan/Feb 2001: 6–19". Archived from the original on 29 December 2006. Retrieved 6 December 2006.
Gerry Loughran, Better by design, 1989, Saudi Aramco World
== Further reading ==
Sardar, Zahid (1 March 2003). "Aga Khan Award for Architecture Building cultural bridges". San Francisco Chronicle. Hearst Communications Inc. Retrieved 28 January 2007.
Sardar, Zahid (9 March 2005). "Culture's winning ways: The Aga Khan Award for Architecture's latest triumphs show Islam's best". San Francisco Chronicle. Hearst Communications Inc. Retrieved 28 January 2007.
"7 Projects Receive The 2004 Aga Khan Award for Architecture". ARCHI-TECH magazine. Stamats Business Media. November 2004. Archived from the original on 9 February 2016. Retrieved 28 January 2007.
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vujica_Lazovi%C4%87 | Vujica Lazović | Vujica Lazović (Montenegrin Cyrillic: Вујица Лазовић; born 10 March 1963 in Plav, Montenegro, SFRY) is a Montenegrin politician, professor and diplomat who is currently serving as ambassador of Montenegro to Slovenia. He was vice-president of the Social Democratic Party (SDP) under Ranko Krivokapić, and was one of founding members of the new Social Democrats of Montenegro (SD), in 2016. He is currently president of the Political Council of the Social Democrats.
== Education ==
Lazović graduated from University of Montenegro Faculty of Economics in 1986, and defended his master's degree at the University of Belgrade in 1994. In 1997, Lazović received his doctorate at the University of Montenegro. He has been employed at the University of Montenegro since 1988, from 1998 to 2000, he was the Vice Dean for Teaching at the Faculty of Economics, and from 2001 until 2006, he was the Dean of the Faculty.
== Politics ==
Between 1989 and 1993, Lazović was a member of the Parliament of Montenegro, first as a member of the League of Communists, and later as a member of the Union of Reform Forces. He was one of the founders of the Social Democratic Party (SDP) in 1993 and long-term vice-president of the Party. he was the Deputy Prime Minister of Montenegro (2006-2016) and the Minister of Economy (2006-2010), in several governments during the rule of the Democratic Party of Socialists (DPS) of Milo Đukanović regime in Montenegro, between May 2006 and September 2016, when he was appointed ambassador of Montenegro to Slovenia. In 2015 he became one of the founders of the Social Democrats of Montenegro (SD), when the faction of the Social Democratic Party defected from the political party, and formed new political subject, after the split between pro-DPS faction led by two vice-presidents Lazović and Ivan Brajović and party leader Ranko Krivokapić.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_American_Album_of_Familiar_Music# | The American Album of Familiar Music | The American Album of Familiar Music is a radio program of popular music broadcast from October 11, 1931, to June 17, 1951, first on NBC, then on ABC. Directed by James Haupt, the show was produced by Frank and Anne Hummert, better remembered today for creating Ma Perkins and numerous other soap operas. On a typical broadcast a listener was likely to hear "an aria from opera, a Strauss waltz and the latest popular hit."
Sponsored by Bayer Aspirin, the show highlighted performances by a variety of vocalists, instrumentalists, and vocal groups. When it began on October 11, 1931 on NBC, the lead vocalists were Frank Munn and Virginia Rea, two of early radio's top stars because of their previous appearances as "Paul Oliver" and "Olive Palmer" on The Palmolive Hour (1927–31). Ring Lardner observed, "under any name, they sound as sweet." Lardner outlined his "perfect radio program" for The New Yorker magazine, and found a place for The Revelers along with Paul Whiteman and Fanny Brice.
In the late 1930s, Munn was joined on the program by soprano Jean Dickenson (1937–51), "Nightingale of the Airwaves." Another co-star with Munn during that period was Lucy Monroe, who sang The Star-Spangled Banner at every New York Yankees opening day and every Yankees World Series between 1945 and 1960.
Other singers featured on the program were Margaret Daum, Elizabeth Lennox, Vivian Della Chiesa, Donald Dame, and the dozen members of the Buckingham Choir. Vocalist Evelyn MacGregor (1899-1967) was also heard on The American Melody Hour.
Walter Gustave "Gus" Haenschen, who led the orchestra, composed the opening theme song, "Dream Serenade," with lyrics by Alfred Bryan. The line-up also included violin soloist Bertram Hirsch, the piano duo of Victor Arden and Phil Ohman, and a quartet billed as “The Henchmen,” after Haenschen. The show's announcers were George Ansbro, André Baruch, Howard Claney and Roger Krupp. The 30-minute show aired Sunday evenings at 9:00 p.m. until 1933 when it moved to 9:30 p.m.
In 1938, the Hummerts did away with the studio audience after concluding that the music sounded better with fewer people in the studio, and fewer breaks due to applause. Musical Director and Conductor Gus Haenschen, who wrote many of the program's arrangements, ensured that the orchestra played softly as the announcer introduced each selection, thereby achieving a musical continuity from the opening to the close of each broadcast.
In 1945, when Munn left the show for retirement, he was replaced by Frank Parker. In 1952, Parker was replaced by tenor Earl William, the stage name of Earl Sauvain. Baritone Michael Roberts and pianist Ernest Ulmer were also added to the cast in 1952.
After the NBC run ended on November 19, 1950, the series moved a week later (November 26) to ABC where it was still broadcast Sundays at 9:30 p.m., continuing until the June 17, 1951 final network broadcast. From then until June 20, 1954, the orchestra, chorus and soloists toured the United States, and its performances were broadcast on local stations.
== References ==
== External links ==
Radio Guide (January 10, 1937)
Transcriptions: Radio Music Services
RadioWebLinks
Jerry Haendiges Vintage Radio Logs: Recollections at 30 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miriam_Kastner | Miriam Kastner | Miriam Kastner (born January 22, 1935) is a Bratislavan born, (former Czechoslovakia) Israeli raised, American oceanographer and geochemist. Kastner is currently a distinguished professor at Scripps Institution of Oceanography at the University of California, San Diego. She is still recognized by her fundamental contributions to science and is well spoken of amongst colleagues.
== Education ==
Miriam Kastner enjoyed the sciences since she was a child and originally wanted to be a mathematician, however she later decided down the road that, math was not the career for her as there were far fewer careers to pursue in mathematics. Early on Miriam noticed that not many women were scientists, which inspired her to research different sciences.
Kastner attended the Hebrew University of Jerusalem in 1964, where she received a minor in chemistry and a master's degree in geology. After graduation, she wrote her first formal paper about the hydrothermal systems of the Guaymas Basin, in the Gulf of California. Kastner attendedHarvard University, Boston, in 1970, where she was exposed to oceanography and later received her doctorate in geoscience. For three years, Kastner was the only woman in her department while studying at Harvard. Thus, women were not taken very seriously by other faculty members resulting in a discouraging environment. Faculty members also expected less from their female students and counterparts, although there were some who supported Kastner and fellow female academics, such as the Ph.D. committee.
== Career ==
Over the course of her career, Kastner progressed from being an associate professor, to a professor, and is now a distinguished professor at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, where she participated in writing and publishing 174 articles and journals. Kastner has worked with the Scripps Institution from 1972 till present. Kastner became the second female professor at the Scripps Institute, only two months after the first geophysicist had joined the faculty; this paved the way for many female scientists at the time and in the future. Prior to teaching at Scripps Institution, Kastner worked as a research associate at Harvard University in the department of geological sciences until 1970. In 1971 she worked at the University of Chicago as a research associate in the Department of Geophysical Sciences. Some believe she has accomplished more work than anyone else among the marine geology community and her publications contain high quality data and ideas that show consistency in addressing the big issues in Earth sciences. Miriam Kastner's research is primarily based in mineralogy and petrology, though the most important issue pursued in her career is fluid flow at subducting plate boundaries.
Kastner from the SIO (Scripps Institution of Oceanography) situated in La Jolla, California, demonstrated that we didn't know of the existence of subsea hydrothermal vents until the 1980s. To illustrate the vast scale of these processes, she explained that the entire volume of the ocean circulates through hydrothermal systems about once every five million years, and through global subduction zones approximately once every 200 million years, linking seafloor processes directly to the long-term evolution of the Earth system.
Throughout her long and successful career, Miriam Kastner produced dozens of publications highlighting her key research. Her first publication, dating back to 1965, examined the mineral glauconite and documented its properties. Over the next 15 or so years her research focused more on the analysis of deep sea sedimentation. For the next 20 years of her career she continued her research on deep sea sedimentation but her focus shifted more to hydrogeology and fluid dynamics and the effect of this sedimentation and mineral deposits. In recent years, she has examined isotopes and their concentrations in oceans. Most recently, Miriam has compiled a brief synopsis of her ocean drilling work over the past 50 years.
=== Academic roles ===
Along with being a professor, Kastner has served many roles at Scripps Institution of Oceanography, including chair and vice chair of the faculty, associate director and director in the geosciences research division, chair of Academic Senate Committee on Research, as well as curricular group coordinator of geological sciences. From 2003 to 2005, she served on the National Research Council's Ocean Studies Board. As a female in a once male dominated profession, Kastner expressed that it was difficult to garner support from science-related funding agencies. She was glad to see recent improvement on the increase of women pursuing science related degrees, however she believes there is still room for improvement, despite roughly 50% of women being in a science program, but only approximately 20% are field researchers in the institutes. Young women should have more confidence when applying for field research positions, as support for women in the sciences has improved drastically in comparison to her earlier years.
=== Early career achievements ===
Much of what Kastner has achieved came from the earlier part of her career when she put her talents to work and directed her focus on the origin of authigenic feldspars, she also focused on zeolites in the oceanic sediments during that time. Delving deeper into the significance of Kastner's work, her first publication named “Notes on the mineralogy and origin of glauconite” documents her findings on the properties and classification of glauconite. Although there were others with documented observations of glauconite the results varied greatly and Kastner was the first to point out that these studies are largely flawed due to the failure to take into account the large deposits of non-structural iron oxides which would ultimately skew the results. With the oceanic sediments she determined that the diagenetic transformations of opal-A to opal-CT and quartz is important to the formation of siliceous marine deposits. Kastner also found that dolomite formation is ultimately controlled by its associated pore-fluid geochemistry. The discovery solved an outstanding problem in carbonate mineral science. Kastner's measurements of the Sr distribution coefficient was critical in building strontium concentrations in calcite, which was ultimately used for paleoclimate studies that are dependent on carbonate Sr proxies, the discovery also was used for indicating carbonate recrystallization. Kastner also worked vigorously on phosphate deposits, her work included a revision of the stability of P-O bonds in apatite and phosphate ions, after the revision there was a recalculation of the ocean residence time of phosphorus. Her research focuses on the geochemistry of fluid work interactions, mostly with ocean chemistry. This encompasses the significance to marine minerals, to gain knowledge and understanding of how the Earth works. Gas hydrate research has interested Kastner and many fellow geo-scientists due to both its possible contribution to global warming, and as a potential energy source provided as a result of the amount of methane found in these oceanic hydrates. By studying these marine events, Kastner has stated that this can allow for people to be better prepared to predict global warming and have the possibility of avoiding sudden climatic response to anthropogenic perturbations.
== Key research ==
Kastner's area of research is “mostly geochemistry on fluid–rock interactions", specifically with seawater. Her research expertise is on the fluctuation of fluids at plate boundaries, specifically where two plates meet to cause earthquakes and at ridge-crests where hypothermal deposits are found. She has authored over 80 scientific articles. Kastner's work is based on numerous studies, including the following:
Long-term monitoring in observatories of marine gas hydrates and implications for climate change, slope stability, and ocean chemistry
On the oceanic contribution of methane to the atmosphere
Chemical paleoceanography: establishing new marine phases based on the ocean's geological history.
Sediment, geochemical and diagenetic processes with emphasis on marine authigenic minerals like phosphates, silicates, carbonates
One of Kastner's most important publications is one of her most recent “50 years of scientific drilling”. This article is particularly significant as it highlights some of her major findings over the last 50 years. This paper does well to review drilling projects as well as highlight major scientific achievements of the work. The major drilling projects mentioned in the article are as follows, the Mohole Project, Joides and the Deep Sea Drilling Project, the Ocean Drilling Program, and the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program and International Ocean Discovery Program. Each of these projects have made significant contributions to the field of geology. The Mohole Project was famous for recovering large deposits of subseafloor basalt, the Joides and the Deep Sea Drilling Project was known for being one of the first to identify and record the sedimentary rock layering of our ocean floors, and the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program and International Ocean Discovery Program made findings that helped shape the education system of undergraduates as well as in grades K-12. Some of the major achievements of scientific ocean drilling are listed below:
Helped set the standard for the geological time scale by refining the geomagnetic time scale and how it relates to astronomical chronologies
Helped link long term climate changes to Earth's orbital variability
Proved that Antarctica was largely iceless approximately 40 million years ago
Discovered the most complete marine records of the Cretaceous/Paleogene mass extinction and potential evidence linking the extinction event to a large asteroid
Provided early evidence of the theory of plate tectonics
Provided the first evidence of the age dependent growth of the oceanic lithosphere
Accurately narrowed down the age of the Earth based on sedimentary record
This is not a complete list.
== Getty kouros test ==
In the early 1990s, Kastner produced an experimental result which cast doubt on a thesis about dolomite leaching in dating the Getty kouros statue at the centre of a forgery claim. By artificially inducing de-dolomitization in the laboratory, a she produced a result since confirmed by Stanley Margolis a geology professor at the University of California at Davis who had previously determined that this process could occur only over the course of many centuries making forgery unlikely.
== Publications ==
Kastner has published many articles, here is a partial list:
1965- Y. K. Bentor, Miriam Kastner. Notes on the Mineralogy and Origin of Glauconite. SEPM Journal of Sedimentary Research (1965), Vol. 35
1972- Siever R, Kastner M. Shale petrology by electron microprobe; pyrite-chloride relations. Journal of Sedimentary Research (1972), 42(2):350-355
1977- Kastner M, Keene JB, Gieskes JM. Diagenesis of siliceous oozes-I. Chemical controls on the rate of opal-A to opal-CT transformation-an experimental study Geochimica Et Cosmochimica Acta. 41: 1041-1051,1053-1059.
1980- Lonsdale PF, Bischoff JL, Burns VM, Kastner M, Sweeney RE. A high-temperature hydrothermal deposit on the seabed at a gulf of California spreading center Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 49: 8-20
1980- Einsele G, Gieskes JM, Curray J, Moore DM, Aguayo E, Aubry MP, Fornari D, Guerrero J, Kastner M, Kelts K, Lyle M, Matoba Y, Molina-Cruz A, Niemitz J, Rueda J, et al. Intrusion of basaltic sills into highly porous sediments, and resulting hydrothermal activity Nature. 283: 441-445.
1980- Spiess FN, Macdonald KC, Atwater T, Ballard R, Carranza A, Cordoba D, Cox C, Garcia VM, Francheteau J, Guerrero J, Hawkins J, Haymon R, Hessler R, Juteau T, Kastner M, et al. East pacific rise: hot springs and geophysical experiments. Science. 207: 1421-33.
1981- Kastner M, Siever R. Low temperature feldspars in sedimentary rocks American Journal of Science. 279: 435-4Haymon RM, Kastner M. Hot spring deposits on the East Pacific Rise at 21°N: preliminary description of mineralogy and genesis Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 53: 363-381. 79
1981- Baker PA, Kastner M. Constraints on the formation of sedimentary dolomite. Science. 213: 214-6.
1983- Kastner M, Siever R. Siliceous sediments of the Guaymas Basin: the effect of high thermal gradients on diagenesis. Journal of Geology.
1986- Kastner M, Gieskes JM, Hu JY. Carbonate recrystallization in basal sediments: Evidence for convective fluid flow on a ridge flank Nature. 321: 158-161.
1990- Garrison RE, Kastner M. Phosphatic sediments and rocks recovered from the Peru margin during ODP Leg 112 Proc., Scientific Reports, Odp, Leg 112, Peru Continental Margin.
1991- Martin JB, Kastner M, Elderfield H. Lithium: sources in pore fluids of Peru slope sediments and implications for oceanic fluxes Marine Geology. 102: 281-292.
1993- Martin JB, Gieskes JM, Torres M, Kastner M. Bromine and iodine in Peru margin sediments and pore fluids: Implications for fluid origins Geochimica Et Cosmochimica Acta. 57: 4377-4389.
1995- Martin EE, Macdougall JD, Herbert TD, Paytan A, Kastner M. Strontium and neodymium isotopic analyses of marine barite separates Geochimica Et Cosmochimica Acta. 59: 1353-1361.
1996- Paytan A, Kastner M, Chavez FP. Glacial to Interglacial Fluctuations in Productivity in the Equatorial Pacific as Indicated by Marine Barite Science. 274: 1355-7.
1998- Ransom B, Kim D, Kastner M, Wainwright S. Organic matter preservation on continental slopes: importance of mineralogy and surface area Geochimica Et Cosmochimica Acta. 62: 1329-1345.
1998- Paytan A, Kastner M, Campbell D, Thiemens MH. Sulfur isotopic composition of cenozoic seawater sulfate Science. 282: 1459-62.
2001- Valentine DL, Blanton DC, Reeburgh WS, Kastner M. Water column methane oxidation adjacent to an area of active hydrate dissociation, Eel River Basin Geochimica Et Cosmochimica Acta. 65: 2633-2640.
2008- Newman KR, Cormier MH, Weissel JK, Driscoll NW, Kastner M, Solomon EA, Robertson G, Hill JC, Singh H, Camilli R, Eustice R. Active methane venting observed at giant pockmarks along the U.S. mid-Atlantic shelf break Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 267: 341-352. DOI: 10.1016/J.Epsl.2007.11.053
2009- Solomon EA, Kastner M, Wheat CG, Jannasch H, Robertson G, Davis EE, Morris JD. Long-term hydrogeochemical records in the oceanic basement and forearc prism at the Costa Rica subduction zone Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 282: 240-251. DOI: 10.1016/J.Epsl.2009.03.022
2011- Joye SB, Leifer I, MacDonald IR, Chanton JP, Meile CD, Teske AP, Kostka JE, Chistoserdova L, Coffin R, Hollander D, Kastner M, Montoya JP, Rehder G, Solomon E, Treude T, et al. Comment on "A persistent oxygen anomaly reveals the fate of spilled methane in the deep Gulf of Mexico". Science. 332: 1033; author reply 1.
2012- Solomon EA, Kastner M. Progressive barite dissolution in the Costa Rica forearc - Implications for global fluxes of Ba to the volcanic arc and mantle Geochimica Et Cosmochimica Acta. 83: 110-124. DOI: 10.1016/J.Gca.2011.12.021
2019- Martinez-Ruiz F, Paytan A, Gonzalez-Muñoz M, Jroundi F, Abad M, Lam P, Bishop J, Horner T, Morton P, Kastner M. Barite formation in the ocean: Origin of amorphous and crystalline precipitates Chemical Geology. 511: 441-451.
== Awards and honours ==
Newcomb Cleveland prize, American Association for the Advancement of Science (1980)
Guggenheim Fellow (1982)
Charles R. Bennett Service through Chemistry Award, American Chemical Society (1984)
Ocean Science Education Award, Office of Naval Research (1991)
Fellow of John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation (1992)
Fellow, American Association for the Advancement of Science (1993)
Fellow, American Geophysical Union (1997)
Fellow, Geochemical Society and European Association of Geochemistry (1998)
Hans Petterson Medal, Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences (1999)
Fellow, Geological Society of America (2004)
Maurice Ewing Medal, American Geophysical Union (2008)
Fellow, International Association of GeoChemistry (2010)
Francis Shepard Medal for Excellence in Marine Geology, Society for Sedimentary Geology (2011)
V. M. Goldshmidt Award, Geochemical Society (2015)
Leopold-von-Buch-Plakette, German Geological Society (2018)
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Perry | Matthew Perry | Matthew Langford Perry (August 19, 1969 – October 28, 2023) was an American and Canadian actor. He gained international fame for starring as Chandler Bing on the NBC television sitcom Friends (1994–2004). Perry also appeared on Ally McBeal (2002) and received Primetime Emmy Award nominations for his performances in The West Wing (2003) and The Ron Clark Story (2006). He played a leading role in the NBC series Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip (2006–2007), and also became known for his leading film roles in Fools Rush In (1997), Almost Heroes (1998), Three to Tango (1999), The Whole Nine Yards (2000), Serving Sara (2002), The Whole Ten Yards (2004), and 17 Again (2009).
Perry was the co-creator, co-writer, executive producer and star of the ABC sitcom Mr. Sunshine, which ran from February to April 2011. In August 2012, he starred as sportscaster Ryan King on the NBC sitcom Go On. He co-developed and starred in a revival of the CBS sitcom The Odd Couple portraying Oscar Madison from 2015 to 2017. He had recurring roles in the legal dramas The Good Wife (2012–2013), and The Good Fight (2017). Perry portrayed Ted Kennedy in The Kennedys: After Camelot (2017) and appeared as himself in his final television appearance, Friends: The Reunion (2021). He voiced Benny in the video game Fallout: New Vegas (2010).
For most of his life, Perry suffered from severe addictions to drugs and alcohol. Through his recovery, he became an advocate for rehabilitation and a spokesperson for the National Association of Drug Court Professionals. In 2013, Perry received the Champion of Recovery Award from the White House Office of National Drug Control Policy. In 2022, he released his memoir, Friends, Lovers, and the Big Terrible Thing.
Perry died on October 28, 2023, at age 54, from accidental drowning caused by the acute effects of ketamine use. Five people were charged in connection with helping him acquire lethal doses of the drug. All five pleaded guilty. Salvador Plasencia, a former California physician who supplied Perry with ketamine, would be sentenced to 30 months in prison on December 3, 2025, and is currently in custody. The drug dealer Jasveen Sangha, who was also among those who pled guilty, is believed to have supplied Perry with the ketamine which caused his death.
== Early life and education ==
Matthew Langford Perry was born in Williamstown, Massachusetts, on August 19, 1969. His mother, Suzanne Marie Morrison (née Langford, born 1948), is a Canadian journalist who was press secretary to Canadian prime minister Pierre Trudeau. His father, John Bennett Perry (born 1941), is an American actor and former model.
Perry's parents separated when he was a year old and his mother married Canadian broadcast journalist Keith Morrison. Perry was mostly raised by his mother in Ottawa, Ontario, but he also lived briefly in Toronto and Montreal. He attended Rockcliffe Park Public School and Ashbury College, a boarding school in Ottawa. He had four younger maternal half-siblings—Caitlin, Emily, Will, and Madeline—as well as a younger paternal half-sister named Maria. His siblings "would stand and applaud" him for early performances.
By the age of 10, Perry started misbehaving. He stole money, smoked, let his grades slip and beat up fellow student and future Canadian prime minister Justin Trudeau. Perry later attributed his behavior to his feeling like a family outsider who no longer belonged once his mother began having children with Morrison. He wrote, "I was so often on the outside looking in, still that kid up in the clouds on a flight to somewhere else, unaccompanied." At age 14, Perry began consuming alcohol, and was drinking every day by his 18th birthday. He practiced tennis, often for 10 hours per day, and became a top-ranked junior player in Canada with the possibility of a tennis career. However, his prospects diminished when he moved from Ottawa, at age 15, to live with his father in Los Angeles, where competition was much tougher.
At 15, Perry began studying acting at the Buckley School, a college-preparatory school in Sherman Oaks, Los Angeles, from which he graduated in 1987. While in high school, he took improvisational comedy classes at L.A. Connection in Sherman Oaks.
== Career ==
=== 1979–1993: Early roles ===
Perry's first credited role was a small part in 240-Robert in 1979 as a child actor. Shortly after moving to Los Angeles, Perry started auditioning for roles. Perry made guest appearances on Not Necessarily the News in 1983, Charles in Charge in 1985, and Silver Spoons in 1986. In 1987 and 1988, he played Chazz Russell in the television series Second Chance (later called Boys Will Be Boys). Perry made his film debut in 1988 with A Night in the Life of Jimmy Reardon. In 1989, he had a three-episode arc on Growing Pains, portraying Carol Seaver's boyfriend Sandy, who dies in a drunk driving incident.
Perry was cast as a regular on the 1990 CBS sitcom Sydney, playing the younger brother of Valerie Bertinelli's character. In 1991, he made a guest appearance on Beverly Hills, 90210 as Roger Azarian. Perry played the starring role in the ABC sitcom Home Free, which aired in 1993.
=== 1994–2004: Breakthrough with Friends ===
Perry's commitment to a pilot for a sitcom called LAX 2194, set in the baggage handling department of Los Angeles Airport 200 years in the future, initially made him unavailable for a role in another pilot, Six of One, later called Friends. After the LAX 2194 pilot fell through, he had the opportunity to read for a part in Six of One and was cast as Chandler Bing. At age 24, he was the youngest member of the main cast. After making the pilot and while waiting for the show to air, Perry spent the summer of 1993 performing at the Williamstown Theater Festival alongside Gwyneth Paltrow.
Friends was hugely successful, and it made Perry an international celebrity. By 2002, he and his co-stars Jennifer Aniston, Courteney Cox, Lisa Kudrow, Matt LeBlanc, and David Schwimmer were making $1 million per episode. The program earned him an Emmy nomination in 2002 for the Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series award. Perry appeared in films such as Fools Rush In, Almost Heroes, Three to Tango, The Whole Nine Yards and its sequel The Whole Ten Yards, and Serving Sara. In 1995, he and Jennifer Aniston appeared in a 60-minute-long promotional video for Microsoft's Windows 95, released on VHS on August 1.
For his performance as Joe Quincy in The West Wing, Perry received two Emmy nominations for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series in 2003 and 2004. He appeared as attorney Todd Merrick in two episodes of Ally McBeal. In 2004, he made his directorial debut and acted in an episode of the fourth season of the comedy-drama Scrubs, an episode which included his father.
=== 2005–2022: Later work ===
Perry starred in the TNT movie The Ron Clark Story, which premiered August 13, 2006, and received a Golden Globe and Emmy nomination for his performance. From 2006 to 2007, he appeared in Aaron Sorkin's drama Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip. Perry played Matt Albie alongside Bradley Whitford's Danny Tripp, a writer-director duo brought in to help save a failing sketch show.
In 2006, Perry began filming Numb, a film based on a man suffering from depersonalization disorder. The release was postponed several times, but it was finally released on DVD on May 13, 2008. Perry also appeared on stage in London in David Mamet's Sexual Perversity in Chicago. In 2008, Perry starred in the independent film Birds of America. Showtime passed on a pilot called The End of Steve, a dark comedy starring, written, and produced by Perry and Peter Tolan.
In 2009, Perry starred in the film 17 Again playing a 37-year-old man who transforms into his 17-year-old self (Zac Efron) after an accident. The film received mixed reviews and was a box-office success. A review on WRC-TV found Perry miscast in his role, emphasizing the disbelief in Efron growing up to resemble Perry, both physically and behaviorally — a sentiment echoed by other critics.
In 2009, Perry was a guest on The Ellen DeGeneres Show, when he presented Ellen DeGeneres with an Xbox 360 video game console and a copy of the game Fallout 3. The gesture led to game studio Obsidian Entertainment casting him in Fallout: New Vegas as the voice of Benny.
Perry's new comedy pilot, Mr. Sunshine, based on his original idea for the show, was bought by ABC. He played the lead role as a middle-aged man with an identity crisis. ABC canceled the series after nine episodes in 2011.
In 2012, Perry starred in the NBC comedy series Go On, written and produced by former Friends writer/producer Scott Silveri. Perry portrayed Ryan King, a sportscaster who tries to move on after the death of his wife through the help of mandatory therapy sessions. In the same year, he guest-starred on the CBS drama The Good Wife as attorney Mike Kresteva. He reprised his role in the fourth season in 2013.
In 2014, Perry made his British television debut in the one-off comedy program The Dog Thrower, which aired on May 1 as part of Sky Arts' Playhouse Presents. He portrayed "a charismatic man" who enchanted onlookers by throwing his dog in the air. From 2015 to 2017, Perry starred in, co-wrote, and served as executive producer of a reboot of the sitcom The Odd Couple on CBS. He played Oscar Madison opposite Thomas Lennon as Felix Unger.
Perry played the lead role in the world premiere production of his play The End of Longing, which opened on February 11, 2016, at the Playhouse Theatre in London. Its limited run proved successful despite mixed reviews. Perry restructured the play and appeared alongside Jennifer Morrison in its second off-Broadway production, which opened at the Lucille Lortel Theatre on June 5, 2017. It closed on July 1 after receiving poor reviews. Years later Perry described the play as "a personal message to the world, an exaggerated form of me as a drunk. I had something important to say to people like me, and to people who love people like me."
In March 2017, Perry again reprised his role as attorney Mike Kresteva in The Good Fight, a sequel show to the CBS drama The Good Wife. Later that year, he starred as Ted Kennedy in the mini-series The Kennedys: After Camelot.
In May 2021, he participated in the special episode Friends: The Reunion. He was meant to have a role in Don't Look Up, but withdrew in 2020 because of CPR-induced broken ribs. Perry published a memoir, Friends, Lovers, and the Big Terrible Thing, in October 2022. It became a bestseller on both Amazon and The New York Times charts.
== Personal life ==
Perry held American citizenship by birth and Canadian citizenship through his mother. He dated Yasmine Bleeth in 1995, Julia Roberts from 1995 to 1996, and Lizzy Caplan from 2006 to 2012. In November 2020, Perry became engaged to literary manager Molly Hurwitz. Their engagement ended in 2021.
Residences owned at some point by Perry included a condo in Sierra Towers purchased from Elton John, a house in Hollywood Hills, a house in Malibu, and a cottage in Pacific Palisades. In 2017, Perry purchased a condo occupying the top floor of The Century in Los Angeles for $20 million, selling it to Nick Molnar for $21.6 million in 2021. In June 2023, Perry purchased a mid-century modern house in Hollywood Hills.
Perry had a perfectionist and obsessive personality, spending many hours perfecting his answering machine message. He also believed in God, with whom he had "a very close relationship", calling himself "a seeker".
=== Health and addiction ===
In his memoirs, Perry wrote that by age 14, he had become an alcoholic. He became addicted to Vicodin after a jet ski accident in 1997 and completed a 28-day rehab program at the Hazelden Betty Ford Foundation that year. His weight dropped to 128 pounds (58 kg) as he took as many as 55 Vicodin pills per day. In May 2000, he was admitted to Cedars-Sinai Medical Center with alcohol-induced pancreatitis.
Perry said in 2002 that he made an effort not to drink on the set of Friends but arrived with extreme hangovers and sometimes would shake or sweat excessively. During later seasons, he was frequently drunk or high on set. His castmates made efforts to help him, and staged an intervention, but were unsuccessful.
In February 2001, Perry paused productions of Friends and Serving Sara for two months to enter in-patient rehabilitation for his addictions to Vicodin, methadone, amphetamines and alcohol. He said later that, due to his substance use disorder, he had no memory of three years of his work on Friends.
In 2018, Perry spent five months in a hospital for a gastrointestinal perforation. During the hospital stay, Perry nearly died after his colon burst from opioid abuse. He spent two weeks in a coma and used a colostomy bag for nine months. Doctors told his family that Perry had a 2% chance of survival when he was admitted. He was connected to an extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) machine.
Perry faked pain to get a prescription for 1,800 milligrams of hydrocodone per day and was having daily ketamine infusions. He was given propofol in conjunction with a surgery, which stopped his heart for five minutes. The resulting CPR resulted in eight broken ribs. He paid $175,000 for a private jet to take him to Los Angeles to get more drugs. When doctors there refused, he booked another $175,000 private flight to fly back to Switzerland that night. In 2022, he estimated that he had spent $9 million on his addiction, including 14 stomach surgeries, 15 stays in rehab and therapy twice a week for 30 years and had attended approximately 6,000 Alcoholics Anonymous meetings.
=== Philanthropy and advocacy ===
In July 2011, Perry lobbied the United States Congress as a celebrity spokesperson for the National Association of Drug Court Professionals in support of funding for drug courts. He received a Champion of Recovery award in May 2013 from the White House Office of National Drug Control Policy for opening Perry House, a rehab center in his former mansion in Malibu. In 2015, Perry sold the mansion and relocated its services. During the COVID-19 pandemic, he launched an apparel line inspired by Friends, with proceeds donated to the World Health Organization's COVID-19 relief fund.
== Death and funeral ==
On October 28, 2023, Perry was found unresponsive in a hot tub at his home in Pacific Palisades, Los Angeles. He was pronounced dead at 4:17 pm the same day. He was 54 years old.
On November 3, 2023, Perry's funeral was held at Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Los Angeles where he was buried. His father, mother and stepfather attended, as did his five Friends co-stars. The Peter Gabriel and Kate Bush song "Don't Give Up" was played; Perry was enamored with the song and referenced it in signed copies of his autobiography, released in part to help people suffering from depression or addiction issues. Following Perry's death, the National Philanthropic Trust established the Matthew Perry Foundation to support people suffering from addiction.
On December 15, 2023, Perry's death was revealed to have occurred due to acute effects of ketamine. Other circumstances that contributed to his death included the effects of buprenorphine, drowning, and coronary artery disease. The Los Angeles County Department of Medical Examiner said in a statement that
...at the high levels of ketamine found in his post-mortem blood specimens, the main lethal effects would be from both cardiovascular overstimulation and respiratory depression... ...drowning contributes due to the likelihood of submersion into the pool as he lapsed into unconsciousness; coronary artery disease contributes due to exacerbation of ketamine induced myocardial effects on the heart. The ketamine in his system at death could not be from that infusion therapy, since ketamine's half-life is 3 to 4 hours, or less.
Perry had been receiving ketamine-assisted psychotherapy sessions to treat anxiety at the time of his death. His last known session occurred the week before his death. However, the report stated that the therapy could not have resulted in his death.
=== Investigation and guilty pleas ===
In May 2024, an investigation was opened by the Los Angeles Police Department to determine how Perry obtained the high dose of ketamine that caused his death. On August 15, 2024, indictments and charges were filed against five people: Perry's personal assistant, two doctors, and two drug dealers (including TV director Erik Fleming), alleging involvement in the distribution of ketamine that caused the death of Perry and one other person.
Three of the accused agreed to plead guilty, with two, Fleming and Perry's former assistant Kenneth Iwamasa, having their guilty pleas entered into court soon after being charged; Iwamasa pleaded guilty on August 7, 2024, as did Fleming the following day. During a court hearing on August 30, 2024, it was agreed that former doctor Mark Chavez, who had signed a plea agreement but had not yet officially entered it into court, would have his guilty plea accepted, though he would still not officially plead guilty until a later court appearance. Chavez would have his medical license suspended the next month and would officially plead guilty at a court hearing held on October 2, 2024. The second doctor, Salvador Plasencia, agreed to plead guilty on June 17, 2025. Plasencia, who was initially scheduled to be tried in August 2025, would then officially plead guilty in court to four counts of ketamine distribution on July 23, 2025.
According to U.S. Attorney Martin Estrada, Perry paid the two doctors $55,000 in cash for ketamine in the two months before his death. Iwamasa admitted to obtaining ketamine for Perry and injecting him with the drug, while Fleming admitted to obtaining the ketamine from the supplier and giving it to Iwamasa for Perry to use. Text messages also revealed that Plasencia would purchase the ketamine he supplied Perry with from Chavez. with one text even showing Plasencia asking Chavez "I wonder how much this moron will pay." However, the main supplier of the ketamine Perry used at the time of his death was believed to be Jasveen Sangha, who served as a major drug dealer to "high end and celebs" and whose North Hollywood home, which was raided by U.S. DEA authorities in March 2024, was described as a "drug-selling emporium." In his guilty plea, Erik Fleming admitted that he obtained 71 vials of ketamine from Sangha which would be sold to Perry. Plasencia, who was initially Perry's main ketamine supplier, and Sangha, who became Perry's main ketamine supplier after Plasencia limited his ketamine supply, were regarded as the primary targets in the case regarding Perry's death.
On August 18, 2025, Sangha, the final defendant in the case involving Perry's death, had her guilty plea, which was signed on August 14, 2025, officially filed in court. Sangha, also known as the "Ketamine Queen," pled guilty to one count of maintaining a drug-involved premises, three counts of distribution of ketamine and one count of distribution of ketamine resulting in death or serious bodily injury. Sangha would agree to a plead guilty to these charges shortly before her trial was set to begin in September 2025. At the time of her plea deal, Sangha, who also admitted to selling ketamine which at least one other person overdosed on before their death, had been jailed in federal custody since her arrest in August 2024. Sangha would officially plead guilty to all five counts she was charged with while appearing before the U.S. District Court for the Central District of California on September 3, 2025.
Sangha faces up to 45 years in prison. Of the other defendants, Plasencia, who remained free on bond until sentencing, faced up to 10 years for each of the four charges he pled guilty to, totaling a possible 40 years. Fleming, who pled guilty to one count of conspiracy to distribute ketamine and one count of distribution of ketamine, resulting in death faces up to 25 years in prison. However, Iwamasa, who pled guilty to only one count of conspiracy to distribute ketamine causing death, faces a maximum of 15 years, while Chavez, who pled guilty to only one count of conspiracy to distribute ketamine, faces up to 10 years.
In September 2025, Plasencia would surrender his California medical license. On December 3, 2025, Plasencia, who was the first person in the case to be sentenced, was sentenced to 30 months (2+1⁄2 years) in prison, as well as two years of supervised release and ordered to pay a $5,600 fine. After being sentenced, Plasencia would surrender and was then taken into federal custody. Chavez will be sentenced on December 17, 2025, while Fleming will be sentenced on January 7, 2026, with Iwamasa being sentenced on January 14, 2026. The office of the U.S. Attorney for the Central District of California has confirmed that Sangha will be sentenced on February 25, 2026.
== Legacy ==
Perry's portrayal of Chandler Bing on Friends (1994–2004) became one of television's most recognizable comic performances. Critics noted his precision timing and a distinctive “could I be any more…?” cadence that was widely imitated and quoted, and that he brought a rare strain of vulnerability to the sitcom archetype.
Beyond acting, Perry advocated for addiction recovery. In 2013 he met with the White House Office of National Drug Control Policy to support drug courts, and that year opened Perry House, a men's sober-living facility in his former Malibu home, which operated from 2013 to 2015. He said he hoped to be remembered more for helping people achieve sobriety than for his acting career, a mission continued by the Matthew Perry Foundation, launched days after his death. Tributes reflected that impact: the main Friends cast issued a joint statement, and Max added an on-screen memorial card to the series; on August 19, 2025, Perry's Fools Rush In co-star Salma Hayek marked what would have been his 56th birthday with an Instagram tribute.
== Acting credits ==
=== Film ===
=== Television ===
=== Theater ===
=== Video games ===
=== Specials ===
== Awards and nominations ==
== See also ==
List of deaths from drug overdose and intoxication
== Publications ==
Perry, Matthew (November 1, 2022). Friends, Lovers, and the Big Terrible Thing: A Memoir. Foreword: Lisa Kudrow. New York: Flatiron Books. ISBN 978-1-250-86644-8. OCLC 1338841699.
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Matthew Perry at IMDb
Matthew Perry at Rotten Tomatoes
Matthew Perry discography at Discogs
Interviewed on "Q with Tom Power", CBC, November 22, 2022, audio |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuel_Esquivel | Manuel Esquivel | Sir Manuel Amadeo Esquivel (2 May 1940 – 10 February 2022) was a Belizean politician. As leader of the United Democratic Party, he served as the second prime minister of Belize from 1984 to 1989, and then again from 1993 to 1998. His party's victory in 1984 was the first time an opposition party had won a general election in Belize.
== Early life ==
Esquivel was born in Belize City when it was the capital of the British Crown Colony of British Honduras. He attended St John's College and later earned a Bachelor of Science degree in physics at Loyola University New Orleans; he subsequently pursued a postgraduate certificate in physics education at Bristol University, England.
== Politics ==
After the 1969 British Honduras election, Esquivel became head of the pro-business Liberal Party, which later merged with two other parties in 1973 to form the United Democratic Party (UDP). He was elected to the Belize City Council for two terms, and served as UDP chairman from 1976 to 1982. In the 1979 election, Esquivel was the UDP nominee for the Belize House of Representatives in the Freetown constituency. He was defeated by the incumbent Premier of Belize George Cadle Price, leader of the People's United Party (PUP). Esquivel was then appointed a minority member of the Belize Senate. He defeated Philip Goldson for the open UDP leadership post in January 1983, becoming the first and thus far only politician to be elected leader of a major Belizean political party as a senator. Acting opposition leader Curl Thompson stayed on as the UDP's House leader until the following election.
Esquivel was elected in December 1984 to the House of Representatives from the newly formed constituency of Caribbean Shores in Belize City, becoming prime minister for the first time shortly thereafter. The UDP's victory was the first time an opposition party had won since the introduction of universal suffrage in 1954. He held the seat until the 1998 election, in which he was defeated by the PUP's Jose Coye.
Earlier in 1984, the Price government was faced with a financial crisis, and had nearly depleted its financial reserves. After increasing tax rates twice, they entered into a standby agreement with the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Upon becoming prime minister, Esquivel proceeded with economic reforms under the advice of domestic experts such as Edney Cain. Esquivel began moving the economy of Belize away from his predecessor's mixed economy model, encouraging foreign direct investment and the growth of tourism. In his second term, he implemented unpopular austerity measures such as public sector retrenchment. His government suspended pay raises from 1995 to 1997, but transferred 450,000 shares of Belize Telecommunications to a trust for the affected workers. The opposition PUP dubbed Esquivel as "VATMAN" for introducing a 15% value-added tax (VAT) in 1995. While Esquivel's successor Said Musa repealed the VAT in 1999, Musa introduced a similar 10% goods and services tax (GST) in 2005.
After the UDP won the February 2008 election, Esquivel was appointed by Prime Minister Dean Barrow as senior advisor to government with the rank of minister on 12 February 2008. He was also appointed Chairman of the Central Bank of Belize on 18 January 2011. He stepped down as Chairman in September 2013, and resigned from the Cabinet in March 2014.
Esquivel continued to provide opinions on public issues after retiring. Having served on the national flag design committee, he advocated for a standardized definition of the flag and the coat of arms. Although his government had opposed cannabis trafficking, Esquivel expressed support for decriminalization of small amounts in 2017. He published an editorial in the Amandala newspaper supporting the 2019 Belizean territorial dispute referendum. When the government began administering COVID-19 vaccine to citizens over 60, Esquivel and his wife were among the first recipients.
== Personal life ==
Esquivel met his future wife, Kathleen Levy, while he was studying in Bristol. They wed in 1971 and had three children: David, Laura, and Ruth. Laura followed in her father's footsteps as a public servant, serving as a Belize City councilor (2006-2012), Director of the Belize Tourism Board (2012-2014), and Deputy Chief of Mission at the Embassy of Belize in Washington, D.C.
Esquivel was a passenger in vehicle rollovers in 1996 and 2009 on the Western Highway. Both accidents were caused by wet road conditions. While he only sustained minor injuries from the first accident, Esquivel underwent facial surgery after the second.
Kathleen, Lady Esquivel, wrote a biography of Esquivel entitled Still Waters, which was published in 2021. Esquivel died on 10 February 2022, at the age of 81.
== Honours ==
Esquivel was appointed to the Privy Council of the United Kingdom by Queen Elizabeth II in 1986. This life-time appointment confers the title "Right Honourable". He also held an Honorary Doctorate of Humane Letters from Loyola University.
Esquivel was appointed Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George (KCMG) in the 2010 New Year Honours.
In 2021, the Belize City Council renamed an overpass after Esquivel. The coastal road connecting Belize District and Stann Creek District is also named after him.
== See also ==
Politics of Belize
Ministry of Finance (Belize)
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Illustrators | Society of Illustrators | The Society of Illustrators (SoI) is a professional society based in New York City. It was founded in 1901 to promote the art of illustration and, since 1959, has held an annual exhibition.
Since absorbing the Museum of Comic and Cartoon Art (MoCCA) in 2012, the Society has also promoted the art of comics. In addition to its holding exhibitions in its own Museum of American Illustration, the Society holds the annual MoCCA Festival, an independent comics showcase.
== History ==
=== Founding ===
The Society of Illustrators was founded on February 1, 1901, by a group of nine artists and one advising businessman. The advising businessman was Henry S. Fleming, a coal dealer who offered his legal staff to the Society in an advisory role and also served as the Society of Illustrators Secretary and Treasurer for many years. The nine artists who, with Fleming, founded the Society were Otto Henry Bacher, Frank Vincent DuMond, Henry Hutt, Albert Wenzell, Albert Sterner, Benjamin West Clinedinst, F. C. Yohn, Louis Loeb, and Reginald Birch.
The mission statement was "to promote generally the art of illustration and to hold exhibitions from time to time". Women first became part of the organization in 1903, when Elizabeth Shippen Green and Florence Scovel Shinn were named Associate Members; but women were prohibited from full membership until 1922.
=== World War I ===
During the World War I years, with Charles Dana Gibson as the acting president, Society members worked through the Committee on Public Information's Division of Pictorial Publicity, creating many original poster designs, including James M. Flagg's US Army iconic recruiting poster of Uncle Sam, as well as advertising of the massive War Bond effort.
Photo journalism was impractical during these years and eight Society members, commissioned Captains in the Engineers, were sent to France to sketch the war.
After the war, the Society operated the School for Disabled Soldiers.
=== Between the wars ===
In 1920, the society was incorporated, and in 1922 women were allowed to become full members. The early history of the society was documented in 1927 and 1939 by Norman Mills Price. His handwritten notes are held in the Society of Illustrators archives.
During the 1920s and 1930s, the Society presented the Illustrator's Shows, featuring artists and their models as actors, songwriters, set designers and painters. Professional talent such as the Cotton Club band and Jimmy Durante also performed. Through member and set designer Watson Barrett, the Illustrator's Show of 1925 was held at the Shubert Theatre, and the Shuberts purchased the rights to the skits for their Broadway productions of Artists and Models.
In 1939, those funds allowed the Society to acquire its present headquarters, at 128 East 63rd Street. Norman Rockwell's Dover Coach became the backdrop for the bar on the fourth floor, donated by Rockwell in honor of the Society's new building. This painting currently hangs in the Members Dining Room.
=== World War II ===
During World War II, the society again contributed to the war effort with a massive campaign of posters. Society members visited veterans’ hospitals to sketch the wounded, and these art works were sent to the families to boost morale.
The Illustrator's Jazz Band was formed to entertain the wounded, and an ensemble by the same name plays at Society events up until the present.
=== Post-World War II ===
In 1946, a Welfare Fund for indigent artists was established.
In 1948, the Joint Ethics Committee, of which The Society is a member developed the first Code of Fair Practice, which still serves today in addressing concerns of artists and art directors working in the graphic communications field where abuses and misunderstandings regarding usage rights and ownership of works of illustration and other works of art created for a wide range of public media.
In 1954, the U.S. Air Force began sending Society of Illustrators members around the world to document the Air Force's activities. This program continues today. Thousands of paintings have been contributed over the years.
In 1959, the society hold its first Annual Exhibition, juried by Bob Peak, Bradbury Thompson, Stevan Dohanos, and others. It opened with 350 original works of art and led to the publication of the first Illustrators Annual.
The Society opened its doors to the public in 1981, establishing the Museum of American Illustration, with regular public exhibitions.
=== 21st century ===
In 2001, the 100th anniversary of the society's founding, a 12-month celebration began with the U.S. Postal Service issuing the Great American Illustrators. That year was punctuated with the 9/11 Memorial Exhibition, Prevailing Human Spirit.
The Museum of Comic and Cartoon Art (MoCCA) endowed its assets in August 2012 to the society, which has since subsidized the MoCCA Festival.
Anelle Miller was appointed executive director of the society in 2007 and served in that capacity until 2023. She updated the exhibition space, hired new staff, and instituted a slew of programs open to the general public. Arabelle Liepold took the position in June 2023.
The Society of Illustrators maintains an annual of illustration, student scholarship competitions and various awards honoring excellence in the field of illustration. The society has had outreach programs with the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation since 2001, and with the New York City Board of Education since 1999.
== Presidents ==
As of 2023, the president of the Society of Illustrators is Leslie Cober.
Notable past presidents of the Society:
Charles Dana Gibson (1904–1905, 1909–1920)
Albert Sterner (1907–1908) — founding member
George Hand Wright (1926–1927)
Wallace Morgan (1929–1936)
Harold von Schmidt (1938–1941)
Albert Dorne (1947–1948)
== Museum of American Illustration and Exhibitions ==
The Museum of American Illustration was established at the society in 1981, under the stewardship of John Witt, the society's president. The Society's permanent collection, featuring pieces on rotational display throughout the building, includes nearly 2500 works by such artists as Norman Rockwell, Howard Pyle, N.C. Wyeth, James Montgomery Flagg, Bob Peak, and Bernie Fuchs.
The Museum hosts the Annual Illustration show and smaller topical exhibits related to illustration and comics. In recent years, the main galleries have played host to numerous acclaimed, contemporary, and popular exhibitions including:
R. Crumb: Lines Drawn on Paper (March 23 - April 11, 2011), curated by Monte Beauchamp.
Maurice Sendak: A Celebration of the Artist and his Work (June 11 - August 17, 2013), curated by Justin Schiller and Dennis David.
The ZAP Show (March 2 - May 17, 2016), curated by Monte Beauchamp and Eric Sack.
Will Eisner: The Centennial Celebration 1917–2017 (March 1 - June 3, 2017).
The Art of MARCH: A Civil Rights Masterpiece (February 28 - June 30, 2018), curated by John Lind and Charles Brownstein.
Illustrating Batman: Eighty Years of Comics and Pop Culture (June 12 - October 12, 2019), curated by Rob Pistella, John Lind, and Chip Kidd.
The Society also has a gallery on the second floor dedicated to MoCCA that frequently hosts smaller exhibits of comic book art.
== Recognition ==
The Society of Illustrators inaugurated the Hall of Fame program in 1958, to recognize "distinguished achievement in the art of illustration". The first recipient was Norman Rockwell. Like other recognized artists, he was elected by former Society presidents for his contributions to the field of illustration. Every year since 1958, one or more illustrators have been added to the Hall of Fame. In 2001, two additional forms of recognition were added: Dean Cornwell Recognition Award and the Arthur William Brown Achievement Award, which may be awarded annually.
In 1965, The Society established the Hamilton King Award, which is given annually to one society member.
In 1981, The Society established the Student Scholarship Competition, which has continued annually to the present. The Highest Award presented to a student by the society is the Zankel Scholarship Award, established in 2006 in honor of Arthur Zankel, an advocate for higher education whose bequest made the scholarship possible.
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1958_Italian_general_election | 1958 Italian general election | The 1958 Italian general election was held in Italy on 25 May 1958. The number of MPs to be elected was calculated upon the population's size for the last time.
== Electoral system ==
Minor changes were made to the electoral law in 1958, creating a system which would remain unchanged until its abrogation in 1993.
The pure party-list proportional representation was definitely adopted for the Chamber of Deputies. Italian provinces were united in 32 constituencies, each electing a group of candidates. At constituency level, seats were divided between open lists using the largest remainder method with Imperiali quota. Remaining votes and seats were transferred at national level, where they were divided using the Hare quota, and automatically distributed to best losers into the local lists.
For the Senate, 237 single-seat constituencies were established, even if the assembly had 9 more members. The candidates needed a landslide victory of two thirds of votes to be elected: only 5 hoping senators reached this goal. All remained votes and seats were grouped in party lists and regional constituencies, where a D'Hondt method was used: inside the lists, candidates with the best percentages were elected.
== Historical background ==
After De Gasperi's retirement in 1953, Fanfani emerged as the anticipated successor, a role confirmed by his appointment as party secretary from 1954 to 1959. He reorganized and rejuvenated the national party organization of the Christian Democrats after the dependence on the church and the government which had typified the De Gasperi period.
Fanfani's activist and sometimes authoritarian style, as well as his reputation as an economic reformer, ensured that the moderates within the DC, who opposed the state's intrusion into the country's economic life, regarded him with distrust. His indefatigable energy and his passion for efficiency carried him far in politics, but he was rarely able to exploit fully the opportunities that he created. One politician once remarked: "Fanfani has colleagues, associates, acquaintances and subordinates. But I have never heard much about his friends."
== Parties and leaders ==
== Results ==
The election gave similar results of five years before and, consequently, the same problems of political instability of the centrist formula. Christian Democracy was polarized by a fraction which liked more leftist politics, and another one which urged for a rightist route. Party's secretary Amintore Fanfani was in the first field, and called for a dialogue with the Italian Socialist Party, which had frozen its relationships with the Italian Communist Party after the Hungarian Revolution. Fanfani led a year-term government, but the reaction of the conservative fraction gave the power to Antonio Segni, followed by Fernando Tambroni who received a decisive vote of confidence by the neo-fascist Italian Social Movement. The MSI had been banned by any type of political power since its birth under the theory of the Constitutional Arch, which stated that any government or opposition party which had voted the Italian Constitution, had to refuse any relationship with fascist and monarchist forces, seen as anti-constitutional groups. Strikes and revolts causing some casualties erupted through the country, and Tambroni had to resign. Fanfani returned to the premiership, this time with an openly centre-left programme supported by the socialist abstention. The government created the middle school for workers' sons, and the ENEL after the electric energy nationalisation.
=== Chamber of Deputies ===
==== Results by constituency ====
=== Senate of the Republic ===
==== Results by constituency ====
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolai_Prebensen | Nikolai Prebensen | Nikolai Christian Grove Prebensen (13 April 1850 – 24 May 1938) was a Norwegian politician for the Conservative Party.
He was born in the town of Risør as a son of Jacob Wetlesen Prebensen (1808–1892) and Wencke Kristiane Grove. He finished his secondary education in 1868 and took the cand.jur. degree in 1873. He was hired as a clerk in the Ministry of Church Affairs in 1876, and from 1878 to 1881 he was a deputy judge in Romsdal District Court. He was also acting district stipendiary magistrate for some time in the absence of district stipendiary magistrate Roll. From 1881 to 1887 he was a clerk in the Ministry of Justice and the Police, before being hired as chief of police in Vardø in 1887.
From 1889 to 1894 he served as the County Governor of Finnmark. He was the mayor of Vadsø Municipality from 1892 to 1894, and also sat one period in the Parliament of Norway, from 1892 to 1894 for the constituency Hammerfest, Vardø og Vadsø. He was a member of the Standing Committee on the Military. From 1896 to 1906 he served as the County Governor of Aust-Agder. He represented the constituency Arendal og Grimstad in the Parliament of Norway from 1903 to 1906. In Arendal, he gained much support for wanting to locate Arendal Station at Kittelsbukt rather than at Barbu.
In his second parliamentary term, he chaired the Protocol Committee. In 1905, he chaired the "Special Committee" that prepared the establishment of a Norwegian consulate service, and thus the dissolution of the union between Norway and Sweden. When the union was dissolved and Norway could appoint its own diplomats, Prebensen became the ambassador ("minister") to the Russian Empire in 1906. He remained so until after the Russian October Revolution, when diplomatic ties to Russia were severed.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Presidential_Medal_of_Freedom_recipients#Awarded_by_Barack_Obama | List of Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients | This is a partial list of recipients of the Presidential Medal of Freedom, listed chronologically within the aspect of life in which each recipient is or was renowned.
The Presidential Medal of Freedom is awarded by the president of the United States to "any person recommended to the President for award of the Medal or any person selected by the President upon his own initiative". Before 1970, honorees were either selected by the president or recommended to them by the Distinguished Civilian Service Awards Board.
== History ==
Typically the medal is bestowed upon the recipient by the sitting president who has chosen them. However, the first recipients selected by president John F. Kennedy before his assassination were formally awarded by his successor in office, Lyndon B. Johnson.
President Barack Obama awarded 118 medals, the most of any president, followed by President Bill Clinton with 89 medal recipients. Three people—Ellsworth Bunker, Colin Powell, and Ben Carson—are two-time recipients of the Presidential Medal of Freedom. Colin Powell received his second award with distinction, while Ellsworth Bunker was given both of his awards with distinction.
Eight presidents have themselves received the medal either posthumously, post-presidency, or prior to being elected:
John F. Kennedy (1963, posthumously)
Lyndon B. Johnson (1980, posthumously)
Ronald Reagan (1993, with distinction)
Gerald Ford (1999)
Jimmy Carter (1999)
George H. W. Bush (2011)
Bill Clinton (2013)
Joe Biden (2017, as Vice President; with distinction)
In 2015, President Barack Obama stated that there was no precedent to revoke a Presidential Medal of Freedom, regarding the award given to stand-up comedian and actor Bill Cosby. After being awarded the medal, Cosby was convicted of multiple counts of sexual assault, though the convictions were later overturned.
The Presidential Medal of Freedom is related to, but distinct from, the Medal of Freedom, an earlier award issued between 1945 and 1963 to honor US civilian contributions to World War II.
In 2022 at the age of 25, athlete and activist Simone Biles became the youngest person to receive the award.
=== Declinations of the award ===
Bill Belichick, coach of the New England Patriots, was offered the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Donald Trump, and initially accepted it, but changed his mind and turned down the medal after the January 6 United States Capitol attack.
Country musician Dolly Parton turned down the medal twice from Donald Trump. Parton said she turned it down the first time because her husband was ill, and the second time because of the COVID-19 pandemic.
=== Awarded with Distinction ===
== List ==
† – Awarded posthumously
WD – Awarded "with Distinction"
=== Awarded by John F. Kennedy ===
John F. Kennedy selected 31 recipients to be awarded in 1963. After his assassination they were officially awarded by Lyndon B. Johnson.
=== Awarded by Lyndon B. Johnson ===
Lyndon B. Johnson awarded 58 medals between 1963 and 1969, excluding 31 which were selected by John F. Kennedy.
=== Awarded by Richard Nixon ===
Richard Nixon awarded 28 medals between 1969 and 1974.
=== Awarded by Gerald Ford ===
Gerald Ford awarded 28 medals between 1974 and 1977.
=== Awarded by Jimmy Carter ===
Jimmy Carter awarded 34 medals between 1977 and 1981.
=== Awarded by Ronald Reagan ===
Ronald Reagan awarded 86 medals between 1981 and 1989.
=== Awarded by George H. W. Bush ===
George H. W. Bush awarded 38 medals between 1989 and 1993.
=== Awarded by Bill Clinton ===
Bill Clinton awarded 89 medals between 1993 and 2001.
=== Awarded by George W. Bush ===
George W. Bush awarded 82 medals between 2001 and 2009.
=== Awarded by Barack Obama ===
Barack Obama awarded 118 medals between 2009 and 2017.
=== Awarded by Donald Trump (first term) ===
During his first term, Donald Trump awarded 24 medals between 2017 and 2021.
=== Awarded by Joe Biden ===
Joe Biden awarded 57 medals between 2022 and 2025.
=== Awarded by Donald Trump (second term) ===
During his second term, Donald Trump has awarded one medal and has announced two; though this number is likely to change.
== Notes ==
== See also ==
List of Congressional Gold Medal recipients
== Bibliography ==
Wetterau, Bruce (1996). The Presidential Medal of Freedom: Winners and Their Achievements. Congressional Quarterly. p. 513. ISBN 978-1-56802-128-7. – contains a list of awardees from 1963 to approximately 1995
== References ==
== External links ==
Medal of Freedom, Official site for the Medal of Freedom for the Obama administration
Presidential Medal of Freedom Recipients, 1963–2002 (chronological by president, pp. 5–21, alphabetical pp. 24–4), Congressional Research Service via the Federation of American Scientists
Presidential Medal of Freedom Recipients, 1993–2009, United States Senate
Politicians Who Received the Medal of Freedom, The Political Graveyard |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Northern_Iowa | University of Northern Iowa | The University of Northern Iowa (UNI) is a public university in Cedar Falls, Iowa, United States. UNI offers more than 90 majors across five colleges. The fall 2025 total enrollment was 9,204 students.
The university was initially founded in 1876 as the Iowa State Normal School with the purpose of training school teachers and educators. The University of Northern Iowa is one of three public universities in Iowa, all of which are governed by the Iowa Board of Regents.
== History ==
The University of Northern Iowa was founded as a result of two influential forces of the nineteenth century. First, Iowa wanted to care for orphans of its Civil War veterans, and secondly, Iowa needed a public teacher training institution. In 1876, when Iowa no longer needed an orphan home, legislators Edward G. Miller and H. C. Hemenway started the Iowa State Normal School.
The school's first building opened in 1867 and was known as Central Hall. The building contained classrooms, common areas, and a living facility for most of the students. It was also a home to the college's first principal, James Cleland Gilchrist. The building was the heart and soul of the school, allowing students to study courses of two-year, three-year, and four-year degrees. In 1965, a fire destroyed Central Hall, and school faculty and Cedar Falls citizens donated over $5,000 to start building Gilchrist Hall.
The school has been known under the following names:
Iowa State Normal School, 1876–1909
Iowa State Teachers College, 1909–1961
State College of Iowa, 1961–1967
University of Northern Iowa, 1967–present
From 2014 through 2018 the UNI hosted the Midwest Summer Institute: Inclusion and Communication for All, a two-day conference on facilitated communication sponsored by the Inclusion Connection and Syracuse University's Institute on Communication and Inclusion. Facilitated Communication is a discredited practice, and in 2018 UNI decided to discontinue the conference at the urging of multiple nationwide academics.
=== Presidents ===
Since its founding, the university has had eleven presidents.
James Cleland Gilchrist, 1876–1886
Homer Horatio Seerley, 1886–1928
Orval Ray Latham, 1928–1940
Malcolm Poyer Price, 1940–1950
James William Maucker, 1950–1970
John Joseph Kamerick, 1970–1983
Constantine William Curris, 1983–1995
Robert D. Koob, 1995–2006
Benjamin J. Allen, 2006–2013
William Ruud, 2013–2016
Mark Nook, 2017–present
== Academics ==
University of Northern Iowa colleges include:
Wilson College of Business
Education
Humanities, Arts and Sciences
Social and Behavioral Sciences
Graduate College
=== Study Abroad Center ===
UNI provides an opportunity for the students to study in 25+ countries and select from over 40 programs. It is also available to all students attending the university. The mission of the Study Abroad Center at the University of Northern Iowa is to provide service and leadership in international education to UNI students, faculty, staff, the community and the State of Iowa.
=== Culture and Intensive English Program ===
The Culture and Intensive English Program (CIEP) is an intensive program in English for non-native speakers. It is designed to prepare students for academic work at the undergraduate or graduate degree level. University of Northern Iowa students are also encouraged to participate in the Conversation Partner Program to help foreign students with their English ability and foster cross-cultural relationships while gaining mutual understanding.
=== North American Review ===
The university is the publisher of The North American Review (called the NAR), a celebrated literary magazine that began originally in Boston in 1815. Its past editors have included James Russell Lowell, Charles Eliot Norton, and Henry Adams; while among its past contributors are Mark Twain, Henry James, Joseph Conrad, Walt Whitman, Kurt Vonnegut, Joyce Carol Oates, Guy Davenport and Margaret Atwood. In 1968, when the magazine was purchased by UNI, Robley Wilson was appointed editor, a position he continued in until his retirement in 2000. The current editors are Rachel Morgan, Jeremy Schraffenberger, Grant Tracey, and Brooke Wonders.
=== Teaching and Research Greenhouse ===
The University of Northern Iowa Teaching and Research Greenhouse is a greenhouse complex incorporating botanical gardens for research and education. It is located on the campus of the University of Northern Iowa in Cedar Falls, Iowa.
The greenhouse contains plants from many ecotypes, including 250 tropical plants, two live birds, an extensive collection of arid climate plants, and the 1,200-square-foot (110 m2) Aquatic Learning Center.
=== International collaboration ===
The university is an active member of the University of the Arctic. UArctic is an international cooperative network based in the Circumpolar Arctic region, consisting of more than 200 universities, colleges, and other organizations with an interest in promoting education and research in the Arctic region.
== Athletics ==
The school's mascot is the Panther, represented as a sibling pair of mascots known as TC (The Cat) and his sister TK. They participate in the NCAA's Division I, in the Missouri Valley Conference (MVC) for most sports, the Big 12 Conference for wrestling, and the Missouri Valley Football Conference – in Division I's Football Championship Subdivision (FCS) – for football.
The major arena on campus is the UNI-Dome, currently the home of the football team. The Dome also serves as a venue for many local concerts, high school football playoffs, trade shows, and other events. In 2006, the university opened a new arena, the McLeod Center, to serve as the home for several athletic programs that had previously played in the UNI-Dome, including the volleyball and men's and women's basketball teams.
The UNI athletics program has enjoyed recent success, with the men's basketball team competing in the NCAA tournament three consecutive times in 2004, 2005, 2006, again in 2009 and 2010 and in 2015 and 2016. On March 20, 2010, the men's basketball team defeated the heavily favored, top-seeded Kansas Jayhawks to advance to the NCAA Sweet Sixteen. It was the school's first appearance in the Sweet Sixteen. The Jayhawks were favored to win the NCAA championship. Their Cinderella potential ended with a loss to Michigan State in the Sweet Sixteen, 59–52. The win over Kansas earned them the 2010 ESPY Award for Best Upset.
Jacqui Kalin helped lead the women's basketball team to consecutive NCAA Tournament berths, as the team won back-to-back MVC Tournament titles. In 2010-11 she was named the Jackie Stiles MVC Player of the Year. In 2012-13 she led the league in scoring (19.5 ppg; a school record), had the fourth-highest season free throw percentage in NCAA Division 1 history-and the highest of any senior (95.5%), and was again named the Jackie Stiles MVC Player of the Year. For her career Kalin was first all-time at UNI in scoring (2,081), 3-point field goals made (265), free throws made (484), and free throw percentage (.920) the NCAA Division 1 career record.
The football team has been ranked in the I-AA (FCS) top 25 almost every year for the last two decades. The team appeared in the I-AA championship game in 2005, only to lose a close game to the Appalachian State Mountaineers. During 2007, the team was ranked #1 in the country by the TSN FCS poll for several weeks. The football team went undefeated in 2007 with an 11–0 record, a first for any school in the 23-year history of the Gateway conference. In 2001 and 2002 the volleyball team reached the NCAA Sweet 16 round, and in 2006 made it to the second round, and has competed in the tournament numerous times. The track team is also very successful (usually ranked in the top 25), as are the wrestling and volleyball teams.
The University of Northern Iowa wrestling team won the NCAA Division I national championship as ISTC in 1949 and NCAA Division II national championships in 1975 and 1978. They competed in the Western Wrestling Conference until 2012, when UNI became an associate member of the Mid-American Conference since the MVC is a non-wrestling conference. In 2017, UNI wrestling joined the Big 12 Conference. In 1977 the women's softball team won the AIAW national championship.
Bryce Paup won the Defensive Player of Year Award by the Associated Press in 1995. In 1999 and 2001, UNI alumnus Kurt Warner was named NFL MVP by the AP.
During the 2014–2015 season, the men's basketball team ended the regular season ranked #11 by the AP Poll, the highest ranking in school history, and #9 by USA Today.
== Student life ==
=== Student newspapers ===
Students Offering, 1888–1889
Normal Eye, 1892–1911
College Eye, 1911–1967
Northern Iowan, 1967–present
=== Fraternity and sorority life ===
==== Fraternities ====
Kappa Sigma
==== NPC sororities ====
Alpha Delta Pi
Alpha Xi Delta
Alpha Phi
Gamma Phi Beta
Alpha Sigma Tau
==== Culturally Based Greek Chapters ====
Delta Sigma Theta
=== Transportation ===
UNI students may ride public transportation provided by the Metropolitan Transit Authority of Black Hawk County for $0.75 a ride with a student ID. Routes 6, 7, 9, and 10 connect campus to downtown Cedar Falls, downtown Waterloo and various other destinations.
== Notable people ==
=== Alumni ===
William R. Clabby, journalist and editor
Brittni Donaldson, professional basketball coach
Jane Elliott, antiracist and diversity educator
David Glawe, former Under Secretary of Homeland Security for Intelligence and Analysis
Chuck Grassley (born 1933), senior United States senator from Iowa and president pro tempore of the United States Senate
Carolyn Hunt, First Lady of North Carolina
David Johnson, professional football player
Jacqui Kalin (born 1989), American-Israeli professional basketball player
Eric Keller, college wrestling coach
Chris Klieman, college football coach
Jason Lewis, politician and radio host
Brian Meyer, member of the Iowa House of Representatives
Jeremy Morgan (born 1995), professional basketball player
Patrick Murphy, University of Alabama head softball coach
Carter F. Nordman, member of the Iowa House of Representatives from the 19th district
Nick Nurse, professional basketball coach
Bryce Paup, professional football player
Duane Slick, fine art painter and professor
Edward Arthur Thomas, high school football coach
Kurt Warner, professional football player
=== Faculty ===
Donna Alvermann, professor
Jeremy Beck, composer and professor
Harry Brod, former professor
Herb Hake, television personality
James Hearst, poet and former professor
Miguel Franz Pinto, vocal coach, conductor, and pianist
Mildred Hope Fisher Wood, special education teacher
Loree Rackstraw, literary critic and memoirist
Leland Sage, former professor
Norm Stewart, college basketball coach
Robert James Waller, professor, academic administrator, and author
Norma Wendelburg, composer
== References ==
Informational notes
Citations
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berbeo#:~:text=Juan%20Francisco%20Berbeo.-,History,23%2C%201743%2C%20by%20Jesuits. | Berbeo | Berbeo is a town and municipality in the Lengupá Province, part of the Colombian department of Boyacá. The urban centre of Berbeo is located at an altitude of 1,350 metres (4,430 ft) in the Eastern Ranges of the Colombian Andes. Berbeo borders San Eduardo in the east, Zetaquirá and Miraflores in the west, Zetaquirá in the north and Miraflores and Páez in the south.
== Etymology ==
The municipality was formerly called San Fernando de Aguablanca and Legupá, and since 1913 bears the name Berbeo, after Juan Francisco Berbeo.
== History ==
The area of Berbeo before the Spanish conquest was inhabited by the indigenous Muisca. In Berbeo petroglyphs have been discovered. Modern Berbeo was founded on April 23, 1743, by Jesuits.
== Economy ==
Main activity of Berbeo is agriculture, with coffee and chonto tomatoes as major products.
== Gallery ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Olof_Trygg | Carl Olof Trygg | Carl Olof Trygg (December 21, 1910 – 1993), was one of the recognized masters of 20th century woodcarving, most famous for Scandinavian flat-plane style of woodcarving.
Trygg was born in Stora Tuna, Kopparberg county, Dalarna, Sweden. He was one of three son of Carl Johan Trygg and Maria Axelina Andersson. Carl Olof worked with his father carving wooden figures of various common people in the Scandinavian flat-plane style of woodcarving. Between C. O. Trygg, his father (Carl Johan) and two brothers (Nils, and Lars), they carved over 10,000 figures. Many of his carvings were sold to tourists for approximately US$10.00. Adjusted for inflation what cost $10.00 in 1929 would cost $108.05 in 2005.
== Migrating to Canada ==
Carl Olof, at the age of 17, immigrated to Canada with his mother Maria (43), brother Nils Johan (13) and an unknown relative, possibly his sister, Kally Maria Trygg (8) arrived in Halifax, Nova Scotia on October 7, 1928. He was proceeded in immigrating by his father Carl Johan who arrived in Halifax on 3 March 1928.
The Trygg family eventually settled in Montreal, Quebec, Canada and there they continued to carve. Together they carved thousands of figures in the Scandinavian flat-plane style of woodcarving. Between C. J. Trygg and his sons they carved over 10,000 figures. Many of his carvings were sold to tourists for approximately US$10.00. Adjusted for inflation what cost $10.00 in 1929 would cost $108.05 in 2005.
Trygg was a craftsman in tune to the tourist trade. Trygg generally carved solo figures from basswood or pine, and mounted them on a base. He had a stylized execution with clean cuts, working from a single piece of wood. A highlight of Trygg's carvings is his use of vibrant paint. He often painted his character's clothing in plaid.
== Return to Sweden ==
Carl Johan Trygg and Carl Olof Trygg eventually returned to Sweden, where they continued their careers. Carl Johan died there 1954 and Carl Olof, based on the dates on his carvings, was producing figures as late as 1987.
== Examples of carvings ==
== The legacy ==
=== Trygg family of woodcarvers ===
Carl Johan Trygg (1877–1954)
Carl Olof Trygg (1910–1993)
Nils Johan Trygg (1914 – 1951)
Lars Trygg
Trygg family woodcarvings are still sought after today as collectibles. There are over 10,000 carved figures that were manufactured by the members of the Trygg family. Prices range from $50 to $500 depending upon the age, size, and condition of the piece.
=== Identifying Trygg woodcarvings ===
Trygg woodcarvings can be identified by the signatures and dates on the bases.
Signatures commonly found are:
Trygg carved on base. — Carl Johan Trygg (Generally)
C.J. Trygg — Carl Johan Trygg
C.O. Trygg — Carl Olof Trygg
L. Trygg — Lars Trygg
N. E. Trygg — Nils Trygg
Hand Carved by Trygg — Carl Johan Trygg or Carl Olof, Lars, or Nils
Carved by Trygg Jr. — Carl Olof, Lars, or Nils
Most of the carvings are dated and include the location carved. For example, you may find a carving with "C.O. Trygg 1961 Sweden" meaning it was carved by Carl Olof Trygg in 1961 while he was living in Sweden.
== Notes ==
^ "Library and Archives Canada". Immigration Records (1925-1935). Archived from the original on January 15, 2013. Retrieved November 18, 2005.
^ Carl Olof Trygg was listed on the immigration record as Karl Olof Trygg. This is most likely due to the poor legibility of the original indexes. The signature used on woodcarvings he produced is C. O. Trygg (Carl-Olof Trygg).
== References ==
Refsal, Harley (2003). "Trygg Family: Prolific Carvers". Wood Carving Illustrated. Fall (24): 61–65.
Refsal, Harley (1992). Woodcarving in the Scandinavian Style. Sterling Publishing Co., Inc., New York, New York. p. 128. ISBN 0-8069-8633-6.
"Little Shavers Wood Carving Supply". A Brief History of North American Caricature Carving. Retrieved 19 September 2020.
"Wood Carving Illustrated". Editor's World (Roger Schroeder). Archived from the original on 2003-01-24. Retrieved 24 January 2003.
"Wood Carving Illustrated". Editor's World (Roger Schroeder). Archived from the original on 2003-02-25. Retrieved 25 February 2003.
"Item: Karl Olof Trygg". www.bac-lac.gc.ca. Library and Archives Canada. 22 May 2013. Retrieved 19 September 2020. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Netanyahu | Benjamin Netanyahu | Benjamin "Bibi" Netanyahu (born 21 October 1949) is an Israeli politician and diplomat who has served as Prime Minister of Israel since 2022. Having previously held office from 1996 to 1999 and from 2009 to 2021, Netanyahu is Israel's longest-serving prime minister.
Born in Tel Aviv, Netanyahu was raised in West Jerusalem and the United States. He returned to Israel in 1967 to join the Israel Defense Forces and served in the Sayeret Matkal special forces. In 1972, he returned to the US, and after graduating from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Netanyahu worked for the Boston Consulting Group. He moved back to Israel in 1978 and founded the Yonatan Netanyahu Anti-Terror Institute. Between 1984 and 1988 Netanyahu was Israel's ambassador to the United Nations. Netanyahu rose to prominence after his election as chair of Likud in 1993, becoming leader of the opposition. In the 1996 general election, Netanyahu became the first Israeli prime minister elected directly by popular vote. Netanyahu was defeated in the 1999 election and entered the private sector. He served as minister of foreign affairs and finance, initiating economic reforms, before resigning over the Gaza disengagement plan.
Netanyahu returned to lead Likud in 2005, leading the opposition between 2006 and 2009. After the 2009 legislative election, Netanyahu formed a coalition and became prime minister again. Netanyahu made his closeness to Donald Trump central to his appeal from 2016. During Trump's first presidency, the US recognized Jerusalem as capital of Israel, Israeli sovereignty over the Golan Heights, and brokered the Abraham Accords between Israel and the Arab world. Netanyahu received criticism over expanding Israeli settlements in the occupied West Bank, deemed illegal under international law. In 2019, Netanyahu was indicted on charges of breach of trust, bribery and fraud, and relinquished all ministerial posts except prime minister. The 2018–2022 Israeli political crisis resulted in a rotation agreement between Netanyahu and Benny Gantz. This collapsed in 2020, leading to a 2021 election. In June 2021, Netanyahu was removed from the premiership, before returning after the 2022 election.
Netanyahu's premierships have been criticized for perceived democratic backsliding and an alleged shift towards authoritarianism. Netanyahu's coalition pursued judicial reform, which was met with large-scale protests in early 2023. The October 7 attacks by Hamas-led Palestinian groups in the same year triggered the Gaza war, with Netanyahu facing nationwide protests for the security lapse and failure to secure the return of Israeli hostages. In October 2024, he survived an assassination attempt and ordered an invasion of Lebanon with the stated goal of destroying the military capabilities of Hezbollah, a key ally of Hamas. After the fall of the Assad regime in December 2024, Netanyahu directed an invasion of Syria. He also presided over the 2025 Israeli strikes on Iran, which escalated into the Iran–Israel war.
Netanyahu's government has been accused of orchestrating the genocide in Gaza, culminating in the South Africa v. Israel case before the International Court of Justice in December 2023. The International Criminal Court (ICC) issued an arrest warrant in November 2024 for Netanyahu for alleged war crimes and crimes against humanity as part of the ICC investigation in Palestine.
== Early life, education, and military career ==
Netanyahu was born in 1949 in Tel Aviv. His mother, Tzila Segal, was born in Petah Tikva in the Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem—her family had migrated from Minneapolis in 1911, having relocated there from Lithuania in the 1870s—and studied law at Gray's Inn, London. His father, Warsaw-born Benzion Netanyahu (né Mileikowsky), was a historian specializing in the Jewish Golden Age of Spain. His paternal grandfather, Nathan Mileikowsky, was a rabbi and Zionist writer. When Netanyahu's father immigrated to Mandatory Palestine, he adopted a Hebrew surname of "Netanyahu", meaning "God has given." While his family is predominantly Ashkenazi, he has said that a DNA test revealed some Sephardic ancestry. He claims descent from the Vilna Gaon.
Netanyahu was the second of three children. He was initially raised in Jerusalem, where he attended Henrietta Szold Elementary School. A copy of his evaluation from his 6th grade teacher Ruth Rubenstein indicated that Netanyahu was courteous, polite, and helpful; that he was "responsible and punctual"; and that he was friendly, disciplined, cheerful, brave, active, and obedient.
Between 1956 and 1958, and from 1963 to 1967, his family lived in the United States in Cheltenham Township, Pennsylvania, while father Benzion Netanyahu taught at Dropsie College.
Benjamin graduated from Cheltenham High School and was active in the debate club, chess club, and soccer. He and his brother Yonatan grew dissatisfied with what they saw as the superficial way of life they encountered in the area, including the prevalent youth counterculture movement and the liberal sensibilities of the Reform synagogue, Temple Judea of Philadelphia, that the family attended.
After graduating from high school in 1967, Netanyahu returned to Israel to enlist in the Israel Defense Forces. He trained as a combat soldier and served for five years in a special forces unit of the IDF, Sayeret Matkal. He took part in numerous cross-border raids during the 1967–70 War of Attrition, including the March 1968 Battle of Karameh, when the IDF attacked Jordan to capture PLO leader Yasser Arafat but were repulsed with heavy casualties. He became a team-leader in the unit. He was wounded in combat on multiple occasions. He was involved in many other missions, including the 1968 Israeli raid on Lebanon and the rescue of the hijacked Sabena Flight 571 in May 1972, in which he was shot in the shoulder. He was discharged from active service in 1972 but remained in the Sayeret Matkal reserves. Following his discharge, he left to study in the United States but returned in October 1973 to serve in the Yom Kippur War.
=== Higher education ===
Netanyahu returned to the United States in late 1972 to study architecture at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). After returning to Israel to fight in the Yom Kippur War, he returned to the United States and, under the name Ben Nitay, completed a bachelor's degree in architecture in February 1975 and earned a master's degree from the MIT Sloan School of Management in 1976. Concurrently, he was studying towards a doctorate in political science. His studies were broken off by the death of his brother Yonatan who was leading the Entebbe raid.
At MIT, Netanyahu studied a double-load while taking courses at Harvard University, completing his bachelor's degree in architecture in two and a half years, despite taking a break to fight in the Yom Kippur War. Professor Leon B. Groisser at MIT recalled: "He did superbly. He was very bright. Organized. Strong. Powerful. He knew what he wanted to do and how to get it done."
At that time he changed his name to Benjamin "Ben" Nitai (Nitai, a reference to both Mount Nitai and to the eponymous Jewish sage Nittai of Arbela, was a pen name often used by his father for articles). Years later, in an interview with the media, Netanyahu clarified that he decided to do so to make it easier for Americans to pronounce his name. This fact has been used by his political rivals to accuse him indirectly of a lack of Israeli national identity and loyalty.
== Early career ==
Netanyahu worked as an economic consultant for the Boston Consulting Group in Boston, Massachusetts, working at the company between 1976 and 1978. At the Boston Consulting Group, he was a colleague of Mitt Romney, with whom he formed a lasting friendship. Romney described Netanyahu at the time as "a strong personality with a distinct point of view". Netanyahu said that their "easy communication" was a result of "B.C.G.'s intellectually rigorous boot camp".
In 1978, Netanyahu appeared on Boston local television, under the name "Ben Nitay", where he argued: "The real core of the conflict is the unfortunate Arab refusal to accept the State of Israel ... For 20 years the Arabs had both the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, and if self-determination, as they now say, is the core of the conflict, they could have easily established a Palestinian state."
In 1978, Netanyahu returned to Israel. Between 1978 and 1980, he ran the Jonathan Netanyahu Anti-Terror Institute, a non-governmental organization devoted to the study of terrorism. From 1980 to 1982, he was director of marketing for Rim Industries in Jerusalem.
Moshe Arens appointed him as his Deputy Chief of Mission at the Israeli Embassy in Washington, D.C., while Arens was ambassador to the United States, a position he held from 1982 until 1984. During the 1982 Lebanon War, he was called up for reserve duty in Sayeret Matkal and requested to be released from service, preferring to remain in the US and serve as a spokesperson for Israel in the wake of harsh international criticism of the war. He presented Israel's case to the media during the war and established a highly efficient public relations system in the Israeli embassy. Between 1984 and 1988, Netanyahu served as the Israeli ambassador to the United Nations. Netanyahu was influenced by Rabbi Menachem M. Schneerson, with whom he formed a relationship during the 1980s. He referred to Schneerson as "the most influential man of our time". Also during the 1980s, Netanyahu became friends with Fred Trump, the father of future U.S. president Donald Trump.
== Leader of the Opposition (1993–1996) ==
Prior to the 1988 Israeli legislative election, Netanyahu returned to Israel and joined the Likud party. In the Likud's internal elections, Netanyahu was placed fifth on the party list. Later on he was elected as a Knesset member of the 12th Knesset, and was appointed as a deputy of the foreign minister Moshe Arens, and later on David Levy. Netanyahu and Levy did not cooperate and the rivalry between the two only intensified afterwards. During the Gulf War in early 1991, the English-fluent Netanyahu emerged as the principal spokesman for Israel in media interviews on CNN and other news outlets. During the Madrid Conference of 1991 Netanyahu was a member of the Israeli delegation headed by Prime Minister Yitzhak Shamir. After the Madrid Conference Netanyahu was appointed as Deputy Minister in the Israeli Prime Minister's Office.
Following the defeat of the Likud party in the 1992 Israeli legislative elections the Likud party held a party leadership election in 1993, and Netanyahu was victorious, defeating Benny Begin, son of the late prime minister Menachem Begin, and veteran politician David Levy (Sharon initially sought Likud party leadership as well, but quickly withdrew when it was evident that he was attracting minimal support). Shamir retired from politics shortly after the Likud's defeat in the 1992 elections.
Following the assassination of Yitzhak Rabin at the end of a rally in support of the Oslo Accords, Rabin's temporary successor Shimon Peres decided to call early elections in order to give the government a mandate to advance the peace process. Netanyahu was the Likud's candidate for prime minister in the 1996 Israeli legislative election which took place on 29 May 1996 and were the first Israeli elections in which Israelis elected their prime minister directly. Netanyahu hired American political operative Arthur Finkelstein to run his campaign. Netanyahu won the 1996 election, becoming the youngest person in the history of the position and the first Israeli prime minister to be born in the State of Israel (Yitzhak Rabin was born in Jerusalem, under the British Mandate of Palestine, prior to the 1948 founding of the Israeli state).
Netanyahu's victory over the pre-election favorite Shimon Peres surprised many. The main catalyst in the downfall of the latter was a wave of suicide bombings shortly before the elections; on 3 and 4 March 1996, Palestinians carried out two suicide bombings, killing 32 Israelis, with Peres seemingly unable to stop the attacks. During the campaign, Netanyahu stressed that progress in the peace process would be based on the Palestinian National Authority fulfilling its obligations – mainly fighting terrorism – and the Likud campaign slogan was, "Netanyahu – making a safe peace". Although Netanyahu won the election for prime minister, Peres's Israeli Labor Party received more seats in the Knesset elections. Netanyahu had to rely on a coalition with the ultra-Orthodox parties, Shas and UTJ in order to form a government.
== Prime Minister (1996–1999) ==
=== First term ===
The months leading up to the 1996 Israeli election were marred by a series of Hamas terrorist attacks in Israel. After the Shin Bet assassinated Hamas military leader Yahya Ayyash on 5 January 1996, Mohammed Deif, now commander of the Qassam Brigades, organized a bombing campaign inside Israel as retaliation, including the Dizengoff Center suicide bombing and Jaffa Road bus bombings. It has been alleged that Syria and Iran had helped in their planning and financing. According to a report, Syrian Defense Minister Mustafa Tlass instructed Ghazi Kanaan to establish links between Hezbollah and Hamas fighters, who were then trained both in Lebanon and Iran and participated in the retaliatory operations for the murder of Ayyash. According to Mike Kelly, Hamas operative Hassan Salameh, who planned three of the attacks, was trained in Iran.
According to Ronen Bergman, Deif's bombing campaign and the Israeli intelligence services failure to prevent it, was a factor that led to the defeat of Prime Minister Shimon Peres and the Israeli Labor Party in the 1996 Israeli general election and the victory of the Likud party of Netanyahu, who opposed the Oslo Accords. Bergman writes that "after the election, the attacks stopped for almost a year. Some said this was because of Arafat's campaign against Hamas, and the arrest of many members of its military wing. Others believed that Hamas no longer had any reason to carry out suicide attacks, because Netanyahu had already almost completely stopped the peace process, which was the short-term goal of the attacks anyway."
Netanyahu first met Palestinian president Arafat on 4 September 1996. Prior to the meeting, the two leaders spoke by telephone. The meetings would continue through Autumn 1996. On their first meeting, Netanyahu said: "I would like to emphasize that we have to take into account the needs and the requirements of both sides on the basis of reciprocity and the assurance of the security and well-being of both Israelis and Palestinian alike." Arafat said: "We are determined to work with Mr. Netanyahu and with his government." The talks culminated on 14 January 1997, in the signing of the Hebron Protocol.
In 1996, Netanyahu and Jerusalem's mayor Ehud Olmert decided to open an exit in the Arab Quarter for the Western Wall Tunnel, which prior prime minister Shimon Peres had instructed to be put on hold for the sake of peace. This sparked three days of rioting by Palestinians, resulting in dozens of both Israelis and Palestinians being killed.
Eventually, the lack of progress of the peace process led to new negotiations which produced the Wye River Memorandum in 1998 which detailed the steps to be taken by the Israeli government and Palestinian Authority to implement the earlier Interim Agreement of 1995. It was signed by Netanyahu and PLO chairman Arafat, and on 17 November 1998, Israel's 120 member parliament, the Knesset, approved the Wye River Memorandum by a vote of 75–19. In a nod to the 1967 Khartoum conference, Netanyahu emphasized a policy of "three no(s)": no withdrawal from the Golan Heights, no discussion of the case of Jerusalem, no negotiations under any preconditions.
In 1997 Ali Fallahian, the Iranian Intelligence Minister, authorized a new Hamas bombing campaign to further disrupt the peace process, and Hamas leader Khaled Meshal, then living in Amman, Jordan, picked Mahmoud Abu Hanoud, an expert bomb-maker in the West Bank, to construct the bombs, and sent five suicide bombers to detonate them simultaneously in Jerusalem in the 30 July Mahane Yehuda market bombings and 4 September Ben Yehuda street bombings, killing 21 Israelis. In 1997, Netanyahu authorized a Mossad operation to assassinate Hamas leader Khaled Mashal in Jordan, just three years after the two countries had signed a peace treaty. The Mossad team, covering as five Canadian tourists, entered Jordan on 27 September 1997 and injected poison into Mashal's ears in a street in Amman. The plot was exposed and two agents were arrested by the Jordanian police while three others hid in the Israeli embassy which was then surrounded by troops. An angry King Hussein demanded Israel to give out the antidote and threatened to annul the peace treaty. Netanyahu relented to the demands after pressure by US President Bill Clinton and ordered the release of 61 Jordanian and Palestinian prisoners including Sheikh Ahmad Yassin. The incident sent the nascent Israeli-Jordanian relations plummeting.
According to Bergman based on internal IDF sources, Mashal's antidote only secured the release of the two Mossad Kidon agents that were carrying out the assassination attempt. At least six other Mossad agents involved in the operations were holed up in the Israeli embassy. King Hussein would only release them if Israel released Ahmed Yassin and a large number of other Palestinian prisoners. Hussein needed the demands to be "enough to enable the king to be able to publicly defend the release of the hit team."
On the same day that Hamas bombed Ben Yehuda street, Hezbollah executed the Ansariya ambush on the IDF's naval special forces Shayetet 13, killing 12 Israeli commandos. On 25 May 1998, the remains and body parts of at least three soldiers who died in the Ansariya ambush were exchanged for 65 Lebanese prisoners and the bodies of 40 Hizbullah fighters and Lebanese soldiers captured by Israel. Netanyahu called it "one of the worst tragedies that has ever occurred to us".
During his term, Netanyahu also began a process of economic liberalization, taking steps towards a free-market economy. Under his watch, the government began selling its shares in banks and major state-run companies. Netanyahu also greatly eased Israel's strict foreign exchange controls, enabling Israelis to take an unrestricted amount of money out of the country, open foreign bank accounts, hold foreign currency, and invest freely in other countries.
Throughout his term, Netanyahu was opposed by the political left wing in Israel and lost support from the right because of his concessions to the Palestinians in Hebron and elsewhere, and due to his negotiations with Arafat generally. Netanyahu lost favor with the Israeli public after a long chain of scandals involving his marriage and corruption charges. In 1997, police recommended that Netanyahu be indicted on corruption charges for influence-peddling. He was accused of appointing an attorney general who would reduce the charges but prosecutors ruled that there was insufficient evidence to go to trial. In 1999, Netanyahu faced another scandal when the Israel Police recommended that he be tried for corruption for $100,000 in free services from a government contractor; Israel's attorney general did not prosecute, citing difficulties with evidence. The major Israeli failures against Hamas and Hezbollah under Netanyahu's first premiership and their results in the subsequent releases of imprisoned Palestinian and Lebanese leaders from Israeli jails are thought to have dealt a blow to Netanyahu's rhetoric of a "tough stance" towards enemies of Israel, and to have played a role in his defeat in the 1999 Israeli general election.
== Political hiatus (1999–2003) ==
After being defeated by Ehud Barak in the 1999 Israeli prime ministerial election, Netanyahu temporarily retired from politics. He subsequently served as a senior consultant with Israeli communications equipment manufacturer BATM Advanced Communications for two years.
With the fall of the Barak government in late 2000, Netanyahu expressed his desire to return to politics. By law, Barak's resignation was supposed to lead to elections for the prime minister position only. Netanyahu insisted that general elections should be held, claiming that otherwise it would be impossible to have a stable government. Netanyahu decided eventually not to run for the prime minister position, a move which facilitated the rise to power of Ariel Sharon, who at the time was considered less popular than Netanyahu. In 2002, after the Israeli Labor Party left the coalition and vacated the position of foreign minister, Prime Minister Ariel Sharon appointed Netanyahu as foreign minister. Netanyahu challenged Sharon for the leadership of the Likud party in the 2002 Likud leadership election, but failed to oust him.
On 9 September 2002, a scheduled speech by Netanyahu at Concordia University in Montreal, Quebec, Canada was canceled after hundreds of pro-Palestinian protesters overwhelmed security and smashed through a window. Netanyahu was not present at the protest, having remained at his hotel throughout the duration. He later accused the activists of supporting terrorism and "mad zealotry". Weeks later in October around 200 protesters met Netanyahu outside his Heinz Hall appearance in Pittsburgh. Pittsburgh Police, Israeli security and a Pittsburgh SWAT unit allowed his speeches to continue downtown at the hall and the Duquesne Club as well as suburban Robert Morris University.
On 12 September 2002, Netanyahu lobbied for the invasion of Iraq, testifying under oath as a private citizen before the U.S. House of Representatives Government Reform Committee regarding the alleged nuclear threat posed by the Iraqi régime: "There is no question whatsoever that Saddam is seeking and is working and is advancing towards the development of nuclear weapons…" He also testified, "If you take out Saddam, Saddam's regime, I guarantee you that it will have enormous positive reverberations on the region."
== Minister of Finance (2003–2005) ==
After the 2003 Israeli legislative election, in what many observers regarded as a surprise move, Sharon offered the Foreign Ministry to Silvan Shalom and offered Netanyahu the Finance Ministry. Some pundits speculated that Sharon made the move because he deemed Netanyahu a political threat given his demonstrated effectiveness as foreign minister, and that by placing him in the Finance Ministry during a time of economic uncertainty, he could diminish Netanyahu's popularity. Netanyahu accepted the new appointment. Sharon and Netanyahu came to an agreement that Netanyahu would have complete freedom as finance minister and have Sharon back all of his reforms, in exchange for Netanyahu's silence over Sharon's management of Israel's military and foreign affairs.
As finance minister, Netanyahu undertook an economic plan in order to restore Israel's economy from its low point during the Second Intifada. Netanyahu claimed that a bloated public sector and excessive regulations were largely responsible for stifling economic growth. His plan involved a move toward more liberalized markets, although it was not without its critics. He instituted a program to end welfare dependency by requiring people to apply for jobs or training, reduced the size of the public sector, froze government spending for three years, and capped the budget deficit at 1%. The taxation system was streamlined and taxes were cut, with the top individual tax rate reduced from 64% to 44% and the corporate tax rate from 36% to 18%. A host of state assets worth billions of dollars were privatized, including banks, oil refineries, the El Al national airline, and Zim Integrated Shipping Services. The retirement ages for both men and women were raised, and currency exchange laws were further liberalized. Commercial banks were forced to spin off their long-term savings. In addition, Netanyahu attacked monopolies and cartels to increase competition. As the Israeli economy started booming and unemployment fell significantly, Netanyahu was widely credited by commentators as having performed an 'economic miracle' by the end of his tenure.
However, opponents in the Labor party (and even a few within his own Likud) viewed Netanyahu's policies as "Thatcherite" attacks on the venerated Israeli social safety net. Ultimately, unemployment declined while economic growth soared, the debt-to-GDP ratio dropped to one of the lowest in the world, and foreign investment reached record highs.
Netanyahu threatened to resign from office in 2004 unless the Gaza pullout plan was put to a referendum. He later modified the ultimatum and voted for the program in the Knesset, indicating immediately thereafter that he would resign unless a referendum was held within 14 days. He submitted his resignation letter on 7 August 2005, shortly before the Israeli cabinet voted 17 to 5 to approve the initial phase of withdrawal from Gaza.
== Leader of the Opposition (2006–2009) ==
Following the withdrawal of Sharon from the Likud, Netanyahu was one of several candidates who vied for the Likud leadership. His most recent attempt prior to this was in September 2005 when he had tried to hold early primaries for the position of the head of the Likud party, while the party held the office of prime minister – thus effectively pushing Ariel Sharon out of office. The party rejected this initiative. Netanyahu retook the leadership on 20 December 2005, with 47% of the primary vote, to 32% for Silvan Shalom and 15% for Moshe Feiglin. In the March 2006 Knesset elections, Likud took the third place behind Kadima and Labor and Netanyahu served as Leader of the Opposition. On 14 August 2007, Netanyahu was reelected as chairman of the Likud and its candidate for the post of prime minister with 73% of the vote, against far-right candidate Moshe Feiglin and World Likud chairman Danny Danon. He opposed the 2008 Israel–Hamas ceasefire, like others in the Knesset opposition. Specifically, Netanyahu said: "This is not a relaxation, it's an Israeli agreement to the rearming of Hamas ... What are we getting for this?"
Following Tzipi Livni's election to head Kadima and Olmert's resignation from the post of prime minister, Netanyahu declined to join the coalition Livni was trying to form and supported new elections, which were held in February 2009. Netanyahu was the Likud's candidate for prime minister in the 2009 Israeli legislative election which took place on 10 February 2009, as Livni, the previous designated acting prime minister under the Olmert government, had been unable to form a viable governing coalition. Opinion polls showed Likud in the lead, but with as many as a third of Israeli voters undecided.
In the election itself, Likud won the second highest number of seats, Livni's party having outnumbered the Likud by one seat. A possible explanation for Likud's relatively poor showing is that some Likud supporters defected to Avigdor Lieberman's Yisrael Beiteinu party. Netanyahu, however, claimed victory on the basis that right-wing parties won the majority of the vote, and on 20 February 2009, Netanyahu was designated by Israeli President Shimon Peres to succeed Ehud Olmert as prime minister, and began his negotiations to form a coalition government.
Despite right wing parties winning a majority of 65 seats in the Knesset, Netanyahu preferred a broader centrist coalition and turned to his Kadima rivals, chaired by Tzipi Livni, to join his government. This time it was Livni's turn to decline to join, with a difference of opinion on how to pursue the peace process being the stumbling block. Netanyahu did manage to entice a smaller rival, the Labor Party, chaired by Ehud Barak, to join his government, giving him a certain amount of centrist tone. Netanyahu presented his cabinet for a Knesset "Vote of Confidence" on 31 March 2009. The 32nd Government was approved that day by a majority of 69 lawmakers to 45 (with five abstaining) and the members were sworn in.
== Prime Minister (2009–2021) ==
=== Second term ===
In 2009, US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton voiced support for the establishment of a Palestinian state – a solution not endorsed by prime minister-designate Netanyahu, with whom she had earlier pledged the United States' cooperation. Upon the arrival of President Obama administration's special envoy, George Mitchell, Netanyahu said that any furtherance of negotiations with the Palestinians would be conditioned on the Palestinians recognizing Israel as a Jewish state.
During President Obama's Cairo speech on 4 June 2009 in which Obama addressed the Muslim world, Obama stated, among other things, "The United States does not accept the legitimacy of continued Israeli settlements." Following Obama's Cairo speech Netanyahu immediately called a special government meeting. On 14 June, ten days after Obama's Cairo speech, Netanyahu gave a speech at Bar-Ilan University in which he endorsed a "Demilitarized Palestinian State". Netanyahu stated that he would accept a Palestinian state if Jerusalem were to remain the united capital of Israel, the Palestinians would have no army, and the Palestinians would give up their demand for a right of return. He also argued the right for a "natural growth" in the existing Jewish settlements in the West Bank while their permanent status is up to further negotiation. The speech was broadcast live in Israel and across parts of the Arab world. He endorsed for the first time the notion of a Palestinian state alongside Israel. He stated that he would be willing to meet with any "Arab leader" for negotiations without preconditions, specifically mentioning Syria, Saudi Arabia, and Lebanon. The address represented a new position for Netanyahu's government on the peace process.
Right-wing members of Netanyahu's governing coalition criticized his remarks for the creation of a Palestinian State, believing all of the land should come under Israeli sovereignty. Likud MK Danny Danon said Netanyahu went "against the Likud platform", MK Uri Orbach of Habayit Hayehudi said it had "dangerous implications". Opposition party Kadima leader Tzipi Livni opined that Netanyahu did not really believe in the two-state solution and that his speech was a response to international pressure.
Netanyahu's speech provoked mixed reaction internationally. The Palestinian National Authority rejected the conditions on a Palestinian State. Senior Palestinian official Saeb Erekat said that the speech had "closed the door to permanent status negotiations" due to Netanyahu's declarations on Jerusalem, refugees and settlements. Hamas spokesman Fawzi Barhoum said it was "racist" and called on Arab nations to "form stronger opposition". The Arab League dismissed the speech, declaring that "Arabs would not make concessions regarding issues of Jerusalem and refugees". The Czech Republic Foreign Minister Jan Kohout, whose country held the EU's presidency at the time, said "...this is a step in the right direction. The acceptance of a Palestinian state was present there". President Obama's press secretary, Robert Gibbs, said the speech was an "important step forward". Obama said "this solution can and must ensure both Israel's security and the Palestinians' legitimate aspirations for a viable state". France praised the speech and called on Israel to cease building settlements in the West Bank.
Three months after starting his term, Netanyahu remarked that his cabinet already had achieved several successes, such as the establishment of a working national unity government, and a broad consensus for a "two-state solution". A July 2009 survey by Ha'aretz found that most Israelis supported the Netanyahu government, giving him a personal approval rating of about 49 percent. Netanyahu has lifted checkpoints in the West Bank in order to allow freedom of movement and a flow of imports; a step that resulted in an economic boost in the West Bank. In 2009, Netanyahu welcomed the Arab Peace initiative (also known as the "Saudi Peace Initiative") and lauded a call by Bahrain's Crown Prince Salman bin Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa to normalize relations with Israel.
On 9 August 2009, speaking at the opening of a government meeting, Netanyahu said: "We want an agreement with two factors, the first of which is the recognition of Israel as the national state of the Jewish people and (the second of which is) a security settlement". In August 2009, Palestinian Authority chairman Mahmoud Abbas declared that he would be willing to meet with Netanyahu at the UN General Assembly, where Netanyahu had accepted president Obama's invitation for a "triple summit", although he said it would not necessarily lead to negotiations. Netanyahu was reported to be in a pivotal moment over these understandings, that were reported to include a compromise over permission on continuing the already approved construction in the West Bank in exchange for freezing all settlements thereafter, as well as continuing building in East Jerusalem, and at the same time stopping the demolition of houses of Arab inhabitants there. On 4 September 2009, it was reported that Netanyahu was to agree to settlers' political demands to approve more settlement constructions before a temporary settlement freeze agreement took place. White House spokesman Robert Gibbs expressed "regret" over the move; however, one U.S. official said the move will not "derail [the] train".
On 7 September 2009, Netanyahu left his office without reporting his destination. The prime minister's military secretary later reported Netanyahu had visited a security facility in Israel. Various news agencies reported different stories about his whereabouts. On 9 September 2009, Yedioth Ahronoth reported that the Israeli leader had made a secret flight to Moscow to try to persuade Russian officials not to sell S-300 anti-aircraft missile systems to Iran. Headlines branded Netanyahu a "liar" and dubbed the affair a "fiasco". The PM's military secretary was later reportedly dismissed due to the affair. The Sunday Times reported that the trip was made to share the names of Russian scientists that Israel believes are abetting the alleged Iranian nuclear weapons program.
On 24 September 2009, in an address to the UN General Assembly in New York, Netanyahu said Iran poses a threat to the peace of the world and that it is incumbent on the world body to prevent the Islamic Republic from obtaining nuclear weapons. Waving the blueprints for Auschwitz and invoking the memory of his own family members murdered by the Nazis, Netanyahu delivered a passionate and public riposte to Iranian president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's questioning of the Holocaust, asking: "Have you no shame?"
In response to pressure from the Obama administration urging the resumption of peace talks, on 25 November 2009 Netanyahu announced a partial 10-month settlement construction freeze plan. The announced partial freeze had no significant effect on actual settlement construction, according to an analysis by Haaretz. U.S. special envoy George Mitchell said, "while the United States shares Arab concerns about the limitations of Israel's gesture, it is more than any Israeli government has ever done". In his announcement Netanyahu called the move "a painful step that will encourage the peace process" and urged the Palestinians to respond. The Palestinians rejected the call, stating the gesture was "insignificant" in that thousands of recently approved settlement buildings in the West Bank would continue to be built and there would be no freeze of settlement activity in East Jerusalem.
In March 2010, Israel's government approved construction of an additional 1,600 apartments in a large Jewish housing development in northern East Jerusalem called Ramat Shlomo despite the position of the current U.S. Government that acts such as this thwart the peace talks. The Israeli government's announcement occurred during a visit by U.S. Vice-president Joe Biden and the U.S. government issued a strongly worded condemnation of the plan. Netanyahu issued a statement that all previous Israeli governments had continuously permitted construction in the neighborhood, and that certain neighborhoods such as Ramat Shlomo and Gilo have always been included as part of Israel in any final agreement plan that has been proposed by either side to date. Netanyahu regretted the timing of the announcement but asserted that "our policy on Jerusalem is the same policy followed by all Israeli governments for the 42 years, and it has not changed."
In September 2010, Netanyahu agreed to enter direct talks, mediated by the Obama administration, with the Palestinians. The ultimate aim of these direct talks is to forge the framework of an official "final status settlement" to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict by forming a two-state solution for the Jewish people and the Palestinian people. On 27 September, the 10-month settlement freeze ended, and the Israeli government approved new construction in the West Bank, including East Jerusalem. On retiring from office in July 2011, former U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert Gates said that Netanyahu was ungrateful to the United States and endangering Israel. Responding, the Likud party defended Netanyahu by saying that most Israelis supported the prime minister and that he had broad support in the United States.
Netanyahu unsuccessfully called for the early release of Jonathan Pollard, an American serving a life sentence for passing secret U.S. documents to Israel in 1987. He has raised the issue at the Wye River Summit in 1998, where he claimed that U.S. president Bill Clinton had privately agreed to release Pollard. In 2002, Netanyahu visited Pollard at his North Carolina prison. The Israeli prime minister maintained contact with Pollard's wife, and was active in pressing the Obama administration to release Pollard.
In 2011, social justice protests broke out across Israel. Hundreds of thousands of people protested Israel's high cost of living throughout the country. In response, Netanyahu appointed the Trajtenberg Committee, headed by professor Manuel Trajtenberg, to examine the problems and propose solutions. The committee submitted recommendations to lower the high cost of living in September 2011. Although Netanyahu promised to push the proposed reforms through the cabinet in one piece, differences inside his coalition resulted in the reforms being gradually adopted.
Netanyahu's cabinet also approved a plan to build a fiber-optic cable network across the country to bring cheap, high-speed fiber-optic Internet access to every home.
In 2012, Netanyahu initially planned to call early elections, but subsequently oversaw the creation of a government of national unity to see Israel through until the national elections of 2013. In May 2012, Netanyahu officially recognized for the first time the right for Palestinians to have their own state in an official document, a letter to Mahmoud Abbas, though as before he declared it would have to be demilitarized. On 25 October 2012, Netanyahu and Foreign Minister Avigdor Lieberman announced that their respective political parties, Likud and Yisrael Beiteinu, had merged and would run together on a single ballot in Israel's 22 January 2013 general elections.
=== Third term ===
The 2013 election returned Netanyahu's Likud Beiteinu coalition with 11 fewer seats than the combined Likud and Yisrael Beiteinu parties had going into the vote. Israeli president Shimon Peres charged Netanyahu with the task of forming the Thirty-third government of Israel. During Netanyahu's third term, he continued his policy of economic liberalization. In December 2013, the Knesset approved the Business Concentration Law, which intended to open Israel's highly concentrated economy to competition to lower consumer prices, reduce income inequality, and increase economic growth. Netanyahu had formed the Concentration Committee in 2010, and the bill, which was pushed forward by his government, implemented its recommendations. The new law banned multi-tiered corporate holding structures, in which a CEO's family members or other affiliated individuals held public companies which in turn owned other public companies, and who were thus able to engage in price gouging. Under the law, corporations were banned from owning more than two tiers of publicly listed companies and from holding both financial and non-financial enterprises. All conglomerates were given four to six years to sell excess holdings. Netanyahu also began a campaign of port privatization to break what he viewed as the monopoly held by workers of the Israel Port Authority, so as to lower consumer prices and increase exports. In July 2013, he issued tenders for the construction of private ports in Haifa and Ashdod. Netanyahu has also pledged to curb excess bureaucracy and regulations to ease the burden on industry.
In April and June 2014, Netanyahu spoke of his deep concerns when Hamas and the Palestinian Authority agreed and then formed a unity government, and was severely critical of both the United States and European governments' decision to work with the Palestinian coalition government. He blamed Hamas for the kidnapping and murder of three Israeli teenagers in June 2014, and launched a massive search and arrest operation on the West Bank, targeting members of Hamas in particular, and over the following weeks hit 60 targets in Gaza. Missile and rocket exchanges between Gaza militants and the IDF escalated after the bodies of the teenagers, who had been killed almost immediately as the government had good reasons to suspect, were discovered on 30 June 2014. After several Hamas operatives were killed, Hamas officially declared it would launch rockets from Gaza into Israel, and Israel started Operation Protective Edge in the Gaza Strip, formally ending the November 2012 ceasefire agreement. The prime minister did a round of television shows in the United States and described Hamas as "genocidal terrorists" in an interview on CNN. When asked if Gazan casualties from the operation might spark "a third intifada", Netanyahu replied that Hamas was working towards that goal.
In October 2014, Netanyahu's government approved a privatization plan to reduce corruption and politicization in government companies, and strengthen Israel's capital market. Under the plan, minority stakes of up to 49% in state-owned companies, including arms manufacturers, energy, postal, water, and railway companies, as well as the ports of Haifa and Ashdod. That same month, Netanyahu called criticism of settlements "against the American values", which earned him rebuke from the White House Press Secretary Josh Earnest, who said that American values had resulted in Israel receiving consistent funding and protective technology such as Iron Dome. Netanyahu explained that he does not accept residency restrictions for Jews, and said that Jerusalem's Arabs and Jews should be able to buy homes wherever they want. He said he was "baffled" by the American condemnation. "It's against the American values. And it doesn't bode well for peace. The idea that we'd have this ethnic purification as a condition for peace, I think it's anti-peace." Later, Jeffrey Goldberg of The Atlantic reported that the relationship between Netanyahu and the White House had reached a new low, with the U.S. administration angry over Israel's settlement policies, and Netanyahu expressing contempt for the American administration's grasp of the Middle East.
On 2 December 2014, Netanyahu fired ministers Yair Lapid, head of Yesh Atid, and Tzipi Livni, head of Hatnua. The changes led to the dissolution of the government, with new elections on 17 March 2015.
Benjamin Netanyahu's 2015 address to the United States Congress marked Netanyahu's third speech to a joint session of Congress. The day before announcing he would address Congress, Time reported that he tried to derail a meeting between U.S. lawmakers and the head of Mossad, Tamir Pardo, who intended warning them against imposing further sanctions against Iran, a move that might derail nuclear talks. Leading up to the speech, Israeli consuls general in the United States "expect[ed] fierce negative reaction from U.S. Jewish communities and Israel's allies". Objections included the arrangement of the speech without the support and engagement of the Obama administration and the timing of the speech before Israel's March 2015 election. Seven American Jewish lawmakers met with Ron Dermer, Israel's ambassador to the U.S. and recommended that Netanyahu instead meet with lawmakers privately to discuss Iran. In making the speech, Netanyahu claimed to speak for all Jews worldwide, a claim disputed by others in the Jewish community.
As election day approached in what was perceived to be a close race in the 2015 Israeli elections, Netanyahu answered 'indeed' when asked whether a Palestinian state would not be established in his term. He said that support of a Palestinian state is tantamount to yielding territory for radical Islamic terrorists to attack Israel. However, Netanyahu reiterated "I don't want a one-state solution. I want a peaceful, sustainable two-state solution. I have not changed my policy."
=== Fourth term ===
In the 2015 election, Netanyahu returned with his party Likud leading the elections with 30 mandates, making it the single highest number of seats for the Knesset. President Rivlin granted Netanyahu an extension until 6 May 2015 to build a coalition when one had not been finalized in the first four weeks of negotiations. He formed a coalition government within two hours of the midnight 6 May deadline. His Likud party formed the coalition with Jewish Home, United Torah Judaism, Kulanu, and Shas.
In August 2015, Netanyahu's government approved a two-year budget that would see agricultural reforms and lowering of import duties to reduce food prices, deregulation of the approval process in construction to lower housing costs and speed up infrastructure building, and reforms in the financial sector to boost competition and lower fees for financial services. In the end, the government was forced to compromise by removing some key agricultural reforms.
In October 2015, Netanyahu caused commotion for saying the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, Haj Amin al-Husseini gave Adolf Hitler the idea of exterminating Jews rather than expelling them during the Second World War. This claim is dismissed by most historians, who say that al-Husseini's meeting with Hitler took place approximately five months after the mass murder of Jews began. Some of the strongest criticism came from Israeli academics: Yehuda Bauer said Netanyahu's claim was "completely idiotic". Moshe Zimmermann stated that "any attempt to deflect the burden from Hitler to others is a form of Holocaust denial."
In March 2016, Netanyahu's coalition faced a potential crisis as ultra-Orthodox members threatened to withdraw over the government's proposed steps to create non-Orthodox prayer space at the Western Wall. They have stated they will leave the coalition if the government offers any further official state recognition of Conservative and Reform Judaism.
On 23 December 2016, the United States, under the Obama Administration, abstained from United Nations Security Council Resolution 2334, effectively allowing it to pass. On 28 December, U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry strongly criticized Israel and its settlement policies in a speech. Netanyahu strongly criticized both the UN Resolution and Kerry's speech in response. On 6 January 2017, the Israeli government withdrew its annual dues from the organization, which totaled $6 million in United States dollars.
In February 2017, Netanyahu became the first serving prime minister of Israel to visit Australia. He was accompanied by his wife, Sara. The three-day official visit included a delegation of business representatives, and Netanyahu and Prime Minister of Australia Malcolm Turnbull were scheduled to sign several bilateral agreements. Netanyahu recalled that it was the Australian Light Horse regiments that liberated Beersheba during World War I, and this began what has been a relationship of 100 years between the countries.
In October 2017, shortly after the US announced the same action, Netanyahu's government announced it was leaving UNESCO due to what it saw as anti-Israel actions by the agency, and it made that decision official in December 2017. The Israeli government officially notified UNESCO of the withdrawal in late December 2017.
In April 2018, Netanyahu accused Iran of not holding up its end of the Iran nuclear deal after presenting a cache of over 100,000 documents detailing the extent of Iran's nuclear program. Iran denounced Netanyahu's presentation as "propaganda".
Netanyahu praised the 2018 North Korea–United States Singapore Summit. He said in a statement, "I commend US President Donald Trump on the historic summit in Singapore. This is an important step in the effort to rid the Korean peninsula of nuclear weapons."
In July 2018, the Knesset passed the Nation-State Bill, a Basic Law supported by Netanyahu's coalition government. Analysts saw the bill as a sign of Netanyahu's coalition advancing a right-wing agenda.
Prior to the April 2019 Israeli legislative election, Netanyahu helped broker a deal that united the Jewish Home party with the far-right Otzma Yehudit party, in order to form the Union of the Right-Wing Parties. The motivation of the deal was to overcome the electoral threshold for smaller parties. The deal was criticized in the media, as Otzma is widely characterized as racist and traces its origins to the extremist Kahanist movement.
==== Criminal investigations and indictment ====
Since January 2017, Netanyahu has been investigated by Israeli police in two connected cases, "Case 1000" and "Case 2000". In Case 1000, Netanyahu is suspected of having obtained inappropriate favors from businessmen, including James Packer and Hollywood producer Arnon Milchan. Case 2000 involves alleged attempts to strike a deal with the publisher of the Yedioth Ahronot newspaper group, Arnon Mozes, to promote legislation to weaken Yedioth's main competitor in exchange for more favorable political coverage.
In August 2017, Israeli police confirmed that Netanyahu was suspected of crimes involving fraud, breach of trust, and bribes in the two cases. The next day, it was reported that the prime minister's former chief of staff, Ari Harow, had signed a deal with prosecutors to testify against Netanyahu.
In February 2018, Israeli police recommended that Netanyahu be charged with corruption. According to a police statement, sufficient evidence exists to indict the prime minister on charges of bribery, fraud, and breach of trust in the two cases. Netanyahu responded that the allegations were baseless and that he would continue as prime minister. In November 2018, it was reported that Economic Crimes Division Director Liat Ben-Ari recommended indictment for both cases.
In 2018 Netanyahu was also investigated in "Case 4000", where he was suspected of giving regulatory favors to Shaul Elovitch, owner of Bezeq telecommunication company, in exchange for positive publications in news website Walla!.
In February 2019, the Israeli attorney general announced his intent to file indictments against Netanyahu on bribe and fraud charges in the three cases. Netanyahu was formally indicted on 21 November 2019. If convicted, he could face up to 10 years in prison for bribery and a maximum of three years for fraud and breach of trust. He is the first sitting prime minister in Israel's history to be charged with a crime. On 23 November 2019, it was announced that Netanyahu, in compliance with legal precedent set by the Israeli Supreme Court in 1993, would relinquish his agriculture, health, social affairs and diaspora affairs portfolios. The matter of forcing a prime minister to resign due to an indictment has yet to be tested in court. He was officially charged on 28 January 2020.
Netanyahu's criminal trial was set to begin on 24 May 2020, having been initially scheduled for March of that year but delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. As of April 2023, the criminal trial was still ongoing.
On 30 November 2025, Netanyahu formally asked for a pardon from president Isaac Herzog.
=== Fifth term ===
On 17 May 2020, Netanyahu was sworn in for a fifth term as prime minister in a coalition with Benny Gantz. Against a background of the COVID-19 pandemic in Israel and Netanyahu's criminal trial, protests broke out against him in front of the prime minister's residence. Following this, Netanyahu ordered to disperse the demonstrations using COVID-19 special regulations, limiting them to 20 people and at a distance of 1,000 meters from their homes. However, the exact opposite was achieved; the demonstrations were enlarged and dispersed to over 1,000 centers. By March 2021, Israel became the country with the highest vaccinated population per capita in the world against COVID-19.
After tensions escalated in Jerusalem in May 2021, Hamas fired rockets on Israel from Gaza, which prompted Netanyahu to initiate Operation Guardian of the Walls, lasting eleven days. After the operation, Israeli politician and leader of the Yamina alliance Naftali Bennett announced that he had agreed to a deal with Leader of the Opposition Yair Lapid to form a rotation government that would oust Netanyahu from his position as prime minister. On 13 June 2021, Bennett and Lapid formed a coalition government, and Netanyahu was ousted as prime minister, ending his 12-year tenure.
== Leader of the Opposition (2021–2022) ==
After the end of his second premiership, Netanyahu began his third stint as the leader of the opposition. Likud remained the largest party in the twenty-fourth Knesset.
He led the opposition into the 2022 Israeli legislative election.
== Prime Minister (2022–present) ==
=== Sixth term ===
After the 2022 election, Netanyahu was sworn in as prime minister again as the leader of a hardline coalition. He officially started his sixth term on 29 December 2022.
The first months of Netanyahu's sixth term were centered around a proposed reform package in the judicial branch. Critics highlighted the negative effects it would have on the separation of powers, the office of the Attorney General, the economy, public health, women and minorities, workers' rights, scientific research, the overall strength of Israel's democracy and its foreign relations. After weeks of public protests on Israel's streets, joined by a growing number of military reservists, Minister of Defense Yoav Gallant spoke against the reform on 25 March, calling for a halt of the legislative process "for the sake of Israel's security". Netanyahu announced his intention to remove Gallant from his post the following day, sparking further protests across Israel and leading to Netanyahu agreeing to delay the legislation for a month.
In February 2023, the new government under Netanyahu approved the legalization of nine settler outposts in the occupied West Bank. Finance Minister Bezalel Smotrich took charge of most of the Civil Administration, obtaining broad authority over civilian issues in the West Bank. Israeli peace groups condemned the move as de jure annexation of the occupied territories. In March 2023, Netanyahu's government repealed a 2005 law whereby four Israeli settlements, Homesh, Sa-Nur, Ganim and Kadim, were dismantled as part of the Israeli disengagement from Gaza. In June 2023, Netanyahu's coalition shortened the procedure of approving settlement construction and gave Finance Minister Smotrich the authority to approve one of the stages, changing the system operating for the last 27 years. In its first six months, construction of 13,000 housing units in settlements, almost triple the amount advanced in the whole of 2022.
Israel refused to send lethal weapons to Ukraine. In June 2023, Netanyahu said that Israel is concerned "with the possibility that systems that we would give to Ukraine would fall into Iranian hands and could be reverse engineered, and we would find ourselves facing Israeli systems used against Israel."
On 7 October 2023, after Palestinian militants from Gaza launched a major surprise attack, Netanyahu announced that Israel would enter in a state of war against Hamas. He threatened to "turn all the places where Hamas is organized and hiding into cities of ruins", called Gaza "the city of evil", and urged its residents to "leave now". He later proposed that opposition parties Yesh Atid and National Unity enter an emergency unity government amid the conflict, after Leader of the Opposition Lapid urged Netanyahu put "aside our differences and form an emergency, narrow, professional government."
Netanyahu was criticized for presiding over Israel's biggest intelligence failure in 50 years, and has faced protests calling for his removal. The outbreak of war led to increased opposition to Netanyahu and the government from Israeli citizens due to a perceived failure to anticipate the Hamas-led attack, with increased calls for Netanyahu's resignation. A poll in 2023 showed that 56% of Israelis believed that Netanyahu must resign after the war, with 86% of respondents holding the country's leadership responsible for the security failings that led to the attack. On 28 October 2023, Netanyahu was accused of using "dangerous rhetoric" when comparing Hamas to Amalek, stating: "You must remember what Amalek has done to you, says our Holy Bible. And we do remember." On 29 October, Netanyahu blamed Israel's security chiefs for Hamas's attack in a post on X (formerly Twitter); this was later deleted following criticism. A subsequent investigation carried out by Shin Bet acknowledged the agency's failures but also found that Shin Bet warned the prime minister that Hamas was not deterred and objected to the divide-and-rule policy vis-a-vis Hamas and the Palestinian Authority.
In November 2023, he rejected calls for a ceasefire in the war and warned that Israel will "stand firm against the world if necessary." He said the Israel Defense Forces would remain in Gaza "as long as necessary" and Israel would prevent the Palestinian Authority from returning to Gaza. Netanyahu called allegations that Israel is breaking international law "hogwash" and described Palestinian civilian casualties as "collateral damage." In December 2023, he faced criticism during a meeting with released Israeli hostages. One of the hostages accused him of putting politics "above the return of the kidnapped." In December 2023, Netanyahu said that Israel should support the "voluntary migration" of Palestinians from Gaza. Israel under Netanyahu has been accused of committing genocide in Gaza in the South Africa v. Israel case before the International Court of Justice in December 2023.
In May 2024, Karim Khan, the prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, announced his intention to apply for an arrest warrant for Netanyahu on several counts of alleged war crimes and crimes against humanity.
In July 2024, Netanyahu addressed another joint session of the United States Congress, amidst widespread protest, to solicit support for the Gaza war. He called protesters "useful idiots" and pledged a "total victory" in Gaza. He met with 2024 Republican nominee for president Donald Trump at his Mar-a-Lago residence where he criticized presumptive Democratic nominee for President Kamala Harris for vowing that she "will not be silent" about atrocities in Gaza.
In October 2024, a drone attack believed to have originated from Lebanon was made on Netanyahu's residence in Caesarea. Netanyahu was not in the residence at the time, and no casualties were reported. Netanyahu accused Hezbollah of trying to assassinate him in the attack.
On 5 November 2024, Netanyahu fired defense minister Gallant, who had advocated for a short-term diplomatic deal. The firing triggered protests throughout Israel. On 21 November 2024, the International Criminal Court issued arrest warrants for Netanyahu, Gallant and Hamas military commander Mohammed Deif for alleged war crimes committed during the Gaza war. Netanyahu described the ruling as "absurd and false lies" and said the decision is "antisemitic".
On the night of 18 March 2025, Israel launched a surprise attack on the Gaza Strip, effectively ending the January 2025 Gaza war ceasefire. Netanyahu was scheduled on 18 March to testify in his corruption trial, but as a result of the attacks, the legal proceedings were postponed. In March 2025, Netanyahu fired Ronen Bar, chief of Shin Bet, citing a loss of confidence. Bar accused the government of firing him for investigating Qatar's involvement and influence in the Prime Minister's Office, in a case known as the Qatari connection affair.
In May 2025, Netanyahu stated that the destruction of homes in Gaza would lead to the forced emigration of Palestinians.
On 13 June, Netanyahu authorized airstrikes against Iran, marking the beginning of the Iran–Israel war. Within a week, Netanyahu publicly commented on the effects of the war: "Each of us bears a personal cost, and my family has not been exempt", as he cited that it was "the second time that my son Avner has cancelled a wedding due to missile threats." In July, Netanyahu was criticized for deciding to increase Gaza aid distribution by some members of his cabinet who rejected the U.S. ceasefire proposal.
In August 2025, Netanyahu said in an interview with i24NEWS that he was on a "historic and spiritual mission" and that he is "very" attached to the vision of Greater Israel, which includes the Palestinian territories. On 21 September 2025, Netanyahu rejected the existence of a Palestinian state west of the Jordan River, saying, "For years, I have prevented the establishment of this terrorist state facing tremendous pressures at home and abroad."
In Netanyahu's address to the United Nations General Assembly in New York, he opposed international recognition of a Palestinian state. As Netanyahu commenced his speech, dozens of individuals in New York exited the hall in protest.
On 7 November 2025, the Chief Public Prosecutor's Office in Turkey issued international arrest warrants for Netanyahu and 36 other Israeli officials, accusing them of genocide and crimes against humanity in Gaza. The charges were based on Israel's attacks on Palestinian civilians, hospitals, infrastructure and the Global Sumud Flotilla, which was intercepted by the Israeli navy while delivering aid to Gaza.
== Political positions ==
=== Authoritarianism ===
In the years under Netanyahu's rule, Israel experienced authoritarianism, democratic backsliding, corruption, and expansionism. The Israeli Military Censor had long been recorded to have censored thousands of news articles annually. During the Gaza war, Israel had intensified protest and news media censorship, including with reports about the humanitarian crisis in Gaza. Netanyahu's repeated attempts to revamp judicial systems have been accused of being efforts to elevate authoritarianism and protect the prime minister from corruption charges; he in turn accused the "leftist Deep state" of attempting to weaponize the justice system against him and the people of Israel. He additionally has spoken populist statements regarding anti-Arab racism involving narratives of conflict with Jews, in particular of anti-Palestinianism. Netanyahu's administration in recent years has been tailored towards far-right politics and has been described as the most far-right government in Israeli history. He has also allied his nation with other illiberal, authoritarian leaders from Hungary, Russia, and the United States.
=== Israeli–Palestinian conflict ===
Netanyahu opposed the Oslo Accords from their inception. In 1993, he dedicated a chapter, entitled "Trojan Horse", of his book A Place Among the Nations to argue against the Oslo peace process. He asserted that Amin al-Husseini had been one of the masterminds of the Holocaust, and that Yasser Arafat was heir to the former's "alleged exterminationist Nazism". During his term as prime minister in the late 1990s, Netanyahu consistently reneged on commitments made by previous Israeli governments as part of the Oslo peace process, leading American peace envoy Dennis Ross to note that "neither President Clinton nor Secretary [of State Madeleine] Albright believed that Bibi had any real interest in pursuing peace." In a 2001 video, Netanyahu, reportedly unaware he was being recorded, said:
They asked me before the election if I'd honor [the Oslo Accords] […] I said I would, but ... I'm going to interpret the accords in such a way that would allow me to put an end to this galloping forward to the '67 borders. How did we do it? Nobody said what defined military zones were. Defined military zones are security zones; as far as I'm concerned, the entire Jordan Valley is a defined military zone. Go argue.
On 9 August 2009, speaking at the opening of his weekly cabinet meeting, Netanyahu promised not to repeat the "mistake" of the Gaza pullout, adding that "the unilateral evacuation brought neither peace nor security. On the contrary". He also said, "Should we achieve a turn toward peace with the more moderate partners, we will insist on the recognition of the State of Israel and the demilitarization of the future Palestinian state". In 2014, Netanyahu said:
We don't just hand over territory, close our eyes and hope for the best. We did that in Lebanon and we got thousands of rockets. We did that in Gaza, we got Hamas and 15,000 rockets. So we're not gonna just replicate that. We want to see genuine recognition of the Jewish state and rock solid security arrangements on the ground. That's the position I've held, and it's only become firmer.
Netanyahu had previously called U.S.-backed peace talks a waste of time and refused to commit to the same two-state solution as had other Israeli leaders until a speech in June 2009. He repeatedly made public statements which advocated an "economic peace" approach, meaning an approach based on economic cooperation and joint effort rather than continuous contention over political and diplomatic issues. This is in line with many significant ideas from the Peace Valley plan. He raised these ideas during discussions with former U.S. secretary of state Condoleezza Rice. Netanyahu continued to advocate these ideas as the Israeli elections approached. Netanyahu has said:
Right now, the peace talks are based on only one thing, only on peace talks. It makes no sense at this point to talk about the most contractible issue. It's Jerusalem or bust, or right of return or bust. That has led to failure and is likely to lead to failure again ... We must weave an economic peace alongside a political process. That means that we have to strengthen the moderate parts of the Palestinian economy by handing rapid growth in those areas, rapid economic growth that gives a stake for peace for the ordinary Palestinians."
In January 2009, Netanyahu informed Middle East envoy Tony Blair that he would continue the policy of the Israeli governments of Ariel Sharon and Ehud Olmert by expanding West Bank settlements, in contravention of the Road Map, but not building new ones.
In 2013, Netanyahu denied reports that his government would agree to peace talks on the basis of the green line. In 2014 he agreed to the American framework based on the green line and said that Jewish settlers must be allowed the option of staying in their settlements under Palestinian rule.
In 2014, Palestinian negotiator Saeb Erekat criticized Netanyahu, calling him "ideologically corrupt" and a war criminal.
For years, Netanyahu backed Qatari transfers of hundreds of millions of dollars to Gaza, in the hope that it would pacify Gaza, turn Hamas into an effective counterweight to the Palestinian Authority and prevent the establishment of a Palestinian state. In 2019, Netanyahu said at a private Likud party meeting, "Anyone who wants to thwart the establishment of a Palestinian state has to support bolstering Hamas and transferring money to Hamas. This is part of our strategy – to isolate the Palestinians in Gaza from the Palestinians in the West Bank." Often, cash was delivered in suitcases by a Qatari official who was escorted by Israeli intelligence officers. According to the New York Times, Netanyahu continued backing the payments in response to Qatari questions as late as September 2023. In 2025, Shin Beth started an investigation into the alleged ties between Netanyahu's advisors and Qatar.
In January 2020, Netanyahu publicly supported Trump's Israeli-Palestinian peace plan. After the peace proposal failed, Trump said Netanyahu "never wanted peace" with the Palestinians.
Former United States Secretary of State Rex Tillerson stated that on 22 May 2017, Netanyahu showed Trump a fake and altered video of Palestinian president Mahmoud Abbas calling for the killing of children. This was at a time when Trump was considering if Israel was the obstacle to peace. Netanyahu had showed Trump the fake video to change his position in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.
The U.S.-brokered Abraham Accords agreed to the full normalization of relations between Israel and the United Arab Emirates (the Israel–United Arab Emirates normalization agreement) and Bahrain, respectively (the Bahrain–Israel normalization agreement). This was the first time any Arab country had normalized relations with Israel since Jordan in 1994. The accords were signed by Bahrain's foreign minister, UAE's foreign minister and Netanyahu on 15 September 2020 at the South Lawn of the White House in Washington, D.C.
On 23 October 2020, U.S. president Trump announced that Sudan will start to normalize ties with Israel, making it the third Arab state to do so as part of the Trump administration-brokered Abraham Accords. Sudan fought in wars against Israel in 1948 and 1967. Netanyahu thanked "President Trump and his team above all", saying that "together with him we are changing history ... despite all the experts and commentators who said it was impossible. Israel was completely isolated and they told us we were heading into a political tsunami. What's happening is the absolute opposite." This was followed by Morocco establishing relations with Israel in December. In July 2024, Pakistan officially designated him a "terrorist", calling him responsible for the atrocities in Gaza.
=== Economic views ===
By 1998, Netanyahu had acquired a reputation as "the advocate of the free-market" and in 1999 told the Jerusalem Post: "Peace is an end of itself [...] peace, without free markets, will not produce growth. But free markets without peace do produce growth." As prime minister in his first term, he significantly reformed the banking sector, removing barriers to investment abroad, mandatory purchases of government securities and direct credit. As minister of finance (2003–2005), Netanyahu introduced a major overhaul of the Israeli economy. He introduced a welfare to work program, he led a program of privatization, reduced the size of the public sector, reformed and streamlined the taxation system and passed laws against monopolies and cartels with the aim of increasing competition. Netanyahu extended capital gains taxes from companies to individuals, which allowed him to enlarge the tax base while reducing taxes on incomes. As the Israeli economy started booming and unemployment fell significantly, Netanyahu was widely credited by commentators as having performed an 'economic miracle' by the end of his tenure. Direct investment in the Israeli economy had increased by an annualized 380%. On the other hand, his critics have labelled his economic views as Margaret Thatcher-inspired "popular capitalism".
Netanyahu defines capitalism as "the ability to have individual initiative and competition to produce goods and services with profit, but not to shut out somebody else from trying to do the same". He says that his views developed while he was working as an economic consult for Boston Consulting Group: "It was the first time that the Boston Consulting Group looked at governments and worked for governments. They wanted to do a strategic plan for the government of Sweden. I was on that case and looked at other governments. So I went around to other governments in Europe in 1976 and I was looking at Britain. I was looking at France. I was looking at other countries, and I could see that they were stymied by concentrations of power that prevented competition. And I thought, hmm, as bad as they are, ours was worse because we had very little room for private sector competition to the extent that we had government-controlled or union-controlled companies, and so you really didn't get the competition or the growth ... And I said, well, if I ever have a chance, I'll change that."
=== Views on counter-terrorism ===
Netanyahu has said his own "hard line against all terrorists" came as a result of his brother's death. Yoni Netanyahu had been killed while leading the hostage-rescue mission at Operation Entebbe.
In addition to having taken part in counter-terrorist operations during his service in the military, Netanyahu has published three books on the subject of fighting terrorism. He identifies terrorism as a form of totalitarianism, writing: The more far removed the target of the attack from any connection to the grievance enunciated by the terrorists, the greater the terror ... Yet for terrorism to have any impact, it is precisely the lack of connection, the lack of any possible involvement or "complicity" of the chosen victims in the cause the terrorists seek to attack, that produces the desired fear. For terrorism's underlying message is that every member of society is "guilty", that anyone can be a victim, and that therefore no one is safe... In fact, the methods reveal the totalitarian strain that runs through all terrorist groups... It is not only that the ends of the terrorists do not succeed in justifying the means they choose; their choice of means indicate what their true ends are. Far from being fighters for freedom, terrorists are the forerunners of tyranny. Terrorists use the techniques of violent coercion in order to achieve a regime of violent coercion.Netanyahu cautions that:The trouble with active anti-terror activities... is that they do constitute a substantial intrusion on the lives of those being monitored.He believes there is a balance between civil liberties and security, which should depend on the level of sustained terrorist attacks in a country. During periods of sustained attack, there should be shift towards security, due to "the monstrous violation of personal rights which is the lot of the victims of terror and their families". But this should be regularly reviewed, with an emphasis on guarding civil liberties and individual privacy wherever and whenever security considerations allow: "The concern of civil libertarians over possible infringements of the rights of innocent citizens is well placed, and all additional powers granted the security services should require annual renewal by the legislature, this in addition to judicial oversight of actions as they are taken in the field."
He advises tighter immigration laws as an essential tool to preemptively combat terrorism: "This era of immigration free-for-all should be brought to an end. An important aspect of taking control of the immigration situation is stricter background checks of potential immigrants, coupled with the real possibility of deportation."
He also cautions that it is essential that governments do not conflate terrorists with those legitimate political groups that may or may not hold extremist views, but which advance their positions by means of debate and argument. Ronald Reagan was an admirer of Netanyahu's work on counter-terrorism, and Reagan recommended Netanyahu's book Terrorism: How the West Can Win to all senior figures in his administration.
=== Death penalty ===
In 2017, Netanyahu called for the death penalty to be imposed on the perpetrator of the 2017 Halamish stabbing attack. Representatives in his government introduced a bill which would allow the death penalty for terrorism to the Knesset. In a preliminary vote in January 2018, 52 of 120 members of the Israeli parliament voted in favor while 49 opposed, to make it easier for judges to hand down the death penalty. The amendment to the penal code would still require three more readings if it is to become law.
=== LGBT rights ===
Netanyahu supports equal rights for LGBT persons. He said: "The struggle for every person to be recognized as equal before the law is a long struggle, and there is still a long way to go ... I am proud that Israel is among the most open countries in the world in relation to the LGBT community discourse." During an event held for the annual community rights day at the Knesset, Netanyahu said that he was "asked to come here in the middle of my busy schedule to say one thing to the male and female members of the LGBT community: We must be guided by the conviction that every person is created in the image of God." However, some of his coalition government's party members opposed same-sex marriage.
=== Ethiopian Jewish integration ===
In 2015, after Ethiopian Jewish protests against police brutality, Netanyahu said: "We will bring a comprehensive plan to the government to assist you in every way. There is no room for racism and discrimination in our society, none ... We will turn racism into something contemptible and despicable."
=== African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem ===
Netanyahu supports the integration of the African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem into Israeli society, and takes part in celebrations in honor of this community's "exodus" from America to Israel, which occurred in 1967. In 2012, Netanyahu expressed appreciation towards "the cooperative society that is working towards the inclusion of the Hebrew Israelite community in Israeli society at large," and declared that the experience of the community in the land of Israel is "an integral part of the Israeli experience."
=== Iran ===
In a March 2007 CNN interview, Netanyahu said that "there is only one difference between Nazi Germany and the Islamic Republic of Iran, namely that the first entered a worldwide conflict and then sought atomic weapons, while the latter is first seeking atomic weapons and, once it has them, will then start a world war." Netanyahu repeated these remarks at a news conference in April 2008. This was similar to earlier remarks that "it's 1938, and Iran is Germany, and Iran is racing to arm itself with atomic bombs".
In February 2009, after being asked to be the prime minister of Israel, Netanyahu described Iran as the greatest threat that Israel has ever faced: "Iran is seeking to obtain a nuclear weapon and constitutes the gravest threat to our existence since the war of independence." Speaking before the UN General Assembly in New York on 24 September 2009, Netanyahu expressed a different opinion than Iranian president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's speech at the forum, saying those who believe Tehran is a threat only to Israel are wrong. "The Iranian regime", he said, "is motivated by fanaticism ... They want to see us go back to medieval times. The struggle against Iran pits civilization against barbarism. This Iranian regime is fueled by extreme fundamentalism." "By focusing solely on Iran", columnist Yossi Melman speculated that Netanyahu's foreign policy, "... took the Palestinian issue off the world agenda." After four days of shelling from the Iranian-funded Palestinian Islamic Jihad, Melman asked, "Is it worth initiating a crisis with Iran? Will the Israeli public be able to cope with Iran's response?"
According to Uzi Eilam, Netanyahu is using the threat of atomic Iran as a means of reaching his own goals. He said: "Netanyahu is using the Iranian threat to achieve a variety of political objectives." He also said: "These declarations are unnecessarily scaring Israel's citizens, given Israel is not party to the negotiations to determine whether Iran will or will not dismantle its nuclear program."
By 2012, Netanyahu is reported to have formed a close, confidential relationship with Defense Minister Ehud Barak as the two men considered possible Israeli military action against Iran's nuclear facilities, following Israel's established Begin Doctrine. The pair were accused of acting on "messianic" impulses by Yuval Diskin, former head of the Shin Bet, who added that their warmongering rhetoric appealed to "the idiots within the Israeli public". Diskin's remarks were supported by former Mossad chief Meir Dagan, who himself had previously said that an attack on Iran was "the stupidest thing I have ever heard". A few weeks later, the RAND Corporation also openly disagreed with Netanyahu's belligerent stance.
Early in 2012, he used the opening ceremony for Israel's Holocaust Remembrance Day to warn against the dangers of an Iranian nuclear bomb, saying he was following the example of Jewish leaders during World War II who struggled to raise the alarm about the Nazis' genocidal intentions. Israeli academic Avner Cohen accused Netanyahu of showing "contempt" for the Holocaust by putting it to "political use", and former Israeli foreign minister Shlomo Ben-Ami similarly condemned Netanyahu's "vulgar manipulation of the memory of the Holocaust". Immediately after the 2012 Burgas bus bombing, Netanyahu confirmed that the attack had been undertaken in coordination with Iran.
Netanyahu opined during a July meeting that "all the sanctions and diplomacy so far have not set back the Iranian programme by one iota". In August he stated that the United States only might respond to a massive attack against Israel. On 28 September 2012, Netanyahu gave a speech to the UN General Assembly in which he set forward a "red line" of 90% uranium enrichment, stating that if Iran were to reach this level, it would become an intolerable risk for Israel. Netanyahu used a cartoon graphic of a bomb to illustrate his point, indicating three stages of uranium enrichment, saying that Iran had already completed the first stage, and stating that "By next spring, at most by next summer at current enrichment rates, [Iran] will have finished the medium enrichment and move on to the final stage. From there, it's only a few months, possibly a few weeks before they get enough enriched uranium for the first bomb." At the time, according to cables leaked in 2015, Mossad's assessment was that Iran did not appear ready to enrich uranium to levels required for a nuclear bomb.
In an October 2013 interview with BBC Persian Service, Netanyahu praised the history of Persia and said: "If the Iranian regime has nuclear weapons, the Iranian people will never be free of dictatorship and will live in eternal servitude."
The U.S. military's 2020 Baghdad International Airport airstrike, which killed the high-level Iranian General Qasem Soleimani, brought strong reactions from around the world. Netanyahu praised the air strike, saying that Trump had acted "swiftly, forcefully and decisively".
On 13 June 2025, Netanyahu authorized airstrikes against Iran, marking the beginning of the Iran–Israel war. Netanyahu stated the goal of the operation was to dismantle Iran's nuclear capabilities, which he described as a "clear and present danger to Israel's very survival.". He additionally framed the campaign as an opportunity for regime change, aligning with exiled Crown Prince Reza Pahlavi’s call for a national uprising.
=== Bank of China terror financing case ===
In 2013, Netanyahu found himself caught between conflicting commitments made to the family of American terror victim Daniel Wultz and the Chinese government. Although Netanyahu was reported to have previously promised U.S. Representative Ileana Ros-Lehtinen that Israel would fully cooperate in the terror-financing case against Bank of China in U.S. District Court, the prime minister reportedly made a conflicting promise to the Government of China prior to a state visit to China in May 2013. Attorney David Boies, lead counsel for the Wultz family, told The Wall Street Journal, "While we are respectful of China's interests, and of the diplomatic pressure to which Israel has been subjected, those interests and that pressure cannot be permitted to obstruct the ability of American courts to hear critical evidence."
In August 2013, Ros-Lehtinen, chair of the House Middle East and South Asia subcommittee, told the Miami Herald she raised the issue while leading a congressional delegation to Israel, stressing to Israeli officials the importance of them providing the Wultz family what they need for their lawsuit. "I am hopeful that we can bring this case to a conclusion that is satisfactory to the family, but we need community support to not waver at this critical time," Ros-Lehtinen said.
U.S. Representative Debbie Wasserman Schultz, chair of the Democratic National Committee, also spoke out on the issue with the Miami Herald: "In South Florida, we all know too well of the tragic circumstances surrounding the cowardly terrorist attack that took Daniel Wultz's innocent life. I have been working, hand in hand with the Wultz family and the state of Israel to ensure any and all of those involved in this terrorist activity, including the Bank of China, pay for their crimes so that justice can be served."
=== Defense and security ===
In 2011, Netanyahu arranged for 1000 Hamas and Fatah prisoners to be swapped for Gilad Shalit, including terrorists with "blood on their hands". Israeli officials estimate that 60% of those who are released "resume terrorism attacks".
In 2011, Israeli General Staff concluded that the armed forces cannot maintain their battle readiness under Netanyahu's proposed cuts. Netanyahu decided to cut social programs instead and promised to increase the defense budget by about six percent. The Israeli military still fell NIS 3.7 million short from its projected budget, which could damage their war capabilities. According to a U.S. State Department representative in November 2011, under the leadership of Netanyahu and Obama, Israel and the United States have enjoyed unprecedented security cooperation.
Under Netanyahu's leadership, the Israeli National Security Council has seen an expanded role in foreign policy planning and decision-making.
During the Gaza war he called for Israel to assume "overall security responsibility" over the Gaza Strip, saying "we've seen what happens when we don't have it [...] what we have is the eruption of Hamas terror on a scale that we couldn't imagine".
=== Illegal immigration ===
In his 1995 book Fighting Terrorism: How Democracies Can Defeat Domestic and International Terrorism, Netanyahu strongly argued that tightening immigration laws in the West is the most effective method to combat terrorism. "This era of immigration free-for-all should be brought to an end", he wrote in 1995.
In 2012, the Netanyahu government passed the "Prevention of Infiltration Law", which mandated automatic detention of all people, including asylum-seekers, who enter Israel without permission. Amnesty International called it "an affront to international law". Between 2009 and 2013, approximately 60,000 people crossed into Israel from various African countries. Netanyahu said that "this phenomenon is very grave and threatens the social fabric of society, our national security and our national identity." Many of these migrants are held in detention camps in the Negev desert. When the Supreme Court of Israel declared the "Prevention of Infiltration Law" illegal for permitting immediate and indefinite detention of asylum seekers from Africa, Netanyahu requested new legislation to work around the Supreme Court ruling.
Netanyahu is critical of what he sees as the overly open immigration policy of EU nations. Netanyahu has urged the leaders of Hungary, Slovakia, Czech Republic and Poland to close their borders to illegal immigration.
== Relations with foreign leaders ==
Serving as prime minister in three nonconsecutive periods since the 1990s, he developed close relationships with foreign leaders. Netanyahu has a close relationship with Hungarian prime minister Viktor Orbán, their having known each other for decades due to the privileged relationship between the Likud Party and the EPP, the European People's Party. Orban particularly admired Netanyahu while he was working as finance minister, and received advice from him while Netanyahu was Finance Minister of Israel.
Netanyahu has been noted for his close and friendly relationship with former-late Italian prime minister Silvio Berlusconi. Netanyahu has said of Berlusconi: "We are lucky that there is a leader such as yourself." Netanyahu has described Berlusconi as "one of the greatest friends".
Netanyahu and Indian prime minister Narendra Modi developed a close relationship and ties between India and Israel increased during their rule.
Netanyahu had a warm relationship and "personal friendship" with Russian president Vladimir Putin. In his 2022 book, Netanyahu wrote positively about Putin and describes him as "smart, sophisticated and focused on one goal – returning Russia to its historical greatness". Their relationship has been strained since the start of the Gaza war.
In early 2018, the Polish parliament adopted a new Polish law criminalizing suggestions that Poles were collectively complicit in Holocaust-related or other war crimes that had been committed during World War II by the Axis powers. Later that year at the Munich Security Conference, Polish prime minister Mateusz Morawiecki said "it is not going to be seen as criminal to say that there were Polish perpetrators, as there were Jewish perpetrators ... not only German perpetrators" implicated in the Jewish Holocaust. Netanyahu called his Polish counterpart's comment "outrageous" for saying that Jews had been among the Holocaust's perpetrators. The resulting crisis in Israel–Poland relations was resolved in late June that year when the two prime ministers issued a joint communiqué endorsing research into the Jewish Holocaust and condemning the misnomer "Polish concentration camps".
According to Efraim Zuroff of the Simon Wiesenthal Center, during the visit of Ukrainian President Petro Poroshenko in Jerusalem, Netanyahu failed to publicly address Ukraine's official policy of rehabilitating local Nazi collaborators like UPA leader Roman Shukhevych, who had participated in the murder of Jews.
Netanyahu has developed a close relationship with Brazilian president Jair Bolsonaro following Bolsonaro's 2018 election. Netanyahu has also developed a good relationship with Argentinian president Javier Milei, having called him a "great friend of the Jewish State", shortly after Milei started his presidential tenure.
Since 2023, Netanyahu and Chinese president Xi Jinping have been engaged in diplomacy, arising due to strained ties between the US and Israel. The diplomatic situation has been made complicated due to the Gaza war, where China has remained neutral.
Netanyahu and Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan have tense relations. In March 2019, after being denounced by Turkey as a racist for saying that Israel was the nation-state of the Jewish people only, Netanyahu called Erdoğan a dictator and mocked him for imprisoning journalists in a tweet. In response, Erdoğan called Netanyahu as "the thief who heads Israel", referencing the ongoing corruption scandals against Netanyahu. In the same speech, Erdoğan further escalated the spat by addressing to Netanyahu directly, saying, "you are a tyrant. You are a tyrant who slaughters 7-year-old Palestinian kids", and further in April 2018, calling Israel "terror state" and Netanyahu "terrorist". Netanyahu tweeted that "Erdoğan is among Hamas's biggest supporters and there is no doubt that he well understands terrorism and slaughter." Netanyahu condemned the 2019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria and warned against ethnic cleansing of Kurds by Turkey and its proxies.
=== US leaders ===
Netanyahu has close ties with the congressional leadership of the U.S. Republican Party and with its 2012 presidential candidate, Mitt Romney. He and Romney first became acquainted when both worked at the Boston Consulting Group in the mid-1970s.
During the 2011 G-20 Cannes summit, then-French president Nicolas Sarkozy was overheard saying to then-U.S. president Barack Obama, "I cannot bear Netanyahu, he's a liar", and Obama reportedly responded, "You're fed up with him, but I have to deal with him every day."
In October 2014, author Jeffrey Goldberg related a conversation in which Goldberg said that a senior official of the Obama administration called Netanyahu a "chickenshit" after Netanyahu accused U.S. president Barack Obama of "acting contrary to American values". Goldberg went on to say that Netanyahu and his cabinet were largely to blame for the tensions between the Netanyahu and Obama governments. Secretary of State John Kerry phoned Netanyahu to clarify that "such statements are disgraceful, unacceptable and damaging" and "do not reflect the position of the United States". Netanyahu responded by saying "I'm being attacked because of my determination to defend Israel's interests. The safety of Israel is not important to those who attack me anonymously and personally." Because of evident rifts between Netanyahu and members of the Obama administration, observers have characterized the relationship as having reached a crisis level by October 2014. The relationship between Netanyahu and the Obama administration had become problematic enough that Goldberg reported that his conversations with Netanyahu and other Israeli officials indicated that Israel would wait until after the 2016 presidential election before attempting to repair the relationship with the White House. According to Alon Pinkas, "Netanyahu's self-righteousness that this resolution is going to be changed or reversed by Trump is totally unfounded."
On 23 December 2016, the United Nations Security Council passed a resolution calling for an end to Israeli settlements. In a departure from longstanding American policy, the U.S., under the Obama administration, abstained from the vote and did not exercise its veto power. At the behest of the Netanyahu government, President-elect Trump attempted to intercede by publicly advocating for the resolution to be vetoed, as well as successfully persuading Egypt's Abdel Fattah el-Sisi to temporarily withdraw it from consideration. The resolution was then "proposed again by Malaysia, New Zealand, Senegal and Venezuela" – and passed 14 to 0. Netanyahu's office alleged that "the Obama administration not only failed to protect Israel against this gang-up at the UN, it colluded with it behind the scenes", adding: "Israel looks forward to working with President-elect Trump and with all our friends in Congress, Republicans and Democrats alike, to negate the harmful effects of this absurd resolution."
Netanyahu and U.S. president Donald Trump have known each other for many years. Netanyahu had been a friend of Donald Trump's father, Fred, when Netanyahu lived in New York during the 1980s, serving as UN ambassador. In 2013, Trump made a video endorsing Netanyahu during the Israeli elections saying, "vote for Benjamin – terrific guy, terrific leader, great for Israel". In June 2019, Netanyahu officially renamed a settlement in the disputed Golan Heights after Donald Trump. However, Trump aide Jared Kushner has claimed that in January 2020, Trump became frustrated with Netanyahu's rhetoric regarding annexation of the Jordan Valley, and considered endorsing his political opponent, Benny Gantz. Following Netanyahu's congratulations for Joe Biden after the 2020 U.S. presidential election, the relationship deteriorated, with Trump accusing him of disloyalty and stating Netanyahu had "made a terrible mistake".
U.S. president Joe Biden, a Democrat, has been friendly with Netanyahu for many years. In November 2011 and in the 2012 U.S. vice presidential debate, Biden stated that the relationship has lasted for 39 years. In March 2010, Netanyahu remarked during a joint statement with Biden during his visit Israel that their friendship had started almost three decades prior. During Spring 2024, the relationship between the two leaders had become strained over Israel's Rafah offensive.
== Personal life ==
=== Family tree ===
=== Marriages and relationships ===
Netanyahu has been married three times and has been involved in multiple extramarital affairs. Netanyahu's first marriage was to Miriam Weizmann, whom he met in Israel. Weizmann lived near Yonatan Netanyahu's apartment in Jerusalem, where Netanyahu was based during his military service. By the time Netanyahu's service was finished, Weizmann had completed her own military service as well as a degree in chemistry from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. In 1972, they both left to study in the United States, where she enrolled in Brandeis University, while Netanyahu studied at MIT. They married soon afterward. The couple had one daughter, Noa (born 29 April 1978).
In 1978, while Weizmann was pregnant, Netanyahu met a non-Jewish British student named Fleur Cates at the university library, and began an affair. His marriage ended in divorce soon after Miriam discovered the affair. In 1981, Netanyahu married Cates, and she converted to Judaism. After moving with Netanyahu to Israel, Cates sued for divorce in 1988.
His third wife, Sara Ben-Artzi, was working as a flight attendant on an El Al flight from New York to Israel when they met. She was in the process of completing a master's degree in psychology. The couple married in 1991. They have two sons: Yair (born 26 July 1991), a former soldier in the IDF Spokesperson's Unit, and Avner (born 10 October 1994), a national Bible champion, winner of the National Bible Quiz for Youth in Kiryat Shmona, and former soldier in the IDF Combat Intelligence Collection Corps.
In 1993, Netanyahu confessed on live television to having an affair with Ruth Bar, his public relations adviser. He said that a political rival had planted a secret video camera that had recorded him in a sexually compromising position with Bar, and that he had been threatened with the release of the tape to the press unless he quit the Likud leadership race. Netanyahu and Sara repaired their marriage, and he was elected to the leadership of Likud. In 1996, the media reported that he had a 20-year friendship with Katherine Price-Mondadori, an Italian-American woman.
=== Health ===
Netanyahu has been suffering from right bundle branch block (RBBB) since around 2003. In the first half of 2008, doctors removed a small colon polyp that proved to be benign. On 22 July 2023, a pacemaker was implanted in his body. A hernia was discovered on him in March 2024. In December 2024, his prostate was removed following a urinary tract infection caused by an enlargement.
His personal physician and close friend is the Romanian-born pediatrist Herman Berkovits.
== Authored books ==
—, ed. (1981). International Terrorism: Challenge and Response. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 978-0-87855-894-0.
— (1987). Terrorism: How the West Can Win. Avon. ISBN 978-0-380-70321-0.
— (1995). Fighting Terrorism: How Democracies Can Defeat Domestic and International Terrorism. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 978-0-374-15492-9.
— (1999) [1993]. A Durable Peace: Israel and Its Place Among the Nations. Grand Central Publishing. ISBN 978-0-446-52306-6.
— (2022). Bibi: My Story. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-1-6680-0844-7.
== See also ==
Forbes list of The World's Most Powerful People – Ranking published by Forbes magazinePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
List of current heads of state and government
List of heads of the executive by approval rating
List of international prime ministerial trips made by Benjamin Netanyahu
List of Israeli politicians
Trial of Benjamin Netanyahu – 2020–present corruption trial of Israeli Prime Minister
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Caspit, Ben. The Netanyahu Years (2017) excerpt
Medzini, Meron. "Rabin and Hussein: From Enemies at War to Partners in Peace." in The Palgrave Handbook of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (Palgrave Macmillan, 2019) pp. 435–446.
Anshel Pfeffer (2018). Bibi: The Turbulent Life and Times of Benjamin Netanyahu, Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-09782-1
Jonathan Freedland, "Trump's Chaver in Jerusalem" (review of Anshel Pfeffer, Bibi: The Turbulent Life and Times of Benjamin Netanyahu, Basic Books, 2018), New York Review of Books, vol. LXV, no 13 (16 August 2018), pp. 32–34.
Adam Shatz, "The sea is the same sea" (review of Anshel Pfeffer, Bibi: The Turbulent Life and Times of Benjamin Netanyahu, Hurst, May 2018, ISBN 978-1-84904-988-7), London Review of Books, vol. 40, no. 16 (30 August 2018), pp. 24, 26–28.
Remnick, David, "Hostages: As Benjamin Netanyahu clings to power, his country pays a price", The New Yorker, 22 January 2024, pp. 26–39. "[Netanyahu's] highest priority... appeared [to be] to shake free of a series of criminal corruption indictments; he had been charged with everything from accepting illegal gifts... to making a shady deal with a media baron to win favorable coverage.... Netanyahu reclaimed the one position that provided refuge from prosecution... At the end of 2022, he forged a hard-right coalition that allowed him to return as Prime Minister. He brought into the fold... reactionaries [who] endorse the full annexation of the West Bank and have recently called for the expulsion of Gaza's [Palestinian] population. Netanyahu also pushed a wildly contentious 'judiical reform' law [which] perhaps more than half the country... feared... would undermine the Supreme Court, the balance of powers, and democracy itself." (pp. 32–33.)
== External links ==
Official website
Benjamin Netanyahu on the Knesset website
Benjamin Netanyahu at the Encyclopædia Britannica
Benjamin Netanyahu at IMDb
Appearances on C-SPAN
Benjamin Netanyahu collected news and commentary at The Jerusalem Post
Benjamin Netanyahu collected news and commentary at Haaretz
"Shattered Dreams of Peace: The Road From Oslo". Frontline. Season 20. Episode 16. 27 June 2002. PBS. WGBH. Retrieved 13 March 2025.
"Netanyahu at War". Frontline. Season 34. Episode 1. 5 January 2016. PBS. WGBH. Retrieved 14 March 2025.
"Netanyahu, America & the Road to Gaza". Frontline. Season 41. Episode 22. 19 December 2023. PBS. WGBH. Retrieved 13 March 2025.
"Remaking the Middle East: Israel vs. Iran". Frontline. Season 43. Episode 21. 29 July 2025. PBS. WGBH. Retrieved 30 July 2025. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sujata_Manohar | Sujata Manohar | Sujata Vasant Manohar (born 28 August 1934) is a former judge of the Supreme Court of India and a former member of the National Human Rights Commission of India.
== Early life and education ==
Manohar was born into a family with a strong legal background - her father Kantilal Thakoredas Desai would later become the second chief justice of the Gujarat High Court. She graduated from Elphinstone College, Bombay, and then went to Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford where she read Philosophy, Politics and Economics.
== Career ==
After Oxford, she was called to the Bar at Lincoln's Inn, having simultaneously passed all papers in Parts 1 & 2 of the Bar Exam. She returned to India where she began practice in 1958 on the original side of the Bombay High Court. She dealt primarily with commercial matters, but also took many family law cases under legal aid schemes. This was before India had a formal state legal aid programme, so she voluntarily associated herself with over 30 non-governmental organisations.
After around 20 years of practice, which included a substantial amount of public interest and pro-bono work, she was appointed a judge of the High Court of Bombay in 1978, the first woman judge of that court. In January, 1994, she was appointed chief justice of the High Court of Bombay, the first woman to hold that post. In April, 1994, she was transferred as the chief justice of the Kerala High Court, again the first woman to hold that post. At the end of 1994 (November), after 16 years as a High Court judge, she was appointed a judge of the Supreme Court of India and later retired in 1999.
As a judge, she took a strongly independent stance, defending the rule of law against political and public pressures. In one case, she was called upon to decide on the constitutionality of one aspect of India's affirmative action programme. The government of the day proposed to require Universities to implement a system of quotas for admission to research degrees. This meant that available places would be parcelled out to students based on their caste and religion, not just on their merit. Justice Manohar ruled this unconstitutional, despite a strong backlash from certain interest groups, who, in a show of public umbrage, burnt her effigy.
After her retirement, she was appointed to the National Human Rights Commission. She is an honorary fellow of Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford, and an honorary bencher of Lincoln's Inn, London. She is also a patron of the Oxford University Commonwealth Law Journal.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disappearance_and_murder_of_Gannon_Stauch#Arrest_and_conviction_of_Letecia_Stauch | Disappearance and murder of Gannon Stauch | Gannon Stauch (September 29, 2008 – January 27, 2020) was an American boy who was murdered by his stepmother, Letecia Hardin (then Stauch), in Colorado Springs, Colorado. His disappearance and death received national attention and sparked a massive search effort involving multiple law enforcement agencies and volunteers. His stepmother was arrested and convicted of first-degree murder and other charges, and sentenced to life in prison without parole.
== Disappearance and search ==
Gannon was reported missing by his stepmother on January 27, 2020. She told the El Paso County Sheriff's Office that he left home between 3:15 p.m. and 4 p.m. to walk to a friend's house, but never returned. The initial press release on his disappearance described him as a "juvenile runaway.” However, three days later, the sheriff’s office reclassified his case as a missing or endangered person, citing new information and evidence.
The search involved thousands of hours of investigation and hundreds of tips from the public. The FBI Child Abduction Rapid Deployment team, the National Center for Missing & Exploited Children, and the Colorado Springs Police Department assisted the sheriff's office in the case. Search teams used drones, dogs, horses, helicopters, and divers to comb through various areas of interest. Gannon's biological parents made emotional pleas for his safe return and thanked the community for their support.
== Arrest and conviction of Letecia Stauch ==
On March 2, 2020, Letecia Stauch was arrested in Myrtle Beach, South Carolina, on charges of first-degree murder of a child by a person in a position of trust, child abuse resulting in death, tampering with a deceased human body, and tampering with physical evidence. She was extradited to Colorado and held without bond at the El Paso County jail.
According to the arrest affidavit, which was released on May 5, 2020, Letecia Stauch killed Gannon in his bedroom on the day he went missing. She stabbed him 18 times, hit him in the head with an object, and shot him with a handgun. She then cleaned up the crime scene and disposed of his body in a suitcase. She also lied to investigators about her whereabouts and activities on that day and afterwards. She claimed that Gannon was sick and stayed home from school that day, and drove to various places with him throughout the day. Surveillance footage from a neighbor showed that she left home with Gannon in her truck around 10:15 a.m. and investigators believe she returned with him around 2:19 p.m.
On March 17, 2020, Gannon's remains were found by a maintenance worker under Escambia Bay Bridge in Pace, Florida, more than 1,300 miles away from his home. The cause of death was determined to be blunt force trauma, sharp force injuries, and a gunshot wound. Investigators believe that Letecia Stauch transported his body to Florida by driving there in a rented van after initially dumping his body in a remote location north of Colorado Springs and retrieving it later.
Letecia Stauch pleaded not guilty by reason of insanity and claimed that she had dissociative identity disorder due to childhood sexual abuse.
She also accused her husband of being involved in Gannon's death and alleged that he had connections to drug cartels and sex trafficking rings. However, she was found competent to stand trial by a state mental hospital and her claims were dismissed by the court as unfounded.
Letecia's five week trial concluded on May 8, 2023 and the prosecution's case included testimonies from Gannon's father, Letecia's former employers, family, investigators, forensic experts, and state psychiatrists. The defense offered Dorothy Otnow Lewis, a controversial psychiatrist who specializes in dissociative identity disorder, as their single witness. The jury rejected the insanity defense and Otnow Lewis' testimony, and Letecia Stauch was found guilty of all charges. The same day, she was sentenced to life in prison without parole plus 156 years by Judge Gregory Werner, who called her actions “the most horrific I have ever seen” and said that she deserved “the maximum sentence that I can impose according to Colorado law”.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rub%C3%A9n_Salazar_G%C3%B3mez | Rubén Salazar Gómez | Jesús Rubén Darío Salazar Gómez (Spanish pronunciation: [ruˈβen salaˈsaɾ ˈɣomes]; born 22 September 1942) is a Colombian prelate of the Catholic Church who was Metropolitan Archbishop of Bogotá from 2010 to 2020. He was made a cardinal in 2012. He was Metropolitan Archbishop of Barranquilla from 1999 to 2010.
== Early life and ministry ==
Jesús Rubén Darío Salazar Gómez was born in Bogotá, Colombia, in 1942. He completed his high school studies and philosophy at the seminary of Ibagué. He later completed his theological studies at the Pontifical Gregorian University in Rome, obtaining a licentiate in dogmatic theology. He obtained his Licentiate in Sacred Scripture at the Pontifical Biblical Institute in Rome.
He was ordained a priest on 20 May 1967 and then held various positions including: pastor, seminary professor, director of the Department of Social Pastoral of the Colombian Episcopal Conference, and Vicar for Pastoral Care.
== Bishop ==
He was named Bishop of Cúcuta on 11 February 1992 and was consecrated on 25 March. On 18 March 1999 he was appointed Archbishop of Barranquilla. He was appointed Archbishop of Bogotá on 8 July 2010. He took possession of the see on 13 August. During his installation, Salazar Gómez said that he would be focusing on three priorities: "protecting marriage as the union between one man and one woman, saving innocent life in the womb, and promoting peace in Colombia". Referring to the work of his predecessor, Cardinal Rubiano Sáenz, he said that "I will support each and every one of you with the affection of a father, a brother, a friend, because we have an arduous common task." He added that it is necessary "to discern together the will of the Lord for his people and to strengthen the conditions that will make possible a joint evangelizing endeavour."
== Cardinal ==
He was created a cardinal by Pope Benedict XVI in a consistory on 24 November 2012. As Cardinal-Priest of San Gerardo Maiella.
On 31 January 2013, Pope Benedict XVI named him a member of the Pontifical Commission for Latin America and the Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace.
He participated as a cardinal elector in the 2013 papal conclave that elected Pope Francis.
Pope Francis appointed him a member of the Congregation for Bishops on 16 December 2013. In May 2015, he was elected to a four-year term as president of the Latin American Bishops Conference (CELAM).
On 25 April 2020, Pope Francis accepted his resignation as Archbishop of Bogota and appointed Luis José Rueda Aparicio to succeed him.
On 8 March 2022 Salazar was admitted to hospital suffering heart problems and after surgery to insert a stent he remained in intensive care.
== References ==
== External links ==
"Salazar Gómez Card. Rubén". Holy See Press Office. Archived from the original on 4 September 2017. Retrieved 25 October 2017.
Mojica Patiño, José Alberto (25 October 2012). "El arzobispo colombiano que le hablará al oído al Papa". El Tiempo (in Spanish). Retrieved 25 October 2017. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mersin_Province#:~:text=Mersin%20Province%20(Turkish%3A%20Mersin%20ili,population%20is%201%2C916%2C432%20(2022). | Mersin Province | Mersin Province (Turkish: Mersin ili), formerly İçel Province (İçel ili), is a province and metropolitan municipality in southern Turkey, on the Mediterranean coast between Antalya and Adana. Its area is 16,010 km2, and its population is 1,916,432 (2022). The provincial capital and the biggest city in the province is Mersin, which is composed of four municipalities and district governorates: Akdeniz, Mezitli, Toroslar and Yenişehir. Next largest is Tarsus, the birthplace of Paul the Apostle. The province is considered to be a part of the geographical, economical and cultural region of Çukurova, which covers the provinces of Mersin, Adana, Osmaniye and Hatay.
== Etymology ==
The province is named after its biggest city Mersin. Mersin was named after the aromatic plant genus Myrsine (Greek: Μυρσίνη, Turkish: mersin) in the family Primulaceae, a myrtle that grows in abundance in the area. The 17th-century Ottoman traveler Evliya Çelebi has recorded in his Seyahatnâme that there was also a clan named Mersinoğulları in the area.
== Geography ==
Ninth biggest province of Turkey by land area, Mersin consists 2,02% of Turkey. 87% of the land area is mountain, leading up to the rocky heights of the central Taurus Mountains, the highest peak is Medetsiz (3,584 m) in the Bolkar range, and there are a number of important passes over to central Anatolia. There are many high meadows and small plains between 700 and 1500m.
The coastal strip has many large areas of flatland, formed from soil brought down by rivers and streams running off the mountains. This is fertile land, the largest area being the plain of Tarsus. The largest rivers are the Göksu and the Berdan (Göksu Calycadnus and Berdan Cydnus of antiquity), but there are many small streams running into lakes, reservoirs or the Mediterranean sea. Mersin has 321 km of coastline, much of it sandy beach. The climate is typical of the Mediterranean; very hot and rainless in summer, mild and wet in winter. The winter rains can be very heavy and flooding is a problem in many areas, but it never snows on the coast, only in the mountainous areas.
== History ==
In antiquity, this coast was part of Cilicia, named for a Phoenician or Assyrian prince that had settled here. Trade from Syria and Mesopotamia over the mountains to central Anatolia passed through here, through the Cilician Gates. The geographer Strabo, described the region as being divided into "Rugged Cilicia" (Cilicia Trachea, Κιλικία Τραχεία in Greek) and "Flat Cilicia" (Cilicia Pedias, Κιλικία Πεδιάς). The capital of both sections of Cilicia was Tarsus and Mersin was its seaport. The Seljuks later captured it from the Byzantines and it then came under the Crusaders then the Seljuks again and finally the Ottomans captured it and it remained part of the Ottoman Empire until 1922.
== Administration ==
The province of Mersin until 1933 didn't include the western territories of the modern province, which then constituted the separate İçel province, with Silifke as its administrative center. In 1933, the provinces of Mersin and İçel were merged. The new province was named "İçel" and the city of Mersin was made its capital. The province was renamed to "Mersin" on 28 June 2002.
=== Districts ===
Mersin province is divided into thirteen districts four of which are actually included within the municipality of Mersin city (shown in boldface letters).
Akdeniz
Anamur
Aydıncık
Bozyazı
Çamlıyayla
Erdemli
Gülnar
Mezitli
Mut
Silifke
Tarsus
Toroslar
Yenişehir
== Demographics ==
About 50% of the population of the province is younger than 24 years of age. 68% were born in Mersin. The literacy rate is 89%. About 43% of the male population and about 27% of the female population graduated from middle school. Infant mortality is 0.48%. Urban population growth rate is 2.42%. Population density is 117 as of November 2020.(In the table below, the four second-level municipalities are merged within Mersin proper.)
== Economy ==
The city of Mersin is one of busiest cities in Turkey. Due to the economic activity in this part of Turkey generated by the GAP Project Mersin is Turkey's biggest Mediterranean port, and also hosts an oil refinery and a free trade zone; there are a number of factories along the road between Mersin and Adana, manufacturing glass, detergents, fertilizers and many more. With all this activity a modern city has grown with a university and other major amenities.
=== Tourism ===
Mersin does not have the huge volume of tourists enjoyed by neighbouring Antalya or the Aegean coast, but Turkish people do come to this coast, especially now that the hotels have air-conditioning, and perhaps more to the mountain country behind where there are healing mineral water springs. In summer the hills are a popular retreat from the high humidity and extreme heat on the coast. West of Mersin includes bays, and little islands. Yacht touring is a tourism income in these areas.
== Places of interest ==
The city of Tarsus, birthplace of St Paul, whose house and well are sites of Christian pilgrimage.
Alahan Monastery
Silifke - ancient Seleucia in Isauria, buildings include the church of Aya Tekla, the first female saint.
The ancient Roman town of Soloi-Pompeiopolis, now within the city. About Mersin
The ancient Roman town of Anemurium, adjacent to the modern town of Anamur.
Another ancient city of Elaiussa Sebaste, 55 km from the city of Mersin.
Castles including Mamure, Kızkalesi and Namrun.
Yerköprü Waterfall
Mersin Naval Museum
== Towns and other geographic features ==
=== Towns ===
=== Archaeological and historical ===
=== Museums ===
=== Other ===
=== Gallery ===
== See also ==
List of populated places in Mersin Province
== Notes ==
== External links ==
University of Mersin
Mersin Technoscope
Mersin Chamber of Commerce and Industry (in English)
Mersin Chamber of Shipping (in English) Archived 2008-11-03 at the Wayback Machine
Mersin Photographic society (in English)
Mersin Free Zone |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acanthops_bidens#:~:text=Acanthops%20bidens%20is%20native%20to%20Mexico.%5B2%5D | Acanthops bidens | Acanthops bidens is a species of mantis in the family Acanthopidae.
== Discovery ==
This species was described by Morgan Hebard in 1922.
== Distribution ==
Acanthops bidens is native to Mexico.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisk_University | Fisk University | Fisk University is a private historically black liberal arts college in Nashville, Tennessee, United States. It was founded in 1866 and its 40-acre (16 ha) campus is a historic district listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
In 1930, Fisk became the first historically black institution to gain accreditation by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (SACS). Fisk is the oldest institution for higher education in Nashville.
== History ==
=== Founding ===
Fisk Free Colored School opened on January 9, 1866, during the Reconstruction era shortly after the end of the Civil War. It was founded by John Ogden, Erastus Milo Cravath, and Edward Parmelee Smith of the American Missionary Association for the education of freedmen in Nashville. Fisk was one of several schools and colleges that the Association helped found across the South to educate freed slaves. The school is named for Clinton B. Fisk, a Union general and assistant commissioner of the Freedmen's Bureau of Tennessee. Fisk secured a site to house the school in a former military barracks near Union Station and provided $30,000 of government funds for its endowment.
The American Missionary Association's work was supported by the Congregationalist church, which retains an affiliation with Fisk. Fisk is the oldest higher education institution in Nashville.
=== 19th century ===
Enrollment rose to 900 in the first several months following the school's opening, indicating the strong desire for education among local freedmen. Student ages ranged from seven to 70.
During the nation's Reconstruction era, the Tennessee General Assembly passed legislation to enable free public education, which caused a need to increase teacher training. In 1867 the Fisk Free Colored School was reorganized and incorporated as Fisk University to focus on higher education. James Dallas Burrus, John Houston Burrus, Virginia E. Walker, and America W. Robinson were the first students to enroll at the institution. In 1875, the two Burruses and Walker graduated from Fisk and became the first African-American students to graduate from a liberal arts college south of the Mason–Dixon line.
The Tennessee Constitution of 1870 was ratified with a provision, Article XI § 12, that prohibited public schools from enrolling both Black and White students. In 1869, the University of Tennessee (then Eastern Tennessee University) had been designated a federal land-grant university, which meant that it was required to enroll all qualified citizens of the state, regardless of race or color. To get around the requirement of integration, ETU paid tuition for Black students with State Scholarships to enroll at Fisk University in 1881–83. The contract was changed to Knoxville College in 1884.
In 1870, Adam K. Spence became the school's principal. Spence developed plans to expand and move the school to a larger campus in north Nashville on a site that had been Fort Gillem, a Union army base. To raise money for the school's initiatives, his wife Catherine Mackie Spence traveled throughout the United States to set up mission Sunday schools in support of Fisk students, organizing endowments through the American Missionary Association. With a strong interest in religion and the arts, Adam Spence supported the founding of a student choir; they were the start of the Fisk Jubilee Singers.
With the school facing financial distress, the choir went on tour to raise funds in 1871, led by professor and university treasurer George L. White. They toured the U.S. and Europe and became a sensation, singing before Ulysses S. Grant, Mark Twain, Queen Victoria; popularizing spirituals written by Wallace Willis such as "Swing Low Sweet Chariot"; and changing racial stereotypes. Their tour raised nearly $50,000 (~$1.16 million in 2024) and funded construction of Jubilee Hall. (In W.E.B. Du Bois' book The Souls of Black Folk, this number is quoted at $150,000). It was the first building built for the education of freedmen in the South and is now a National Historic Landmark.
Fisk co-founder Cravath returned in 1875 and became the institution's first president. He oversaw an active construction program and expansion of the school's curriculum offerings to include liberal arts, theology, and teacher training. By the turn of the 20th century, it had strengthened its reputation, built several campus buildings, added African-American teachers and staff, and enrolled a second generation of students.
=== 20th century ===
James Griswold Merrill served as acting president of Fisk from 1899 to 1901, then continued as the institution's president from 1901 to 1908. Fisk University's dedication to liberal arts education at the turn of the century distinguished it from many other black colleges and universities that emphasized vocational training. The school established a department of social science in 1910, founded and directed by George E. Haynes. It was the first social work training center for African-American graduate students and a model for those established at other institutions. The school was criticized by some at the time for fostering an elitist reputation.
From 1915 to 1925, Fayette Avery McKenzie was president of Fisk. McKenzie's tenure, before and after World War I, was during a turbulent period in American history. In spite of many challenges, McKenzie developed Fisk as the premier all-Black college or university in the United States, secured Fisk's academic recognition as a standard college by the Carnegie Foundation, Columbia University and the University of Chicago, raised a $1 million endowment fund to ensure quality faculty, and laid a foundation for Fisk's accreditation and future success. McKenzie was eventually forced to resign when his strict policies on dress code, extracurricular activities, and other aspects of student life led to student protests in 1924 and 1925.
Thomas Elsa Jones became the institution's fourth president in 1925. He sought to diversify Fisk's faculty and further build the school's reputation. In 1930, Fisk became the first historically black college to gain accreditation by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools. It was also the first such institution approved by the Association of American Universities in 1933. Accreditations for specialized programs soon followed.
In 1946, Charles S. Johnson became Fisk's sixth president and first African-American president. Johnson was a premier sociologist, a scholar who had also been the editor of Opportunity magazine, a noted periodical of the Harlem Renaissance. Johnson expanded the school's Institute of Race Relations, which was established in 1942. The institute conducted research and fostered discussion about racial disparity in the U.S. and would later help develop strategies for desegregation in schools, employment, and the military. In 1949, Fisk received the Stieglitz Collection of modern art from photographer and arts patron Alfred Stieglitz.
In 1952, Fisk was the first predominantly black college to earn a Phi Beta Kappa charter. Organized as the Delta of Tennessee Chapter of the Phi Beta Kappa National Honor Society that December, the chapter inducted its first student members on April 4, 1953. Established in 1776, Phi Beta Kappa is the oldest and most prestigious academic honor society in the U.S.
In 1960, Fisk students joined other black leaders in the Nashville sit-ins, nonviolent protests against segregation at lunch counters in the city during the civil rights movement. Martin Luther King Jr., spoke at the institution in May 1960 in response to civil rights movement in the city. Fisk students John Lewis and Diane Nash were leaders during the protests, which led to Nashville becoming the first major city in the South to desegregate lunch counters. The two became early leaders of the national Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC).
On April 8, 1967, a riot occurred near the Fisk and Tennessee State University campuses after Stokely Carmichael spoke at Vanderbilt University. Although it was viewed as a "race riot", it had classist characteristics. Protestors marched from Fisk to the Nashville courthouse to protest police brutality during the riots.
In 1978 Fisk's campus was recognized as a National Historic Landmark. The campus underwent significant restoration in the 1990s through assistance from a U.S. Congressional Grant.
=== 21st century ===
From 2004 to 2013, Fisk was directed by its 14th president, Hazel O'Leary, former Secretary of Energy under President Bill Clinton. She was the second woman to serve as president of Fisk. On June 25, 2008, Fisk announced that it had successfully raised $4 million (~$5.7 million in 2024) during the fiscal year ending June 30. It ended nine years of budget deficits and qualified for a Mellon Foundation challenge grant. However, Fisk still faced significant financial hardship, and said that it may need to close its doors unless its finances improved.
H. James Williams served as president from February 2013 to September 2015. Williams had been dean of the Seidman College of Business at Grand Valley State University in Michigan, and previously an accounting professor at Georgetown University, Florida A&M, and Texas Southern University. Williams was succeeded by interim president Frank Sims. In March 2017 the Fisk board of trustees announced that Kevin Rome would be Fisk university's seventeenth president.
In June 2017, a service in memory of 1892 lynching victim Ephraim Grizzard was held in the Fisk Memorial Chapel. A plaque memorializing Grizzard and two other lynching victims—his brother Henry and Samuel Smith—was installed at St. Anselm's Episcopal church in Nashville.
In 2018 the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools placed the institution on probation. The accreditor cited failings related to financial responsibility, control of research funds, and federal and state responsibility. Fisk announced a fundraising record and increased enrollment the following year. In 2020, Fisk was taken off probation and maintained its accreditation.
== Campus ==
Fisk's 40-acre campus was dedicated in 1876. It sits on a small hill approximately two miles northwest of downtown that was previously Fort Gillem, a Union fort during the Civil War. The campus lies on Jefferson Street, a historic center of Nashville's African-American community.
The Fisk University Historic District was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1978. Notable campus buildings that contribute to the historic district include:
The Carl Van Vechten Gallery was built in 1888. It served as the school's gymnasium before becoming an art gallery. The building houses Fisk's renowned Stieglitz Collection of modern art. It is named for photographer Carl Van Vechten.
Carnegie Hall was originally built as a library in 1908. It is the first major building by Moses McKissack III, co-founder of the first African-American owned architecture firm in the United States.
Cravath Hall, named for the institution's first president Erastus Milo Cravath and completed in 1930, is an eight-story building originally used as a library. It was designed by Henry Hibbs. The building features a series of murals by painter Aaron Douglas, which he described as a "panorama of the development of Black people in this hemisphere, in the new world." The murals have been described as the most ambitious works of his career. The building now houses administrative offices.
Fisk Memorial Chapel was built in 1892 in the Victorian style. At the time it was the largest building for African Americans to gather in the country. The chapel hosts campus functions and public events such as concerts, lectures, and graduations. The building was restored and rededicated in 1992.
Jubilee Hall, completed in 1876, is the oldest permanent building for the higher education of African Americans in the United States. It is named for the Fisk Jubilee Singers who toured the country to raise funds for its construction. The six-story, L-shaped building is noted for its Victorian Gothic architecture.
Talley Brady Hall, built in 1931, is the first modern chemistry building at a historically black college or university. It is named for Thomas E. Talley and St. Elmo Brady, two notable African American chemists and faculty members.
Additional campus buildings listed on the register include Little Theater, Harris Music Building, numerous residential structures, and a limestone wall built around 1873.
In the 1930s, Fisk hired the Olmsted Brothers firm to lead a master design of its campus at this time, resulting in the Beaux-Arts landscape.
== Music, art, and literature collections ==
=== Library collections ===
Fisk is the home of a music literature collection founded by the noted Harlem Renaissance figure Carl Van Vechten, for whom the campus museum is named. It also holds a substantial collection of materials associated with Charles W. Chestnutt.
=== Aaron Douglas murals ===
Harlem Renaissance painter Aaron Douglas was commissioned to paint murals for the new campus library, Cravath Hall, in 1930. Douglas described them a "panorama of the development of Black people in this hemisphere, in the new world." Douglas returned to Fisk in 1939 to teach and later served as chair of the art department. The murals were restored in 2003.
=== Alfred Stieglitz collection ===
In 1949, Georgia O'Keeffe, wife and executrix of her late husband's estate, in accordance with the terms of his will, donated to Fisk a number of paintings that had belonged to her husband, the photographer and art patron Alfred Stieglitz. The collection consists of 101 works by important artists, including European modernists Paul Cézanne, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Pablo Picasso and Diego Rivera, as well as American artists Marsden Hartley, Arthur Dove and Charles Demuth and works by O'Keeffe.
In 2005, mounting financial difficulties and deteriorating conditions in the gallery led the trustees to vote to sell two of the paintings, O'Keeffe's "Radiator Building" and Hartley's "Painting No. 3," together estimated to be worth up to $45 million U.S. The sale was challenged by the Georgia O'Keeffe Museum, the legal guardians of her estate. This challenge failed. A joint agreement was established between Fisk University and the Crystal Bridges Museum of American Art. The two museums now share the works' presentation and display rights of the Stieglitz collection; ownership remains with Fisk University, in accord with the terms of Stieglitz's estate. Presentation and display rights rotate between Fisk University and Crystal Bridges Museum every two years. In 2016, as part of the institution's sesquicentennial celebration, the collection was displayed at the newly renovated Carl Van Vechten Gallery.
== Science programs ==
Fisk University has a strong record of academic excellence: it has graduated more African Americans who go on to earn PhDs in the natural sciences than any other institution.
=== Fisk-Vanderbilt Bridge Program ===
Started in 2004, the Fisk-Vanderbilt bridge program helps underrepresented groups gain access to PhD programs in STEM fields. The partnership between a small, historically black college and a major research university aims to diversify doctoral study. The program, which has received money from NASA, the National Science Foundation, and the Integrative Graduate Education and Research Traineeship, provides a scholarship for a master's degree at Fisk University and close mentorship for students who go on to a PhD Since 2004, 21 students in the program have completed a PhD, with another 56 currently pursuing graduate study. The program has a success rate far higher than the national average for completion of PhD programs, which is about 50%.
== Rankings ==
For 2021, U.S. News & World Report ranked Fisk University tenth among 79 historically black colleges and universities in the U.S., tied for 29th for "Most Innovative Schools", tied for 126th for "Top Performers on Social Mobility" and 171–221 overall among national liberal arts colleges.
For 2020, Washington Monthly ranked Fisk 199th among 218 liberal arts colleges in the U.S. based on its contribution to the public good, as measured by social mobility, research, and promoting public service.
Forbes ranks Fisk 642nd on its 2019 "America's Top Colleges" list of 650 colleges, universities, and service academies.
== Athletics ==
The Fisk athletic teams are called the Bulldogs. The institution is a member of the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA), primarily competing in the HBCU Athletic Conference (HBCUAC), formerly the Gulf Coast Athletic Conference (GCAC), since the 2021–22 academic year; which they were a member on a previous stint from 2010–11 to 2013–14. The Bulldogs previously competed as an NAIA Independent within the Association of Independent Institutions (AII) from 2014–15 to 2020–21 (which they were a member on a previous stint from 2008–09 to 2009–10); in the defunct Great South Athletic Conference (GSAC) of the NCAA Division III ranks from 1999–2000 to 2005–06; in the D-III Southern Collegiate Athletic Conference (SCAC) from 1983–84 to 1993–94; and in the Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference (SIAC) from 1913–14 to 1982–83, which is currently an NCAA Division II athletic conference.
Fisk competes in 14 intercollegiate varsity sports: Men's sports include basketball, cross country, golf, soccer and track and field (indoor and outdoor); while women's sports include basketball, cross country, golf, gymnastics, tennis, track and field (indoor and outdoor) and volleyball. In 2022, Fisk became the first HBCU to officially add a competitive women's gymnastics team, however the program will disband after the 2025-2026 season due to financial concerns at the institution. Club sports include cheerleading and dance.
== Notable alumni ==
== Notable faculty ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Cogen, Rodney T. Fisk University (Arcadia, 2001) ISBN 073850677X online
Davis, Thomas E. "A Study of Fisk University Freshmen from 1928 to 1930." Journal of Negro Education 2#4 (1933), pp. 477–83. online
Gasman, Marybeth. "Scylla and Charybdis: Navigating the Waters of Academic Freedom at Fisk University during Charles S. Johnson's Administration (1946-1956)." American Educational Research Journal 36#4 (1999), pp. 739–58. online
Gasman, Marybeth, and Edward Epstein. "Modern Art in the Old South: The Role of the Arts in Fisk University's Campus Curriculum." Educational Researcher 31#2 (2002), pp. 13–20. online
Gilpin, Patrick J. "Charles S. Johnson and the Race Relations Institutes at Fisk University." Phylon 41#3 (1980), pp. 300–11. online
Lamon, Lester C. "The Black Community in Nashville and the Fisk University Student Strike of 1924-1925." Journal of Southern History 49#2 pp. 225–44. online
McDaniel, Dennis K. "John Ogden, Abolitionist and Leader in Southern Education" Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 87#6 (1997), pp. 1–138 online
Martin, Robert Sidney, and Orvin Lee Shiflett. "Hampton, Fisk, and Atlanta: The Foundations, the American Library Association, and Library Education for Blacks, 1925-1941." Libraries & Culture 31#2 (1996), pp. 299–325. online
Richardson, Joe M. A History of Fisk University, 1865-1946 (1980). ISBN 0817300155
Richardson, Joe M. "Fisk University: The First Critical Years." Tennessee Historical Quarterly 29#1 (1970), pp. 24–41. online
Sanders, Katrina M. "Intelligent and Effective Direction": The Fisk University Race Relations Institute and the Struggle for Civil Rights, 1944-1969 (2005)
Taylor, Alrutheus A. "Fisk University and the Nashville community, 1866-1900." Journal of Negro History 39.2 (1954): 111–126. online
== External links ==
Official website
Official athletics website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codex_Arundel | Codex Arundel | Codex Arundel (British Library Arundel MS 263) is a bound collection of pages of notes written by Leonardo da Vinci and dating mostly from between 1480 and 1518. The codex contains a number of treatises on a variety of subjects, including mechanics and geometry. The name of the codex came from the Earl of Arundel, who acquired it in Spain in the 1630s. It forms part of the British Library Arundel Manuscripts.
== Description ==
The manuscript contains 283 paper leaves of various sizes, most of them around 22 cm × 16 cm. Only a few of the leaves are blank. Two folios, 100 and 101, were incorrectly numbered twice. The codex is a collection of Leonardo's manuscripts originating from every period in his working life, a span of 40 years from 1478 to 1518. It contains short treatises, notes and drawings on a variety of subjects from mechanics to the flight of birds. From Leonardo's text, it appears that he gathered the pages together, with the intention of ordering and possibly publishing them. Leonardo customarily used a single folio sheet of paper for each subject, so that each folio presented as a small cohesive treatise on an aspect of the subject, spread across both back and front of a number of pages. This arrangement has been lost by later book binders who have cut the folios into pages and laid them on top of each other, thereby separating many subjects into several sections and resulting in an arrangement which appears random.
It is similar to the Codex Leicester, which is also a compilation of the notes, diagrams and sketches. The Codex Arundel is recognized as second in importance to the Codex Atlanticus.
== History ==
The manuscript was written in Italy at the end of the 15th century and the beginning of the 16th century. Most of the pages can be dated to between 1480 and 1518.
The manuscript was purchased in the early 17th century by Thomas Howard, 2nd Earl of Arundel (1585–1646), art collector and politician. His grandson, Henry Howard, 6th Duke of Norfolk (1628–1684), presented it to the newly-founded Royal Society in 1667. The manuscript was first catalogued in 1681 by William Perry, a librarian, as a scientific and mathematical notebook.
It was purchased by the British Museum from the Royal Society along with 549 other Arundel manuscripts (half of Arundel's collection) in 1831. It was catalogued by the British Museum in 1834. It remained in the British Library as MS Arundel 263 when the library separated from the British Museum in 1973.
The most recent facsimile was published in 1998. On 30 January 2007 the manuscript became part of the British Library's project "Turning the Pages", when it was digitised along with Codex Leicester, and became available in the 2.0 format. These two manuscript of Leonardo notebooks were reunited online.
== See also ==
List of works by Leonardo da Vinci
Codex Atlanticus
Codex Leicester
Codex Urbinas
== References ==
=== Citations ===
=== Bibliography ===
Leonardo da Vinci, Il Codice Arundel 263 nella British Library, ed. by Carlo Pedretti, 2 vols (Florence: Giunti, 1998) (in Italian)
Nicholl Ch., Leonardo da Vinci, Lot wyobraźni, Warsaw 2006, W.A.B., ISBN 83-7414-220-0 (in Polish)
Philip Howard, The British Library: A Treasure House of Knowledge (London: Scala Publishers, 2008), no. 41.
== External links ==
The Codex Arundel: mapping Leonardo's working life – via Google Arts & Culture
Codex Arundel Archived 2012-10-18 at the Wayback Machine on the British Library's Catalogue of Illuminated Manuscripts
A full digital version of the Codex Arundel Archived 2019-07-13 at the Wayback Machine on the British Library's Digitised Manuscripts website
Codex Arundel at The Book that closes a century and opens a new millennium
Codex Arundel at the Art and music
Carlo Pedretti, Introduction to Leonardo's Codex Arundel Archived 2019-12-07 at the Wayback Machine
Page from the codex Archived 2012-02-21 at the Wayback Machine
Turning the Pages 2.0 Archived 2013-09-27 at the Wayback Machine
Leonardo da Vinci: anatomical drawings from the Royal Library, Windsor Castle, exhibition catalog fully online as PDF from The Metropolitan Museum of Art, which contains material on Codex Arundel (see index) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehr_Chand_Mahajan | Mehr Chand Mahajan | Mehr Chand Mahajan (23 December 1889 – 11 December 1967) was an Indian jurist and politician who was the third chief justice of the Supreme Court of India. Prior to that he was the prime minister of the state of Jammu and Kashmir during the reign of Maharaja Hari Singh and played a key role in the accession of the state to India. He was the Indian National Congress nominee on the Radcliffe Commission that defined the boundaries of India and Pakistan.
Mahajan made his name as an accomplished lawyer, a respected judge, and an influential politician. As a judge he was incisive and forthright and had many leading judgements to his credit.
== Early life ==
Mehr Chand Mahajan was born on 23 December 1889 at Tika Nagrota in the Kangra district of Punjab, British India (now in Himachal Pradesh). His father, Lala Brij Lal, was an advocate, who later established a reputed legal practice at Dharmsala.
After completing middle school, Mahajan went to study in the Government College, Lahore, graduating in 1910. He enrolled in M.Sc. Chemistry, but switched to law following persuasion from his father. He earned an LL.B. degree in 1912.
== Career as a lawyer ==
Mahajan started his career as a lawyer in 1913 in Dharamsala, where he spent a year practising. He spent the next four years (1914-1918) as a lawyer in Gurdaspur. He then practiced law in Lahore from 1918 to 1943. During his time there, he served as president of the High Court Bar Association of Lahore (1938 to 1943).
== Justice of Punjab and Haryana High Court ==
He became a Justice in the pre-independence Lahore High Court on 27.9.1943. After independence, he became judge of East Punjab High Court now known as Punjab and Haryana High Court. While he was serving there, the Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir called him to become his Prime Minister for the negotiations regarding merger with India on 15.10.1947.
== Prime Minister of Jammu and Kashmir ==
Mahajan visited Kashmir on invitation of the Maharani Tara Devi in September 1947 and was asked to be the Prime Minister of Jammu and Kashmir which he accepted. On 15 October 1947, Mahajan was appointed the Prime Minister of Jammu & Kashmir and played a role in the accession of the state to India. Jammu & Kashmir acceded to India in October 1947 and Mahajan thus became the 1st Prime Minister of the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir, serving in that post until 5 March 1948.
== Chief Justice, Supreme Court of India ==
Mahajan took office as the third Chief Justice of India on 4 January 1954. He was the head of India's judicial system for almost a year, until his retirement on 22 December 1954 (mandatory retirement at age 65). Before becoming Chief Justice he served as one of the first Judges of the Supreme Court of independent India from 4 October 1948 to 3 January 1954.
Over the course of his tenure on the Supreme Court, Mahajan authored 132 judgments and was a part of 337 benches.
== Other positions of note ==
Director, Punjab National Bank, 1933–43
Pres. D.A.V. College, Managing Committee, 1938–43
Fellow and Syndic, Punjab University, 1940–47
Judge, Lahore High Court, 1943
All India Fruit Products Association Bombay Session, 1945
Member, R.I.N. Mutiny Commission, 1946
1947 Dewan of Jammu and Kashmir State 1947-48
Judge, East Punjab High Court
Punjab Boundary Commission, 1947
Syndic, East Punjab University, 1947–50
Constitutional Adviser to His Highness the Maharaja of Bikaner, 1948
Hon. Degree of LL.D., Punjab University; 1948
Member, Fruit Development Board, Punjab
Commission on Belgaum (dispute between Karnataka and Maharashtra), 1967
== References ==
== External links ==
Mehr Chand Mahajan |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lapworth_Medal | Lapworth Medal | The Lapworth Medal is the highest award of the Palaeontological Association, given to those who have made a significant contribution to the science by means of a substantial body of research.
== Recipients ==
Source: Palaeontological Association
2024 - Prof. Michael J. Benton, OBE, FRS
2023 - Prof. Else Marie Friis
2022 - Prof. Moya Meredith Smith
2021 - Dr Angela C. Milner
2020 - Prof. Andrew B. Smith FRS
2019 - Prof. Derek E.G. Briggs, FRS
2018 - Prof. Derek J. Siveter
2017 - Prof. Stefan Bengtson
2016 - Dr Adrian William Amsler Rushton
2015 - Prof. Jennifer Clack FRS
2014 - Prof. Richard A. Fortey, FRS
2013 - Prof. Dianne Edwards, FRS
2012 - Prof. Euan Clarkson
2011 - Prof. Richard Aldridge
2010 - Dr Robin Cocks
2009 - Prof. Bruce Runnegar
2008 - Prof. Charles Holland
2007 - Prof. Tony Hallam
2006 - Prof. Dolf Seilacher
2005 - Prof. William Chaloner FRS
2004 - Prof. James Valentine
2002 - Prof. Sir Alwyn Williams FRS
2000 - Prof. Harry B. Whittington FRS
== See also ==
List of paleontology awards
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Marie_Hullot | Jean-Marie Hullot | Jean-Marie Hullot (February 16, 1954 – June 17, 2019) was a French computer scientist and programmer who authored important programs for the original Macintosh, NeXTSTEP and Mac OS X platforms. These include SOS Interface for the Mac, which later became Interface Builder for NeXTSTEP (1985), and later still evolved into an important part of Mac OS X. He also helped to conceive iPhone, though did not play a significant role in its development, and led the iCal and iSync development teams for Mac OS X (2002).
== Education ==
In 1981, Jean-Marie Hullot received a Ph.D. in computer science from the University of Paris at Orsay, where his adviser was Gérard Huet.
== Career ==
He was a researcher at INRIA from 1979 to 1985, when he joined NeXT. In 1996 he co-founded RealNames, a URL translation service which closed in 2002. He worked as CTO of the application division at Apple Inc. from 2001 to 2005. He was the president and CEO of Fotopedia, a collaborative photo encyclopedia, and co-founder of The Iris Foundation, a nature conservancy organization.
He died on June 19, 2019.
== References ==
== External links ==
Jean-Marie Hullot - fotopedia
INRIA Archived 2010-01-29 at the Wayback Machine — appears to be outdated, as Hullot is not mentioned there (Jun 2014)
Interview, December 1999 (in French)
Ex-Apple Team To Launch Stealth Startup Fotonauts
Jean-Marie Hullot at DBLP Bibliography Server
UPDATED: Google begged Steve Jobs for permission to hire engineers for its new Paris office. Guess what happened next… |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hornsrud%27s_Cabinet | Hornsrud's Cabinet | Hornsrud's Cabinet governed Norway between 28 January 1928 and 15 February 1928. The first Labour Party cabinet in Norway, it was defeated by the other parliamentary parties on a vote of no confidence after only sixteen days.
In its day it was often known as Arbeiderregjeringen, "the workers' cabinet".
It had the following composition:
== Cabinet members ==
== Secretary to the Council of State ==
This position is now known as Secretary to the Government (Regjeringsråd).
Nicolai Franciscus Leganger
== References ==
=== Sources ===
Christopher Hornsrud's Government. 28 January 1928 - 15 February 1928 – Government.no |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hannibal_(TV_series) | Hannibal (TV series) | Hannibal is an American psychological horror-thriller television series developed by Bryan Fuller for NBC. The series is based on characters and elements appearing in Thomas Harris' novels Red Dragon (1981), Hannibal (1999), and Hannibal Rising (2006) and focuses on the relationship between Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) special investigator Will Graham (Hugh Dancy) and Dr. Hannibal Lecter (Mads Mikkelsen), a forensic psychiatrist destined to become Graham's most cunning enemy and, at the same time, the only person who can understand him.
The series received a 13-episode order for its first season. David Slade executive produced and directed the first episode. The series premiered on NBC on April 4, 2013. On May 9, 2014, NBC renewed Hannibal for a third season, which premiered on June 4, 2015. On June 22, 2015, NBC canceled Hannibal after three seasons because of low viewership. The series finale aired in Canada on City, on August 27, 2015, and aired two days later in the U.S. on NBC.
The series received critical acclaim, with the performances of the lead actors and the visual style of the show being singled out for praise. The first two seasons each won the Saturn Awards for Best Network Television Series, while both Mikkelsen and Dancy won Best Actor, with Laurence Fishburne winning Best Supporting Actor for season two. The third and final season won the inaugural Best Action-Thriller Television Series award, while guest star Richard Armitage won Best Supporting Actor. The show has garnered a cult following and is considered by critics and audiences as one of the best series of the horror genre, and one of the greatest network TV series of all time.
== Plot ==
FBI profiler Will Graham is recruited by Jack Crawford, the head of Behavioral Sciences of the FBI, to help investigate a serial killer in Minnesota. With the investigation weighing heavily on Graham, Crawford decides to have him supervised by forensic psychiatrist Dr. Hannibal Lecter. Initially, Lecter—who is secretly a serial killer and a cannibal—works to manipulate the FBI from within. The bond Lecter builds with Graham begins to threaten his longevity. Lecter is fascinated by Graham's ability to empathize with psychopathic murderers and tries to push the boundaries of Graham's fragile sanity to turn him into a killer.
== Cast and characters ==
=== Main ===
Hugh Dancy as Will Graham, a gifted criminal profiler and hunter of serial killers. He visualizes himself committing the murders he investigates to understand the killers' behaviors; throughout the series, Graham's involvement with the investigations takes a toll on his psyche. The emotional relationship between Graham and Lecter forms the foundation of the series.
Mads Mikkelsen as Dr. Hannibal Lecter, a brilliant forensic psychiatrist and gourmand, who is also secretly a serial killer and a cannibal, known as the Chesapeake Ripper.
Caroline Dhavernas as Dr. Alana Bloom, a professor of psychology and consultant profiler for the FBI who has professional relationships with both Graham and Lecter.
Hettienne Park as Beverly Katz, a crime scene investigator specializing in fiber analysis. (seasons 1–2)
Laurence Fishburne as Jack Crawford, head of Behavioral Sciences at the FBI and Graham's boss.
Scott Thompson as Jimmy Price, a crime scene investigator specializing in latent fingerprints. (recurring season 1; also starring seasons 2–3)
Aaron Abrams as Brian Zeller, a crime scene investigator. (recurring season 1; also starring seasons 2–3)
Gillian Anderson as Dr. Bedelia Du Maurier, Lecter's psychotherapist, who was once attacked by one of Lecter's former patients. (recurring seasons 1–2; regular season 3)
=== Recurring ===
Raúl Esparza as Frederick Chilton, administrator of Baltimore State Hospital for the Criminally Insane.
Kacey Rohl as Abigail Hobbs, daughter and accomplice of serial killer Garrett Jacob Hobbs, who develops a complicated father-daughter relationship with Lecter and Graham.
Lara Jean Chorostecki as Fredricka "Freddie" Lounds, a tabloid blogger and journalist who runs the true crime website TattleCrime.
Eddie Izzard as Abel Gideon, a transplant surgeon institutionalized for killing his family, who is led to believe that he is the Chesapeake Ripper by Dr. Chilton.
Gina Torres as Phyllis "Bella" Crawford, Jack Crawford's wife, who is suffering from terminal lung cancer.
Vladimir Jon Cubrt as Garrett Jacob Hobbs, a serial killer known as the Minnesota Shrike.
Anna Chlumsky as Miriam Lass, an FBI trainee and Jack Crawford's protégée. She mysteriously disappears while investigating the Chesapeake Ripper. (seasons 1–2)
Katharine Isabelle as Margot Verger, one of Lecter's patients; she has suffered years of abuse at the hands of her twin brother, Mason. (seasons 2–3)
Michael Pitt (season 2) and Joe Anderson (season 3) as Mason Verger, Margot's sadistic twin brother, who develops several plots to impregnate his sister and bring down Lecter.
Cynthia Nixon as Kade Prurnell, an investigator for the Office of the Inspector General. (season 2)
Jonathan Tucker as Matthew Brown, a psychopathic hospital orderly intrigued by Will who attempts to kill Hannibal. (season 2)
Richard Armitage as Francis Dolarhyde, a serial killer known as The Tooth Fairy due to his unsightly habit of biting the skin of his victims. (season 3)
Fortunato Cerlino as Rinaldo Pazzi, an Italian inspector who teams up with Jack to search for Lecter. (season 3)
Tao Okamoto as Chiyoh, handmaiden to Lecter's aunt, Lady Murasaki. (season 3)
Glenn Fleshler as Cordell Doemling, the creepy yet gentle and intelligent nurse to Mason Verger. (season 3)
Nina Arianda as Molly Graham, Will's wife, who helps him overcome his dark past. She continues to support Will when he is asked to return to the FBI. (season 3)
Rutina Wesley as Reba McClane, a blind woman and love interest of Dolarhyde. (season 3)
== Production ==
=== Development ===
NBC began developing a Hannibal series in 2011 and former head of drama Katie O'Connell brought in long-time friend Bryan Fuller (who previously served as writer-producer on NBC's Heroes) to write a pilot script in November. NBC gave the series a financial commitment before Fuller completed his script. On February 14, 2012, NBC bypassed the pilot stage of development by giving the series a 13-episode first season based solely on the strength of Fuller's script. The series went into production quickly thereafter.
David Slade, who had previously directed the pilot for NBC's Awake, directed the first episode and served as an executive producer. José Andrés was the series' "culinary cannibal consultant" and advised the crew on proper procedure for preparing human flesh for consumption.
Fuller discussed the limited episode order and the continuing story arc he envisions for the series. "Doing a cable model on network television gives us the opportunity not to dally in our storytelling because we have a lot of real estate to cover." Speaking about the Lecter character, Fuller said, "There is a cheery disposition to our Hannibal. He's not being telegraphed as a villain. If the audience didn't know who he was, they wouldn't see him coming. What we have is Alfred Hitchcock's principle of suspense—show the audience the bomb under the table and let them sweat when it's going to go boom". He went on to call the relationship between Graham and Lecter as "really a love story", saying, "As Hannibal has said [to Graham] in a couple of the movies, 'You're a lot more like me than you realize'. We'll get to the bottom of exactly what that means over the course of the first two seasons".
Fuller originally planned the show to run for seven seasons: the first three of original material, the fourth covering Red Dragon, the fifth The Silence of the Lambs, the sixth Hannibal, and the seventh an original storyline resolving Hannibal's ending. However, after the second season, Fuller stated he later envisioned the show to run six seasons, incorporating the books differently than he originally planned. Season 3 would use material from Hannibal Rising as well as Red Dragon and include a different origin story for Dr. Lecter; the season ultimately also adapted Hannibal as well. Fuller intended to include other characters from the book series (such as Jame Gumb and Clarice Starling) if he could obtain the rights from MGM. Franklin Froideveaux and Tobias Budge were created because Fuller could not secure rights to The Silence of the Lambs characters Benjamin Raspail and Jame Gumb. Fuller added they also tried to get the rights to Barney Matthews, an orderly at the Baltimore State Hospital, but were denied, thus a character based on Barney appeared in the second season, named Matthew Brown, but ended up being an antithesis to the original series' Barney. Dr. Bedelia Du Maurier is named after the character in Creepshow and author Daphne du Maurier.
Regarding the series' influences, Fuller stated: "When I sat down to the script, I was very consciously saying, 'What would David Lynch do with a Hannibal Lecter character? What sort of strange, unexpected places would he take this world?' I'm a great admirer of his work and his aesthetic and his meticulous sound design. Those were all components that I felt very strongly needed to be part of our Hannibal Lecter story. Between Lynch and Kubrick, there's a lot of inspiration." Fuller also cited David Cronenberg and Dario Argento as influences on the series. Fuller cited Tony Scott as an influence for the third season.
=== Casting ===
Hugh Dancy was the first actor to be cast, taking on the role of FBI criminal profiler Will Graham, who seeks help from Lecter in profiling and capturing serial killers. In June 2012, Mads Mikkelsen was cast as Lecter. Soon after this, Laurence Fishburne was cast as FBI Behavioral Sciences Unit commander Jack Crawford. Caroline Dhavernas was later cast as Dr. Alana Bloom, a former student of Hannibal Lecter, and Hettienne Park was cast as CSI Beverly Katz. Lara Jean Chorostecki, Kacey Rohl, Scott Thompson and Aaron Abrams were cast in recurring roles.
Gina Torres, Laurence Fishburne's wife, had a recurring role as Phyllis "Bella" Crawford, Jack Crawford's terminally ill wife. Ellen Greene, Raúl Esparza and Gillian Anderson were later cast in recurring roles and appeared later in season one, though Greene appeared in only one episode. Molly Shannon, Suzy Eddie Izzard and Lance Henriksen guest-starred during the first season.
Several actors on the series worked with creator Bryan Fuller previously, including Dhavernas, who played the lead role in Wonderfalls, and Torres, Greene, Esparza and Shannon, who appeared in the television series Pushing Daisies. Chelan Simmons reprised her role as Gretchen Speck-Horowitz from Wonderfalls in an episode of Hannibal. Ellen Muth, who starred in Fuller's Dead Like Me, guest-starred as a character named Georgia Madchen, a nod to her original character and a "reinterpretation of that character".
David Bowie was approached for the role of Hannibal's uncle Robert Lecter for the second season, but was unavailable. Gillian Anderson returned as Lecter's psychiatrist, Dr. Bedelia Du Maurier, in multiple episodes for the second season. Suzy Eddie Izzard returned as Dr. Abel Gideon for the second season. Cynthia Nixon joined the recurring cast as Kade Prurnell, an employee of the Office of the Inspector General, who is investigating Jack Crawford's role in the events of the first season. Katharine Isabelle joined the recurring cast as Margot Verger, who was originally described as a potential love interest for Graham, but Fuller later clarified that, as in the novel Hannibal, Margot "... is a member of the LGBT community!" Michael Pitt joined the recurring cast in the role of Mason Verger, Margot's abusive twin brother. Amanda Plummer guest-starred in the second season, playing Katherine Pimms, an acupuncturist. Jeremy Davies and Chris Diamantopoulos appear in two episodes.
Fuller stated in June 2014 after winning the Saturn Award for Best Network Television Series that they were told by Bowie's management to ask again for his availability for the third season. He also went on to list David Thewlis, Brad Dourif, Kristin Chenoweth, Lee Pace, and Anna Friel as actors he would like to appear on the series. For the third season, Anderson was promoted to series regular after recurring throughout the first two seasons. Tao Okamoto was announced to play Lady Murasaki, Hannibal's enigmatic aunt, in season three, however, Fuller later confirmed at a PaleyFest panel in New York that Okamoto would in fact be playing the role of Chiyoh, Lady Murasaki's handmaid. For the third season, Joe Anderson replaced Michael Pitt as Mason Verger, as Pitt decided not to return to the role. In December 2014, Fortunato Cerlino was announced as portraying Rinaldo Pazzi. In January 2015, several recurring roles were cast, including Richard Armitage as Francis Dolarhyde; Nina Arianda as Molly Graham, Will's wife; Rutina Wesley as Reba McClane; and Glenn Fleshler as Dr. Cordell Doemling. In March 2015, Zachary Quinto was cast in a guest-starring role as one of Dr. Du Maurier's patients. Izzard reprised the role of Gideon for the season three premiere, although she was initially hesitant about returning.
Fuller stated that should the series continue, whether for a fourth season or feature film, and should they obtain rights to adapt The Silence of the Lambs, Elliot Page would be his ideal casting for Clarice Starling.
In July 2020, Fuller confirmed that NBC executives had pushed for John Cusack or Hugh Grant to be cast as Lecter solely to attract the most viewers for the series, while also saying that casting James Spader in The Blacklist that year was more akin to what they wanted as a series. David Tennant also auditioned for Lecter, although Fuller liked Tennant, he felt that Mikkelsen was the right actor for the role.
=== Filming ===
Filming of Hannibal took place in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. The first season began shooting on August 27, 2012. The series began production on the second season in Toronto in August 2013. Filming for season 3 began on October 20, 2014, in Toronto, and some filming of exterior and interior scenes were shot in Florence, Italy and Palermo.
=== Cancellation and proposed revival ===
On June 22, 2015, NBC cancelled the series. Fuller initiated talks with Amazon Video and Netflix for a renewal. In July 2015, the cast were released after their contracts expired, but Mikkelsen and Dancy expressed interest in reprising their respective roles if the series is acquired by a streaming service. However, the series has an exclusive streaming deal with Amazon, making finding a new distributor for the series difficult. On July 6, 2015, it was revealed that discussions with Amazon ended as a result of deadlines set by the service as a part of the deal, which Fuller felt would not allow for enough time to conceptualize and produce a new season. Meetings with Netflix were held, but largely due to the prior deal with Amazon, they also decided to pass on the series, and Fuller confirmed the series was still being shopped. On July 11, when asked to elaborate, Fuller commented that Netflix could not renew the series because Amazon had its exclusive streaming rights, and that Amazon wanted to renew the series but wanted an immediate debut, while Fuller wanted more time to work on the scripts before shooting. Fuller also stated that he and the producers are exploring a possibile feature film. Fuller stated after the finale aired that financing for a film is being looked into, as well as divulging his planned Silence of the Lambs storyline and that Starz could serve as a potential renewal due to their relationship on American Gods. Fuller reunited with Anderson to direct a Hannibal-themed ad for PETA, which debuted on November 20, 2015. In December 2015, Mikkelsen stated his willingness to return for a potential fourth season, while also stating that everyone involved would be pleased with the run and success of the series if it does not come together.
In March 2016, De Laurentiis blamed online piracy as part of the reason for cancellation. In May 2016, Mikkelsen commented on a possible revival, stating, "It all depends on Bryan. He is the key, the base, the heart. We will wait and see what happens next in his career. But we all know that we can easily pick this up in two or three years, there are breaks in the stories. We could pick it up, say, four years later. If Bryan is up for it, we will all go for it." In June 2016, Fuller stated, "The cast is game, I'm game, it's just a matter of finding the right time where everybody's schedules sync up, but I would love to continue to tell the story with Hugh Dancy and Mads Mikkelsen. They're such fantastic collaborators, and one of the most satisfying actor-showrunner relationships I've ever had in this industry. So I would love to continue this story." He also revealed other information dealing with rights: "Two years after the last airing of the show, we can investigate our options [...] August 2017 is when we can actually start talking about it. That's when we would have to see what the rights are for the character and for the story, and see who's interested and how we get it done. I have the story, and the cast is excited for the story, so we're ready to go if somebody wants to go." In December 2016, Fuller confirmed his plans for a Silence of the Lambs miniseries in an interview on the Blumhouse Productions podcast, stating, "I think the film adaptation is a perfect film, but there are a lot of interesting nooks and crannies in that book to explore in a television series." In August 2017, formal conversations on the revival had begun. In January 2019, Mikkelsen exclusively revealed to Bloody Disgusting that he suspected Fuller to be securing rights to The Silence of the Lambs, saying in full, "Yeah, I think there's always new hope. I haven't heard anything specific. I know Bryan is still working on some ideas where we can find a new home for this. I also have a strong feeling that everybody who was involved in it would gladly pick up the glove again if that happens [...] I don't know where they looked. That is above my paycheck, but I know they've been talking to different studios. I know that [Fuller] was working to get the rights to Silence of the Lambs so he could get in there and use some of those characters for his own universe. I have a hunch that might be where we're going."
== Episodes ==
== Broadcast ==
=== Episode order ===
The series' fourth episode, "Oeuf", which revolves around kidnapped children who have been brainwashed into murdering their own former families, was pulled from the United States broadcast schedule at the request of creator Bryan Fuller. The episode was still shown in other countries. This was not a result of the Boston Marathon bombing as some reports have indicated, but was actually decided just hours beforehand, and was more likely due to the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting. Fuller said of the decision, "With this episode, it wasn't about the graphic imagery or violence. It was the associations that came with the subject matter that I felt would inhibit the enjoyment of the overall episode. It was my own sensitivity... We want to be respectful of the social climate we're in right now". In lieu of a traditional broadcast, a portion of the episode was broken into a series of webisodes, which was made available through various online media outlets. The complete episode was later made available via iTunes and Amazon Video on April 29, 2013, and the episode appears in the order intended on the DVD and Blu-ray release.
=== Removal by KSL-TV ===
On April 29, 2013, NBC affiliate KSL-TV in Salt Lake City, Utah announced it had pulled Hannibal from its schedule after four episodes, citing concerns by station management over the drama's graphic violent content and material revolving around the Hannibal Lecter character. The decision (which was among several controversial preemptions made by the station—whose owner, Bonneville International, is a for-profit arm of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints—over the years, predating its 1995 affiliation switch from CBS to NBC) was criticized by Fuller, who compared it to how Russian newspaper Pravda structured its news coverage to fit the narrative of the Soviet Communist Party. (KSL aired the locally produced weekly newsmagazine KSL In Depth in its place.) The series was picked up by local CW affiliate KUCW (which had been regularly used to carry NBC series that were preempted by KSL due to content concerns or unrelated conflicts with local programming).
=== International broadcast ===
City picked up broadcasting rights in Canada, where the show is filmed, as a mid-season debut. When Hannibal was moved to Saturdays on NBC in the middle of the third season, City continued to air the series in its regular Thursday time slot in Canada.
In Europe, one year before originally airing, on April 10, 2012, the ProSiebenSat.1 Media Group acquired the rights to broadcast the series in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Sweden, Norway, and Denmark beginning in 2013. Sky Living started broadcasting the show in the UK and Republic of Ireland from May 7, 2013.
In the South Pacific, the series was also broadcast on the Seven Network in Australia, from mid-April 2013 and in New Zealand, the show premiered on TV3 on January 25, 2014. The series aired in Latin America through AXN. In Middle East and North Africa region, the series was broadcast on OSN.
Censors in China working on the show replaced the word "kill" with the word "suck" in the subtitles which attracted attention for introducing sexual suggestivity in a number of scenes: for instance, "When you killed Randall, did you fantasize you were killing me?" was rendered as "When you sucked Randall, did you fantasize you were sucking me?" This attracted derision and mocking from social media commentators. The swapping-out of negative words is a common tactic used by Chinese censors.
== Reception ==
=== Ratings ===
=== Critical response ===
==== Season 1 ====
Reviews for the first season were positive. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the first season received an approval rating of 82% based on 68 reviews, with an average rating of 7.7/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Hannibal caters to an intellectual audience that prefers plenty of gore in its psychological thrillers, with a polished presentation of madness." On Metacritic, the first season scored 70 out of 100 based on 32 reviews, which constitutes "generally favorable reviews".
Joanne Ostrow of The Denver Post praised the series as "a well constructed, masterfully written piece," but stated that "[the] level of violent imagery is not my cup of tea". She also had high praise for the characters, stating that they are "so compelling, however, that you may give in to the gore-fest." Paul Doro of Shock Till You Drop gave Hannibal an 8/10 and said of the series, "The stab at classy horror mostly succeeds due to excellent performances from the leads, genuine suspense and surprises, well-constructed short and long-term mysteries, and an appropriately disconcerting mood that permeates the action right from the start", and praised Hugh Dancy in particular, saying he "does an outstanding job of subtlety conveying how painful human interaction is for him, and despite being abrasive and unpleasant, you are always in his corner and really feel for the guy." Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly gave the show an A− and called it "finely acted, visually scrumptious, and deliciously subversive."
Brian Lowry of Variety said Hannibal is "the tastiest drama the network has introduced in awhile", and had particular praise for the central trio of Dancy, Mikkelsen and Fishburne. Eric Goldman of IGN gave the series a 9/10, which constitutes a score of "Amazing". He said, "A prequel TV series about Hannibal Lecter has to overcome a lot of preconceptions...But guess what? None of that matters when you actually watch the show, because Hannibal is terrific." Linda Stasi of The New York Post gave the series two and a half stars out of four, praising the performances and called it "the most beautifully shot and produced show on network TV, with many scenes simply and literally breathtaking". Jeff Simon from The Buffalo News called Hannibal "deeply sinister" and "brilliant". The Chicago Sun Times' TV critic Lori Rackl said, "Hannibal is a haunting, riveting...drama that has the look and feel of a show audiences have become more accustomed to seeing on cable than broadcast," and concluded that "It's also extremely well executed...bound to leave viewers hungry for more." Alan Sepinwall of HitFix called Hannibal "creepy, haunting, smart, utterly gorgeous", and the best of this season's serial killer shows. Sepinwall also praised the character of Hannibal, writing he has been made into a believable supervillain without making the police force and others look incompetent. Reflecting on the completed first season, The A.V. Club's Emily St. James wrote that the series acts as a corrective to the "empty" violence on much of television and "restores the seriousness of purpose to a genre long in need of it...Hannibal is interested in death and murder as a means to glance sidelong at some of life's largest questions. When not functioning as a cop drama, it's an intricately twisted serial-killer thriller, but it's also a surprisingly deep series about psychiatry and the state of the human mind." St. James concluded that Fuller had taken a series "that had every reason to be a cheap cash-in and has, instead, turned into one of TV's best shows."
Other reviews were less favorable. Glenn Garvin from The Miami Herald called it "a fast-food hash of poor planning and worse execution", referring to the writing as "a mess of unmemorable dialogue and unworkable characterizations." Matthew Gilbert of The Boston Globe was similarly critical, calling the series "rank and depressing," and concluded that it is "shocking, gruesome, and, ultimately, hollow."
==== Season 2 ====
On Metacritic, the second season scored 88 out of 100 based on 14 reviews, which constitutes "universal acclaim". On Rotten Tomatoes, the second season scored an approval rating of 98% with an average rating of 9.3/10 based on 45 reviews. The consensus reads: "With powerful imagery and a strong, unpredictable story, season two of Hannibal continues to build on the first season's promise." On April 10, 2014, Hannibal was voted the winner for Hulu's "Best in Show" online competition.
Mark Peters of Slate called Hannibal "an engrossing, psychologically dense show that is also visually stunning... the kind of gem seldom found on network TV." He did however note that the female characters were less developed. Matt Zoller Seitz, writing for New York magazine heaped praise on the show, calling it "serenely unlike anything else on TV or anything that ever has been on TV." Alan Sepinwall of HitFix continued his praise of the series, highlighting the performances of the lead actors. The A.V. Club named it the best TV series of 2014, and wrote that Hannibal was "the best, most elegantly designed thrill ride on TV in 2014".
The season two finale was met with universal critical acclaim. Gathering a perfect rating of 10 out of 10 on IGN, reviewer Eric Goldman stated, "Hannibal ended its fantastic second season with a thrilling, exciting and audacious series of events" and praised the directing by David Slade. The finale also earned a perfect "A" grade by The A.V. Club, where reviewer Molly Eichel called it "an entirely perfect cap to this season." Den of Geek reviewer Laura Akers labelled the episode "simply divine" and stated that she has "rarely found [herself] looking forward to a show's return more". Emma Dibdin of Digital Spy also heavily praised the episode, specifically Mikkelsen's performance, stating that he is "so convincingly predatory...and so simultaneously scary and sad". She also laid praise on the sound design of the episode by saying that "the integration of a ticking clock worked so well not just in the usual 'time is running out' way, but also a subconscious reminder of Hannibal's manipulation of Will". TV Guide named it the best TV episode of 2014.
==== Season 3 ====
Season 3 of Hannibal received critical acclaim. On Rotten Tomatoes, season 3 has an approval rating of 98% with an average rating of 8.9/10 based on 47 reviews. The site's consensus reads: "Bryan Fuller serves up another delightfully demented season of Hannibal, featuring a hearty helping of gorgeous gore, paired with a sweet side of twisted humor." On Metacritic, the season has a score of 84 out of 100 based on 15 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim". Joshua Rivera of Business Insider stated that "Hannibal is a show that puts all of its chips on the table, blows up that table, and then builds something even more fascinating from what remains", and hailed it as one of the best shows on television. Dominic Patten of Deadline Hollywood also gave the first few episodes positive reviews also stating the show returns better than ever. The acting of Mads Mikkelsen and Gillian Anderson was particularly praised, with Bloody Disgusting writing, "Gillian Anderson's performance pushes Mads Mikkelsen in ways never thought possible," while also giving praise to creator and writer Bryan Fuller saying he creates "meticulously detailed scripts that define his characters in completely unpredictable ways." The review concludes by stating season 3 "re-establishes Hannibal as the best horror show on television." Chris Cabin of Slant Magazine gave it a very positive review, with four stars, and wrote that season 3 is "even more incisively and ambitiously written than the last season, and sporting the most radically expressive imagery currently on television." Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly rated it an "A−" and wrote, "Hannibal remains the most engrossing (and gross) serial-killer drama on television, and the most beautiful."
==== Critics' top ten list ====
=== Accolades ===
== Home media releases ==
The first season, including all 13 episodes, was released on Blu-ray and DVD in region 2 on September 2, 2013, in region 1 on September 24, 2013, and in region 4 on September 25, 2013. The region 1 set includes two audio commentaries (by Bryan Fuller, David Slade and Hugh Dancy on "Apéritif" and "Savoureux"), deleted scenes, gag reel, pilot episode storyboards, four featurettes, and "producer's cut" versions of five episodes.
The second season, including all 13 episodes, was released on Blu-ray and DVD in region 1 on September 16, 2014. Bonus features include episode audio commentaries with cast and crew, several behind-the-scenes featurettes, a gag reel, deleted scenes and the "Post Mortem" webisodes hosted by Scott Thompson.
The third season, including all 13 episodes, was released on Blu-ray and DVD in region 1 on December 8, 2015. Bonus features include ten audio commentaries with cast and crew, producer's cut versions of seven episodes, several behind-the-scenes featurettes, a gag reel, deleted scenes, and the "Post Mortem" webisodes hosted by Scott Thompson.
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Hannibal at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morgan_Prize#Previous_winners | Morgan Prize | The Morgan Prize (full name Frank and Brennie Morgan Prize for Outstanding Research in Mathematics by an Undergraduate Student) is an annual award given to an undergraduate student in the US, Canada, or Mexico who demonstrates superior mathematics research. The $1,200 award, endowed by Mrs. Frank Morgan of Allentown, Pennsylvania, was founded in 1995. The award is made jointly by the American Mathematical Society, the Mathematical Association of America, and the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics. The Morgan Prize has been described as the highest honor given to an undergraduate in mathematics.
== Previous winners ==
1995
Winner: Kannan Soundararajan (Analytic Number Theory, University of Michigan)
Honorable mention: Kiran Kedlaya (Harvard University)
1996
Winner: Manjul Bhargava (Algebra, Harvard University)
Honorable mention: Lenhard Ng (Harvard University)
1997
Winner: Jade Vinson (Analysis and Geometry, Washington University in St. Louis)
Honorable mention: Vikaas S. Sohal (Harvard University)
1998
Winner: Daniel Biss (Combinatorial Group Theory and Topology, Harvard University)
Honorable mention: Aaron F. Archer (Harvey Mudd College)
1999
Winner: Sean McLaughlin (Proof of the Dodecahedral Conjecture, University of Michigan)
Honorable mention: Samit Dasgupta (Harvard University)
2000
Winner: Jacob Lurie (Lie Algebras, Harvard University)
Honorable mention: Wai Ling Yee (University of Waterloo)
2001
Winner: Ciprian Manolescu (Floer Homology, Harvard University)
Honorable mention: Michael Levin (Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
2002
Winner: Joshua Greene (Proof of the Kneser conjecture, Harvey Mudd College)
Honorable mention: None
2003
Winner: Melanie Wood (Belyi-extending maps and P-orderings, Duke University)
Honorable mention: Karen Yeats (University of Waterloo)
2004
Winner: Reid W. Barton (Packing Densities of Patterns, Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Honorable mention: Po-Shen Loh (California Institute of Technology)
2005
Winner: Jacob Fox (Ramsey theory and graph theory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Honorable mention: None
2007
Winner: Daniel Kane (Number Theory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Honorable mention: None
2008
Winner: Nathan Kaplan (Algebraic number theory, Princeton University)
Honorable mention: None
2009
Winner: Aaron Pixton (Algebraic topology and number theory, Princeton University)
Honorable mention: Andrei Negut (Algebraic cobordism theory and dynamical systems, Princeton University)
2010
Winner: Scott Duke Kominers (Number theory, computational geometry, and mathematical economics, Harvard University)
Honorable mention: Maria Monks (Combinatorics and number theory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
2011
Winner: Maria Monks (Combinatorics and number theory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Honorable mention: Michael Viscardi (Algebraic geometry, Harvard University), Yufei Zhao (Combinatorics and number theory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
2012
Winner: John Pardon (Solving Gromov's problem on distortion of knots, Princeton University)
Honorable mention: Hannah Alpert (Combinatorics, University of Chicago), Elina Robeva (Algebraic geometry, Stanford University)
2013
Winner: Fan Wei (Analysis and combinatorics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Honorable mention: Dhruv Ranganathan (Toric Gromov–Witten theory, Harvey Mudd College), Jonathan Schneider (Combinatorics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
2014
Winner: Eric Larson (Algebraic geometry and number theory, Harvard University)
Honorable mention: None
2015
Winner: Levent Alpoge (Number theory, probability theory, and combinatorics, Harvard University)
Honorable mention: Akhil Mathew (Algebraic topology, algebraic geometry, and category theory, Harvard University)
2016
Winner: Amol Aggarwal (Combinatorics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Honorable mention: Evan O'Dorney (Number Theory, algebra, and combinatorics, Harvard University)
2017
Winner: David H. Yang (Algebraic geometry and geometric representation theory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Honorable mention: Aaron Landesman (Algebraic geometry, number theory, combinatorics, Harvard University)
2018
Winner: Ashvin Swaminathan (Algebraic geometry, number theory, and combinatorics, Harvard University)
Honorable mention: Greg Yang (Homological theory of functions, Harvard University)
2019
Winner: Ravi Jagadeesan (Algebraic geometry, mathematical economics, statistical theory, number theory, and combinatorics, Harvard University)
Honorable mention: Evan Chen (Number theory, Combinatorics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology), Huy Tuan Pham (Additive Combinatorics, Stanford University)
2020
Winner: Nina Zubrilina (Mathematical analysis and analytic number theory, Stanford University)
Honorable mention: Mehtaab Sawhney (Combinatorics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology), Cynthia Stoner (Combinatorics, Harvard University), Ashwin Sah (Combinatorics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology), Murilo Corato Zanarella (Princeton University)
2021
Winner: Ashwin Sah (Combinatorics, discrete geometry, and probability, Massachusetts Institute of Technology), Mehtaab Sawhney (Combinatorics, discrete geometry, and probability, Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Honorable mention: Noah Kravitz (Yale University)
2022
Winner: Travis Dillon (Number theory, combinatorics, discrete geometry, and symbolic dynamics, Lawrence University)
Honorable mention: Sophie Kriz (University of Michigan), Alex Cohen (Yale University)
2023
Winner: Letong (Carina) Hong (Number theory, combinatorics, and probability, Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Honorable mention: Sophie Kriz (University of Michigan), Egor Lappo (Stanford University)
2024
Winner: Faye Jackson (analytic number theory, University of Michigan)
Honorable mention: Rupert Li (Massachusetts Institute of Technology), Daniel Zhu (Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
2025
Winner: Kenta Suzuki (Representation theory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Honorable mention: None
2026
Winner: Yunseo Choi (Number Theory and combinatorics, Harvard University)
Honorable mention: Eliot Hodges (Harvard University), Daniel Larsen (Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
== See also ==
List of mathematics awards
LeRoy Apker Award, an award for outstanding undergraduate (experimental) physics
== References ==
== External links ==
Frank and Brennie Morgan Prize at the American Mathematical Society
List of Morgan Prize Recipients at the Mathematical Association of America
A brief overview of the career paths of the Morgan Prize winners as of 2015. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kara_Walker | Kara Walker | Kara Elizabeth Walker (born November 26, 1969) is an American contemporary painter, silhouettist, printmaker, installation artist, filmmaker, and professor who explores race, gender, sexuality, violence, and identity in her work. She is best known for her room-size tableaux of black cut-paper silhouettes. Walker was awarded a MacArthur fellowship in 1997, at the age of 28, becoming one of the youngest ever recipients of the award. She has been the Tepper Chair in Visual Arts at the Mason Gross School of the Arts, Rutgers University since 2015.
Walker is regarded as among the most prominent and acclaimed Black American artists working today.
== Early life and education ==
Walker was born in 1969 in Stockton, California. Her father, Larry Walker, was a painter and professor. Her mother Gwendolyn was an administrative assistant. A 2007 review in New York Times described her early life as calm, noting that "nothing about [Walker's] very early life would seem to have predestined her for this task. Born in 1969, she grew up in an integrated California suburb, part of a generation for whom the uplift and fervor of the civil rights movement and the want-it-now anger of Black Power were yesterday's news."
When Walker was 13, her father accepted a position at Georgia State University. They settled in the city of Stone Mountain. The move was a culture shock for the young artist. In sharp contrast with the multi-cultural environment of Central California, Stone Mountain still held Ku Klux Klan rallies. At her new high school, Walker recalls, "I was called a 'nigger,' told I looked like a monkey, accused (I didn't know it was an accusation) of being a 'Yankee.'"
Walker received her BFA from the Atlanta College of Art in 1991 and her MFA in painting from the Rhode Island School of Design in 1994. Walker found herself uncomfortable and afraid to address race within her art during her early college years, worrying it would be received as "typical" or "obvious"; however, she began introducing race into her art while attending Rhode Island School of Design for her Master's.
Walker recalls reflecting on her father's influence: "One of my earliest memories involves sitting on my dad's lap in his studio in the garage of our house and watching him draw. I remember thinking: 'I want to do that, too,' and I pretty much decided then and there at age 2½ or 3 that I was an artist just like Dad."
== Work and career ==
Walker is best known for her panoramic friezes of cut-paper silhouettes, usually black figures against a white wall, which address the history of American slavery and racism through violent and unsettling imagery. She has also produced works in gouache, watercolor, video animation, shadow puppets, magic lantern projections, as well as large-scale sculptural installations like her ambitious public exhibition with Creative Time called "A Subtlety, or the Marvelous Sugar Baby, an Homage to the unpaid and overworked Artisans who have refined our Sweet tastes from the cane fields to the Kitchens of the New World on the Occasion of the demolition of the Domino Sugar Refining Plant" (2014). The black-and-white silhouettes confront the realities of history while also using the stereotypes from the era of slavery to relate to persistent modern-day concerns. Drawings also constitute a significant portion of Walker's body of work. The artist reserves a special meaning to this medium in her artistic practice as a space to confront the western canon and find freedom from its historical criteria dominating painting: “I gravitated towards [drawing] pretty early on in graduate school […] partly as a way to escape the chains of western painting. […] Drawing transforms a blank page into a site of reflection.” A major retrospective dedicated to Walker’s drawings and archival materials was held at Kustmuseum Basel in 2021.
She first came to the art world's attention in 1994 with her mural "Gone, An Historical Romance of a Civil War as It Occurred Between the Dusky Thighs of One Young Negress and Her Heart." This cut-paper silhouette mural, presenting an Antebellum south filled with sex and slavery, was an instant hit. The artwork's title references the popular novel Gone with the Wind by Margaret Mitchell, and the individual figures in the tableau index the fairy-tale universe of Walt Disney in the 1930s. At the age of 28, she became the second youngest recipient of the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation's "genius" grant, second only to renowned Mayanist David Stuart. In 2007, the Walker Art Center exhibition "Kara Walker: My Complement, My Oppressor, My Enemy, My Love" was the artist's first full-scale US museum survey.
Her influences include Andy Warhol, whose art Walker says she admired as a child, Adrian Piper, and Robert Colescott.
Walker's silhouette images work to bridge unfinished folklore in the Antebellum South, raising identity and gender issues for African-American women in particular. Walker uses images from historical textbooks to show how enslaved African Americans were depicted during Antebellum South. The silhouette was typically a genteel tradition in American art history; it was often used for family portraits and book illustrations. Walker carried on this portrait tradition but used them to create characters in a nightmarish world, a world that reveals the brutality of American racism and inequality.
Walker incorporates ominous, sharp fragments of the South's landscape, such as Spanish moss trees and a giant moon obscured by dramatic clouds. These images surround the viewer and create a circular, claustrophobic space. This circular format paid homage to another art form, the 360-degree historical painting known as the cyclorama.
Some of her images are grotesque; for example, in "The Battle of Atlanta," a white man, presumably a Southern soldier, is raping a black girl while her brother watches in shock; and a male black slave rains tears all over an adolescent white boy. The use of physical stereotypes such as flatter profiles, bigger lips, straighter nose, and longer hair helps the viewer immediately distinguish the black subjects from the white subjects. Walker depicts the inequalities and mistreatment of African Americans by their white counterparts. Viewers at the Studio Museum in Harlem looked sickly, shocked, and appalled upon seeing her exhibition. Thelma Golden, the museum's chief curator, said that "throughout her career, Walker has challenged and changed the way we look at and understand American history. Her work is provocative, emotionally wrenching, yet overwhelmingly beautiful and intellectually compelling." Walker has said that her work addresses the way Americans look at racism with a "soft focus," avoiding "the confluence of disgust and desire and voluptuousness that are all wrapped up in [...] racism."
In an interview with New York's Museum of Modern Art, Walker stated: "I guess there was a little bit of a slight rebellion, maybe a little bit of a renegade desire that made me realize at some point in my adolescence that I really liked pictures that told stories of things– genre paintings, historical paintings– the sort of derivatives we get in contemporary society."
== Process: Silhouette Installations ==
Walker is most widely known for her immersive site-specific installations. Walker plays and almost blurs the lines between types of art forms. Her installations could be fluid between visual art and performance art. Elements of her installations like the theatrical staging or the life-size cut figurines contribute to and somewhat evoke this performative behavior. As Walker has mentioned before, she focuses more on the ideas and concepts behind the artwork rather than focusing on the initial aesthetic and visual aspect of the artwork, creating more of a conceptual outlook.
Shelly Jarenski discusses Walker's art in the context of panoramas. Panoramas were very popular in the nineteenth century and were used as a form of entertainment. They usually depicted historical scenes or vast landscapes. Walker's work demonstrates that the aesthetic experiences embedded in the panorama (though those experiences are rooted in the particular contexts of the nineteenth century) persist as a concern in African American art, just as the social consequences of slavery and the racial narratives that structured it persist in shaping our contemporary cultural narratives of race and space. Walker's work also provides a second visual example of the way panoramas can affect spectators, since it is a continual struggle for contemporary scholars to apprehend the visuality of panoramas, given that written sources are often all that survive in the historical archive. When viewing Walker's panoramas, they are illustrative of past events or depictions of the enslavement of African Americans. Her ability to combine devices that were used in the past and recontextualize with the sinful scenes she creates in her large-scale installations deconstructs the aesthetic of these installations. As Jarenski mentioned in her article, Walker's panoramas provide a visual example of how her panoramas affect the viewers which is different from 19th-century panoramas which were limited to written sources. Walker's installations are able to create a contemporary visual interpretation and reinforce one of the themes of panoramas; depict historical events. Thus, further shedding light and interconnectedness on the artistic process and the final artistic output.
Kara Walker once explained her artistic process as “two parts research and one part paranoid hysteria,” a description that captures the entanglement of history and fantasy that pervades her work. In that sense, through the process of Walker creating her art, 2/3 of it has to do with logical analysis, research, and other rational minded resources. While on the other hand, she suggests a component of rational fear or paranoia. Even despite the rational aspect, there's a sense of uneasiness and complexity that ties and illustrates itself through her work.
=== Notable works ===
In her piece created in 2000, "Insurrection! (Our Tools Were Rudimentary, Yet We Pressed On)", the silhouetted characters are against a background of colored light projections. This gives the piece a transparent quality, evocative of the production cels from the animated films of the 1930s. It also references the plantation story " Gone With the Wind" and the Technicolor film based on it. Also, the light projectors were set up so that the shadows of the viewers were cast on the wall, making them characters and encouraging them to assess the work's tough themes. In 2005, she created the exhibit "8 Possible Beginnings" or: "The Creation of African-America, a Moving Picture," which introduced moving images and sound. This helped further immerse the viewers into her dark worlds. In this exhibit, the silhouettes are used as shadow puppets. Additionally, she uses the voice of herself and her daughter to suggest how the heritage of early American slavery has affected her image as an artist and woman of color.
In response to Hurricane Katrina, Walker created "After the Deluge" since the hurricane had devastated many poor and black areas of New Orleans. Walker was bombarded with news images of "black corporeality." She likened these casualties to enslaved Africans piled onto ships for the Middle Passage, the Atlantic crossing to America.
I was seeing images that were all too familiar. It was black people in a state of life-or-death desperation, and everything corporeal was coming to the surface: water, excrement, sewage. It was a re-inscription of all the stereotypes about the black body.
Walker took part in the 2009 inaugural exhibition at Scaramouche Gallery in New York City with a group exhibit called "The Practice of Joy Before Death; It Just Wouldn't Be a Party Without You." Recent works by Kara Walker include Fall Frum Grace, Miss Pipi's Blue Tale (April–June 2011) at Lehmann Maupin, in collaboration with Sikkema Jenkins & Co. A concurrent exhibition, "Dust Jackets for the Niggerati- and Supporting Dissertations, Drawings submitted ruefully by Dr. Kara E. Walker," opened at Sikkema Jenkins on the same day.
Walker created "Katastwóf Karavan" for the 2018 art festival "Prospect.4: The Lotus in Spite of the Swamp" in New Orleans. This sculpture was an old-timey wagon, with Walker's signature silhouettes portraying slaveholders and enslaved people making up the sides and a custom-built steam-powered calliope playing songs off "black protest and celebration." It was displayed at the National Gallery of Art's Sculpture Garden May 12-19, 2022.
Although Walker is known for her serious exhibitions with an overall deep meaning behind her work, she admits relying on "humor and viewer interaction." Walker has stated, "I didn't want a completely passive viewer" and "I wanted to make work where the viewer wouldn't walk away; he would either giggle nervously, get pulled into history, into fiction, into something totally demeaning and possibly very beautiful."
=== Commissions ===
In 2002, Walker created a site-specific installation, "An Abbreviated Emancipation (from a larger work: The Emancipation Approximation)," which was commissioned by The University of Michigan Museum of Art, Ann Arbor. The work represented motifs and themes of race relations and their roots in the system of slavery before the Civil War. Several years later, in 2005, The New School unveiled Walker's first public art installation, a site-specific mural titled "Event Horizon," and placed along a grand stairway leading from the main lobby to a major public program space.
Walker's most well-known commission debuted in May 2014. Her first sculpture, this work was a monumental public artwork entitled "A Subtlety, or the Marvelous Sugar Baby, an Homage to the unpaid and overworked Artisans who have refined our Sweet tastes from the cane fields to the Kitchens of the New World on the Occasion of the demolition of the Domino Sugar Refining Plant." The massive work was installed in the derelict Domino Sugar Refinery in Brooklyn and commissioned by Creative Time. The installation consisted of a female sphinx figure, measuring approximately 75 feet long by 35 feet high, preceded by an arrangement of fifteen life-size young male figures, dubbed attendants. The sphinx, which bore the head and features of the Mammy archetype, was made by covering a core of machine-cut blocks of polystyrene with 80 tons of white sugar donated by Domino Foods. The fifteen male attendants were modeled after racist figurines that Walker purchased online. Five were made from solid sugar, and the other ten were resin sculptures coated in molasses. The fifteen attendants stood 60 inches tall and weighed 300-500 pounds each. The factory and the artwork were demolished after the exhibition closed in July 2014, as had been previously planned.
Walker has hinted that the whiteness of the sugar references its "aesthetic, clean, and pure quality." The slave trade is highlighted in the sculpture as well. Remarking on the overwhelmingly white audience at the exhibition in tandem with the political and historical content of the installation, art critic Jamilah King argued that "the exhibit itself is a striking and incredibly well-executed commentary on the historical relationship between race and capital, namely the money made off the backs of black slaves on sugar plantations throughout the Western Hemisphere. So the presence of so many white people -- and my presence as a black woman who's a descendant of slaves -- seemed to also be part of the show." The work attracted over 130,000 visitors in its eight-weekend run. In his commentary on the sculpture, art historian Richard J. Powell wrote, "No matter how noble or celebratory in tone Walker's title for this work seemed, in this post-modern moment of moral skepticism and collective distrust, a work of art in a public arena—especially a visually perplexing nude—would be subjected to not just serious criticism, but Internet trolling and mockery."
In 2016, Walker revealed "Slaughter of the Innocents (They Might be Guilty of Something)." In the painting, Walker depicts an African American woman slicing a baby with a small scythe. The influence for this detail was that of Margaret Garner, an enslaved person who killed her daughter to prevent her child from returning to slavery.
In 2019, Walker created Fons Americanus, the fifth annual Hyundai Commission at Tate Modern 's Turbine Hall. The fountain, measuring up to 13 feet (4.0 m), contains allegorical motifs referencing the histories of Africa, America, and Europe, particularly pertaining to the Atlantic slave trade. In her review of Walker's Fons Americanus for Artnet News, Naomi Rea noted that "the piece is so loaded with art-historical and cultural references that you could teach an entire college history course without leaving Turbine Hall." For example, Walker quotes specific artworks including The Slave Ship from 1840 by the British painter J.M.W. Turner and The Gulf Stream from 1899 by the American painter Winslow Homer. She also observed that – owing to the fountain's running water – the great work of art could be both seen and heard in the Turbine Hall. The artwork is, at the same time, a sort of public monument inspired in part by the Victoria Memorial in front of Buckingham Palace. In 2019, acclaimed writer Zadie Smith observed something about public monuments that Walker interrogates in Fons Americanus: "Monuments are complacent; they put a seal upon the past, they release us from dread. For Walker, dread is an engine: it prompts us to remember and rightly fear the ruins we shouldn't want to return to and don't wish to re-create—if we're wise."
In 2023, the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art (SFMOMA) commissioned Walker to create the first site-specific installation for its Roberts Family Gallery.
In 2025, Walker was one of the artists commissioned to create a work for MONUMENTS, an exhibition at The Geffen Contemporary at MOCA and The Brick; the other artists were Bethany Collins, Julie Dash, Karon Davis, Abigail DeVille, Stan Douglas, Kevin Jerome Everson, Kahlil Robert Irving, Monument Lab, Walter Price, Cauleen Smith, and Davóne Tines. The works were all newly created for this exhibit and “marks the recent wave of monument removals as a historic moment.” Walker co-curated the exhibit with Hamza Walker, Director of The Brick and Bennett Simpson, Senior Curator at MOCA.
=== Other projects ===
For the season 1998/1999 in the Vienna State Opera, Walker designed a large-scale picture (176 m2) as part of the exhibition series "Safety Curtain," conceived by museum in progress. In 2009, Walker curated volume 11 of Merge Records', Score!. Invited by fellow artist Mark Bradford in 2010 to develop a set of free lesson plans for K-12 teachers at the J. Paul Getty Museum, Walker offered a lesson that had students collaborating on a story by exchanging text messages.
In March 2012, artist Clifford Owens performed a score by Walker at MoMA PS1.
In 2013, Walker produced 16 lithographs for a limited edition, fine art printing of the libretto Porgy & Bess, by DuBose Heyward and Ira Gershwin, published by the Arion Press.
=== Concerns and criticism ===
The Detroit Institute of Art removed her "The Means to an End: A Shadow Drama in Five Acts" (1995) from a 1999 exhibition "Where the Girls Are: Prints by Women from the DIA's Collection" when African-American artists and collectors protested its presence. The five-panel silhouette of an antebellum plantation scene was in the permanent collection and was to be re-exhibited at some point according to a DIA spokesperson.
A Walker piece entitled "The moral arc of history ideally bends towards justice but just as soon as not curves back around toward barbarism, sadism, and unrestrained chaos" at the Newark Public Library was questioned by employees regarding its appropriateness for the reading room where it was hung. The artwork included depictions of the Ku Klux Klan accompanied by a burning cross, a naked black woman fellating a white man, and Barack Obama. The piece was covered but not removed in December 2012. After discussion among employees and trustees the work was again uncovered. In March 2013, Walker visited the New Jersey Newark Public Library to discuss the work. Walker discussed the content of the work, including racism, identity, and her use of "heroic" figures such as Obama. Walker asked, "[d]o these archetypes collapse history? They're supposed to expand the conversation, but they often collapse it." Walker described the overwhelming subject matter of her works as a "too-muchness".
In the 1999 PBS documentary "I'll Make Me a World," African-American artist Betye Saar criticized Walker's work for its "revolting and negative" depiction of black stereotypes and enslaved people. Saar accused the art of pandering to the enjoyment of "the white art establishment." In 1997 Saar emailed 200 fellow artists and politicians to voice her concerns about Walker's use of racist and sexist imagery and its positive reception in the art world. This attention to Walker's practice led to a 1998 symposium at Harvard University, Change a Joke and Slip the Yoke: A Harvard University Conference on Racist Imagery, which discussed her work.
== Exhibitions ==
Walker's first museum survey, in 2007, was organized by Philippe Vergne for the Walker Art Center in Minneapolis and traveled to the Whitney Museum in New York, the Hammer Museum in Los Angeles, and the ARC/Musee d'Art Moderne de la ville de Paris.
=== Solo exhibitions ===
2006: "Kara Walker at the Met: After the Deluge" Metropolitan Museum of Art
2007: "Kara Walker: My Complement, My Enemy, My Oppressor, My Love" Walker Art Center; traveled to Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth (2008)
2013: "Kara Walker, Rise Up Ye Mighty Race!" The Art Institute of Chicago
2013: "We at the Camden Arts Centre are Exceedingly Proud to present an Exhibition of Capable Artworks by the Notable Hand of the Celebrated American, Kara Elizabeth Walker, Negress", Camden Art Centre, London (toured to the MAC, Belfast in 2014)
2014: "A Subtlety, or the Marvelous Sugar Baby, an Homage to the unpaid and overworked Artisans who have refined our Sweet tastes from the cane fields to the Kitchens of the New World on the Occasion of the demolition of the Domino Sugar Refining Plant," Creative Time, Brooklyn, NY
2016: "The Ecstasy of St. Kara," Cleveland Museum of Art
2017: "Sikkema Jenkins and Co. is Compelled to Present the Most Astounding And Important Painting Show of the Fall Art Show Viewing Season!", Sikkema Jenkins & Co., New York, NY
2019: Untitled – Hyundai Commission, Tate Modern, London
2021: "A Black Hole is Everything a Star Longs to Be," Kunstmuseum Basel, Switzerland
2021: "Kara Walker: Cut to the Quick from the Collections of Jordan D. Schnitzer and His Family Foundation", Frist Art Museum, Nashville, TN
2021-22: "Kara Walker: Cut to the Quick", Cincinnati Art Museum, Cincinnati, OH
2023: "Kara Walker: Harper's Pictorial History of the Civil War (Annotated)", New York Historical Society Museum and Library, New York, NY
== Collections ==
Among the public collections holding work by Walker are the Minneapolis Institute of Art and the Weisman Art Museum (Minneapolis, Minnesota); the Metropolitan Museum of Art; the Tate Collection, London; the Pérez Art Museum Miami; the Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles; the Madison Museum of Contemporary Art (Madison, Wisconsin); the Menil Collection, Houston; and the Muscarelle Museum of Art, Williamsburg, Virginia. Early large-scale cut-paper works have been collected by, among others, Jeffrey Deitch and Dakis Joannou.
== Recognition ==
In 1997, Walker, who was 28 at the time, was one of the youngest people to receive a MacArthur fellowship. Walker's work received criticism from older generations of African-American artists who accused her work of being pornographic and of pandering to racism, while being targeted at a white audience who these critics felt covertly enjoyed the racist imagery which her work repurposed. She was the United States representative for the 25th International São Paulo Biennial in Brazil in 2002.
Walker received the 2004 Deutsche Bank Prize and the 2005 Larry Aldrich Award. In 2007, she was listed among Time magazine's 100 Most Influential People in The World, Artists and Entertainers, in an essay written by artist Barbara Kruger. In 2012, she was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Letters and won the International Artist Award from Anderson Ranch Arts Center in Colorado.
In 2016, she was an artist-in-residence at the American Academy in Rome.
Walker has been featured on the PBS series Art21: Art in the Twenty-First Century. Her work appears on the cover of musician Arto Lindsay's recording, "Salt" (2004). In addition, she co-wrote the song "Suicide Demo for Kara Walker" on the Destroyer album "Kaputt."
Her name appears in the lyrics of the Le Tigre song "Hot Topic."
In 2017, a large scale mural portrait of Kara Walker done by artist Chuck Close was installed in a New York City subway station (Q line, 86th Street), part of a MTA public arts program. She was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 2018.
In 2019, Walker was elected to the Royal Academy of Arts in London, as an Honorary Royal Academician (HonRA).
== Personal life ==
Early in her career, Walker lived in Providence, Rhode Island with her husband, German-born jewelry professor Klaus Bürgel, whom she married in 1996. In 1997, she gave birth to a daughter. The couple separated, and their divorce was finalized in 2010. As of 2017, Walker is in a relationship with photographer and filmmaker Ari Marcopoulos. They married in 2025.
Walker moved to Fort Greene, Brooklyn in 2003 and has been a professor of visual arts in the MFA program at Columbia University since then. She maintained a studio in the Garment District, Manhattan from 2010 until 2017. In May 2017, she moved her art practice to a studio in Industry City. She also owns a country home in rural Massachusetts.
In addition to her own practice, Walker served on the board of directors of the Foundation for Contemporary Arts (FCA) between 2011 and 2016.
== Further reading ==
=== Articles ===
D'Arcy, David. "Kara Walker Kicks Up a Storm," "Modern Painters" (April 2006).
Garrett, Shawn-Marie. "Return of the Repressed," "Theater" 32, no. 2 (Summer 2002).
Kazanjian, Dodie. "Cut it Out," "Vogue" (May 2005).
Szabo, Julia. "Kara Walker's Shock Art," "New York Times Magazine" 146, no. 50740 (March 1997).
Walker, Hamza. "Kara Walker: Cut it Out," "Nka: Journal of Contemporary African Art" no. 11/12 (Fall/Winter 2000).
Als, Hilton. "The Shadow Act," "The New Yorker", October 8, 2007
Als, Hilton. "The Sugar Sphinx," "The New Yorker", May 8, 2014
Scott, Andrea K. "Kara Walker's Ghosts of Future Evil", the "New Yorker", September 9, 2017
Wall, David (2010). "Transgression, Excess, and the Violence of Looking in the Art of Kara Walker". Oxford Art Journal. 33 (3). Oxford University Press: 277–299. doi:10.1093/oxartj/kcq035. ISSN 0142-6540. JSTOR 40983288.
=== Non-fiction books and catalogues ===
Barrett, Terry. "Interpreting Art: Reflecting, Wondering, and Responding", New York: McGraw Hill (2002).
Berry, Ian, Darby English, Vivian Patterson, Mark Reinhardt, eds. Narratives of a Negress, Boston: MIT Press (2003).
Carpenter, Elizabeth and Joan Rothfuss. "Bits & Pieces Put Together to Present a Semblance of A Whole: Walker Art Center Collections". Minneapolis: Walker Art Center, 2005.
Géré, Vanina. "Kara Walker", October Files series, The MIT Press (2022). https://mitpress.mit.edu/9780262544474/kara-walker/
Jacobs, Harriet. "Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl" (1858).
Shaw, Gwendolyn Dubois. "Seeing the Unspeakable: The Art of Kara Walker", Durham and London: Duke University Press (2004). http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/55008318
Vergne, Philippe, et al. "Kara Walker: My Complement, My Enemy, My Oppressor, My Love". Minneapolis: Walker Art Center, 2007. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/602217956
Walker, Kara E. "Kara Walker: After the Deluge". New York: Rizzoli, 2007. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/144225309
Walker, Kara E., Olga Gambari, and Richard Flood. Kara Walker: A Negress of Noteworthy Talent. Torino: Fondazione Merz, 2011. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/768397358
=== Web sources ===
The Art Story: Kara Walker, Modern Art Insight. 2016
== Notes ==
== References ==
Hans Werner Holzwarth, ed. (2008). Art Now, Vol. 3: A cutting-edge selection of today's most exciting artists. Taschen. p. 488. ISBN 978-3-8365-0511-6.
Goldbaum, Karen, ed. "Kara Walker: Pictures From Another Time." Seattle: Marquand Books, Inc. ISBN 1-891024-50-7
Smith, Zadie. "What Do We Want History to Do to Us?" "The New York Review of Books", February 27, 2020. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2020/02/27/kara-walker-what-do-we-want-history-to-do-to-us/
Vergne, Phillppe. "Kara Walker: My Complement, My Enemy, My Oppressor, My Love." Minneapolis: Walker Art Center. ISBN 978-0-935640-86-1
== External links ==
Kara Walker website
The "Time" 100: "Time" magazine's profile of Walker
Biography, interviews, essays, artwork images and video clips from PBS series Art:21 -- Art in the Twenty-First Century - Season 2 (2003)
Kara E. Walker's Song of the South Archived January 10, 2016, at the Wayback Machine at REDCAT
Kara Walker at Ocula
Kara Walker at Smithsonian American Art Museum |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elisabeth_Udolf-Strobl | Elisabeth Udolf-Strobl | Elisabeth Udolf-Strobl (born 12 April 1956) is an Austrian civil servant. She served as Minister for Digital and Economic Affairs in the Bierlein government.
Udolf-Strobl studied at Vienna University and the Diplomatic Academy of Vienna. From 1986 she was employed by the Austrian trade ministry. From 2018 she was a board member of Austrian Standards International. On 3 June 2019 she was sworn in as federal minister.
== References ==
== External links ==
"Mag. Elisabeth Udolf-Strobl". parlament.gv.at (in German). Austrian Parliament. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_47 | United Nations Security Council Resolution 47 | United Nations Security Council Resolution 47, adopted on 21 April 1948, concerns the resolution of the Kashmir conflict. After hearing arguments from both India and Pakistan, the Council increased the size of the UN Commission created by the former Resolution 39 to five members, instructed the Commission to go to the subcontinent and help the governments of India and Pakistan restore peace and order to the region and prepare for a plebiscite to decide the fate of Kashmir.
Secondly, the Resolution recommended a three-step process for the resolution of the dispute. In the first step, Pakistan was asked to withdraw all its nationals that entered Kashmir for the sake of fighting. In the second step, India was asked to progressively reduce its forces to the minimum level required for law and order. In the third step, India was asked to appoint a plebiscite administrator nominated by the United Nations who would conduct a free and impartial plebiscite.
The resolution was adopted paragraph by paragraph; no vote on the resolution as a whole was taken.
Both India and Pakistan raised objections to the Resolution. However, they welcomed mediation by the UN Commission. Through its mediation, the Commission amplified and amended the Security Council Resolution, adopting two resolutions of its own, which were accepted by both India and Pakistan. Subsequently, a cease-fire was achieved by the Commission at the beginning of 1949. However, a truce was not achieved due to disagreements over the process of demilitarisation. After considerable efforts, the Commission declared its failure in December 1949.
== Background ==
Prior to 1947, Jammu and Kashmir (Kashmir) was a princely state under British Paramountcy, ruled by a Hindu maharaja. With the impending independence and partition of British Raj into the dominions of Pakistan and India, the British announced that the British Paramountcy would lapse and the rulers of princely states were given the option of joining one of the two new countries (termed "accession") or staying independent. The Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir chose to stay independent, however, most of the population was Muslim.
Following an uprising in the western districts of the state and an armed invasion by Pashtun tribes from Pakistan, the Maharaja acceded to India on 26 October 1947. India immediately air lifted troops into Kashmir the next day. Considerable evidence cited by scholars since then has pointed to Pakistan's complicity in instigating and supporting the invasion. A limited war ensued between the Indian troops and the Pakistani raiders within the confines of the princely state.
On 1 January 1948, India took the matter to the United Nations Security Council under Article 35 of the UN Charter, which allows the member nations to bring to the attention of the UN matters endangering international peace. It claimed that Pakistani nationals and tribesmen had attacked Jammu and Kashmir, which was Indian territory. It requested the Security Council to prevent Pakistan from continuing its actions. India also stated that, despite holding the state's legal accession, it was prepared to conduct a plebiscite to confirm the people's wishes and abide by its results. In response, Pakistan denied involvement in the conflict and made counter-accusations claiming that India had acquired the state's accession by "fraud and violence" and that it was conducting a "genocide" against Muslims.
On 20 January 1948, the Security Council passed Resolution 39 establishing a three-member Commission to investigate the complaints. However such a Commission did not come into fruition until May 1948. Meanwhile, the Security Council continued its deliberations and the war too continued.
== Resolution 47 ==
On 18 March, the Republic of China tabled a new draft resolution in three parts. The first part dealt with the restoration of peace, asking Pakistan to withdraw its nationals. The second part dealt with the conduct of plebiscite for the people of Kashmir to choose between India and Pakistan. India was asked to create a "Plebiscite Administration" whose directors would be nominated by the UN Secretary-General but would function as the officials of the state. The third part dealt with creating an interim administration for the state which would represent all major political groups in the state.
During the subsequent discussion, the draft was modified considerably, with several concessions made to Pakistan at the instigation of the British delegation. India expressed discomfort at the modifications.
=== The resolution ===
The final resolution adopted had two parts. The first part increased the Commission's strength to five members and asked it to proceed to the Indian subcontinent at once to mediate between India and Pakistan. The second part dealt with the Security council's recommendations for restoring peace and conducting a plebiscite. This involved three steps.
In the first step, Pakistan was asked to use its "best endeavours" to secure the withdrawal of all tribesmen and Pakistani nationals, putting an end to the fighting in the state.
In the second step, India was asked to "progressively reduce" its forces to the minimum level required for keeping law and order. It laid down principles that India should follow in administering law and order in consultation with the Commission, using local personnel as far as possible.
In the third step, India was asked to ensure that all the major political parties were invited to participate in the state government at the ministerial level, essentially forming a coalition cabinet. India should then appoint a Plebiscite Administrator nominated by the United Nations, who would have a range of powers including powers to deal with the two countries and ensure a free and impartial plebiscite. Measures were to be taken to ensure the return of refugees, the release of all political prisoners, and for political freedom.
The resolution was approved by nine votes against none. The Soviet Union and Ukrainian SSR abstained.
=== Commentary ===
The resolution was passed under the Chapter VI of the United Nations Charter (which is devoted to "peaceful settlement of disputes"). It did not consist of directives to the parties, but rather "recommendations". Former UN diplomat Josef Korbel states that this bound the parties only "morally" but not "juridicially". The final resolution of the conflict rested with the governments of India and Pakistan and depended on their goodwill.
The Security Council refrained from taking sides in the dispute. It did not condemn Pakistan as the aggressor, as India had requested. Neither did it touch upon the legalities of the accession of Jammu and Kashmir. Korbel states that the Security Council could have requested the International Court of Justice to give an advisory opinion on the legal issues. Had that been done, the Security Council would have been in a stronger position to declare one of the parties to be in the wrong, and the handling of the dispute would have been easier.
In the event, the approach of the Security Council was "timid" in Korbel's view. Its evaluation of the Kashmir dispute was not realistic as was discovered soon with prolonged debates, endless wrangling, and adjournment of the deliberations. With the passing of time, the tensions and political cleavages in Kashmir grew and the plebiscite solution became increasingly difficult.
The American ambassador to the UN Warren R. Austin also shared the view. He thought the resolution, as well as others that followed, were unrealistic and ineffective. They depended on the goodwill of India and Pakistan cooperating with the Security Council and failed to give it the authority to impose sanctions. The US embassies in India and Pakistan were equally frustrated.
It is apparent that the Security Council viewed the problem as primarily a political dispute rather than looking at its legal underpinnings, in particular whether Kashmir's accession to India was valid. It implicitly assumed that accession was valid but incomplete, contingent upon the ratification by the people of the state. Thus it asked for the Pakistani nationals to withdraw in the first instance but held that plebiscite was the ultimate solution. Legal specialist Sumathi Subbiah contends that the way of dealing with the situation as a political dispute rather than legal obligations proved too weak to compel India and Pakistan to reach a final resolution.
=== Reception ===
Both India and Pakistan raised objections to the Resolution 47.
India objected first of all that the resolution placed India and Pakistan on an equal footing, ignoring the complaint of Pakistani aggression and Kashmir's legal accession to India. Secondly, it objected to the absence of allowance for it to retain troops in the state for its defence. It also felt the requirement of a coalition government would put Sheikh Abdullah, then Prime Minister of Kashmir, in an impossible position. It said that the powers conferred on the Plebiscite Administrator were far too wide and undermined the state's sovereignty. It felt that provision for the return of all refugees was unrealistic. Finally, India wanted Pakistan to be excluded from the conduct of the plebiscite.
Pakistan objected to the retention of the Indian forces in Kashmir, even at the minimum level allowed by the resolution. It wanted an equal representation in the government of the state for the Muslim Conference, the dominant party of the Pakistani-held Kashmir. The Pakistani government circles felt that the Security Council deliberations had been favourable to Pakistan but the final proposals were modified by the United States and Britain to "mollify" India. Britain came in for particular criticism.
Both the sides however welcomed the UN Commission and agreed to work with it.
== UN Commission ==
The five member United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan (UNCIP) consisted of the representatives from Czechoslovakia (Josef Korbel), Argentina (Ricardo Siri), Belgium (Egbert Graeffe), Colombia (Alfredo Lozano) and the United States (Jerome Klahr Huddle). It secretariat was headed by Erik Colban, the Norwegian ambassador to the UK, with the British Quaker Richard Symonds acting as Colban's secretary.
Sources state that the political atmosphere in both India and Pakistan was hostile to the Commission upon its arrival in the subcontinent in July 1948.
=== Ceasefire (1948) ===
Upon arriving in Karachi, the Commission was informed by Pakistan that three brigades of its regular troops had been fighting in Kashmir since May, which was described as a "bombshell" by Josef Korbel. In New Delhi, India asserted that it attached the highest importance to a declaration of Pakistan's guilt. The fighting in Kashmir went on unabated and the Commission recognized that the Sheikh Abdullah government in Jammu and Kashmir and the Azad Kashmir government in Muzaffarabad were engaged in an irreconcilable struggle.
On 13 August 1948, after discussions with both the governments, the Commission unanimously adopted a three-part resolution, amending and amplifying the UN Resolution 47.
Part I dealt with ceasefire, calling for a complete cessation of hostilities.
Part II dealt with a truce agreement. It asked for a complete withdrawal of Pakistan's fighting forces, including the army, tribes and other Pakistani nationals, and stated that the evacuated territory would be administered by local authorities under the surveillance of the Commission. Following the Pakistani withdrawal, India was expected to withdraw the "bulk of its forces" reducing them to the minimum level required for maintaining law and order.
Part III stated that, after the acceptance of the truce agreement, the two countries would enter into consultation with the Commission for settling the future of the state in accordance with the will of the people.
The structure of the resolution was of significance to India. The three-part structure implicitly recognized Pakistan's "aggression" by making the truce agreement precede the consultation for the future of the state. Moreover, plebiscite was not mentioned, which allowed for other possible avenues for determining the will of the people, such as electing a constituent assembly. India feared that a plebiscite would incite religious passions and unleash "disruptive forces".
While India accepted the Commission's resolution, Pakistan attached so many reservations and qualifications that the Commission believed it was "tantamount to rejection".
The Commission surmised that Pakistan's main preoccupation was the guarantee of a free and impartial plebiscite after the fighting stopped. It then developed a supplement to its August resolution outlining proposals for the administration of the plebiscite. It defined the functions of the Plebiscite Administrator who would, among others, decide the final disposal of the Indian and Azad Kashmir forces. India objected that it was being asked to make further concessions even though Pakistan had not accepted the truce agreement. It sought and obtained several assurances, including an agreement that it would not be bound by plebiscite if Pakistan did not implement the first two parts of the August resolution; and assurance that the Azad Kashmir forces would be disbanded before the plebiscite.
Despite reservations, questions and dissents, the two governments finally accepted the proposals, leading to a ceasefire in Kashmir on 1 January 1949. The Commission incorporated the supplement into a new resolution approved on 5 January 1949.
=== Elusive truce (1949) ===
The Commission returned to the subcontinent in February 1949 to implement the terms of the ceasefire, set up a truce agreement and prepare for a plebiscite. Korbel states that the Commission faced "enormous difficulties".
India insisted on the disbandment of the 'Azad forces' as an "essential condition" before the plebiscite, which, according to Korbel, came as "jolt" to the Commission. This was indeed agreed in the previous round. However India appeared to have advanced the timetable. The so-called 'Azad forces' were made up of the demobilised soldiers of the British Indian Army belonging to the Poonch and Mirpur districts. They rose in revolt against the Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir prior to the tribal invasion. Following the invasion, Pakistan organised the soldiers into 32 battalions of a serious military force and used them to fight the Indian forces. During the truce discussions, Pakistan insisted on a balance between the Azad forces and the State forces, and demanded that Pakistan be allowed to train the Azad forces to take the positions that the Pakistani forces would vacate. This led the Indians to conclude that Pakistan was planning to resume hostilities as soon as the Indian withdrawal began. Thus they demanded that the disbandment of Azad forces should occur during the truce stage itself. Pakistan rejected the demand for disbandment and insisted on parity between the Azad and State forces. Pakistan also wished to see the detailed plans of the Indian withdrawal and insisted that it should be "synchronized" with the Pakistani withdrawal.
After multiple rounds of proposals for demilitarisation, which were rejected by both India and Pakistan, the Commission proposed arbitration. Pakistan accepted the proposal for arbitration, but India rejected it, saying that it was not a matter for arbitration but for "affirmative and immediate decision". India's position was that no distinction could be made between the Pakistan Army and the Azad forces. The Commission conceded that the Azad forces now had a strength that changed the military situation and made the Indian withdrawal as envisaged in the original resolution difficult.
Another difficulty arose with regard to the "Northern Areas" (present day Gilgit-Baltistan). India demanded that, upon Pakistani withdrawal, these areas should be restored to the government of Jammu and Kashmir and India should be allowed to defend its borders. The Commission conceded the legal basis of the Indian demand but feared that it would cause renewed fighting between the Indian forces and the local forces. It proposed that the areas should be governed by "local authorities" under the supervision of the Commission and Indian forces would be sent only if the UN observers notified it of their necessity. This compromise was rejected by both India and Pakistan.
The Commission declared its failure and submitted its final report to the Security Council on 9 December 1949. It recommended that the Commission be replaced by a single mediator; that the problem of demilitarisation be viewed as a whole without the required sequentiality of the August resolution; that the UN representatives should have the authority to settle issues by arbitration. The Czech delegate submitted a minority report contending that the Commission's declaration of failure was premature, that the problem of Azad forces had been underrated, and that the Northern Areas did not receive adequate attention.
== Aftermath ==
The Security Council asked its Canadian delegate, General A. G. L. McNaughton, to informally consult India and Pakistan towards a demilitarisation plan. In the course of his discussion, on 22 December 1949, McNaughton proposed that both Pakistani and Indian forces should be reduced to a minimum level, followed by the disbandment of both the Azad forces and the State forces. India proposed two far-reaching amendments, in effect rejecting the McNaughton proposals. The McNaughton proposals represented an important departure from those of the UNCIP resolutions in that they treated India and Pakistan on an equal footing. India was averse to such an equation.
Despite India's apparent objection, the Security Council adopted the McNaughton proposals in Resolution 80 and appointed a mediator. The mediation also ended in failure.
In 1972, following the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, India and Pakistan signed the Simla Agreement, agreeing to resolve all their differences through bilateral negotiations. The United States, United Kingdom and most Western governments have since supported this approach.
In 2001, the then Secretary-General of the United Nations, Kofi Annan during his visit to India and Pakistan, clarified that Kashmir resolutions are only advisory recommendations and they should not be compared to those on East Timor and Iraq.
In 2003, the then Pakistan President Pervez Musharraf announced that Pakistan was willing to "leave aside" the demand for UN resolutions and explore alternative bilateral options for resolving the dispute.
In 2020, the UN secretary-general António Guterres called for the implementation of UN Security Council resolutions on Kashmir, including the holding of a plebiscite among Kashmir's residents on whether they wanted join India or Pakistan.
== See also ==
Kashmir conflict
Timeline of the Kashmir conflict
Indo-Pakistani relations
List of United Nations Security Council Resolutions 1 to 100 (1946–1953)
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Ankit, Rakesh (September 2014). Kashmir, 1945–66: From Empire to the Cold War (PhD thesis). University of Southampton.
Blinkenberg, Lars (1998), India-Pakistan: The historical part, Odense University Press, ISBN 978-87-7838-286-3
Bose, Sumantra (2003), Kashmir: Roots of Conflict, Paths to Peace, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-01173-1
Cheema, Zafar Iqbal (2009), "The strategic context of the Kargil conflict: A Pakistani perspective", in Peter René Lavoy (ed.), Asymmetric Warfare in South Asia: The Causes and Consequences of the Kargil Conflict, Cambridge University Press, pp. 41–63, ISBN 978-0-521-76721-7
Das Gupta, Jyoti Bhusan (2012), Jammu and Kashmir, Springer, ISBN 978-94-011-9231-6
Korbel, Josef (May 1949), "The Kashmir Dispute and the United Nations", International Organization, 3 (2): 278–287, doi:10.1017/s0020818300020610, JSTOR 2703744
Korbel, Josef (1953), "The Kashmir dispute after six years", International Organization, 7 (4): 498–510, doi:10.1017/s0020818300007256, JSTOR 2704850
Korbel, Josef (1966) [1954], Danger in Kashmir, Princeton University Press, ISBN 9781400875238
Kux, Dennis (1992), India and the United States: Estranged Democracies, 1941–1991, DIANE Publishing, ISBN 978-0-7881-0279-0
Lyon, Peter (2008), Conflict Between India and Pakistan: An Encyclopedia, ABC-CLIO, ISBN 978-1-57607-712-2
Raghavan, Srinath (2010), War and Peace in Modern India: A Strategic History of the Nehru Years, Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 978-1-137-00737-7
Roberts, Adam; Welsh, Jennifer (2010), The United Nations Security Council and War: The Evolution of Thought and Practice Since 1945, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-958330-0
Schaffer, Howard B. (2009), The Limits of Influence: America's Role in Kashmir, Brookings Institution Press, ISBN 978-0-8157-0370-9
Subbiah, Sumathi (2004), "Security Council Mediation and the Kashmir Dispute: Reflections on Its Failures and Possibilities for Renewal", Boston College International and Comparative Law Review, 27 (1): 173–185
UNCIP (22 November 1948), First Interim Report of the UNCIP (S/1100) (PDF), United Nations Digital Library, archived (PDF) from the original on 2 October 2016, retrieved 10 August 2019 – via hpcrresearch.org and archive.org
UNCIP (10 January 1949a), Second Interim Report of the UNCIP (S/1196) (PDF), United Nations Digital Library, archived (PDF) from the original on 25 July 2021, retrieved 10 August 2019 – via hpcrresearch.org and archive.org
UNCIP (9 December 1949b), Third Interim Report of the UNCIP (S/1430) (PDF), United Nations Digital Library, retrieved 10 August 2019
== External links ==
Records of the United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan (UNCIP) (1948-1950) at the United Nations Archives
Works related to United Nations Security Council Resolution 47 at Wikisource
Text of Resolution at undocs.org
S/995: UNCIP Resolution of 13 August 1948, United Nations Digital Library, retrieved 10 August 2019.
The Secretary of State to the Embassy of India, 26 March 1949, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1949, The Near East, South Asia, and Africa, Volume VI, US Department of State.
Pakistani perspective on the UN resolution Archived 8 August 2019 at the Wayback Machine, Pakistan Mission to the United Nations. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohamed_bin_Zayed_University_of_Artificial_Intelligence#:~:text=The%20current%20president%2C%20Professor%20Eric,as%20the%20founding%2C%20interim%20president. | Mohamed bin Zayed University of Artificial Intelligence | The Mohamed Bin Zayed University of Artificial Intelligence (MBZUAI) is a research university located in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. Established in 2019, it was the first graduate-level research university focused on artificial intelligence. It launched an undergraduate program in 2025.
== History ==
The establishment of MBZUAI is part of the United Arab Emirates' strategy for Artificial Intelligence 2031. This policy seeks to "position the country as a global AI leader", and included the appointment of the world's first Minister of State for Artificial Intelligence. MBZUAI is the "world's first graduate-level, research-based AI university".
The university was founded in October 2019. It was named after Mohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan and the board of trustees was chaired by Sultan Ahmed Al Jaber, while its advisory board was chaired by Omar Al Olama, the UAE's first Minister of State for Artificial Intelligence.
The Ministry of Education accredited six MBZUAI graduate programs in February 2020 and granted the university a license in April 2020. The initial class of graduate students were to start coursework in the fall of 2020, but due to the COVID-19 pandemic this was delayed to January 2021. At the time classes began the university had 11 faculty members and 78 students (13 PhD and 65 MSc) in machine learning and computer vision. Due to pandemic restrictions the first classes were held online using Moodle software. The first in-person classes began in the fall of 2021.
The first cohort of PhD and MsC students graduated in January 2023. By 2024, at least 25 additional faculty members had been recruited, and departments had been established in robotics, computer science, and statistics and data science. The first undergraduate program at MBZUAI, a bachelor of science in artificial intelligence, was launched in March 2025.
== Campus ==
MBZUAI is located in Masdar City, a sustainable urban community designed as a smart innovation cluster. The campus uses low-carbon transportation methods, including electric buses and golf carts.
When classes began in 2021, the university had only six classrooms, most of which could accommodate class sizes of no larger than 20 students. Shortly afterward the classrooms were redesigned to better accommodate remote and hybrid learning options and more flexible layouts, such as having an instructor in one classroom broadcast a lecture to the other classrooms and to online students.
The campus also includes a gymnasium, swimming pool, and squash and badminton courts.
== Administration ==
The current president, Eric Xing, joined in January 2021. Sir J. Michael Brady served as the founding, interim president. Professor Ling Shao was the founding provost and executive vice president. Timothy Baldwin was appointed provost in April 2024. As of 2025, the Board of Trustees was chaired by Khaldoon Khalifa Al Mubarak.
== Academics ==
The goal of the university is "producing a new generation of AI leaders and experts". According to The Economist, MBZUAI and the King Abdullah University of Science and Technology "have poached star professors from illustrious institutions such as the University of California, Berkeley, and Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh".
MBZUAI provides undergraduate, master's, and Ph.D. programs in artificial intelligence, computer science, computer vision, machine learning, natural language processing, robotics, and statistics & data science. As of 2025 the institution had 84 faculty members and over 200 postdocs and researchers.
In October 2021, the university launched a 12-week Executive Program for leaders implementing AI in their organizations. In March 2022, the university graduated the first class of participants.
== Research ==
The university's research program has four pillars: improving services offered by the public and private sectors, enhancing efficiencies and improving productivity in industry and manufacturing, support new and emerging high-value sectors, and optimizing environmental sustainability. MBZUAI has a joint AI research program with the Weizmann Institute of Science in Israel.
MBZUAI has a dedicated research hub on foundation models. It coordinated the development of Jais, a large language model for Arabic, to be used by the Emirati government for administrative functions. Other research hubs include the Center for Integrative Artificial Intelligence, the Metaverse Center, and the Institute of Digital Public Health. It also has a business incubator and a joint lab with the Abu Dhabi Digital Authority to support government service initiatives.
== Student life ==
The university provides graduate students with a full scholarship support package, including a monthly stipend, health insurance, and accommodations, "in exchange for full-time commitment to studying and researching in the field of AI". This approach is designed to "attract students who would otherwise have gone to well-established hubs in the West or China".
The 2024 intake included 209 students (147 MSc and 62 PhD) from 36 countries. Many students are Chinese and 31% are women. The student-faculty ratio is 5:1.
As of 2024, 212 students had graduated from the master's and PhD programs. Most stay in the region after graduation. More than half pursue industry internships during their program, and many participate in hackathons or research conferences.
== See also ==
List of universities in the United Arab Emirates
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teresa_Czerwi%C5%84ska | Teresa Czerwińska | Teresa Czerwińska (born 7 September 1974) is a Polish economist originally from Latvia. Since 2020, she has served as a vice president of the European Investment Bank.
== Early life and education ==
Czerwińska was born in Daugavplis, Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic. She is the daughter of two Latvian Poles — Bronisław and Ludmiła Tumanowski. As a child, she was active within the Association of Poles, where she served as a scout. She was awarded a scholarship for being a part of the Polish diaspora, which inspired her to leave Daugavplis in order to begin her studies in Poland.
Czerwińska graduated from the University of Gdańsk in 1997 with undergraduate degrees in Social Sciences and management. She began her doctoral dissertation on the investment activity of insurance companies and their effects on the capital market in Poland, which she successfully defended her in 2000.
Czerwińska earned her PhD in economics from the University of Gdańsk. She served as an associate professor at the University of Gdańsk and then at the University of Warsaw. She is a specialist in the field of risk management within financial institutions and markets.
== Career ==
In 2011, Czerwińska was offered a position as an associate professor within the Department of Financial Systems of Economics and within the Department of Management. Between 2015-2018, she was the secretary in the Polish Academy of Sciences for the Committee on Financial Sciences.
In 2015, she became the Undersecretary of the State in the Ministry of Science and Higher Education. Within her role, Czerwińska was responsible for many areas within the department. She helped with the development and implementation of a new mechanism that uses algorithms to allocate budget subsidies for public universities. This improved the efficiency of how funds were spent and the implementation of quality solutions for financing universities. Then, in 2017, Czerwińska was appointed Undersecretary of the State in the Ministry of Finance, where she was responsible for the preparation and implementation of state budget, and also handling funds from the European Union.
In 2018, Prime Minister Mateusz Morawiecki appointed Czerwińska to be the minister of finance. Until her appointment, Morawiecki had occupied that role in conjunction with being the Prime Minister.
In March 2019, daily newspaper Puls Biznesu reported that Czerwińska was considering stepping down over plans by the PiS party to increase spending by up to $10 billion, focusing on child subsidies, state pensions and transport infrastructure as part of its campaign for parliamentary elections; a government spokesperson later said that Czerwińska had in fact not submitted her resignation. Shortly after, she was replaced with her deputy Marian Banaś as part of a cabinet reshuffle.
From 2019 to 2020, Czerwińska served as a member of the Management Board of the National Bank of Poland.
=== European Investment Bank, 2020–present ===
Czerwińska has been serving as a Vice President of the European Investment Bank (EIB) in 2020. At the EIB, she has worked on several portfolios including affordable housing, addressing climate change, and aid to Ukraine.
In 2023, the government of Prime Minister Mateusz Morawiecki nominated Czerwińska as Poland's candidate to succeed Werner Hoyer as president of the EIB; however, the position ultimately went to Nadia Calviño.
== Other activities ==
European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), Ex-Officio Alternate Member of the Board of Governors
== Publications ==
Czerwińska has co-authored numerous scientific publications and academic textbooks on macroeconomics, insurance, and investment management. She has analyzed expert opinions in the field of financial management, the risks within financial institutions, and socially responsible investing.
Selected publications:
Rynek kapitałowy – regulacje i fundamenty (współredaktor), 2018,
Ryzyko instytucji finansowych. Współczesne trendy i wyzwania (współautor), 2016,
Rynek kapitałowy – efektywność i ryzyko (współredaktor), 2016,
Ubezpieczenia (współautor), 2016,
Makroekonomia (podręcznik akademicki, współautor) 2015,
Inwestowanie na rynku kapitałowym: rynek po kryzysie (współredaktor), 2015,
Rynek kapitałowy wobec wyzwań dekoniunktury (współautor), 2014,
Polityka inwestycyjna instytucji ubezpieczeniowych. Istota – uwarunkowania – instrumenty, 2009,
Towarzystwa ubezpieczeniowe na rynku kapitałowym w Polsce, 2003.
== References ==
== External links ==
Media related to Teresa Czerwińska at Wikimedia Commons |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stars_Dance#Track_listing | Stars Dance | Stars Dance is the debut solo album by American singer Selena Gomez. It was released on July 19, 2013, by Hollywood Records. Gomez began planning the project in 2012, at which time she announced that her band Selena Gomez & the Scene would be taking an indefinite hiatus. Stars Dance is an EDM and electropop album, incorporating elements of dubstep, techno, disco, electro house and worldbeat. Gomez worked on the album through March 2013 with producers such as Rock Mafia and the Cataracs.
Upon its release, Stars Dance received generally mixed reviews from music critics, many of whom complimented Gomez's maturing image and the album's content both lyrically and vocally, but criticized the electronic-heavy production style. It marked her first album to debut at number 1 on the Billboard 200. The album sold 97,000 copies domestically in its first week of release. This achievement was surpassed by its successor, Revival (2015), which sold 117,000 units in its first week. Stars Dance became her fourth Top 20 entry in the United Kingdom, peaking at number 14. Elsewhere, Stars Dance topped the charts in Canada, Norway, Mexico, Taiwan and China. By 2017, the album had sold an estimated 410,000 copies in the United States.
The album's lead single, "Come & Get It" featured heavy electronic and worldbeat themes, and became Gomez's first Top 10 entry in the United States, entering the Top 10 in the United Kingdom, Ireland, and Canada, among others. It was also successful on pop radio, reaching number 2 on the Mainstream Top 40 chart. The second single, "Slow Down", reached the Top 30 in the United States. It was met with success on pop radio, reaching the Top 10 of the Mainstream Top 40 chart. Gomez promoted the album through a number of high-profile performances, such as the 2013 Billboard Music Awards. She embarked on the Stars Dance Tour (2013) to further promote the release.
== Background ==
Selena Gomez & the Scene's third studio album, When the Sun Goes Down (2011), was musically rooted in electropop and dance-pop, similar to the group's second album, A Year Without Rain (2010). Although reviews from contemporary music critics were mixed, the album was a commercial success. In January 2012, Gomez announced that she would put her music career on hold to focus on her acting career, and that the band would be taking a hiatus: "my band and I are going our separate ways for a while. This year is all about films and acting and I want my band to play music wherever with whoever. We will be back but, it will be a good while." Despite her earlier statements, Gomez first confirmed in October 2012 that work had begun on an upcoming album, and later said it would be her solo debut album, rather than her band's fourth album. Gomez announced in March that the album's lead single would be released the following month, and that the album would follow that summer. On April 15, Gomez revealed plans of her first world tour, known as the Stars Dance Tour. Gomez officially confirmed on June 3 that the album would be titled Stars Dance, and also revealed the album's track listing and cover art.
On her return to music, Gomez stated "I miss it. I want to be able to write about things I've never talked about before and tell a story with this album, because I've never actually had time to go in and do that." For the album, Gomez made it with production team The Cataracs, as well as the Norwegian Stargate. Gomez also worked with Rock Mafia on numerous tracks on the album, having previously worked with them on previous singles with The Scene. For Stars Dance, Gomez attempted to have more creative control over her music, stating "It's definitely the hardest I have ever worked on a record, that's for sure. I wanted to have more creative control over the album's direction." Jason Evigan, who worked with Gomez on the album, said "She's not a little girl anymore. She wants to be like that and be respected like the great pop artists out there [...] And I think she is. I think this album is really gonna blossom her into a new realm of electronic pop dance artist." Prior to the album's release, Gomez announced she would be taking a musical hiatus after Stars Dance, commenting "I've been saying that I worked really hard on this record and I feel like it might be my last one for a while [...] I definitely love acting and I love film and I don't feel like I've done enough of that."
Following the album's announcement, numerous sources began claiming that the majority of the album was written about Gomez's relationship with Canadian singer Justin Bieber. These rumors continued to rise in popularity following the release of "Come & Get It", and prompted Gomez to confirm that the song was not about Bieber. She later said, however, that the song "Love Will Remember" is about her relationship with Bieber; an early version that leaked online just prior to the release of the album included a voicemail at the start of the song by Bieber himself that was removed from the final track. She revealed the song was "the most personal track on the record", and added "I think it's a sweet way of releasing it. It's not an aggressive approach to what people are probably expecting. I'm sure he'll love mikey too." The song "Birthday" was the first song recorded for the album. Gomez has listed "Forget Forever" as one of her favorite tracks on the album saying, "It's a really beautiful song. It has meaning behind it and it was a really special time in the studio. I got to be with the writers and just enjoy being in that moment. That was a really fun emotional song for me to sing but then I just kind of wanted to dance after I released it because it felt like I got to release this feeling that I had and it's a beautiful song." She later spoke of "Forget Forever" by stating "It's forgetting all the troubles, about the past, just enjoying everything else." Recording artist Jennifer Lopez wanted to record the song "Save the Day" for her 2013 album, but failed to get it from Gomez. "Come & Get It" was initially recorded by Barbadian recording artist Rihanna for her sixth studio album Talk That Talk (2011), however, she decided against using the song.
== Musical style and themes ==
Musically, Stars Dance is an album rooted stylistically in EDM and pop, this later specifically showcased as electropop while also containing strong elements of dubstep, techno, disco and worldbeat. Jocelyn Vena of MTV News described the music on Stars Dance as "dance-song-heavy" dubstep, that contains "wobbly synths, loopy vocals, fist-pumping beats and crunchy breakdowns". The album contains a highly diverse musical composition, highlighted by Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian as "darting efficiently from EDM to Bollywood". The majority of the album contains dubstep breakdowns, requisite stabs of synths, and according to Jim Farber of New York Daily News, "features a frisson of sex previously absent from this good-girl singer's work." Jason Evigan said of the album's musical style, "She's got some really cool like ethnic influence, kind of tribally dance drums and stuff like that", stating that it was similar to music by Jennifer Lopez. August Brown of the Los Angeles Times called Stars Dance a "sassy" pop-EDM album, noting its composition included "oxygen-sucking" sub-bass, trap snares. Brown noted the influence of Spring Breakers on the album, saying that Gomez wasn't ready to leave the "neon-splattered emotional hellscape of Spring Breakers just yet". He further went on to say: "Stars Dance is exactly the kind of album one makes in 2013 if you want to keep the pop sugar of the Disney tween cabal but mix in some broken glass and a club bathroom nosebleed. Its productions are rooted in today's pop-EDM default mode, but as that stuff goes, 'Slow Down' is pretty capable, and the bhangra-appropriating 'Come & Get It' is guilelessly silly enough to work."
The album's title track was described by Gomez as being "kind of sensual", while "Like a Champion" is said to feature Jamaican and reggae influences. When talking about the song "Save the Day", Gomez stated "Do you ever have moments where you don't ever want them to end? I've had those moments. It's about saving those moments and never wanting it to go away." The song "Write Your Name" is about the feeling of falling in love. Gomez described B.E.A.T. by saying "The song is cool and the lyrics are great, but it was more, 'I can't wait to perform this song onstage because I love the way I feel when I hear this song.' It's just dope." Gomez later stated that "Undercover" was her favorite song on the album, commenting "I've never had the confidence to do different licks and melody changes. I messed up a lot [while recording] that one." The album's lead single, "Come & Get It", has been described as featuring "Bollywood" influences, as well as tribal music.
On-air personality Peter Dee noted that the song featured various electropop elements. "Slow Down" is noted as featuring various dubstep influences, while the song's lyrics speak of taking a relationship slowly rather than rushing into things. Gomez has listed Britney Spears and Janet Jackson as some of the album's biggest influences, and later cited Skrillex, Taylor Swift, and Christina Aguilera as major influences on the record. She listed dubstep producer Skrillex as an influence to the album, with him having previously worked on the soundtrack for Gomez's film Spring Breakers. She later stated "Doing Spring Breakers was really fun, because Skrillex and Cliff Martinez did the soundtrack, and [Skrillex] kind of inspired me with a baby dubstep, because I have a few songs that have that." In an interview with Teen Vogue, Gomez mentioned electropop singer-songwriter Ellie Goulding, while she described the sound of the record, stating: "they are all really fun, pop songs-a little Ellie Goulding-ish, a little island-y feel. It's a really fun pop record."Jim Farber of New York Daily News noted influences of Spears, Jennifer Lopez, and Janet Jackson, although going on to say "Gomez's writer and producers have aped other stars' tricks gamely enough to create a pretty good time. It helps that Gomez boasts a far richer voice than her idols, Britney, J.Lo and Janet."
== Songs and lyrical content ==
The album opens with "Birthday", an electropunk song which contains sparse drums, trap snares and vocal chants and has been described by Julia Rubin of Headlines and Global News as a "candy-coated, clap-happy club anthem with plenty of girl power and sex appeal, much like a bubblegum version of Rihanna's 'Cockiness (Love It)'." "Slow Down" is a high-octane, uptempo dance-pop and EDM song, that has been described as "wobbly club thumper" by Robert Copsey of Digital Spy. It features a dubstep chorus, funk guitars, a four on the floor beat, and a spoken word outro. Lyrically, the song speaks of "slowing down the song" so the party doesn't end. "Stars Dance", the album's title track, is a "breathy and sultry" dubstep song, which contains an orchestral-dubstep beat. According to Rubin, "Gomez's soft voice takes center stage over sexy synth-beats, icy choruses and wallowing melodies." "Stars Dance" has also received comparisons to the works of Britney Spears. "Like a Champion" is a dancehall song, with influences of funk, reggae, and soca music, and features Gomez singing the song in a Bajan accent. The song has received heavy comparisons to the works of Rihanna, with critics noting the song's breezy and carefree vocal delivery. "Come & Get It" is a tribal electropop and popstep song, which contains a Bhangra beat, sonic drops, and influences of Indian music. Lyrically, the song is about female lover's attempts to rekindle a previously ended romance.
"Forget Forever" is a dance-pop and synthpop song which contains an EDM beat and house music breakdowns. Lyrically, the song is about a breakup. Sam Lansky of Idolator said the song is an "electrifying dance-pop banger with a monolithically great chorus and a storming, anthemic beat, plus a big house break." Nate Jones of Popdust called the song "bright and expansive", going onto say that Gomez's vocals "fly over an EDM beat that can't help getting us ready for summer." "Save the Day" is a "thumping" Latin pop and house music song "B.E.A.T." is a "sexy" urban hip-hop song described by Jon O'Brien of Yahoo! Music as "minimal spoken word electro". Christina Drill of Popdust said the song was "infectious and definitely racier than usual for Selena (the chorus: 'It's a big bad world but I'm not ashamed / I like the lights in my hand and the beat in my face')". "Write Your Name" has been described as an "exotic" sounding electronic dance and house music song. The song contains a rap verse by Gomez, as well as elements of dubstep. O'Brien of Yahoo! Music said that: "Forget Forever' and 'Write Your Name' both manage to tiptoe into 'hands in the air' territory without succumbing to the usual Guetta-style bombast."
== Promotion ==
Gomez promoted the album through a number of interviews and televised live performances. She appeared on On Air with Ryan Seacrest on April 8, 2013, to promote "Come & Get It". She gave her first televised performance of the song at the 2013 MTV Movie Awards on April 14, 2013. The appearance saw Gomez in an "all-red, 'earthy'" outfit, and received a generally positive reception. She appeared on Dancing with the Stars on April 16 to perform "Come & Get It". On April 18, she performed the song again on The Ellen Degeneres Show. Gomez donned a bindi for these performances, and later came under fire by the Universal Society of Hinduism for her use of the religious symbol. Gomez appeared on The Late Show with David Letterman on April 25, where she performed "Come & Get It". On April 27, she performed the song yet again at the 2013 Radio Disney Music Awards. She did not perform the song again until May 19, when she performed at the 2013 Billboard Music Awards. Days later, she performed "Come & Get It" on The Graham Norton Show.
Gomez appeared at the MuchMusic Headquarters on May 30, where she performed "Slow Down" for the first time. On July 4, Gomez performed both "Come & Get It" and "Slow Down" at the Macy's 4th of July Fireworks Spectacular. Gomez appeared on This Morning in the United Kingdom to perform "Come & Get It". To coincide with the release of Stars Dance, Gomez performed "Come & Get It", "Slow Down", and "Birthday" on Good Morning America. In September, Gomez appeared on Live! With Kelly and Michael to perform "Birthday". Following the release of "Slow Down", Gomez appeared on The View to perform the song. She performed the song again on The Late Show with David Letterman. She performed "Slow Down" on The X Factor in the United States. Gomez was selected to be the halftime performer during the Dallas Cowboys vs. Oakland Raiders game held on Thanksgiving. For the show, Gomez performed a medley of "Like a Champion", "Slow Down", and "Come & Get It". The tour was further promoted through her worldwide Stars Dance Tour (2013), which visited countries such as the United States and Asia. The tour became making over $36 million at the box office. Originally meant to feature dates in Australia and Japan, the tour was cancelled due to personal issues.
== Singles ==
"Come & Get It", was released as the lead single from the album on April 7, 2013. As of July 2013, the song became one of Gomez's most successful singles, peaking at number 6 of the US Billboard Hot 100 and the Canadian Hot 100 as well as being certified 3× Platinum by the RIAA. The music video premiered on MTV on May 7, 2013 and was directed by Anthony Mandler.
"Slow Down", was released as a promomotinal single on June 3, 2013. via an instant digital download with the pre-order of the album on iTunes, and was co-produced by The Cataracs and David Kuncio. It was later released as the album's official second single on August 13, 2013. It peaked at number 27 on the Billboard Hot 100. The official video was uploaded to YouTube on July 19, 2013.
== Critical reception ==
Stars Dance received mixed reviews from music critics. Positive remarks went toward the overall production of the album, as well as its lyrics and Gomez's vocals. Mixed reviews went towards her inability to create her own musical identity; she was compared to singer Rihanna on several occasions. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from critics, the album received an average score of 59, which indicates "mixed or average reviews". Tim Sendra from Allmusic awarded the album three-and-a-half stars out of five. As he pointed out "Slow Down", "Save the Day" and "Undercover" as highlights, he said "Selena's reliably strong vocals and the variety of sounds, it adds up to be another fine entry in her catalog and just another example of why Selena Gomez is one of the best pop stars making music in 2013." Stephen Unwin from Express.co.uk compared the new effort to Vanessa Hudgens and said "Both [Gomez and Hudgens] have now turned their attention to themes of a more adult nature, this new album of Selena's being one of them and she's just about pulled it off."
Two Guardian reviews were issued. The first, observed by Kitty Empire, awarded the album three stars out of five. Conversely, the second Guardian review, observed by Hermione Hoby, was mixed and awarded it two stars out of five. She clarified that "if she really wants to be considered a grown-up pop star, Selena Gomez is going to have to find some better hit-makers." She compared the work, including "Like a Champion", to Rihanna. August Brown from the Los Angeles Times found that the album was "the kind of album one makes in 2013 if you want to keep the pop sugar of the Disney tween cabal but mix in some broken glass and a club bathroom nosebleed. Its productions are rooted in today's pop-EDM default mode [...]" Natalie Palmer from Entertainmentwise took perspective of other critics and commentators, saying the album should have been praised for "trying something new". She discussed "'Stars Dance' isn't what you would expect from a girl who was once a Disney princess. Many often go for the bubblegum pop or the angry rock chick but the 21-year-old has opted for an edgier genre and a unique sound."
Matthew Horton from Virgin Media awarded the album two stars. He criticized her "lack of personality" in most songs and felt her vocal abilities on the album "doesn't help". He concluded saying "It's all too identikit, [and] could be anyone with a grasp of average dance-pop". Simon Price from The Independent awarded one star out of the five, criticizing the lack of effort saying that "Even given these facts, it's a pop record, which means one killer track would redeem everything. Predictably enough, it never comes." Ron Harris from The Huffington Post felt the album did not live up to expectations, citing Gomez as a "vibrant young woman of Disney pedigree [who] simply punched the clock and worked through an already cooked musical plot foisted upon her. Gomez might be an incredibly talented and interesting person with much to offer artistically, but we'll never find out at this rate." He also found the album to have less personality than her previous records with The Scene.
== Commercial performance ==
Stars Dance debuted at number one on the Billboard 200, selling 97,000 copies in its first week of release. This made it Gomez's first album to reach the top of the chart, as well as her highest first sales week for an album, until surpassed by her second release Revival, which sold 117,000 its first week. The album fell to number eight on the chart during its second week, selling an additional 31,000 copies. These sales were a 68% drop from the previous week's sales. In its third week, the album fell to number thirteen. The album continued to decline on the chart the following week, landing at number eighteen. In its fifth week, the album fell to number twenty-five. The album rose to number twenty-four on the chart following this. Following this rise, the album had a 23% increase in sales, selling 17,213 copies and reaching number twenty-one. Despite this, the album dropped to number thirty-three the following week, selling just over 7,000 copies. Stars Dance spent a total of twenty-five weeks on the Billboard 200, with its last appearance being on the week ending January 25, 2014.
The album debuted at number one on the Canadian Albums Chart, with sales of 16,500 copies in its first week. It was her first number one in the country, and sold more than 5,000 in its first week than her previous effort. On August 27, 2013, the album received a Gold certification from the CRIA, for sales exceeding 40,000. Stars Dance had its first chart entry on the New Zealand Albums Chart, entering in the top five at number five itself. In the United Kingdom, the album debuted and peaked at number fourteen; it spent a total of four weeks on the chart. It peaked at number nine in Ireland, and spent a total of six weeks on the chart. The record peaked at number eight in Australia. The album was more successful in international territories. In Mexico, the album debuted at number one on the Mexican Albums Chart, and later went on to be certified Gold in the country for selling 30,000 copies. Stars Dance reached number two in Portugal, and was certified Platinum in the country. The album peaked at number eight in Brazil, and also received a Platinum certification in the country.
== Track listing ==
Credits adapted from the album's liner notes
Notes
^[a] signifies a producer and vocal producer
^[b] signifies a vocal producer
^[c] signifies a co-producer
^[d] signifies an additional producer
^[e] signifies an executive producer
^[f] signifies an additional vocal producer
The Amazon MP3 digital edition includes the bonus remix track "Come & Get It" (DJ Laszlo Club Remix).
The Overseas special digital edition includes the bonus remix track "Come & Get It" (Cosmic Dawn Club Mix).
The US Walmart edition includes a bonus DVD which features Selena Gomez live at Walmart Soundcheck.
The Japanese digital edition includes the bonus remix track "Come & Get It" (Dave Audé Radio Remix), while the Japanese physical edition replaces the bonus track with "Come & Get It (Jump Smokers Radio Remix)" that also appears on the Japanese deluxe edition.
The Japanese deluxe edition also includes a bonus DVD which features the music videos of all singles, and a track by track interview.
Sampling credits
"Like a Champion" samples the composition entitled "Champion" by Buju Banton.
"Come & Get It" samples "Dachee" by Bollywood Sounds.
"Nobody Does It Like You" samples elements of "Hello" by Martin Solveig.
== Personnel ==
Credits
Chris Gehringer – mastering
Mio Vukovic – A&R
Sarah Yeo – A&R [Coordination]
Jeri Heiden – Art Direction
Dave Snow – Creative Director
Nick Steinhardt – Design
Brian Teefey – Management
Mandy Teefey – Management
Lincoln Wheeler – Management [Marketing]
Diego Uchitel – Photography By
== Charts ==
== Certifications and sales ==
== Release history ==
== See also ==
List of Billboard 200 number-one albums of 2013
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albertina_Sisulu#:~:text=After%20the%20end%20of%20apartheid%2C%20Sisulu%20represented%20the%20ANC%20in%20the%20first%20democratic%20Parliament%20before%20she%20retired%20from%20politics%20in%201999 | Albertina Sisulu | Albertina Sisulu OMSG (née Nontsikelelo Thethiwe; 21 October 1918 – 2 June 2011) was a South African anti-apartheid activist. A member of the African National Congress (ANC), she was the founding co-president of the United Democratic Front. In South Africa, where she was affectionately known as Ma Sisulu, she is often called a mother of the nation.
Born in rural Transkei, Sisulu moved to Johannesburg in 1940 and was a nurse by profession. She entered politics through her marriage to Walter Sisulu and became increasingly engaged in activism after his imprisonment in the Rivonia Trial. In the 1980s she emerged as a community leader in her hometown of Soweto, assuming a prominent role in the establishment of the UDF and the revival of the Federation of South African Women.
Between 1964 and 1989, she was subject to a near-continuous string of banning orders. In addition to intermittent detention without trial, she was subject to criminal charges on three occasions: she was acquitted of violating pass laws in 1958, convicted of violating the Suppression of Communism Act in 1984, and acquitted of violating the Internal Security Act in the 1985 Pietermaritzburg Treason Trial.
After the end of apartheid, Sisulu represented the ANC in the first democratic Parliament before she retired from politics in 1999. She was also the deputy president of the ANC Women's League from 1991 to 1993 and a member of the ANC National Executive Committee from 1991 to 1994.
== Early life and education ==
Sisulu was born on 21 October 1918 in the Camama, a village in the Tsomo region of the Transkei. She was the second of five siblings in a Xhosa (Mfengu) family. Her father, Bonilizwe Thetiwe, was a migrant worker who spent long stints working in the gold mines of the Transvaal, and her mother, Monica Thetiwe (née Mnyila), was disabled by the bout of Spanish flu that she had suffered while pregnant with Sisulu. Sisulu and her siblings spent most of their childhood with their maternal grandparents in the village of Xolobe, where Sisulu began school at a Presbyterian mission. Though her family called her "Ntsiki" throughout her life, she assumed the name Albertina at school, choosing it from a list of European Christian names provided by her missionary schoolteachers.
In 1929, while Sisulu's mother was pregnant with her fifth and final child, Sisulu's father died of occupational lung disease in Camama. Her mother remained in ill health until her death in 1941, so Sisulu – both the eldest sister and the eldest female cousin – became a primary caregiver to her younger siblings and cousins, with frequent interruptions to her education as a result. Nonetheless, in 1936, she received a scholarship for secondary schooling at Mariazell College, a Catholic boarding school in Matatiele. She covered her living expenses by ploughing fields and working in the laundry room during school holidays. Newly converted to Catholicism, she intended to become a nun or school principal, but her headmaster, Father Bernard Huss, convinced her to pursue training as a nurse after she finished school in 1939.
== Anti-apartheid activism ==
In January 1940, Sisulu moved to Johannesburg, where she began her long nursing career as a trainee in the non-European section of the Johannesburg General Hospital. She qualified as a nurse in 1944 and later qualified as a midwife too. Her interest in politics grew through her association with Walter Sisulu, a real estate agent and activist in the African National Congress (ANC), who courted and then married her. She began attending ANC meetings not as a member but as his companion. In her own description, "I had no political ideas. I was devout until I met Walter." Ellen Kuzwayo, another of the few women present at such meetings, later remembered her as "a kind hostess who served the committee members of the congress with tea after long and intense meetings". In this capacity, as Walter's fiancée, she was the only woman present at the inaugural meeting of the ANC Youth League in 1944.
According to Pippa Green, she joined the ANC Women's League in 1946. In addition, the Sisulus' home in Orlando West, a suburb of Soweto outside Johannesburg, was long-established as a meeting place for ANC leaders. However, her husband's political activities made Sisulu the family's main breadwinner, and she did not actively participate in ANC activities until the 1950s, by which time the National Party had introduced its programme of institutionalised apartheid. She abstained from the 1952 Defiance Campaign, during which Walter was arrested and convicted of communism; in her paraphrase of the ANC's policies, "if one of the members of the family was already defying, we couldn't all go, because there were children to be looked after".
=== 1948–1963: Pre-Rivonia Trial ===
Opposition to apartheid accelerated in 1954 and 1955, and Sisulu was involved in several related campaigns. She was elected to the inaugural national executive committee of the Federation of South African Women (FEDSAW) when it was founded in 1954. In 1955, she participated in the Freedom Charter leafleting campaign ahead of the Congress of the People, and at the same time participated in a boycott of public schools in protest of the Bantu Education Act; the Sisulus' home housed one of the so-called alternative schools set up as part of the protest. She was present at the August 1956 Women's March in Pretoria, and in October 1958 she was arrested for the first time and charged for participating in another women's march against pass laws. On the latter occasion, she was detained for three weeks on charges of violating the pass laws, but she was ultimately acquitted, with her husband's close friend Nelson Mandela as her lawyer. In the early 1960s, she was involved in an ANC scheme to recruit nurses as volunteers to relocate to newly independent Tanganyika, a personal favour from Oliver Tambo to Julius Nyerere.
Meanwhile, Sisulu's husband was a defendant in the 1956–1961 Treason Trial, and their home became a target for Security Branch attention and raids. After the 1960 Sharpeville uprising, the apartheid government banned the ANC and several associated organisations; shortly afterwards, the ANC announced the inauguration of armed struggle. Her husband, a founder of Umkhonto we Sizwe, went into hiding underground in 1963. On 19 June of that year, Sisulu became the first woman to be detained under the so-called 90-Day Detention Law: the recently enacted General Laws Amendment Act, 1963 allowed police to detain activists incommunicado indefinitely and without charging them. She was held in solitary confinement and interrogated at length about Walter's whereabouts. She was released after her husband and his comrades were apprehended at Rivonia in July 1963. The ensuing Rivonia Trial concluded in June 1964 with Walter being sentenced to life imprisonment. During the trial, Sisulu redoubled her engagement with the ANC Women's League.
=== 1964–1989: Post-Rivonia Trial ===
In August 1964, in the aftermath of the Rivonia convictions, Sisulu was served with the first in a series of banning orders. She was banned continuously for the next 17 years, prohibited from political activity and for several years confined to effective house arrest. The Minister of Law and Order allowed her fourth ban to lapse in August 1981, and she celebrated by making an address – her first political speech since the early 1960s – at a local church's commemoration of the Women's March. The respite lasted less than a year before she was arrested and served with another banning order, her fifth, in June 1982; that order was part of a more general crackdown effected in Soweto during commemorations of the 1976 Soweto uprising.
Nonetheless, throughout this period, Sisulu remained a prominent figure in the resistance movement, notable for her focus on civic organising on a national rather than local scale. She was particularly influential in the preparations for the establishment of the United Democratic Front (UDF), a popular front against apartheid that was launched in 1983, and in a protracted campaign to revive FEDSAW. From the 1970s, she was active in the political mentorship of younger women activists such as Jessie Duarte and Susan Shabangu; Duarte later said that Sisulu's protégés considered themselves "MaSisulu's girls", and she was instrumental in the foundation of a Soweto-based underground ANC cell for women, named Thusang Basadi ("wake up women").
==== Communism trial and UDF launch ====
Sisulu's June 1982 banning order was allowed to lapse after only a year, and in July 1983 she attended meetings of the national steering committee that was preparing for the national launch of the UDF. However, on 5 August, she was arrested again at her workplace and charged with a violation of the Suppression of Communism Act. She and her co-accused, activist Thami Mali, were accused of having conspired to further the aims of the banned ANC in connection with their role in planning the funeral of Rose Mbele, an ANC Women's League Stalwart. The funeral had taken place months earlier – on 16 January 1983 in a church in Soweto – and the charges were widely viewed as a justification to detain Sisulu ahead of the UDF's launch.
Later in August, while Sisulu was awaiting trial in solitary confinement in Diepkloof, the UDF was launched. She was elected in absentia as the regional president of the UDF's Transvaal branch, and then, at the front's national launch in Mitchell's Plain on 20 August, as one of the three national co-presidents of the UDF, the others being Oscar Mpetha and Archie Gumede. Her trial began in Krugersdorp shortly afterwards, with George Bizos as her defence counsel. On 24 February 1984, in a ruling condemned by the United Nations Special Committee against Apartheid, she was convicted and sentenced to four years' imprisonment, with two years of the sentence suspended for five years. However, she was also released on bail pending an appeal, allowing her to resume her political activities; she said that, after several consecutive months in solitary confinement, "I came out speaking to the walls". The appeal against her sentence was ultimately upheld in 1987.
==== Abu Baker Asvat and Mandela United ====
In 1983, Sisulu retired from public nursing, having reached retirement age and received her pension. The following year, in the aftermath of her criminal trial, she began work as receptionist and nursing assistant in Rockville, Soweto in the private surgery of Abu Baker Asvat, a doctor who was renowned for his humanitarianism. Although Asvat was a leading member of the Azanian People's Organisation, a rival of the UDF, the pair worked closely together; she later said that they were like mother and son, and he did not object to Sisulu's political activities, which continued in earnest.
This period was also marked by increasing tension between Sisulu and Winnie Madikizela-Mandela, Nelson Mandela's wife, whose Mandela United Football Club engaged in gangsterism and intimidation in Soweto from around 1986 onward. Because of the friendship between their husbands, Sisulu and Madikizela-Mandela had been close during their youth; arrested together in 1958, Sisulu had nursed Mandela through the near-miscarriage of her first child in a jail cell. However, in the 1980s, their relationship grew tense as Sisulu attempted to curb Mandela United's excesses. Sisulu later said that, "As a woman, I tried to pull her out of that... Winnie and I were never enemies, I tried to help her." According to historian Jonny Steinberg, other members of the community delegated Sisulu to report their concerns about Madikizela-Mandela's behaviour to the exiled ANC leadership in Lusaka, Zambia. In later years, because of their husbands' stature, the press often contrasted Madikizela-Mandela and Sisulu as opposing models of female activism, comparing Sisulu's cool-headed maturity with Madikizela-Mandela's "rage and charm".
Meanwhile, Asvat was an unpopular figure both with the state and with conservative residents of Soweto; in 1987, Sisulu was with him when he narrowly escaped a knife attack, and in December 1988, they worked without water or electricity after the supply to their surgery was cut off. On the afternoon of 27 January 1989, Asvat was fatally shot at his surgery while Sisulu was in the dispensary at the rear of the clinic; he died shortly afterwards in Sisulu's presence. She had admitted the gunmen to an appointment with Asvat earlier that day. Madikizela-Mandela and her Football Club long faced rumours of having arranged Asvat's assassination, and Sisulu was publicly drawn into those accusations in 1997 (see below).
==== Pietermaritzburg Treason Trial ====
In 1984, while Sisulu was working at Asvat's surgery and awaiting the appeal of her criminal conviction, the UDF vastly expanded its national presence through an intensive campaign of opposition to President P. W. Botha's constitutional reforms, including the Black Authorities Act, 1982 and the 1983 Constitution. The first elections to the Tricameral Parliament in August 1984 were marred by a successful UDF boycott, followed by widespread township uprisings. In a subsequent crackdown by Botha's government, Sisulu was arrested on 19 February 1985. She and 15 others were charged under the Internal Security Act with treason and incitement to overthrow the government. As the only woman accused, she was held in detention alone.
On 3 May 1985, Sisulu and her co-accused were released on bail with stringent conditions. The ensuing Pietermaritzburg Treason Trial opened on 21 October in the Natal Supreme Court with the defendants' not-guilty plea, but the charges against Sisulu and 11 others were dropped on 9 December. Sisulu told press it was "a crushing victory for us". Popular uprisings continued, and Sisulu was banned again in 1986 and in early 1988.
=== 1989–1994: Negotiations ===
In 1989, as the negotiations to end apartheid quickened, Sisulu embraced her public-facing role in the anti-apartheid movement. In June that year, she was granted her first South African passport – an abrupt reversal, given that her latest banning order had been renewed only days earlier. Later that month, she led a UDF delegation on an international tour, which included a meeting with British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher. While in London, she met with Labour Party leader Neil Kinnock and addressed a major rally of the British Anti-Apartheid Movement. On 30 June 1989, she met with American President George H. W. Bush in the White House. The delegation also travelled to Sweden; to France, on the invitation of Danielle Mitterrand; and to the ANC's headquarters in exile in Lusaka, where Sisulu provided exiled leaders with a report on conditions inside South Africa.
The last of the restrictions against Sisulu were lifted by the South African government on 14 October 1989. Meanwhile, President F. W. de Klerk's government unbanned the ANC in 1990, permitting the party to resume overt organising inside South Africa. Sisulu became involved in the campaign to re-establish the ANC Women's League, though she declined a nomination to stand for the league's presidency. Instead, at the league's first national conference in Kimberley in April 1991, she threw her support behind Gertrude Shope, who defeated Madikizela-Mandela to become the league's president. At the same conference, Sisulu was elected to deputise Shope as the league's deputy president. Over the next two years, she worked at the league's downtown headquarters in Shell House. However, she held the deputy presidency for only one term, ceding the office to Thandi Modise at the league's next national conference in December 1993.
The mainstream ANC held its own reunion in July 1991 at the 48th National Conference in Durban, where Sisulu was elected to serve as a member of the party's National Executive Committee. She only served one three-year term in the committee; at the 49th National Conference in December 1994, both she and her husband declined to stand for re-election to the party's leadership.
During the struggle, she also found refuge at the Albert Street Methodist Church, Johannesburg, which played a key role in sheltering activists.
== Post-apartheid political career ==
=== National Assembly ===
Sisulu later said that, as a member of the ANC National Executive, she had been highly doubtful of Mandela's proposal to reconcile with National Party supporters in the interests of national unity. As she told a reporter, "The first meeting of the [ANC] national executives, when Mandela introduced this to us, we all stood up and said, 'He's now mad.' We thought he was mad, to say we must reconcile. Shooo!". Nonetheless, ahead of the first post-apartheid democratic elections, she accepted nomination to stand as an ANC candidate for election to the new multi-racial Parliament of South Africa, and she was comfortably elected to a seat in the lower house, the National Assembly.
When the Houses of Parliament opened on 10 May 1994, it was Sisulu who formally nominated Mandela to serve as the first post-apartheid President of South Africa. Her biographer said it was "one of the proudest moments of her life" to be selected to offer the nomination on the ANC's behalf. She served one term in Parliament, retiring at the June 1999 general election.
=== Truth and Reconciliation Commission ===
During this period, her most prominent engagement was that with the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) in 1997. She was expected to provide important testimony in the TRC's investigation into the activities of the Mandela United Football Club, in particular through her account of the day of Asvat's murder and of the relationship between Asvat and Madikizela-Mandela. Moreover, earlier that year, a videotaped interview with Sisulu had been included in Katiza's Journey, a BBC documentary in which journalist Fred Bridgland claimed to uncover evidence that Madikizela-Mandela had conspired to kidnap Stompie Seipei as well as to murder Asvat. In that interview, Sisulu had confirmed the authenticity of a patient record card from Asvat's surgery which undermined Madikizela-Mandela's alibi on the day of Seipei's death; she said that she recognised her own handwriting on the card. She later said that she had made this identification in error.
Sisulu's appearance before the TRC on 1 December received international attention. However, after giving an emotional account of Asvat's shooting, she provided what were described as "evasive" responses to questions about Madikizela-Mandela's involvement in Asvat and Seipei's deaths; she denied having signed the crucial patient record card, denied any knowledge of a row between Madikizela-Mandela and Asvat, and said, "I wouldn't think that Mrs. Mandela could kill Asvat because I thought they were friendly". She said that she did not recall having seen Madikizela-Mandela or her colleagues at the surgery during the period of Seipei's kidnapping.
During intensive cross-examination, TRC commissioner Dumisa Ntsebeza told Sisulu that she appeared to be "trying your very best to say as little as possible, anything that can implicate Mrs. Mandela" and asked whether this was because of "struggle morality" – because "she is your comrade and the Mandela and Sisulus go back a very long way". Sisulu responded with indignant weeping, recounting her years of involvement in activism and saying, "Even if I am shielding her, I am not here to tell lies." Commissioner Alex Boraine also expressed dissatisfaction with apparent inconsistencies in Sisulu's testimony.
The day after her testimony, Sisulu and her husband met with Desmond Tutu, the chairman of the TRC, to discuss her unhappiness at having been accused of dishonesty. On 4 December, the TRC heard further evidence which confirmed Sisulu's account that it was not her signature on the disputed record card. Sisulu briefly re-appeared on the witness stand, at her own request, and Ntsebeza told her that she had been "vindicated" and restored as "an icon of moral rectitude".
== Personal and family life ==
Sisulu met her husband, Walter, in 1941, and their families agreed on lobola the following year; they married on 15 July 1944 in a civil ceremony in Cofimvaba. Walter's best man was Nelson Mandela, and one of Albertina's bridesmaids was Mandela's first wife, Evelyn Mase; Mase was Walter's maternal cousin and had met Mandela at the Sisulus' home. During reception speeches by A. B. Xuma and Anton Lembede, Lembede warned Albertina that, "You are marrying a man who is already married to the nation". Walter later recalled, "I told her it was useless buying new furniture. I was going to be in jail." They did not have a honeymoon until November 1990, when they travelled together to the Crimean resort of Yalta on ANC business.
The Sisulus' four-room home in Orlando West accommodated a rotation of young relatives, including Sisulu's younger siblings and five children of their own born between August 1945 and October 1957, and Sisulu raised them alone while Walter was on Robben Island from 1964 to 1989. In the early years of Walter's imprisonment, she spent her spare time sewing, knitting, and reselling eggs to raise money to cover her children's school tuition, determined that they should attend boarding school in neighbouring Swaziland rather than join the South African Bantu Education system.
From their young adulthood onwards, the children were also periodically detained and banned by the apartheid police between stints in exile with the ANC. While Sisulu and her son were both banned in the 1980s, they received special police authorisation to be allowed to speak to each other, in exception to provisions that criminalised gatherings between banned individuals; since they lived in the same Soweto home, Sisulu dismissed the rule as "nonsense", joking, ''What was I supposed to do? Not ask him what he wanted for breakfast?'' This notwithstanding, she later said that above all else it was her children's detentions that made her feel "that the Boers were breaking me at the knees."
Sisulu was rarely able to travel to Cape Town to visit her husband on Robben Island, but Ruth First said of their marriage in 1982 that, "His capacity to lead and her political strength are... the product of a good marriage, a good political marriage, but a good marriage, one that is based on genuine equality and on shared commitment." Sisulu herself famously said, "We loved each other very much. We were like two chickens. One always walking behind the other." On another occasion, she reflected:[Y]ou know, of all the people around here, he’s the only one – perhaps there are one or two – who are progressive. I was emancipated the day I got married. There was no question of 'Go and make tea' or 'Polish my shoes.' He used to wash his children and put them to bed. You know, I never felt I was a woman in the house.On 10 October 1989, Sisulu was visiting Mandela at Victor Verster Prison when she learned of her husband's impending release through an SABC broadcast. His health had deteriorated in prison and when Sisulu was nominated to stand for Parliament in 1994, Mandela suggested that she might decline the nomination in order to care for Walter. Her children were so incensed by the suggestion that Mandela called to apologise to them and rescind his advice. The couple lived in Orlando until after her retirement, when they moved to the Johannesburg suburb of Linden. Walter died at home on 5 May 2003 in Sisulu's presence. At his funeral, one of their granddaughters read a poem written by Sisulu, entitled, "Walter, what do I do without you?".
The Sisulus' children also went on to hold positions of influence in post-apartheid South Africa. Their biological children were Max (born August 1945), Mlungisi (born November 1948; died October 2015), Zwelakhe (born December 1950, during an ANC national conference; died October 2012), Lindiwe (born May 1954), and Nonkululeko (born October 1957). Max's wife, Elinor Sisulu, published a biography of her parents-in-law in 2002 entitled Walter and Albertina Sisulu: In Our Lifetime. The Sisulus also adopted Walter's sister's two children, Gerald and Beryl Lockman (born in December 1944 and March 1949 respectively), and raised the son of Walter's cousin, Jongumzi Sisulu (born 1958). At the time of her death, Sisulu had 26 grandchildren and three great-grandchildren. Despite her former Catholicism, she raised her children in the Anglican Church at the wishes of Walter's mother; by 1992, however, when asked whether she and Walter were still practising Christians, she replied, "There’s no time, my dear".
== Death and funeral ==
Sisulu died unexpectedly at her home in Linden on 2 June 2011, aged 92. She was watching television with two of her grandchildren when she had a coughing fit and lost consciousness; paramedics were not able to revive her. She was buried on 11 June next to her husband's grave in Croesus Cemetery in Newclare, Johannesburg.
Obituaries and tributes to Sisulu celebrated her as the mother of the nation. In his own statement, President Jacob Zuma said that, "Mama Sisulu has, over the decades, been a pillar of strength not only for the Sisulu family but also the entire liberation movement, as she reared, counselled, nursed and educated most of the leaders and founders of the democratic South Africa". He also announced that Sisulu would receive a state funeral, and that the national flag would be flown at half-mast from 4 June until the day of her burial on 11 June.
Memorial services were held throughout the week, followed on 11 June by the official funeral at Soweto's Orlando Stadium. President Zuma delivered a eulogy, after leading the crowd in verses of struggle song Thina Sizwe, and Graça Machel read a message from former President Mandela which heralded Sisulu as his "beloved sister" and as the "mother of all our people".
== Honours ==
The city of Reggio Emilia, Italy granted Sisulu honorary citizenship of the city in 1987, and the following year, the Sisulu family was jointly awarded the Carter Center's Carter-Menil Human Rights Award, though neither Sisulu nor her husband – banned and imprisoned respectively – could travel to Georgia to accept the prize. In 1993 she was elected as president of the World Peace Council.
After the end of apartheid, she was awarded honorary doctorates by the University of the Witwatersrand in 1999, the University of Cape Town in 2005, and the University of Johannesburg in 2007. On her 85th birthday in 2003, she was present at the unveiling of the Albertina Sisulu Centre, a community centre built by the City of Johannesburg in Orlando West to serve children and adults with special needs. In 2004 she was ranked 57th in SABC3's controversial Great South Africans poll, and in 2007 she received a Lifetime Achievement Award at the annual Community Builder of the Year Awards, hosted by SABC, Old Mutual, and the Sowetan. She also received the Order for Meritorious Service.
In 2007, the Gauteng Provincial Government announced that it would rename the R21 highway between Pretoria and the O. R. Tambo International Airport as the Albertina Sisulu Freeway. In line with this decision, the Johannesburg Metropolitan Council resolved in 2008 to rename 18 municipal roads after Sisulu, thereby preserving the name change in the non-freeway sections of the R24 that pass through Johannesburg and Roodepoort, with the name change taking place in 2013. Just before the 2010 FIFA World Cup, the freeway section of the R24 was also named the Albertina Sisulu Freeway. Outside of South Africa, the Albertina Sisulu Bridge, which crosses the Scheldt, was given its name by the City of Ghent, Belgium in 2014.
In 2018, the centenary of Sisulu's birth, the South African government held a number of further initiatives to honour Sisulu. As part of this programme, the South African Post Office launched a commemorative stamp, and a rare species of orchid, brachycorythis conica subsp. transvaalensis, was renamed the Albertina Sisulu Orchid during a ceremony at the Walter Sisulu Botanical Garden. The national government hosted the Albertina Sisulu Women's Dialogue in Johannesburg, and UNICEF co-hosted another Albertina Sisulu Dialogue in Durban during that year's National Women's Month. In 2021, the Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Innovation launched the Albertina Nontsikelelo Sisulu Science Centre, a green technology science centre in Cofimvaba, Eastern Cape.
== See also ==
History of the African National Congress
== References ==
== External links ==
Albertina Nontsikelelo Sisulu at South African History Project
Albertina Sisulu Timeline: 1918–2011 at South African History Project
Video of Mandela's presidential nomination at Nelson Mandela Foundation
Hearings of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission on 4 December 1997
A Life of Fire and Hope: Albertina Sisulu at Apartheid Museum |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pok%C3%A9mon_Diamond_and_Pearl | Pokémon Diamond and Pearl | Pokémon Diamond Version and Pokémon Pearl Version are role-playing video games developed by Game Freak and published by The Pokémon Company and Nintendo for the Nintendo DS in 2006. They are the first installments in the fourth generation of the Pokémon video game series. They were first released in Japan on September 28, 2006, and released in North America, Australia, and Europe in 2007. Pokémon Platinum, a third version, was released two years later in each region. Remakes titled Pokémon Brilliant Diamond and Shining Pearl were released for the Nintendo Switch worldwide on November 19, 2021. A prequel, Pokémon Legends: Arceus, was released for the Nintendo Switch on January 28, 2022.
Like previous Pokémon games, Diamond and Pearl chronicle the adventures of a young Pokémon Trainer as they train and battle Pokémon while also thwarting the schemes of a criminal organization called Team Galactic. The games added many new features, such as Internet play over the Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection, changes to battle mechanics and Pokémon Contests, along with the addition of 107 new Pokémon. The games are independent of each other but feature largely the same plot, and while both can be played separately, it is necessary to trade between them in order to complete the games' Pokédex.
Development of Diamond and Pearl was announced at a Nintendo press conference in the fourth calendar quarter of 2004. The games were designed with features of the Nintendo DS in mind. It was forecasted to be released in Japan in 2005, but ultimately shipped in 2006, the 10th anniversary year of the franchise. In promotion of the games, Nintendo sold a limited-edition Nintendo DS Lite in Japan, and held a release party celebrating their North American release.
The games received generally favorable reviews. Most critics praised the addition of Wi-Fi features and graphics, and felt that the gameplay, though it had not received much updating from previous games, was still engaging. The games enjoyed more commercial success than their Game Boy Advance predecessors: with around 18 million units sold worldwide, Diamond and Pearl have sold over 2 million more units than their predecessors Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire and almost 6 million more units than Pokémon FireRed and LeafGreen, while also outselling their successors, Pokémon Black and White, by over 2 million copies. The games are among the most successful Pokémon games of all time.
== Gameplay ==
Pokémon Diamond and Pearl are role-playing video games with adventure elements. The basic mechanics of the games are largely the same as their predecessors. As with all Pokémon games for handheld consoles, the gameplay is in a third-person overhead perspective, and consists of three basic screens: a field map, in which the player navigates the main character; a battle screen; and the menu, in which the player configures their party, items, or gameplay settings. Players begin the game with no Pokémon or Poké Balls but are given the choice of three Pokémon as a part of the storyline. Once Poké Balls are obtained, the player can capture more Pokémon. Players can use their Pokémon to deal damage to other Pokémon in battle. Whenever the player encounters a wild Pokémon or is challenged by a trainer to a battle, the screen switches to a turn-based battle screen where the Pokémon fight. During the battle, the player may use a move, use an item, switch the active Pokémon, or flee. Fleeing is not an option during battles against trainers. All Pokémon have hit points (HP); whenever a Pokémon's HP is reduced to zero, it faints and cannot battle unless revived at a Pokémon Center or with an item. If the player's Pokémon defeats the opposing Pokémon by causing it to faint, it receives experience points. After accumulating enough experience points, it will level up; most Pokémon evolve into a new species of Pokémon whenever they reach a certain level. Pokémon's stats also increase every time it levels up, and they will also learn new moves at certain levels as well. If a Pokémon is prevented from evolving it will learn new moves faster.
Apart from battling, capturing Pokémon returns as a critical component of Pokémon gameplay. Although other trainers' Pokémon cannot be captured, the player can use different kinds of Poké Balls on a wild Pokémon during battle. A successful capture adds the Pokémon to the player's active party or stores it if the player already has a maximum of six Pokémon in their party. Factors in the success rate of capture include the HP of the target Pokémon and the strength of the Poké Ball used; the lower the target's HP and the stronger the Poké Ball, the higher the success rate of capture is. Also, inflicting certain status effects such as sleep or paralysis adds a multiplier to the capture rate, making it easier to capture wild Pokémon. Each species has a capture rate of its own as well.
=== New features ===
As with other generations of Pokémon games, Diamond and Pearl retain the basic gameplay of their predecessors while introducing additional new features. The day-night cycle makes a return and has increased from three times of day in Gold and Silver to five time periods in Diamond and Pearl: morning, day, afternoon, evening, and night. Diamond and Pearl also introduce several changes to battle mechanics. In previous generations, Pokémon moves were classified as "physical" or "special" based on their type; for example, all Fire-type moves were special and all Ground-type moves were physical. In Diamond and Pearl, however, moves are categorized into three groups. Attacks that make physical contact with the opponent are "physical", attacks that do not make physical contact are "special", and moves that do not deal damage are classified as "status".
Some of the games' new features capitalize on the Nintendo DS's features. The Pokétch, a simulated smartwatch, resides on the DS's bottom screen and hosts various applications including a clock, calculator, map, counter, and a drawing pad. These applications are obtained throughout the game. Beneath Sinnoh's surface is the Underground, a large area used for wireless multiplayer gaming; in it, players can create and decorate secret bases, first featured in Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire, and participate in minigames. The items mined in the Underground can then be transferred into the player's bag in the main game. Diamond and Pearl also employ support for the Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection (since discontinued), allowing players to communicate through voice chat, trade, and battle online. The main system for trade is the Global Trade Station, which allows players to trade with people around the world. Players can search for any Pokémon that they have seen in the game and can offer their own; if another player is offering the requested Pokémon and is looking for the offered Pokémon, the trade occurs immediately. A trade does not have to be instant; an offer can be left for other players to browse and complete, even while the player is offline. Certain species of Pokémon traded internationally will have a Pokédex entry in the language of the game it originated from. According to Pokémon art director Ken Sugimori, the Global Trade Station was the new feature he was most pleased with.
Pokémon Contests are events in which the player's Pokémon compete in a show to win ribbons and, in Diamond and Pearl, they consist of three stages, two more than the Contests of the Game Boy Advance games. In the Visual Competition stage, players use the Nintendo DS's touchscreen to place accessories on their Pokémon to boost a particular trait, such as "Cool" or "Cute", and earn points. In the Dance Competition stage, the player must tap buttons on the touchscreen in rhythm with the music. The final stage, Acting Competition, is similar to Pokémon Contests of the Game Boy Advance games; Pokémon use their moves to appeal to the judges and crowd. Like Pokéblocks in the third-generation games, baked goods called Poffins can be made from berries and fed to Pokémon to boost a particular trait, and therefore, the likelihood of success in a relevant Contest.
=== Connectivity to other devices ===
In addition to compatibility with each other, Diamond and Pearl offer compatibility with the third generation Pokémon games, Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire, Emerald, and FireRed and LeafGreen. They are also compatible with Pokémon Ranger and Pokémon Battle Revolution. After earning the National Pokédex in Diamond and Pearl, the player can "Migrate" Pokémon from the Game Boy Advance games to Diamond and Pearl by inserting a Game Boy Advance cartridge into the Game Boy Advance cartridge slot of the Nintendo DS while Diamond or Pearl is in the DS slot. After six Pokémon are uploaded from the cartridge, they are sent to the Pal Park, an area where the player can capture the transferred Pokémon. Pokémon uploads are restricted to six every twenty-four hours per Game Boy Advance cartridge, and the player must capture the uploaded Pokémon before performing another transfer. Pokémon transferred to Diamond and Pearl this way cannot be sent back to a Game Boy Advance cartridge. After completing a special mission in Pokémon Ranger, the player will be able to send a Manaphy egg or Riolu from Ranger to Diamond or Pearl. Finally, players can wirelessly upload Pokémon from Diamond and Pearl to the Wii games Pokémon Battle Revolution and My Pokémon Ranch.
== Story ==
=== Setting ===
Diamond and Pearl are set in the fictional region of Sinnoh, an island based on the Japanese island of Hokkaido. Sinnoh is not directly connected to any other Pokémon region. It is characterized by large, snow-covered mountains; Mt. Coronet, a part of a mountain range, divides Sinnoh in half. Unlike previous regions, Sinnoh has a "northern" feel to it because it is the first region with snow-covered routes. Sinnoh is also characterized by its waterways with three main lakes, Verity, Acuity, and Valor, that form a triangle. Unlike the Hoenn region, however, which is mostly water routes, only 30 percent of Sinnoh's landscape comprises waterways. Underneath Sinnoh's surface is the Sinnoh Underground, which is a large maze of caves and tunnels.
=== Plot ===
The games chronicle the adventures of a new Pokémon Trainer who strives to become the Pokémon League Champion by collecting and training Pokémon. Like most games in the series, Diamond and Pearl feature eight Pokémon Gyms led by Gym Leaders, professional trainers whose expertise lies in a particular Pokémon type. Gym Leaders serve as bosses and reward skilled trainers with Gym Badges, the key to the advancement of the plot. As with all core games, the protagonist must also thwart the schemes of a crime syndicate, in this case, Team Galactic, who plan to use Pokémon to create a new universe just for themselves, while destroying the current one.
As with all other mainline Pokémon games, Diamond and Pearl begin in the protagonist's hometown. After viewing a television report about a media-conducted search for a red Gyarados, which was spotted at a faraway lake, the protagonist and their best friend, Barry by default, travel together to check the local lake for a Pokémon like it. They spot Professor Rowan, a Pokémon evolution researcher, and his assistant, the playable character not selected in the game: Lucas (boy) or Dawn (girl). After a short discussion, the professor and his assistant leave the lake, leaving a briefcase behind. When they are attacked by a wild Starly each, the protagonist and their rival decide to examine the briefcase. They are then given a choice of one of three Pokémon found within—the Grass-type Turtwig, the Fire-type Chimchar, or the Water-type Piplup—and proceed to battle the attacking Pokémon. After defeating the Starly, Lucas or Dawn retrieves and returns the briefcase to the professor. Noticing that a bond has been forged between the young protagonist and his or her chosen Pokémon, Rowan offers it to them, asking that they embark on a journey and fill their Pokédex.
The protagonist encounters the antagonistic group, Team Galactic, early in the game, when he or she must save Professor Rowan from some of their thugs; however, their motives are unclear until later. The player encounters Team Galactic again when they take over a wind farm and when they set up a base in Eterna City, before eventually taking over Sinnoh's three lakes in an attempt to capture the Mirage Pokémon Uxie, Azelf, and Mesprit. Shortly after the player earns their seventh Gym Badge, Team Galactic captures the Mirage Pokémon and imprisons them inside the science laboratory of the Team Galactic Headquarters Building, where its members extract crystals from the Pokémon to create the Red Chain, an object that can control the legendary Pokémon Palkia in Pearl, or Dialga in Diamond. After releasing the trio, the protagonist can access the Spear Pillar, an ancient ruin atop Mt. Coronet, where the leader of Team Galactic summons Dialga or Palkia. The legendary Pokémon's powers begin to overwhelm Sinnoh, causing the newly free Uxie, Azelf, and Mesprit to attempt to stop it. The player then battles Palkia or Dialga, and after defeating or capturing the Pokémon, Sinnoh returns to normal. Afterward, the player continues their journey, eventually reaching the Sinnoh League. After defeating all Elite Four members, they battle the Sinnoh League Champion, a blonded woman named Cynthia, who had appeared before in the game. After the protagonist defeats Cynthia, they become the new Sinnoh League Champion, finishing the main story. In the post-game, a new island to explore contains Pokémon not seen in the main game and has some new stores and a tournament center. The protagonist's old friend, who challenged them to battles multiple times before, will also be waiting for them here and will challenge them to one more battle.
== Development ==
Pokémon Diamond and Pearl were developed by Game Freak and Junichi Masuda served as game director. The game's music was scored by Hitomi Sato and Junichi Masuda under the supervision of Go Ichinose, with a few other fanfares composed by Morikazu Aoki. According to The Pokémon Company's Tsunekazu Ishihara, the games were designed with the DS's unique features in mind, such as the Wi-Fi capabilities and slot for Game Boy Advance cartridges. The command buttons in the battle screen are large and color-coded; according to Masuda, this feature would facilitate gameplay for players unable to read. Also, the touchscreen interface was designed to encourage players to use their fingers rather than the stylus to manipulate the screen. Though most of the graphics in Diamond and Pearl are 2D, some of the background elements are 3D. The decision to retain 2D graphics in Diamond and Pearl drew criticism; in response, Tsunekazu Ishihara said that "we wanted to maintain the original idea of Pokémon being a game that you played on this big map" and explained that physically, the games were in three dimensions but was designed to "maintain the original feel of the game". Responding to criticism over the use of Friend Codes in the games, Ishihara explained that it was a security measure taken to ensure that players would not be able to chat with strangers over the Wi-Fi connection. Nintendo released a statement detailing glitches found in Japanese releases of Diamond and Pearl. The glitches caused players to be stuck in an in-game wall or lose saved data. Nintendo released patches to certain retailers in Japan to fix these glitches.
In mid 2020, dataminers leaked the source code for Diamond and Pearl, revealing a collection of unused sprites and scrapped designs for new Pokémon. They were first leaked onto ResetEra, and were part of a series of Nintendo-related leaks of unfinished builds of games in development.
== Release ==
Development of Pokémon Diamond and Pearl was announced at a Nintendo press conference in the fourth calendar quarter of 2004 alongside the reveal of Pokémon Dash and details on the Japanese launch of the Nintendo DS. Masuda stated it would "become a new type of game that offers a number of new forms of play" and that he was determined to create "the ultimate [Pokémon] version". Though Diamond and Pearl were expected to be released in Japan by 2005, Nintendo revealed that the developers were still working on aspects of the gameplay and that the games would not be released until 2006. The company said that Diamond and Pearl would be able to communicate with Pokémon games for the Game Boy Advance, allowing players to transfer their Pokémon to the new games. Nintendo also announced that the games would make full use of the Wi-Fi capabilities of the DS, allowing 16 players to communicate wirelessly at one time. Further information concerning the games was not released until mid-2006, when Nintendo President Satoru Iwata mentioned that connectivity with Pokémon Battle Revolution was also still in development; new features such as the Pokétch and time sensitivity were also mentioned.
The games were released in Japan on September 28, 2006. To commemorate the release, Nintendo sold a limited-edition DS Lite in Japanese Pokémon Center stores and through the Pokémon fan club by mail. The console featured the games' mascots Dialga and Palkia painted in silver and gold respectively on a metallic black finish. A two-disc soundtrack, Nintendo DS Pokémon Diamond & Pearl Super Music Collection, was also released in Japan on December 22, 2006. It peaked at #253 on Japan's Oricon charts and charted for one week. On December 20, 2006, Nintendo of America announced that the North American release of the games was slated for April 22, 2007, and that those who pre-ordered their copies of the games would receive special DS styluses branded with some of the new Pokémon. Shortly before the games' North American release, The Pokémon Company presented a limited demo of the games for Nintendo's booth at the Game Developer's Conference. To celebrate the games' North American release, Nintendo held a release party at the Nintendo World Store in New York City's Rockefeller Plaza. Nintendo of Europe announced a release date of July 27, 2007, for the European Union, and Nintendo Australia announced a June 21 release date. A launch event was held in GAME stores at Hamleys to celebrate the European release of the games. The event, held on July 26, 2007, offered a chance to purchase the games one day before their official release date and featured an appearance by band McFly. To celebrate the Australian release of the games, Nintendo launched the nationwide Nintendo DS Connection Tour 07; each stop in the tour featured events such as Pokémon Trading Card Game competitions and Pokémon trivia games.
The success of the games revived the popularity of the Pokémon brand. George Harrison, then Nintendo of America's vice president of marketing, noted that the games were attracting "players of all ages"—from younger children to "grown men and women" and older players who "played the original Pokémon games". As a result, Pokémon USA opened a temporary boutique in the Times Square Toys "R" Us that sold exclusively Pokémon licensed merchandise including Jakks Pacific-created action figures, plush toys, backpacks, and clothing. Ronald Boire, president of Toys "R" Us, stated that the store planned to open temporary boutiques in all 585 of its domestic locations. Other Pokémon merchandise included a BattleDome Playset and a talking Pokédex. Additionally, Pokémon USA partnered with Burger King in 2008 to launch a promotional campaign in which Burger King included exclusive Pokémon trading cards and accessories with Kids Meals. The promotion lasted from July 7 to August 3 in the United States and continued through the fall internationally.
=== Pokémon Platinum ===
Pokémon Platinum Version is the third version after Pokémon Diamond and Pearl developed by Game Freak and published by The Pokémon Company and Nintendo for the Nintendo DS handheld game console. It was released on September 13, 2008, in Japan, March 22, 2009, in North America, May 14, 2009, in Australia, and May 22, 2009, in Europe.
Pokémon Platinum has been met with generally positive reception, holding aggregate scores of 84 and 83.14% at Metacritic and GameRankings respectively. It was praised for the additions and changes made to Diamond and Pearl by publications such as IGN, Nintendo Power, and GamePro, though it has been criticized for being too similar to them. IGN included it as the ninth-best Nintendo DS game ever made, as well as nominating it as one of the best DS role-playing games of 2009. It was the fastest-selling game in Japan at the time, shifting 7.6 million copies overall.
== Reception ==
Pokémon Diamond and Pearl garnered slightly higher ratings than FireRed and LeafGreen and Ruby and Sapphire. The highest score given was a 92 by UK Official Nintendo Magazine, while the lowest was a 67 by Game Revolution. Official Nintendo Magazine would later go on to rank the game 20th in a list of the greatest Nintendo games. Ryan Davis of GameSpot gave the games an 8.5/10, "Great", and called the games "the most well-rounded Pokémon games to date." IGN and GameZone also gave the games an 8.5/10. The UK Official Nintendo Magazine gave the games 92%, and GameSpy gave them a 4.5/5. The games received slightly lower reviews from ComputerAndVideoGames.com than Ruby and Sapphire had, but earned an "A−" grade from 1UP.com, an improvement from Ruby and Sapphire's "B−".
Most reviewers felt that though the gameplay and storyline had not changed much since the first games, Diamond and Pearl were still engaging. Ryan Davis of GameSpot said, "[I]t's a little surprising how well the formula holds up in Diamond and Pearl, which is a testament to the strong fundamentals of the series as well as the quality of the execution." The games' Wi-Fi connectivity also earned largely positive reviews. 1UP.com called the addition of wireless connectivity the games' "biggest improvements". GameSpot and GameSpy both listed the addition of online play as one of the positive points of the games and called the system "robust" and "probably the most significant new feature." ComputerAndVideoGames.com said of the Global Trade Center, "Suddenly, Pokémon feels properly alive for the first time since playgrounds were abuzz with monsters in the late '90s – and you'll instantly forgive Game Freak their technical stubbornness the first time you switch on your DS and find the level 100 Munchlax you craved is on your cart."
The graphics generally received positive reviews. GameSpot praised the blend of 2D and 3D graphics, and GameZone said that the graphics were "better than what I had originally imagined" and that "a Pokemon title hasn't ever looked this good on a handheld." GameSpy felt that the graphics, though simple, made the game "a pleasure to explore". ComputerAndVideoGames.com, however, said that "the so-called '3D' isn't up to much: it's just a viewpoint shuffle, with DS's gutsy engine taking a nice long nap between the odd hypnotic windfarm or fog effect." The audio was not so well-received: IGN felt that the cries made by the Pokémon "still screech with the flair of the original Game Boy" and that the music, while "more advanced", was "not much beyond [Game Boy Advance] quality". GameZone also felt that the sounds had not been updated, saying "This [the audio] is the only area that hasn't taken one step forward. It remains stagnant and doesn't show any progression over the GBA titles". GameSpot cited the games' "recycled" sounds as one of the negative points.
=== Sales ===
First released in Japan in 2006, Pokémon Diamond and Pearl have the most successful launch week of games in the Pokémon series, and the best launch week for any Nintendo DS game for the country alone. Within forty-six days, the games sold three million units, becoming the fastest DS games to do so; by the end of the year, the number increased to five million units in just under three months, making Diamond and Pearl the best-selling Pokémon games in Japan. In the United States, pre-orders for Diamond and Pearl passed 533,000, almost twice the pre-sale numbers for FireRed and LeafGreen. Within five days of release, the games sold around one million copies and were the fastest-selling Pokémon games ever until the release of Pokémon Platinum. The games were the seventh-best-selling video games of 2007, with around 4.27 million units sold in the United States; in early 2009 sales passed 5.3 million units. As of September 30, 2017, Pokémon Diamond and Pearl combined have sold 17.67 million copies worldwide, making their sales totals around one million higher than those of Ruby and Sapphire and around six million higher than those of FireRed and LeafGreen. The games also boosted sales of hardware in the United States, spurring the sales of 471,000 DS units and causing the sales of video games in April 2007 to rise 20% from April 2006. In Europe, the games sold around 1.6 million units within just seven weeks of their release and topped the charts in Spain, Germany, and the United Kingdom. Additionally, there have been more than 10 million Pokémon trades via Wi-Fi.
=== Awards ===
At G4's G-phoria 2007, the games won "Best Handheld Game", and were nominated for "Best RPG". In 2008 Pokémon Diamond and Pearl were nominated for the British Academy of Film and Television Arts Children's Kids Vote Award. In IGN's Best of 2007 Awards, Diamond and Pearl were named the best Nintendo DS online multiplayer games and the best Nintendo DS RPG games of the year. In the 2006 Famitsu Game Awards, Diamond and Pearl won the Best Hit award and tied with Final Fantasy XII for the Game of the Year award.
Competitive battling in Pokémon became much more popular with Diamond and Pearl. The physical special split allowed Pokémon such as Gengar and Gyarados to use their higher attacking stat and gave special/physical coverage moves to formerly all-physical/special types, and online play made Pokémon battling possible all over the world.
== Legacy ==
=== Remakes and prequel ===
Pokémon Brilliant Diamond and Shining Pearl are enhanced remakes of the games and were released for the Nintendo Switch on November 19, 2021. Pokémon Legends: Arceus is an action role-playing game which serves as a prequel to Diamond and Pearl and is set in an older version of the Sinnoh region known as the Hisui region. It was released for the Nintendo Switch on January 28, 2022. Both games were initially revealed in a Pokémon Presents presentation on February 26, 2021.
Brilliant Diamond and Shining Pearl were produced by ILCA, and acted as "faithful" remakes to Diamond and Pearl, with the addition of game mechanics introduced in later titles. The games were released to "mixed" or average reviews, with positivity being directed towards its faithful nature, and criticism towards the lack of Pokémon Platinum features and how the game handled newer features being meshed with older ones. Additionally, its graphics art-style, which made characters in the overworld resemble "chibis" received mixed responses from critics. As of May 2022, the games had sold over fourteen million copies.
Pokémon Legends: Arceus, while maintaining core gameplay mechanics, changed how the overworld was traversed, with players being able to freely explore five different areas or "biomes" of Hisui. Players can actively interact with Pokémon in the overworld, with hostile Pokémon capable of attacking and injuring the player character. Players can engage with Pokémon in battle from the overworld. The game received "generally favorable reviews" from critics, with many praising the new gameplay style and direction, with criticism being directed towards the game's art-style. The game was nominated for Best RPG at The Game Awards. By May 2022, the game had shifted over twelve million copies.
=== Related games ===
Pokémon Battle Revolution is the first Wii incarnation of the Pokémon video game franchise. The game uses wireless connection in order to connect to the Nintendo DS, allowing players to use their Pokémon from Diamond and Pearl in the game's various modes.
My Pokémon Ranch is a Wii game developed by Ambrella and released via the WiiWare download service. First released on March 25, 2008, in Japan, it was later made available in North America on June 9, 2008, and in Europe on July 4, 2008, for 1,000 Wii Points, equivalent to US$10.00. Like the GameCube's Pokémon Box: Ruby and Sapphire, Pokémon Ranch allows players to store and arrange Pokémon from Diamond and Pearl. Pokémon transferred from those games to My Pokémon Ranch are rendered in 3D and can interact with the player's Miis.
== Footnotes ==
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damian_Lillard | Damian Lillard | Damian Lamonte Ollie Lillard Sr. (born July 15, 1990) is an American professional basketball player for the Portland Trail Blazers of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He also serves as the general manager of the Weber State Wildcats men's basketball program in the Big Sky Conference. Nicknamed "Dame Time", he played college basketball for Weber State and earned third-team All-American honors in 2012. Lillard was selected by the Trail Blazers with the sixth overall pick in the 2012 NBA draft and was named the NBA Rookie of the Year for the 2012–13 season. He is a nine-time NBA All-Star, a seven-time All-NBA Team selection, and the Trail Blazers’ all-time leading scorer. As of the end of the 2024–25 season, he ranked fourth on the NBA's all-time list of three-point field goals made, with 2,804.
In 2021, Lillard won a gold medal for the U.S. Olympic team in the 2020 Summer Olympics. That same year, he was named to the NBA 75th Anniversary Team. In 2023, after a trade request, he was traded to the Milwaukee Bucks. In his first season with Milwaukee, he was named the All-Star Game MVP and later won the NBA Cup in 2024. After suffering an Achilles injury during the 2025 playoffs, Lillard was released by the Bucks after two seasons and subsequently rejoined the Trail Blazers on a three-year deal.
Outside of basketball, Lillard is also a rapper, under the stage name Dame D.O.L.L.A.
== High school career ==
Lillard began his high school career at Arroyo High School in San Lorenzo, California, and joined the varsity starting lineup as a 5 ft 5 in (1.65 m) freshman. He sought to transfer when his coach did not return to the team. For his sophomore year, Lillard transferred to St. Joseph Notre Dame High School in Alameda, California, the same private school that had produced former NBA point guard Jason Kidd; but by year's end, a lack of playing time prompted Lillard to transfer schools yet again. He went on to play for coach Orlando Watkins at Oakland High School, where he was First Team All-League his junior and senior years. Over his junior campaign, Lillard averaged 19.4 points a night. As a senior, he averaged 22.4 points and 5.2 assists per game while leading the Oakland Wildcats to a 23–9 record.
Regarded only as a two-star prospect by Rivals.com, Lillard was not heavily recruited out of high school, but he accepted a scholarship offer to play for Weber State, a Big Sky Conference program in Ogden, Utah. According to Lillard, Weber State was the first college basketball program to show any interest in him when head coach Randy Rahe showed up in person to watch Lillard play a game in Texas during his junior year of high school. Lillard chose to attend Weber State in Utah in part because he wanted to get away from his violent Oakland neighborhood. He had received competing offers from schools including Wichita State, Saint Mary's and San Diego State.
== College career ==
As a freshman at Weber State, Lillard averaged 11.5 points per game and was named the Big Sky Conference Freshman of the Year and first-team All-Big Sky. In his sophomore year, he raised his scoring average to 19.9 points per game and led the Wildcats to the conference championship. At the end of the season, Lillard was named Big Sky Player of the Year as well as honorable mention All-American by the Associated Press.
In 2010–11, Lillard led the Big Sky in scoring with 19.7 points per contest before suffering a foot injury ten games into the season that forced him to take a medical redshirt and sidelined him for the rest of the year.
As a redshirt junior, Lillard averaged 24.5 points and led the nation in scoring throughout most of the year but ended up finishing second to Oakland University's Reggie Hamilton. On December 3, 2011, against San Jose State, Lillard scored a college career-high 41 points, including a game-clinching three-point play to give Weber State a 91–89 double-overtime win. At the end of the year, he was named to his third first-team all-conference selection and won his second Big Sky Player of the Year award. Lillard was also a finalist for the Bob Cousy Award.
Widely regarded as the top point guard prospect in the country, Lillard decided to skip his senior season to enter the 2012 NBA draft. He finished his college career as the No. 2 scorer in Weber State history (1,934 points) and the No. 5 scorer in Big Sky history.
He completed his degree in professional sales from Weber State University in May 2015.
== Professional career ==
=== Portland Trail Blazers (2012–2023) ===
==== 2012–13 season: Rookie of the Year ====
Lillard was selected with the sixth overall pick in the 2012 NBA draft by the Portland Trail Blazers. In the season opener against the Los Angeles Lakers on October 31, Lillard recorded 23 points and 11 assists to join Oscar Robertson and Allen Iverson as the only players in NBA history with at least 20 points and 10 assists in their NBA debut. In addition, his 11 assists were the most by an NBA rookie in his first game since Jason Kidd (11) in 1994, and the most ever by a Trail Blazer in his NBA debut. Lillard made a career-high 15 field goals and a Trail Blazer rookie-record seven 3-pointers on January 11 against the Golden State Warriors, where he finished with 37 points, six rebounds, and four assists. He became the first Trail Blazer to win an event at the NBA All-Star Weekend, winning the Skills Challenge. He also participated in the Rising Stars Challenge during All-Star weekend and finished with 18 points, three rebounds and five assists in a game-high 28 minutes. Lillard became the first NBA rookie to record 35 points, nine assists and zero turnovers in a game since turnovers became a stat in 1978–79 against the San Antonio Spurs on March 8. On April 10 against the Lakers, Lillard scored a season-high 38 points. He earned Western Conference Rookie of the Month honors for every month, becoming one of just eight players to sweep NBA Rookie of the Month honors since the inaugural award in 1981–82. He finished fifth in the NBA in 3-pointers made, 12th in points per game, tied for 16th in assists per game and tied for 23rd in free throw percentage. He was one of 10 NBA players to score 1,500 points, and he led all rookies in scoring (19.0 ppg), assists (6.5 apg), field goals (553) and free throws (271).
With averages of 19.0 points, 3.1 rebounds, 6.5 assists, 0.90 steals, and 38.6 minutes in 82 games (all starting), Lillard not only claimed the NBA Rookie of the Year Award but joined Blake Griffin (2011), David Robinson (1990), and Ralph Sampson (1984) as the only unanimous winners. He also joined Oscar Robertson and Allen Iverson as the only rookies in NBA history to tally in excess of 1,500 points and 500 assists for a season. Lillard became the fourth Trail Blazer in franchise history to win NBA Rookie of the Year honors and one of two to ever finish a season with at least 1,500 points and 500 assists (the other being Clyde Drexler in 1986–87 and 1991–92). Among other distinctions, he broke the all-time NBA rookie record for 3-pointers in a season (185), surpassing Stephen Curry's 166 three-pointers in 2009–10; became the Portland franchise leader for most 3-point field goals in a season, breaking Damon Stoudamire's record of 181 in 2004–05; and became the first rookie to lead the NBA in total minutes played (3,167) since Elvin Hayes in 1968–69.
==== 2013–14 season: First All-Star and All-NBA selection ====
In the season opener on October 30, Lillard scored 32 points against the Phoenix Suns. He had a second 32-point effort on December 7 against the Dallas Mavericks. On December 17, he had 36 points, 10 assists, and eight rebounds against the Cleveland Cavaliers. The following day, he had a second straight 36-point effort against the Minnesota Timberwolves. On January 7, in a 123–119 loss to the Sacramento Kings, Lillard scored a career-high 41 points, including 26 in the fourth quarter to break Portland's franchise record for most points in any quarter. On February 7, he had a 38-point effort against the Indiana Pacers. During All-Star weekend, Lillard became the first player in NBA history to take part in five events during the All-Star festivities: the Rising Stars Challenge, Skills Challenge, Three-Point Contest, Slam Dunk Contest, and the All-Star Game.
Lillard started all 82 games for the second straight year and averaged 20.7 points, 5.6 assists and 3.5 rebounds per game. Portland finished fifth in the Western Conference with a 54–28 record and faced the Houston Rockets in the first round of the 2014 NBA playoffs. In Game 1 of the series, Lillard recorded 31 points and nine rebounds in his first playoff appearance to help propel Portland to a 122–120 overtime win over Houston. In Game 6 of the series, Lillard became the first player to make a buzzer-beating shot to win a playoff series since Utah's John Stockton against Houston in 1997. Lillard's 3-pointer as time expired gave Portland a 99–98 victory over Houston, as he finished with 25 points to lift the Trail Blazers to their first playoff series win since 2000. The Trail Blazers went on to lose in five games to the eventual NBA champion San Antonio Spurs in the second round. Lillard had a series-best game in Game 4 with a 25-point effort, helping the Trail Blazers win their sole game of the series. At the season's end, Lillard was named to the All-NBA Third Team.
==== 2014–15 season: First division title ====
For the third straight season, Lillard started all 82 games for the Trail Blazers. He averaged career highs in points, rebounds, steals, and field goal percentage, but averaged a career-low 34 percent from three-point range. He shot well during the first two months of the season, before struggling with his shot from January onwards. Despite this, he set the record for most three-pointers in a player's first three seasons, led the team in Win Shares, and finished second in PER. On December 19, 2014, he scored a career-high 43 points in a 129–119 triple-overtime win over the defending champion San Antonio Spurs in a rematch of the previous season's Semifinals playoff series. Four days later, he had a 40-point effort against the Oklahoma City Thunder.
On January 5, 2015, he had a 39-point effort against the Los Angeles Lakers. On February 8, 2015, Lillard was selected as a replacement for the injured Blake Griffin in the 2015 NBA All-Star Game. On March 4, 2015, Lillard recorded a career-high 18 rebounds in a 98–93 win over the Los Angeles Clippers. The Trail Blazers finished the regular season as the fourth seed in the Western Conference with a 51–31 record. They faced the Memphis Grizzlies in the first round of the playoffs, where they lost in five games. Lillard shot 16 percent from three-point range during the series, hitting just 5-of-31 including going 0-of-6 in Game 1.
==== 2015–16 season: Franchise player ====
On July 9, 2015, Lillard signed a five-year, $120 million contract extension with the Trail Blazers. On October 28, 2015, Lillard recorded 21 points and 11 assists in a season-opening win over the New Orleans Pelicans. His one three-pointer made during the game was his 600th career three-point field goal, making him the fastest NBA player in history to reach the mark at 247 games. In addition, Lillard's 11 assists gave him 1,500 for his career, making him the fastest Trail Blazer to reach the milestone since Terry Porter (1987–88 season, 215 games). In the following game on October 30 against the Phoenix Suns, Lillard became the fastest player to reach 5,000 points and 1,500 assists (248 games) since Derrick Rose (240 games). On December 12, in a loss to the New York Knicks, Lillard became the first Blazer since Clyde Drexler in 1991–92 to record 600 points and 150 assists during the team's first 25 games. On December 21, Lillard missed the first game of his career with plantar fasciitis in his left foot, ending his streak of playing in 275 consecutive games. Backcourt partner C. J. McCollum also missed the game, leaving the Trail Blazers without their two leading scorers to face the Atlanta Hawks, subsequently losing the game 106–97. He missed a further six games with the injury, returning to action on January 4 against the Memphis Grizzlies and recording 17 points and 7 assists in a 91–78 loss. On January 8, he scored a then season-high 40 points in a loss to the Golden State Warriors. On January 18, in a win over the Washington Wizards, he hit his 2,000th NBA field goal, one of only eight players to reach that mark since he entered the league in 2012–13. On January 26, in a win over the Sacramento Kings, Lillard posted 15 points and 13 assists for his 10th double-double of the season, a career high.
On February 19, he scored a career-high 51 points in a 137–105 win over the Golden State Warriors. He became the first player in NBA history to have at least 50 points, seven assists and six steals since the steal became an official statistic in 1973–74. This would be the fifth of just nine losses all season for Golden State, who eventually went on to win 73 games, surpassing the 1995–96 Chicago Bulls for the winningest regular season of all-time. Two days later, Lillard scored 30 points against the Utah Jazz, becoming the first Blazer to score at least 30 points in four consecutive games since Drexler accomplished the feat in 1991. He extended that streak to five in the team's following game on February 23 against the Brooklyn Nets. Over his first 300 games in the NBA, Lillard averaged 21.2 points and 6.2 assists per game. Only four other players in NBA history averaged 21 points and six assists over their first 300 games: Oscar Robertson (30.2 and 10.3), Nate Archibald (24.5 and 8.4), LeBron James (26.7 and 6.4) and Dwyane Wade (24.0 and 6.4). On March 4, he had his second 50-point game of the season in a 117–115 loss to the Toronto Raptors. On March 8, Lillard had 41 points and 11 assists in a 116–109 overtime win over the Washington Wizards, recording his 15th straight game with 20-plus points. He also had his 400th assist of the season, making him the first Trail Blazer with 400-plus assists in each of his first four seasons. In the Trail Blazers' season finale on April 13 against the Denver Nuggets, Lillard hit his 827th career three-pointer, besting Wesley Matthews' Portland franchise record of 826. Lillard finished the regular season with an average of 25.1 points per game, while C. J. McCollum averaged 20.8 – making them the first backcourt in Blazers' history to average 20 or more points apiece. Lillard also became the third Blazer to average 25-plus points, joining Drexler and Kiki Vandeweghe. In the 2016 MVP Race, he finished 8th in total points received, scoring 26 points out of a possible 1310 points. After defeating the Los Angeles Clippers in the first round of the playoffs, the Trail Blazers moved on to face the Golden State Warriors in the second round. In Game 3 of the series, Lillard recorded 40 points and 10 assists to help the Trail Blazers win 120–108, cutting the Warriors' advantage in the series to 2–1. The Trail Blazers went on to lose the series in five games.
==== 2016–17 season: Magic Johnson Award ====
In the Trail Blazers' season opener on October 25, 2016, Lillard recorded 39 points on 13-of-20 shooting, as well as 9 rebounds and 6 assists in a 113–104 win over the Utah Jazz. With his first assist of the night, Lillard passed Jim Paxson for sixth on the franchise career list (2,008). Four days later, he scored 37 points, including the go-ahead floater with less than a second remaining in overtime, to lead the Trail Blazers to a 115–113 win over the Denver Nuggets. With 27 points against the Phoenix Suns on November 2, Lillard became the first NBA player to score 27 or more points in each of his team's first five games since Kobe Bryant in 2005–06. Lillard's 163 points in the season's first five games are the most ever by a Blazer to start a season. Two days later, Lillard scored 27 of his then season-high 42 points in the second half of the Trail Blazers' 105–95 win over the Dallas Mavericks. With 38 points on November 8 against Phoenix, Lillard had 262 points over the first eight games of the season, the most through the first eight games of a season in franchise history. It was also the most by an NBA player since Bryant had 264 through the first eight in 2009–10. Lillard amassed a team-record 695 points in the Blazers' first 25 games of the season, eclipsing Clyde Drexler's previous mark of 681 in 1988.
He went on to miss five games between December 26 and January 4 after spraining his left ankle against San Antonio on December 23. On January 28 against Golden State, Lillard reached 8,000 career points, becoming the 11th Blazer to hit the mark and joined Michael Jordan and LeBron James as the only three players to reach 8,000 points and 2,000 assists in their first five seasons. On March 19, Lillard scored a season-high 49 points, tied a career high with nine three-pointers, and carried the Trail Blazers past the Miami Heat, 115–104. On April 3, 2017, he was named Western Conference Player of the Month for games played in March. Behind Lillard, the Trail Blazers went an NBA-best 13–3 in March to surge into eighth place in the Western Conference. Lillard ranked third in the NBA in scoring (29.1 ppg) and tied for fourth in three-pointers made (55) to go with 6.0 assists, 4.4 rebounds and 1.44 steals in 16 games. Five days later, Lillard scored a franchise-record 59 points and matched his career high with nine three-pointers to lead the Trail Blazers to a 101–86 win over the Jazz. It was Lillard's 27th game of the season with 30 or more points, a franchise high. He also became the fifth Blazer to score 2,000-plus points in a season.
After being 10 games under .500 at the All-Star break, Lillard helped the Trail Blazers to an 18–8 late-season surge to earned them the No. 8 seed in the Western Conference with a 41–41 record. They faced the Golden State Warriors for the second straight year in the playoffs, this time in the first round. Portland went on to lose the series in a clean sweep despite Lillard's 34-point effort in Game 4. For the series, Lillard averaged 27.8 points, 4.5 rebounds, 3.3 assists and 1.3 steals per game while shooting 43% from the field, 28% from behind the arc, and 96% from the free throw line. On May 2, 2017, he was named the recipient of the Magic Johnson Award for the 2016–17 season, which honors the player who best combines excellence on the basketball court with cooperation and dignity in dealing with the media and the public.
==== 2017–18 season: All-NBA First Team selection ====
On October 28, 2017, in a 114–107 win over the Phoenix Suns, Lillard reached the 9,000-point milestone during the third quarter. With 402 career games, Lillard became the fastest Blazer to score 9,000 points. On November 15, he had 26 points, 11 rebounds and seven assists in a 99–94 win over the Orlando Magic. During the game, he surpassed Mychal Thompson (9,215 points) for eighth on the franchise's all-time scoring leaders list. On November 27, he scored 32 points in a 103–91 win over the New York Knicks. He finished the game on 2,575 career assists, moving him past Rod Strickland into fourth place on Portland's career assists list. Lillard also joined Clyde Drexler and Terry Porter as the only players in franchise history in the top 10 in scoring and top five in assists. On December 9, he tied a franchise record with nine 3-pointers and scored 35 points in a 124–117 loss to the Houston Rockets. Two days later, he scored a then season-high 39 points with five 3-pointers in a 111–104 loss to the Golden State Warriors. Lillard dealt with a hamstring injury late in December before straining his right calf in early January. On January 12, he scored 23 points in a 119–113 loss to the New Orleans Pelicans. He moved into seventh in franchise history in scoring with 9,753 points, passing Geoff Petrie (9,732). On January 22, Lillard was named Western Conference Player of the Week for games played January 15–21. It was his fourth career Player of the Week nod. A day later, he was named a Western Conference All-Star reserve.
On February 2, he scored 32 points in a 130–105 loss to the Toronto Raptors, becoming the fastest player in franchise history to reach 10,000 points for his career. He became the eighth player to get 10,000 points and 2,500 assists in his first six seasons, joining Michael Jordan, LeBron James, Larry Bird, Nate Archibald, Pete Maravich, Dave Bing and Oscar Robertson. On February 9, in a 118–100 win over the Sacramento Kings, Lillard scored a season-high 50 points in 29 minutes—the fourth 50-point game of his career. He scored 22 points in the third quarter before sitting out the entire fourth quarter. He shot 16 of 26 from the field with eight 3-pointers to go with 10-of-10 free throws. On February 14, he had 44 points and eight assists in a 123–117 win over the Warriors. On February 24, he hit a go-ahead lay-up with 0.9 seconds left and finished with a game-high 40 points in a 106–104 win over the Suns. Nineteen of his 40 points came in the fourth quarter, as he helped the Trail Blazers rally from 15 down in the final 7+1⁄2 minutes. In five games between February 9 and 24, Lillard scored 197 points—the most points for a Blazer over a five-game stretch in franchise history. Lillard averaged 31.4 points per game in February, clinching the highest-scoring average for any month in Portland history. He passed Geoff Petrie's record of 30.4 points in March 1971.
On March 3 against the Oklahoma City Thunder, Lillard made at least one 3-pointer in his 45th straight game, setting a franchise record. With nine assists on March 15 against the Cleveland Cavaliers, Lillard became the third player in league history to have 1,500-plus points and 400-plus assists in each of his first six seasons. On March 20 against Houston, Lillard's franchise-record streak of 52 games with a 3-pointer ended. In the Trail Blazers' season finale on April 11, Lillard recorded 36 points and 10 assists in a 102–93 win over the Utah Jazz. The win earned the Trail Blazers the third seed in the playoffs with a 49–33 record. Lillard finished the regular season tied for fourth in scoring average in the NBA (26.9)—Drexler was the last Blazer to rank among the league's five best in scoring when he finished fourth during the 1991–92 season (25.0). For the season, he was named to the All-NBA First Team, becoming the third player in franchise history to earn All-NBA First Team honors, joining Clyde Drexler (1991–92) and Bill Walton (1977–78). Additionally, he placed 4th in the 2018 MVP Race, winning 207.0 of the 1010 possible points. In Game 4 of the Trail Blazers' first-round playoff series against the Pelicans, Lillard scored 19 points in a 131–123 loss. The loss eliminated Portland from the playoffs, as they lost the series in a four-game sweep. Lillard never scored more than 20 in the series and was held below that three times.
==== 2018–19 season: Western Conference Finals ====
In the Trail Blazers' season opener on October 18, 2018, Lillard scored a game-high 28 points in a 128–119 win over the Los Angeles Lakers. On October 25, he scored 34 of his 41 points in the second half of the Trail Blazers' 128–114 win over the Orlando Magic. On October 27, he scored 42 points in a 120–111 loss to the Miami Heat, eclipsing the 11,000-point mark. On November 16, he had five assists against the Minnesota Timberwolves to pass Damon Stoudamire (3,018) for third on the team's career list. Two days later, he scored 40 points in a 119–109 win over the Washington Wizards. On November 28, he scored 41 points and set a franchise record with ten 3-pointers in a 115–112 win over the Magic. His seven 3-pointers in the third were a franchise record for a quarter. On December 17, he scored 22 of his 39 points in the third quarter of the Trail Blazers' 131–127 win over the Los Angeles Clippers. On December 27, he hit a go-ahead 3-pointer with 6.3 seconds left in overtime and scored 21 points in a 110–109 win over the Golden State Warriors. Two days later, he hit six 3-pointers and scored 40 points in a 115–105 loss to the Warriors. It was his fifth 40-point game of the season, tying a career high. On January 14, in a 115–107 loss to the Sacramento Kings, Lillard scored 35 points to become the fastest player in Portland history to reach 12,000 for his career. Additionally, Lillard scored in double figures in his 184th consecutive game, breaking a tie with Clyde Drexler for the franchise record. With 24 points against the Phoenix Suns on January 24, Lillard reached 1,311 points for the season, the most by any Portland player through 50 games.
On March 7, he scored a season-high 51 points in a 129–121 overtime loss to the Oklahoma City Thunder. On March 15, he scored 24 points in a 122–110 win over the New Orleans Pelicans, becoming the second-leading scorer in franchise history, passing LaMarcus Aldridge (12,562) to sit behind only Drexler (18,040). With 31 points and 12 assists in a double-overtime victory over the Brooklyn Nets on March 25, Lillard recorded his 20th career game of at least 30 points and 10 assists, passing Drexler for the most such games in franchise history (19). On April 1, he was named Western Conference Player of the Week for the week ending March 31, marking the seventh weekly honor of his career and the first of the 2018–19 season. In April, he became the first Blazer to have 2,000 points and 500 assists in the same season, and the only Blazer besides Drexler to reach 2,000 points in two seasons with the team. He also passed his franchise record of 229 3-pointers set in the 2015–16 season and reached 1,500 for his career. Lillard placed 6th in the 2019 MVP race, receiving 69 of the 1,010 available points.
On April 23, Lillard hit a 37-foot, game-winning 3-pointer at the buzzer and finished with a playoff career-high 50 points to help the Trail Blazers eliminate the Thunder from the playoffs in five games with a 118–115 victory. He had ten 3-pointers, breaking the franchise record. In Game 1 of the second round, Lillard scored 39 points in a 121–113 loss to the Denver Nuggets. In Game 6, he scored 32 points in a 119–108 win, helping the Trail Blazers tie the series against the Nuggets at 3–3. In the deciding Game 7, he scored 13 points on 3-of-17 shooting in a 100–96 win, advancing the Trail Blazers to the Western Conference Finals for the first time since 2000. In Game 2 of the conference finals, Lillard separated his ribs, but continued to play through the pain for the rest of the series—a series the Trail Blazers lost in a four-game sweep to the Kevin Durant-less Warriors.
Following the season, Lillard signed a four-year, $196 million supermax contract extension with a player option in the final season.
==== 2019–20 season: Career high in assists per game ====
On November 8, 2019, Lillard recorded a then career-high 60 points, though it came in a loss to the visiting Brooklyn Nets, 115–119. He would surpass that on January 20, 2020, by scoring 61 points to go along with 10 rebounds and 7 assists in a 129–124 overtime win versus the Golden State Warriors. From January 20 through February 1, Lillard had a six-game stretch of averaging 48.8 points per game; he also recorded his first career triple-double on January 29 by registering 36 points, 10 rebounds, and 11 assists in a 125–112 victory over the Houston Rockets. The historic scoring run earned him back-to-back Western Conference Player of the Week awards. On January 30, Lillard was selected to his fifth All-Star nod but was unable to participate due to a groin injury. He missed six games from February 21 to March 2. Lillard returned to play in the last four Blazers' games before the NBA hiatus due to the COVID-19 pandemic; during this span, he averaged 20.8 points, 3.8 rebounds, 6 assists, and 1.8 steals per contest while shooting 40 percent from the field, 41.2 percent on 3-pointers, and 87.5 percent at the free-throw line.
On June 30, 2020, Lillard was selected to be the cover athlete for NBA 2K21. In Portland’s fourth game in the Orlando bubble, upon returning from the four-month hiatus, Lillard recorded 45 points and 12 assists in a 125–115 win over the Denver Nuggets on August 6. Three days later, he would follow that up with a 51-point, 7-assist performance to lead the Trail Blazers to 124–121 victory over the Philadelphia 76ers. On August 11, Lillard erupted for 61 points, tying a career high, and 8 assists en route to a 134–131 win over the Dallas Mavericks. This was his third 60-point outing of the season, joining Wilt Chamberlain as the only two players in league history to have such games three times in a single season. Lillard scored an NBA-high 37.6 points and 9.6 assists in the bubble's seeding games, leading Portland to a 6–2 record. He was voted the NBA Player of the Seeding Games. He placed 8th in the 2020 season MVP race, receiving 23 of the 1,010 available points.
==== 2020–21 season: NBA Teammate of the Year ====
On January 30, 2021, Lillard scored a season-high 44 points, alongside a game-winning three at the buzzer, in a 123–122 win over the Chicago Bulls. On February 17, 2021, Lillard scored 43 points and tied a career-high 16 assists in a win against the New Orleans Pelicans. He became one of only 12 players in NBA history to have 40 points and 15 assists in a game. Lillard placed 7th in the 2021 MVP race, receiving 38 of the 1,010 available points. This marked the 5th time in six seasons that he had placed among the top 8 in MVP voting.
During Game 5 of the first round of the 2021 playoffs against the Denver Nuggets, Lillard scored a playoff career-high 55 points, behind an NBA playoff record 12 made three-pointers, as well as 10 assists. Lillard hit game-tying threes near the end of regulation and near the end of the first overtime to keep Portland alive; however, the Nuggets rallied to a 147–140 double-overtime victory to take a 3–2 series lead. In Game 6, he had 29 points and 13 assists, but the Blazers lost to Denver 126–115, sending Portland home in the First Round for the fourth time in five years.
==== 2021–22 season: Injury and missing playoffs ====
On November 20, 2021, Lillard scored a season-high 39 points, along with 7 assists and 3 blocks, in a 118–111 victory over the Philadelphia 76ers. On January 13, 2022, he underwent surgery for an abdominal injury and was ruled out 6–8 weeks.
On February 10, Blazers interim general manager Joe Cronin stated that Lillard would "most likely" not play again during the 2021–22 season. On March 21, Lillard was officially ruled out for the remainder of the season. This was the first time since Lillard's rookie season that Portland missed the playoffs, finishing the season with a 27–55 record.
After the season, Lillard signed a two-year, $122 million extension, which would keep him under contract through the 2026–27 season.
==== 2022–23 season: Comeback and career high in scoring ====
After missing the final 47 games last season with injuries, Lillard scored 41 points in Portland's second and third games of the new season to lead them to a 3–0 start. Lillard became one of eight players all-time to score at least 40 points twice in his team’s first three games of the season, a list that includes Wilt Chamberlain (three times) and Michael Jordan (three times). In the season opener at Sacramento, Lillard moved into the top 10 all-time three-point field goals made list. For his play, he was named the NBA Western Conference Player of the Week for the 14th time in his career. His 14 Player of the Week honors are the most in Trail Blazers history. On December 19, Lillard scored 28 points in a 123–121 loss against the Oklahoma City Thunder, and he surpassed Clyde Drexler (18,040) to become the franchise's all-time scoring leader.
On January 12, 2023, Lillard scored a then season-high 50 points in a 119–113 loss against the Cleveland Cavaliers. It was his 15th career game with 50 or more points. He joined James Harden and Stephen Curry as the only three players over the past 10 seasons with 10 or more 50-point games. on January 23, Lillard hit his 2,283rd career three-pointer, passing Jason Terry for 7th on the NBA's all-time list in the Blazers' 147–127 against the San Antonio Spurs. In the following game on January 25, Lillard had a then season-high 60 points, hitting nine 3-pointers, along with seven rebounds, eight assists and three steals in a 134–124 win over the Utah Jazz. He became just the fifth player in NBA history to score 60 points at least four times in the regular season, joining a group that includes Wilt Chamberlain (32), Kobe Bryant (6), James Harden (4) and Michael Jordan (4). Lillard also became the first player in NBA history with three career games of at least 60/5/5 and he posted the highest true shooting percentage ever in a 60-point game (.898). Additionally, he hit his 2,291st career three-pointer, surpassing Vince Carter for 6th on the NBA's all-time list. On February 2, Lillard recorded his second career triple-double with 33 points, 10 rebounds, and 11 assists in a 125–122 win over the reigning champions Golden State Warriors. On February 18, Lillard won the Three-Point Contest. A day later, he scored the game-winning 3-pointer in the 2023 All-Star Game, giving Team Giannis their first (and only) All-Star Game victory against Team LeBron. On February 26, Lillard scored a career-high and Blazers franchise-high 71 points with a career-high and Blazers franchise-high 13 three-pointers made along with six rebounds and six assists in a 131–114 win against the Houston Rockets, becoming the eighth player in NBA history to score 70 or more in a single game. He also has 15 games with 50 or more points, sixth-most in NBA history. With his effort, Lillard became the first player in NBA history to score more than 70 points in under 40 minutes and the only player on that elite list to score 70 over the age of 30, and the first to do so with 10 or more three-pointers. On March 6, Lillard logged his third career triple-double with 31 points, a season-high 13 rebounds, and 12 assists in a 110–104 win over the Detroit Pistons.
=== Milwaukee Bucks (2023–2025) ===
On September 27, 2023, Lillard was traded to the Milwaukee Bucks as part of a three-team trade that sent Jrue Holiday, Deandre Ayton, Toumani Camara and a 2029 first-round draft pick to the Blazers, and Grayson Allen, Jusuf Nurkić, Nassir Little, and Keon Johnson to the Phoenix Suns. The Blazers also received the rights to swap first-round draft picks with Milwaukee in 2028 and 2030.
==== 2023–24 season: Change of scenery ====
Lillard made his Bucks debut on October 26, 2023, against the Philadelphia 76ers, scoring 39 points, a franchise record for a debut, and grabbing eight rebounds in a 118–117 season-opening victory. On December 13, in a game against the Indiana Pacers, Lillard made his 2,451st career three-pointer, passing Kyle Korver for 5th on the NBA's all-time list. On December 17, Lillard recorded 39 points, 11 assists, five rebounds and three steals in a 128–119 win over the Houston Rockets. On December 19, Lillard put up 40 points in a 132–119 win over the San Antonio Spurs and surpassed 20,000 career points. Lillard also became just the fourth player in league history after LeBron James, Stephen Curry and James Harden to have career totals of at least 20,000 points, 5,000 assists and 2,000 3-pointers.
On January 14, 2024, Lillard scored 29 points including a buzzer-beating, game-winning three-pointer and added eight assists in a 143–142 overtime win over the Sacramento Kings. He became just the fifth player in NBA history to make at least 2,500 career three-pointers. On January 20, Lillard scored a season-high 45 points with five three-pointers made, and added six rebounds and 11 assists in a 141–135 win over the Detroit Pistons. He became the first player in Bucks history to record at least 40 points, 10 assists, and five three-pointers in a game. On January 25, Lillard was named an Eastern Conference starter for the 2024 NBA All-Star Game, marking his eighth selection overall and his first selection as a starter. During the All-Star Weekend, Lillard subsequently won the NBA Three-Point Contest, becoming the first back-to-back winner in over a decade. Lillard was also named the NBA All-Star Game MVP, with 39 points including 11 three-pointers. He was also the first player to win the All-Star Game MVP and the Three-Point Contest in same weekend. On March 8, in a game against the Los Angeles Lakers, Lillard made his 2,561st career three-pointer, passing Reggie Miller for 4th on the NBA's all-time list. On March 17, Lillard had 31 points and tied his career-high with 16 assists in a 140–129 win over the Phoenix Suns.
In Game 1 of the Bucks' First Round playoff series against the Indiana Pacers, Lillard scored a franchise record 35 points in the 1st half, leading them to a 109–94 victory, setting a Bucks record for points in either half of a playoff game. Lillard missed games 4 and 5 of the series, due to an achiles injury suffered during Game 3. Milwaukee would ultimately fall to Indiana in 6 games, despite Lillard's 28-point outing in the 120–98 close-out Game 6 loss.
==== 2024–25 season: Blood clot and torn Achilles ====
On November 2, 2024, Lillard had 41 points with nine assists and shot 10 of 15 from 3-point range in a 114–113 loss to the Cleveland Cavaliers. On December 17, Lillard and the Bucks won the NBA Cup with a 97–81 victory over the Oklahoma City Thunder, with Lillard being selected to the All-Tournament team. On January 30, 2025, Lillard was named as reserve for the 2025 NBA All-Star Game, his ninth selection. On March 25, Lillard was ruled out indefinitely with deep vein thrombosis in his right calf.
On April 17, shortly before the beginning of the 2025 NBA playoffs, the Bucks announced that Lillard had been cleared of the deep vein thrombosis in his right calf and that he would increase his on-court basketball activity. Five days later, Lillard made his return in Game 2 of the First Round against the Indiana Pacers, scoring 14 points in a 123–115 loss. In Game 4 of the series on April 27, Lillard suffered a non-contact left calf injury in the first quarter while attempting to secure a long rebound. He was unable to put any weight on his left leg and had to be helped off the court by head coach Doc Rivers among others. Without him for the remainder of the game, Milwaukee lost 129–103 as Indiana took a 3–1 lead, eventually winning in five games. An MRI the following day revealed that Lillard had suffered a torn Achilles tendon, ending his season, while also putting his availability for the 2025–26 season into question.
On July 6, 2025, the Bucks announced they had waived Lillard, stretching the remaining $103 million left on his deal.
=== Return to Portland (2025–present) ===
On July 19, 2025, the Trail Blazers signed Lillard to a three-year, $42 million deal, marking his return to the franchise after previously spending 11 seasons with the team.
== Executive career ==
=== Weber State Wildcats (2025–present) ===
With Lillard unlikely to play during the 2025–26 NBA season due to his recovery from his torn Achilles, he returned to his alma mater of Weber State, being introduced as the new general manager of the men's basketball program on August 2, 2025.
== Career statistics ==
=== NBA ===
==== Regular season ====
==== Playoffs ====
=== College ===
== Awards and honors ==
NBA
9× NBA All-Star (2014, 2015, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021, 2023, 2024, 2025)
NBA All-Star Game MVP (2024)
All-NBA First Team (2018)
4× All-NBA Second Team (2016, 2019, 2020, 2021)
2× All-NBA Third Team (2014, 2023)
NBA Player of the Seeding Games (2020)
NBA Rookie of the Year (2013)
NBA All-Rookie First Team (2013)
2× NBA Three-Point Contest champion (2023, 2024)
J. Walter Kennedy Citizenship Award (2019)
NBA Teammate of the Year (2021)
NBA Rising Star (2012, 2013)
2× NBA Skills Challenge champion (2013, 2014)
First NBA player ever to participate in 5 events in All Star Weekend (2014: Rising Stars Challenge: Dunk Contest, 3-point Contest, Skills Challenge winner, All Star Game)
NBA 75th Anniversary Team (2021)
College
AP third-team All-American (2012)
NABC third-team All-American (2012)
2× Big Sky Conference Player of the Year (2010, 2012)
3× First-team All-Big Sky (2009, 2010, 2012)
2× Big Sky All-Tournament Team (2010, 2012)
Big Sky Freshman of the Year (2009)
No. 1 retired by Weber State
== Personal life ==
Lillard wears the jersey number No. 0, representative for the letter 'O' and his journey in life; from Oakland, to Ogden, then Oregon. Lillard is a Christian; he has a tattoo on his left arm of Psalms 37:1–3. Lillard's sister, LaNae, attended Lakeridge High School. His brother Houston, who earned a football scholarship to Southeast Missouri State after playing football in the junior college level at Laney College, is an Indoor Football League quarterback.
In the 2020–21 season, he became a teammate of his cousin, Keljin Blevins.
On March 29, 2018, Lillard had his first child, a son named Damian Jr. They live in the affluent Portland suburb of West Linn. Lillard established a RESPECT Program to help high school kids in the Portland metro area graduate.
In 2012, Lillard signed a multi-year sponsorship deal with Adidas. In 2014, Lillard negotiated a new contract with Adidas potentially worth $100 million over 10 years. Lillard has a signature shoe line with Adidas, the "Adidas Dame". In 2017, Lillard signed a sponsorship deal with Powerade, a subsidiary of the Coca-Cola Company. Lillard also has endorsement deals with Spalding, Panini, Foot Locker, JBL, Biofreeze and Moda Health. In 2019, Lillard also became one of a number of NBA players to sign a contract with Hulu to promote the streaming service's new campaign of adding live sports to their repertoire.
Lillard revived the Never Worry Picnic in Brookfield Park after his standout rookie season in 2013. The East Oakland event was discontinued when he was at age 12.
In 2020, Lillard, along with longtime friend and business partner Brian Sanders, became co-owner of a Toyota dealership, now known as Damian Lillard Toyota, in McMinnville, Oregon.
In January 2021, Lillard had his second and third child after his fiancée Kay'La Hanson gave birth to twins, a daughter named Kali and a son named Kalii. In September 2021, Lillard married Hanson. However, by 2024, Lillard and Hanson were divorced.
== Music career ==
Lillard is a hip-hop artist and rapper by the name of Dame D.O.L.L.A., which stands for Different On Levels the Lord Allows. He began rapping mainly to hang out in the car of his cousin Eugene "Baby" Vasquez, who moved to Oakland from New York City in the early 1990s. Another big influence on Lillard's rapping was his cousin Brookfield Duece, who had some success in the Oakland rap scene.
He started a social media trend called "Four Bar Friday" in which he, and anyone who chooses to participate, submits a video of themselves rapping a small verse on Instagram every Friday with the hashtag #4BarFriday. In July 2015, he released his first full length single, "Soldier in the Game", via the online music streaming site SoundCloud. On October 21, 2016, Lillard released his debut album The Letter O. On October 6, 2017, Lillard released his second album Confirmed. Lillard released his third album, Big D.O.L.L.A. on August 9, 2019, featuring guests Lil Wayne, Mozzy, and Jeremih. He now has his own record label, Front Page Music, which includes Brookfield Duece in its roster. Lillard's single "Kobe", which was released in September 2020 and features Snoop Dogg and Derrick Milano, is part of the soundtrack for NBA 2K21 as a tribute to the late Kobe Bryant. Lillard featured in Hong Kong boy group Mirror's single "Day 0", which was released on April 10, 2024.
== Discography ==
=== Studio albums ===
=== Singles ===
==== As lead artist ====
==== As featured artist ====
== Filmography ==
== Notes ==
== See also ==
List of NBA career scoring leaders
List of NBA franchise career scoring leaders
List of NBA career assists leaders
List of NBA career 3-point scoring leaders
List of NBA career free throw scoring leaders
List of NBA career free throw percentage leaders
List of NBA career playoff 3-point scoring leaders
List of NBA single-game scoring leaders
List of NBA single-game playoff scoring leaders
List of NBA single-game 3-point field goal leaders
List of NBA single-season 3-point scoring leaders
== References ==
== External links ==
Career statistics from NBA.com · Basketball Reference
Weber State Wildcats bio
USA Basketball profile
Damian Lillard at Team USA (archive May 23, 2023)
Damian Lillard at Olympedia
Damian Lillard at Olympics.com
Damian Lillard at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_William_Bacot | Arthur William Bacot | Arthur William Bacot (28 April 1866 – 12 April 1922) was an entomologist at the Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine.
== Early life ==
Bacot was born in North London, the third son and fourth child of Edmund Alexander Bacot and his wife Harriet. He was a poor attender at school which he left at the age of sixteen in 1882. He then became an office worker in the City of London. He appears to have had no formal training in science apart from being a member of the London Natural History Society.
== Career ==
He had been a keen butterfly collector and produced over fifty papers from 1893 and 1909 on British lepidoptera. In 1908 he developed an interest in morphological and genetic research. He developed breeding experiments with the geometrid moth Acidalia virginaria (binomial name Scopula modicaria). As a result of this he gave details in a presentation to the London Hospital Medical School. Professor Greenwood of the Advisory Committee for Plague Investigation was looking for someone to study the breeding habits of the rat flea and how it passes on the plague virus. Bacot was asked to do the research in his spare time with a small fee and all expenses paid. The program was a success and as a result Bacot joined the Lister Institute.
In 1914 during the First World War he went to Sierra Leone in British West Africa to study Yellow Fever.
By autumn 1917 there was concern about the reduced efficiency of the British Expeditionary Force in France caused by trench fever. In 1917 he went together with Joseph Arkwright to investigate the cause and prevention of this incapacitating epidemic. He discovered the relationships of lice with both typhus and trench fever. Bacot caught the latter disease himself whilst in Warsaw.
== Death ==
In 1922 he went to Cairo with Arkwright at the request of the Egyptian Government to study typhus. Both caught the disease from lice. Arkwright survived after a long illness; Bacot died aged 55.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Oceanography_Society | The Oceanography Society | The Oceanography Society (TOS) is a nonprofit society founded in 1988, based in Rockville, Maryland, U.S. and incorporated in the District of Columbia. It is an oceanographical organization that aims to promote communication among oceanographers, spread knowledge through research and education, and to provide a constituency for building consensus amongst the sub-disciplines of the field. The society publishes the scientific journal Oceanography, which publishes articles on all oceanic disciplines.
== History ==
The idea for forming an oceanographic society was hatched by a group of scientists, who approached both the American Geophysical Union and the American Meteorological Society with the idea. The two groups both responded positively, leading to several oceanographic events at the time. However, the need developed for the creation of an independent community, resulting in the formation of the Oceanography Society in March 1988. These early developments by the society were paralleled by developments in the Challenger Society for Marine Science.
== Awards ==
The Oceanography Society gives out three awards—the Jerlov Award, the Walter Munk Medal, and the Oceanography Society Fellows Program.
=== Jerlov Award ===
The Jerlov Award is awarded by the society biennially "in recognition of the contribution made to the advancement of our knowledge of the nature and consequences of light in the ocean" and to "recognize outstanding achievements in ocean optics and ocean color remote sensing research".
It is named after Nils Gunnar Jerlov, an early leader in the area of ocean optics research. Jerlov's work on ocean optical and other similar processes helped to create modern ocean optical research. His book Marine Optics, published in 1976, is still widely referenced by other sources and is read by students of ocean optics and ocean color sensing.
Recipients have been:
=== Walter Munk Medal ===
The Walter Munk Award was "awarded in recognition of distinguished research in oceanography related to sound and the sea".
It is named after Walter Munk, the first recipient in 1993. The award is given by the society jointly with the Office of Naval Research and the Office of the Oceanographer of the Navy.
Since 2019, it has been reestablished as the Walter Munk Medal to be awarded biennially "to an individual ocean scientist for extraordinary accomplishments and novel insights in the area of physical oceanography, ocean acoustics, or marine geophysics".
Recipients have been:
=== Oceanography Society Fellows Program ===
The Fellows Program "recognizes individuals who have attained eminence in oceanography through their outstanding contributions to the field of oceanography or its applications during a substantial period of years". Individuals in the Society can be elected as a TOS Fellow with outstanding contributions to the field of oceanography as well as devotion to the field. An individual is usually considered for nomination after he or she has been a member of the society for at least three years.
== Journal ==
Oceanography is published quarterly—every March, June, September, and December. It contains peer-reviewed articles on many aspects of ocean science. The journal was first published in 1988; all of its issues are available both in print and online as PDF files.
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Oceanography Online Archive – all back issues of the journal are fully online |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croatia | Croatia | Croatia, officially the Republic of Croatia, is a country in Central and Southeast Europe, on the coast of the Adriatic Sea. It borders Slovenia to the northwest, Hungary to the northeast, Serbia to the east, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro to the southeast, and shares a maritime border with Italy to the west. Its capital and largest city, Zagreb, forms one of the country's primary subdivisions, with twenty counties. Other major urban centers include Split, Rijeka and Osijek. The country spans 56,594 square kilometres (21,851 square miles), and has a population of nearly 3.9 million.
The Croats arrived in modern-day Croatia, then part of Roman Illyria, in the late 6th century. In the 7th century, they organized the territory into two duchies. Croatia was first internationally recognized as independent on 7 June 879 during the reign of Duke Branimir. Tomislav became the first king by 925, elevating Croatia to the status of a kingdom. During the succession crisis after the Trpimirović dynasty ended, Croatia entered a personal union with Hungary in 1102. In 1527, faced with Ottoman conquest, the Croatian Parliament elected Ferdinand I of Austria to the Croatian throne. In October 1918, the State of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs, independent from the Habsburg Empire, was proclaimed in Zagreb, and in December 1918, it merged into the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. Following the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941, most of Croatia was incorporated into a Nazi-installed puppet state, the Independent State of Croatia. A resistance movement led to the creation of the Socialist Republic of Croatia, which after the war became a founding member and constituent of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. On 25 June 1991, Croatia declared independence, and the War of Independence was successfully fought over the next four years.
Croatia is a republic and a parliamentary democracy. It is a member of the European Union, the Eurozone, the Schengen Area, NATO, the United Nations, the Council of Europe, the OSCE, the World Trade Organization, a founding member of the Union for the Mediterranean, and is currently in the process of joining the OECD. An active participant in United Nations peacekeeping, Croatia contributed troops to the International Security Assistance Force and was elected to fill a non-permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council in the 2008–2009 term for the first time.
Croatia is a developed country with an advanced high-income economy. Service, industrial sectors, and agriculture dominate the economy. Tourism is a significant source of revenue for the country, with nearly 20 million tourist arrivals as of 2019. Since the 2000s, the Croatian government has heavily invested in infrastructure, especially transport routes and facilities along the Pan-European corridors. Croatia has also positioned itself as a regional energy leader in the early 2020s and is contributing to the diversification of Europe's energy supply via its floating liquefied natural gas import terminal off Krk island, LNG Hrvatska. Croatia provides social security, universal health care, and tuition fee-free primary and secondary education while supporting culture through public institutions and corporate investments in media and publishing.
== Etymology ==
Croatia's non-native name derives from Medieval Latin Croātia, itself a derivation of North-West Slavic *Xərwate, by liquid metathesis from Common Slavic period *Xorvat, from proposed Proto-Slavic *Xъrvátъ which possibly comes from the 3rd-century Scytho-Sarmatian form attested in the Tanais Tablets as Χοροάθος (Khoroáthos, alternate forms comprise Khoróatos and Khoroúathos). The origin of the ethnonym is uncertain, but most probably is from Proto-Ossetian / Alanian *xurvæt- or *xurvāt-, in the meaning of "one who guards" ("guardian, protector").
The oldest preserved record of the Croatian ethnonym's native variation *xъrvatъ is of the variable stem, attested in the Baška tablet in style zvъnъmirъ kralъ xrъvatъskъ ("Zvonimir, Croatian king"), while the Latin variation Croatorum is archaeologically confirmed on a church inscription found in Bijaći near Trogir dated to the end of the 8th or early 9th century. The presumably oldest stone inscription with fully preserved ethnonym is the 9th-century Branimir inscription found near Benkovac, where Duke Branimir is styled Dux Cruatorvm, likely dated between 879 and 892, during his rule. The Latin term Chroatorum is attributed to a charter of Duke Trpimir I of Croatia, dated to 852 in a 1568 copy of a lost original, but it is not certain if the original was indeed older than the Branimir inscription.
== History ==
=== Prehistory and antiquity ===
The area known as Croatia today was inhabited throughout the prehistoric period. Neanderthal fossils dating to the middle Palaeolithic period were unearthed in northern Croatia, best presented at the Krapina site. Remnants of Neolithic and Chalcolithic cultures were found in all regions. The largest proportion of sites is in the valleys of northern Croatia. The most significant are Baden, Starčevo, and Vučedol cultures. Iron Age hosted the early Illyrian Hallstatt culture and the Celtic La Tène culture.
The region of modern-day Croatia was settled by Illyrians and Liburnians, while the first Greek colonies were established on the islands of Hvar, Korčula, and Vis. In 9 AD, the territory of today's Croatia became part of the Roman Empire. Emperor Diocletian was native to the region. He had a large palace built in Split, to which he retired after abdicating in AD 305.
During the 5th century, the last de jure Western Roman Emperor Julius Nepos ruled a small realm from the palace after fleeing Italy in 475.
=== Middle Ages ===
The Roman period ends with Avar and Croat invasions in the late 6th and first half of the 7th century and the destruction of almost all Roman towns. Roman survivors retreated to more favourable sites on the coast, islands, and mountains. The city of Dubrovnik was founded by such survivors from Epidaurum.
There's some uncertainty about the ethnogenesis of Croats. The most accepted theory, the Slavic theory, proposes migration of White Croats from White Croatia during the Migration Period. Conversely, the Iranian theory proposes Sarmatian-Alanic origin of Proto-Croats, based on Tanais Tablets containing Ancient Greek inscriptions of given names Χορούαθος, Χοροάθος, and Χορόαθος (Khoroúathos, Khoroáthos, and Khoróathos) and their interpretation as anthroponyms related to the Croatian ethnonym.
According to the work De Administrando Imperio written by 10th-century Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII, Croats settled in the Roman province of Dalmatia in the first half of the 7th century after they defeated the Avars. Although there exist some scholarly disputes about the account's reliability and interpretation, recent archaeological data has established that the migration and settlement of the Slavs/Croats was in the late 6th and early 7th century. Eventually, a dukedom was formed, Duchy of Croatia, ruled by Borna, as attested by chronicles of Einhard starting in 818. The record represents the first document of Croatian realms, vassal states of Francia at the time. Its neighbor to the North was Principality of Lower Pannonia, at the time ruled by duke Ljudevit who ruled the territories between the Drava and Sava rivers, centred from his fort at Sisak. This population and territory throughout history was tightly related and connected to Croats and Croatia.
Christianisation of Croats began in the 7th century at the time of archon Porga of Croatia, initially probably encompassed only the elite and related people, but mostly finished by the 9th century. The Frankish overlordship ended during the reign of Mislav, or his successor Trpimir I. The native Croatian royal dynasty was founded by duke Trpimir I in the mid 9th century, who defeated the Byzantine and Bulgarian forces.
The first native Croatian ruler recognised by the Pope was duke Branimir, who received papal recognition from Pope John VIII on 7 June 879. Tomislav was the first king of Croatia, noted as such in a letter of Pope John X in 925. Tomislav defeated Hungarian and Bulgarian invasions. The medieval Croatian kingdom reached its peak in the 11th century during the reigns of Petar Krešimir IV (1058–1074) and Dmitar Zvonimir (1075–1089). When Stjepan II died in 1091, ending the Trpimirović dynasty, Dmitar Zvonimir's brother-in-law Ladislaus I of Hungary claimed the Croatian crown. This led to a war and personal union with Hungary in 1102 under Coloman.
=== Union with Hungary and Austria ===
For the next four centuries, the Kingdom of Croatia was ruled by the Sabor (parliament) and a Ban (viceroy) appointed by the king. This period saw the rise of influential nobility such as the Frankopan and Šubić families to prominence, and ultimately numerous Bans from the two families. An increasing threat of Ottoman conquest and a struggle against the Republic of Venice for control of coastal areas ensued. The Venetians controlled most of Dalmatia by 1428, except the city-state of Dubrovnik, which became independent. Ottoman conquests led to the 1493 Battle of Krbava field and the 1526 Battle of Mohács, both ending in decisive Ottoman victories. King Louis II died at Mohács, and in 1527, the Croatian Parliament met in Cetin and chose Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg as the new ruler of Croatia, under the condition that he protects Croatia against the Ottoman Empire while respecting its political rights.
Following the decisive Ottoman victories, Croatia was split into civilian and military territories in 1538. The military territories became known as the Croatian Military Frontier and were under direct Habsburg control. Ottoman advances in Croatia continued until the 1593 Battle of Sisak, the first decisive Ottoman defeat, when borders stabilised. During the Great Turkish War (1683–1698), Slavonia was regained, but western Bosnia, which had been part of Croatia before the Ottoman conquest, remained outside Croatian control. The present-day border between the two countries is a remnant of this outcome. Dalmatia, the southern part of the border, was similarly defined by the Fifth and the Seventh Ottoman–Venetian Wars.
The Ottoman wars drove demographic changes. During the 16th century, Croats from western and northern Bosnia, Lika, Krbava, the area between the rivers Una and Kupa, and especially from western Slavonia, migrated towards Austria. Present-day Burgenland Croats are direct descendants of these settlers. To replace the fleeing population, the Habsburgs encouraged Bosnians to provide military service in the Military Frontier.
The Croatian Parliament supported King Charles III's Pragmatic Sanction and signed their own Pragmatic Sanction in 1712. Subsequently, the emperor pledged to respect all privileges and political rights of the Kingdom of Croatia, and Queen Maria Theresa made significant contributions to Croatian affairs, such as introducing compulsory education.
Between 1797 and 1809, the First French Empire increasingly occupied the eastern Adriatic coastline and its hinterland, ending the Venetian and the Ragusan republics, establishing the Illyrian Provinces. In response, the Royal Navy blockaded the Adriatic Sea, leading to the Battle of Vis in 1811. The Illyrian provinces were captured by the Austrians in 1813 and absorbed by the Austrian Empire following the Congress of Vienna in 1815. This led to the formation of the Kingdom of Dalmatia and the restoration of the Croatian Littoral to the Kingdom of Croatia under one crown. The 1830s and 1840s featured romantic nationalism that inspired the Croatian National Revival, a political and cultural campaign advocating the unity of South Slavs within the empire. Its primary focus was establishing a standard language as a counterweight to Hungarian while promoting Croatian literature and culture. During the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, Croatia sided with Austria. Ban Josip Jelačić helped defeat the Hungarians in 1849 and ushered in a Germanisation policy. This is around the time that Nikola Tesla was born in Smiljin.
By the 1860s, the failure of the policy became apparent, leading to the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867. The creation of a personal union between the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary followed. The treaty left Croatia's status to Hungary, which was resolved by the Croatian–Hungarian Settlement of 1868 when the kingdoms of Croatia and Slavonia were united. The Kingdom of Dalmatia remained under de facto Austrian control, while Rijeka retained the status of corpus separatum previously introduced in 1779.
After Austria-Hungary occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina following the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, the Military Frontier was abolished. The Croatian and Slavonian sectors of the Frontier returned to Croatia in 1881, under provisions of the Croatian–Hungarian Settlement. Renewed efforts to reform Austria-Hungary, entailing federalisation with Croatia as a federal unit, were stopped by World War I.
=== The World Wars and Yugoslavia ===
On 29 October 1918, the Croatian Parliament (Sabor) declared independence and decided to join the newly formed State of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs, which in turn entered into union with the Kingdom of Serbia on 4 December 1918 to form the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes. The Croatian Parliament never ratified the union with Serbia and Montenegro. The 1921 constitution defining the country as a unitary state and abolition of Croatian Parliament and historical administrative divisions effectively ended Croatian autonomy.
The new constitution was opposed by the most widely supported national political party—the Croatian Peasant Party (HSS) led by Stjepan Radić.
The political situation deteriorated further as Radić was assassinated in the National Assembly by NRS member, Serbian nationalist politician Puniša Račić in 1928, culminating in King Alexander I's establishment of the 6 January Dictatorship in 1929. The dictatorship formally ended in 1931 when the king imposed a more unitary constitution. The HSS, now led by Vladko Maček, continued to advocate federalisation, resulting in the Cvetković–Maček Agreement of August 1939 and the autonomous Banovina of Croatia. The Yugoslav government retained control of defence, internal security, foreign affairs, trade, and transport while other matters were left to the Croatian Sabor and a crown-appointed Ban.
In April 1941, Yugoslavia was occupied by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. Following the invasion, a German-Italian installed puppet state named the Independent State of Croatia (NDH) was established. Most of Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the region of Syrmia were incorporated into this state. Parts of Dalmatia were annexed by Italy, Hungary annexed the northern Croatian regions of Baranja and Međimurje. The NDH regime was led by Ante Pavelić and ultranationalist Ustaše, a fringe movement in pre-war Croatia. With German and Italian military and political support, the regime introduced racial laws and launched a genocide campaign against Serbs, Jews, and Roma. Many were imprisoned in concentration camps; the largest was the Jasenovac complex. Anti-fascist Croats were targeted by the regime as well. Several concentration camps (most notably the Rab, Gonars and Molat camps) were established in Italian-occupied territories, mostly for Slovenes and Croats. At the same time, the Yugoslav Royalist and Serbian nationalist Chetniks pursued a genocidal campaign against Croats and Muslims, aided by Italy. Nazi German forces committed crimes and reprisals against civilians in retaliation for Partisan actions, such as in the villages of Kamešnica and Lipa in 1944.
A resistance movement emerged. On 22 June 1941, the 1st Sisak Partisan Detachment was formed near Sisak, the first military unit formed by a resistance movement in occupied Europe. That sparked the beginning of the Yugoslav Partisan movement, a communist, multi-ethnic anti-fascist resistance group led by Josip Broz Tito. In ethnic terms, Croats were the second-largest contributors to the Partisan movement after Serbs. In per capita terms, Croats contributed proportionately to their population within Yugoslavia. By May 1944 (according to Tito), Croats made up 30% of the Partisan's ethnic composition, despite making up 22% of the population. The movement grew fast, and at the Tehran Conference in December 1943, the Partisans gained recognition from the Allies.
With Allied support in logistics, equipment, training and airpower, and with the assistance of Soviet troops taking part in the 1944 Belgrade Offensive, the Partisans gained control of Yugoslavia and the border regions of Italy and Austria by May 1945. Members of the NDH armed forces and other Axis troops, as well as civilians, were in retreat towards Austria. Following their surrender, many were killed in the Yugoslav death march of Nazi collaborators. In the following years, ethnic Germans faced persecution in Yugoslavia, and many were interned.
The political aspirations of the Partisan movement were reflected in the State Anti-fascist Council for the National Liberation of Croatia, which developed in 1943 as the bearer of Croatian statehood and later transformed into the Parliament in 1945, and AVNOJ—its counterpart at the Yugoslav level.
Based on the studies on wartime and post-war casualties by demographer Vladimir Žerjavić and statistician Bogoljub Kočović, a total of 295,000 people from the territory (not including territories ceded from Italy after the war) died, which amounted to 7.3% of the population, among whom were 125–137,000 Serbs, 118–124,000 Croats, 16–17,000 Jews, and 15,000 Roma. In addition, from areas joined to Croatia after the war, a total of 32,000 people died, among whom 16,000 were Italians and 15,000 were Croats. Approximately 200,000 Croats from the entirety of Yugoslavia (including Croatia) and abroad were killed in total throughout the war and its immediate aftermath, approximately 5.4% of the population.
After World War II, Croatia became a single-party socialist federal unit of the SFR Yugoslavia, ruled by the Communists, but having a degree of autonomy within the federation. In 1967, Croatian authors and linguists published a Declaration on the Status and Name of the Croatian Standard Language demanding equal treatment for their language.
The declaration contributed to a national movement seeking greater civil rights and redistribution of the Yugoslav economy, culminating in the Croatian Spring of 1971, which was suppressed by Yugoslav leadership. Still, the 1974 Yugoslav Constitution gave increased autonomy to federal units, basically fulfilling a goal of the Croatian Spring and providing a legal basis for independence of the federative constituents. At the same time, there was a substantial Croatian diaspora during the Cold War, which included efforts aimed at forming a government in exile.
Following Tito's death in 1980, the political situation in Yugoslavia deteriorated. National tension was fanned by the 1986 SANU Memorandum and the 1989 coups in Vojvodina, Kosovo, and Montenegro. In January 1990, the Communist Party fragmented along national lines, with the Croatian faction demanding a looser federation. In the same year, the first multi-party elections were held in Croatia, while Franjo Tuđman's win exacerbated nationalist tensions. Some of the Serbs in Croatia left Sabor and declared autonomy of the unrecognised Republic of Serbian Krajina, intent on achieving independence from Croatia.
=== Independence ===
As tensions rose, Croatia declared independence on 25 June 1991. However, the full implementation of the declaration only came into effect after a three-month moratorium on the decision on 8 October 1991. In the meantime, tensions escalated into overt war when the Serbian-controlled Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) and various Serb paramilitary groups attacked Croatia.
By the end of 1991, a high-intensity conflict fought along a wide front reduced Croatia's control to about two-thirds of its territory. Serb paramilitary groups then began a campaign of killing, terror, and expulsion of the Croats in the occupied territories, killing thousands of Croat civilians and expelling or displacing as many as 400,000–500,000 Croats and other non-Serbs from their homes. Serbs living in Croatian towns, especially those near the front lines, were subjected to various forms of discrimination. Croatian Serbs in Eastern and Western Slavonia and parts of the Krajina were forced to flee or were expelled by Croatian forces, though on a restricted scale and in lesser numbers. The Croatian Government publicly deplored these practices and sought to stop them, indicating that they were not a part of the Government's policy.
On 15 January 1992, Croatia gained diplomatic recognition by the European Economic Community, followed by the United Nations. The war effectively ended in August 1995 with a decisive victory by Croatia; the event is commemorated each year on 5 August as Victory and Homeland Thanksgiving Day and the Day of Croatian Defenders. Following the Croatian victory, about 200,000 Serbs from the self-proclaimed Republic of Serbian Krajina fled the region and hundreds of mainly elderly Serb civilians were killed in the aftermath of the military operation, often in revenge attacks, accompanied by looting, seizing or burning down of their property. Approximately half have returned since then. Some 19,000 Serb homes were subsequently settled by Croat refugees from Bosnia and Herzegovina. The remaining occupied areas were restored to Croatia following the Erdut Agreement of November 1995, concluding with the UNTAES mission in January 1998. Most sources number the war deaths at around 20,000.
After the end of the war, Croatia faced the challenges of post-war reconstruction, the return of refugees, establishing democracy, protecting human rights, and general social and economic development.
The 2000s were characterized by democratization, economic growth, structural and social reforms, and problems such as unemployment, corruption, and the inefficiency of public administration. In November 2000 and March 2001, the Parliament amended the Constitution, first adopted on 22 December 1990, changing its bicameral structure back into its historic unicameral form and reducing presidential powers.
Croatia joined the Partnership for Peace on 25 May 2000 and became a member of the World Trade Organization on 30 November 2000. On 29 October 2001, Croatia signed a Stabilisation and Association Agreement with the European Union, submitted a formal application for the EU membership in 2003, was given the status of a candidate country in 2004, and began accession negotiations in 2005. Although the Croatian economy enjoyed a significant boom in the early 2000s, the 2008 financial crisis forced the government to cut spending, thus provoking a public outcry.
Croatia served on the United Nations Security Council in the 2008–2009 term for the first time, assuming the non-permanent seat in December 2008. On 1 April 2009, Croatia joined NATO.
A wave of anti-government protests in 2011 reflected a general dissatisfaction with the current political and economic situation. The protests brought together diverse political persuasions in response to recent government corruption scandals and called for early elections. On 28 October 2011 MPs voted to dissolve Parliament and the protests gradually subsided. President Ivo Josipović agreed to a dissolution of Sabor on Monday, 31 October and scheduled new elections for Sunday 4 December 2011.
On 30 June 2011, Croatia successfully completed EU accession negotiations. The country signed the Accession Treaty on 9 December 2011 and held a referendum on 22 January 2012, where Croatian citizens voted in favor of an EU membership. Croatia joined the European Union on 1 July 2013.
Croatia was affected by the 2015 European migrant crisis when Hungary's closure of borders with Serbia pushed over 700,000 refugees and migrants to pass through Croatia on their way to other EU countries.
On 19 October 2016, Andrej Plenković began serving as the current Croatian Prime Minister. The most recent presidential elections, held on 5 January 2020, elected Zoran Milanović as president.
On 25 January 2022, the OECD Council decided to open accession negotiations with Croatia. Throughout the accession process, Croatia was to implement numerous reforms that will advance all spheres of activity – from public services and the justice system to education, transport, finance, health, and trade. In line with the OECD Accession Roadmap from June 2022, Croatia will undergo technical reviews by 25 OECD committees and is so far progressing at a faster pace than expected. Full membership is expected in 2025 and is the last big foreign policy goal Croatia still has to achieve.
On 1 January 2023, Croatia adopted the euro as its official currency, replacing the kuna, and became the 20th Eurozone member. On the same day, Croatia became the 27th member of the border-free Schengen Area, thus marking its full EU integration.
== Geography ==
Croatia is situated in Central and Southeast Europe, on the coast of the Adriatic Sea. Hungary is to the northeast, Serbia to the east, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro to the southeast and Slovenia to the northwest. It lies mostly between latitudes 42° and 47° N and longitudes 13° and 20° E. Part of the territory in the extreme south surrounding Dubrovnik is a practical exclave connected to the rest of the mainland by territorial waters, but separated on land by a short coastline strip belonging to Bosnia and Herzegovina around Neum. The Pelješac Bridge connects the exclave with mainland Croatia.
The territory covers 56,594 square kilometres (21,851 square miles), consisting of 56,414 square kilometres (21,782 square miles) of land and 128 square kilometres (49 square miles) of water. It is the world's 127th largest country. Elevation ranges from the mountains of the Dinaric Alps with the highest point of the Dinara peak at 1,831 metres (6,007 feet) near the border with Bosnia and Herzegovina in the south to the shore of the Adriatic Sea which makes up its entire southwest border. Insular Croatia consists of over a thousand islands and islets varying in size, 48 of which are permanently inhabited. The largest islands are Cres and Krk, each of them having an area of around 405 square kilometres (156 square miles).
The hilly northern parts of Hrvatsko Zagorje and the flat plains of Slavonia in the east which is part of the Pannonian Basin are traversed by major rivers such as Danube, Drava, Kupa, and the Sava. The Danube, Europe's second longest river, runs through the city of Vukovar in the extreme east and forms part of the border with Vojvodina. The central and southern regions near the Adriatic coastline and islands consist of low mountains and forested highlands. Natural resources found in quantities significant enough for production include oil, coal, bauxite, low-grade iron ore, calcium, gypsum, natural asphalt, silica, mica, clays, salt, and hydropower. Karst topography makes up about half of Croatia and is especially prominent in the Dinaric Alps. Croatia hosts deep caves, 49 of which are deeper than 250 m (820.21 ft), 14 deeper than 500 m (1,640.42 ft) and three deeper than 1,000 m (3,280.84 ft). Croatia's most famous lakes are the Plitvice lakes, a system of 16 lakes with waterfalls connecting them over dolomite and limestone cascades. The lakes are renowned for their distinctive colours, ranging from turquoise to mint green, grey or blue.
=== Climate ===
Most of Croatia has a moderately warm and rainy continental climate as defined by the Köppen climate classification. Mean monthly temperature ranges between −3 °C (27 °F) in January and 18 °C (64 °F) in July. The coldest parts of the country are Lika and Gorski Kotar featuring a snowy, forested climate at elevations above 1,200 metres (3,900 feet). The warmest areas are at the Adriatic coast and especially in its immediate hinterland characterised by Mediterranean climate, as the sea moderates temperature highs. Consequently, temperature peaks are more pronounced in continental areas.
The lowest temperature of −35.5 °C (−31.9 °F) was recorded on 3 February 1919 in Čakovec, and the highest temperature of 42.8 °C (109.0 °F) was recorded on 4 August 1981 in Ploče.
Mean annual precipitation ranges between 600 millimetres (24 inches) and 3,500 millimetres (140 inches) depending on geographic region and climate type. The least precipitation is recorded in the outer islands (Biševo, Lastovo, Svetac, Vis) and the eastern parts of Slavonia. However, in the latter case, rain occurs mostly during the growing season. The maximum precipitation levels are observed in the Dinaric Alps, in the Gorski Kotar peaks of Risnjak and Snježnik.
Prevailing winds in the interior are light to moderate northeast or southwest, and in the coastal area, prevailing winds are determined by local features. Higher wind velocities are more often recorded in cooler months along the coast, generally as the cool northeasterly bura or less frequently as the warm southerly jugo. The sunniest parts are the outer islands, Hvar and Korčula, where more than 2700 hours of sunshine are recorded per year, followed by the middle and southern Adriatic Sea area in general, and northern Adriatic coast, all with more than 2000 hours of sunshine per year.
=== Biodiversity ===
Croatia can be subdivided into ecoregions based on climate and geomorphology. The country is one of the richest in Europe in terms of biodiversity. Croatia has four types of biogeographical regions—the Mediterranean along the coast and in its immediate hinterland, Alpine in most of Lika and Gorski Kotar, Pannonian along Drava and Danube, and Continental in the remaining areas. The most significant are karst habitats which include submerged karst, such as Zrmanja and Krka canyons and tufa barriers, as well as underground habitats. The country contains three ecoregions: Dinaric Mountains mixed forests, Pannonian mixed forests, and Illyrian deciduous forests.
The karst geology harbours approximately 7,000 caves and pits, some of which are the habitat of the only known aquatic cave vertebrate—the olm. Forests are abundant, covering 2,490,000 hectares (6,200,000 acres) or 44% of Croatian land area. Other habitat types include wetlands, grasslands, bogs, fens, scrub habitats, coastal and marine habitats.
In terms of phytogeography, Croatia is a part of the Boreal Kingdom and is a part of Illyrian and Central European provinces of the Circumboreal Region and the Adriatic province of the Mediterranean Region. The World Wide Fund for Nature divides Croatia between three ecoregions—Pannonian mixed forests, Dinaric Mountains mixed forests and Illyrian deciduous forests.
Croatia hosts 37,000 known plant and animal species, but their actual number is estimated to be between 50,000 and 100,000. More than a thousand species are endemic, especially in Velebit and Biokovo mountains, Adriatic islands and karst rivers. Legislation protects 1,131 species. The most serious threat is habitat loss and degradation. A further problem is presented by invasive alien species, especially Caulerpa taxifolia algae.
Invasive algae are regularly monitored and removed to protect benthic habitat. Indigenous cultivated plant strains and domesticated animal breeds are numerous. They include five breeds of horses, five of cattle, eight of sheep, two of pigs, and one poultry. Indigenous breeds include nine that are endangered or critically endangered. Croatia has 444 protected areas, encompassing 9% of the country. Those include eight national parks, two strict reserves, and ten nature parks. The most famous protected area and the oldest national park in Croatia is Plitvice Lakes National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Velebit Nature Park is a part of the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Programme. The strict and special reserves, as well as the national and nature parks, are managed and protected by the central government, while other protected areas are managed by counties. In 2005, the National Ecological Network was set up, as the first step in the preparation of the EU accession and joining of the Natura 2000 network.
== Governance ==
The Republic of Croatia is a unitary, constitutional state using a parliamentary system. Government powers in Croatia are legislative, executive, and judiciary powers.
The president of the republic (Croatian: Predsjednik Republike) is the head of state, directly elected to a five-year term and is limited by the Constitution to two terms. In addition to serving as commander in chief of the armed forces, the president has the procedural duty of appointing the prime minister with the parliament and has some influence on foreign policy.
The Government is headed by the prime minister, who has four deputy prime ministers and 16 ministers in charge of particular sectors. As the executive branch, it is responsible for proposing legislation and a budget, enforcing the laws, and guiding foreign and internal policies. The Government is seated at Banski dvori in Zagreb.
=== Law and judicial system ===
A unicameral parliament (Sabor) holds legislative power. The number of Sabor members can vary from 100 to 160. They are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms. Legislative sessions take place from 15 January to 15 July, and from 15 September to 15 December annually. The two largest political parties in Croatia are the Croatian Democratic Union and the Social Democratic Party of Croatia.
Croatia has a civil law legal system in which law arises primarily from written statutes, with judges serving as implementers and not creators of law. Its development was largely influenced by German and Austrian legal systems. Croatian law is divided into two principal areas—private and public law. Before EU accession negotiations were completed, Croatian legislation had been fully harmonised with the Community acquis.
The main national courts are the Constitutional Court, which oversees violations of the Constitution, and the Supreme Court, which is the highest court of appeal. Administrative, Commercial, County, Misdemeanor, and Municipal courts handle cases in their respective domains. Cases falling within judicial jurisdiction are in the first instance decided by a single professional judge, while appeals are deliberated in mixed tribunals of professional judges. Lay magistrates also participate in trials. The State's Attorney Office is the judicial body constituted of public prosecutors empowered to instigate prosecution of perpetrators of offences.
Law enforcement agencies are organised under the authority of the Ministry of the Interior which consist primarily of the national police force. Croatia's security service is the Security and Intelligence Agency (SOA).
=== Foreign relations ===
Croatia has established diplomatic relations with 194 countries. supporting 57 embassies, 30 consulates and eight permanent diplomatic missions. 56 foreign embassies and 67 consulates operate in the country in addition to offices of international organisations such as the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), International Organization for Migration (IOM), Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), World Bank, World Health Organization (WHO), International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), and UNICEF.
As of 2019, the Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration employed 1,381 personnel and expended 765.295 million kunas (€101.17 million). Stated aims of Croatian foreign policy include enhancing relations with neighbouring countries, developing international co-operation and promotion of the Croatian economy and Croatia itself.
Croatia is a member of the European Union. As of 2021, Croatia had unsolved border issues with Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Serbia, and Slovenia. Croatia is a member of NATO. On 1 January 2023, Croatia simultaneously joined both the Schengen Area and the Eurozone, having previously joined the ERM II on 10 July 2020.
=== Croatian diaspora ===
The Croatian diaspora consists of communities of ethnic Croats and Croatian citizens living outside Croatia. Croatia maintains intensive contacts with Croatian communities abroad (e.g., administrative and financial support of cultural, sports activities, and economic initiatives). Croatia actively maintain foreign relations to strengthen and guarantee the rights of the Croatian minority in various host countries.
=== Military ===
The Croatian Armed Forces (CAF) consist of the Air Force, Army, and Navy branches in addition to the Education and Training Command and Support Command. The CAF is headed by the General Staff, which reports to the defence minister, who in turn reports to the president. According to the constitution, the president is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. In case of immediate threat during wartime, he issues orders directly to the General Staff.
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Following the 1991–95 war, defence spending and CAF size began a constant decline. As of 2019, military spending was an estimated 1.68% of the country's GDP, 67th globally. In 2005 the budget fell below the NATO-required 2% of GDP, down from the record high of 11.1% in 1994. Traditionally relying on conscripts, the CAF went through a period of reforms focused on downsizing, restructuring and professionalisation in the years before accession to NATO in April 2009. According to a presidential decree issued in 2006, the CAF employed around 18,100 active duty military personnel, 3,000 civilians and 2,000 voluntary conscripts between 18 and 30 years old in peacetime.
Until 2008 military service was obligatory for men at age 18 and conscripts served six-month tours of duty, reduced in 2001 from the earlier scheme of nine months. Conscientious objectors could instead opt for eight months of civilian service. Compulsory conscription was abolished in January 2008, but is set to be reintroduced in January 2025 with two months of active duty. The decision was influenced by the rising tensions in Europe and the region, following the Russian invasion of Ukraine.
As of May 2019, the Croatian military had 72 members stationed in foreign countries as part of United Nations-led international peacekeeping forces. As of 2019, 323 troops served the NATO-led ISAF force in Afghanistan. Another 156 served with KFOR in Kosovo.
Croatia has a military-industrial sector that exported around 493 million kunas (€65,176 million) worth of military equipment in 2020. Croatian-made weapons and vehicles used by CAF include the standard sidearm HS2000 manufactured by HS Produkt and the M-84D battle tank designed by the Đuro Đaković factory. Uniforms and helmets worn by CAF soldiers are locally produced and marketed to other countries.
According to the 2024 Global Peace Index, Croatia is the 15th most peaceful country in the world.
=== Administrative divisions ===
Croatia was first divided into counties in the Middle Ages. The divisions changed over time to reflect losses of territory to Ottoman conquest and subsequent liberation of the same territory, changes of the political status of Dalmatia, Dubrovnik, and Istria. The traditional division of the country into counties was abolished in the 1920s when the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes and the subsequent Kingdom of Yugoslavia introduced oblasts and banovinas respectively.
Communist-ruled Croatia, as a constituent part of post-World War II Yugoslavia, abolished earlier divisions and introduced municipalities, subdividing Croatia into approximately one hundred municipalities. Counties were reintroduced in 1992 legislation, significantly altered in terms of territory relative to the pre-1920s subdivisions. In 1918, the Transleithanian part was divided into eight counties with their seats in Bjelovar, Gospić, Ogulin, Osijek, Požega, Varaždin, Vukovar, and Zagreb.
As of 1992, Croatia is divided into 20 counties and the capital city of Zagreb, the latter having the dual authority and legal status of a county and a city. County borders changed in some instances, last revised in 2006. The counties subdivide into 127 cities and 429 municipalities. Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics (NUTS) division is performed in several tiers. NUTS 1 level considers the entire country in a single unit; three NUTS 2 regions come below that. Those are Northwest Croatia, Central and Eastern (Pannonian) Croatia, and Adriatic Croatia. The latter encompasses the counties along the Adriatic coast. Northwest Croatia includes Koprivnica-Križevci, Krapina-Zagorje, Međimurje, Varaždin, the city of Zagreb, and Zagreb counties and the Central and Eastern (Pannonian) Croatia includes the remaining areas—Bjelovar-Bilogora, Brod-Posavina, Karlovac, Osijek-Baranja, Požega-Slavonia, Sisak-Moslavina, Virovitica-Podravina, and Vukovar-Syrmia counties. Individual counties and the city of Zagreb also represent NUTS 3 level subdivision units in Croatia. The NUTS local administrative unit (LAU) divisions are two-tiered. LAU 1 divisions match the counties and the city of Zagreb in effect making those the same as NUTS 3 units, while LAU 2 subdivisions correspond to cities and municipalities.
== Economy ==
Croatia's economy qualifies as high-income and developed. International Monetary Fund data puts the Croatian nominal GDP at $103.90 Billion for 2025, or $26,960 per capita. Purchasing power parity (PPP) GDP is at 198.31 Billion, or $51,450 per capita. According to Eurostat, Croatian GDP per capita in PPS stood at 78% of the EU average in 2024, with real GDP growth for the year being 2.8%. The average net salary of a Croatian worker in May 2025 was €1,451 per month, the average gross salary roughly €2,019 per month. The unemployment rate is at 4.2% in October 2025, down from 7.2% in July 2019 and 9.6% in December 2018. The unemployment rate between 1996 and 2018 averaged 17.38%, reaching an all-time high of 23.60% in January 2002 and a record low of 8.40% in September 2018. In 2017, economic output was dominated by the service sector — accounting for 70.1% of GDP – followed by the industrial sector with 26.2% and agriculture accounting for 3.7%.
According to 2017 data, 1.9% of the workforce were employed in agriculture, 27.3% by industry and 70.8% in services. Shipbuilding, food processing, pharmaceuticals, information technology, biochemical, and timber industry dominate the industrial sector. In 2018, Croatian exports were valued at 108 Billion kunas (€14.61 Billion) with 176 Billion kunas (€23.82 Billion) worth of imports. Croatia's largest trading partner was the rest of the European Union, led by Germany, Italy, and Slovenia. According to Eurostat, Croatia has the highest quantity of water resources per capita in the EU (30,000 m3).
As a result of the war, economic infrastructure sustained massive damage, particularly the tourism industry. From 1989 to 1993, the GDP fell 40.5%. The Croatian state still controls significant economic sectors, with government expenditures accounting for 40% of GDP. A particular concern is a backlogged judiciary system, with inefficient public administration and corruption, upending land ownership. In the 2022 Corruption Perceptions Index, published by Transparency International, the country ranked 57th. At the end of June 2020, the national debt stood at 85.3% of GDP.
=== Tourism ===
Tourism dominates the Croatian service sector and accounts for up to 20% of GDP. Tourism income for 2019 was estimated to be €10.5 billion. Its positive effects are felt throughout the economy, increasing retail business, and increasing seasonal employment. The industry is counted as an export business because foreign visitor spending significantly reduces the country's trade imbalance.
The tourist industry has rapidly grown, recording a sharp rise in tourist numbers since independence, attracting more than 17 million visitors each year (as of 2017). Germany, Slovenia, Austria, Italy, United Kingdom, Czechia, Poland, Hungary, France, Netherlands, Slovakia and Croatia itself provide the most visitors. Tourist stays averaged 4.7 days in 2019.
Much of the tourist industry is concentrated along the coast. Opatija was the first holiday resort. It first became popular in the middle of the 19th century. By the 1890s, it had become one of the largest European health resorts. Resorts sprang up along the coast and islands, offering services catering to mass tourism and various niche markets. The most significant are nautical tourism, supported by marinas with more than 16 thousand berths, cultural tourism relying on the appeal of medieval coastal cities and cultural events taking place during the summer. Inland areas offer agrotourism, mountain resorts, and spas. Zagreb is a significant destination, rivalling major coastal cities and resorts.
Croatia has unpolluted marine areas with nature reserves and 116 Blue Flag beaches. Croatia was ranked first in Europe for swimming water quality in 2022 by European Environmental Agency.
Croatia ranked as the 23rd-most popular tourist destination in the world according to the World Tourism Organization in 2019. About 15% of these visitors, or over one million per year, participate in naturism, for which Croatia is famous. It was the first European country to develop commercial naturist resorts. In 2023, luggage storage company Bounce gave Croatia the highest solo travel index in the world (7.58), while a joint Pinterest and Zola wedding trends report from 2023 put Croatia among the most popular honeymoon destinations.
=== Infrastructure ===
==== Motorways ====
The motorway network was largely built in the late 1990s and the 2000s. As of December 2020, Croatia had completed 1,313.8 kilometres (816.4 miles) of motorways, connecting Zagreb to other regions and following various European routes and four Pan-European corridors. The busiest motorways are the A1, connecting Zagreb to Split and the A3, passing east to west through northwest Croatia and Slavonia.
A widespread network of state roads in Croatia acts as motorway feeder roads while connecting major settlements. The high quality and safety levels of the Croatian motorway network were tested and confirmed by EuroTAP and EuroTest programmes.
==== Railways ====
Croatia has an extensive rail network spanning 2,604 kilometres (1,618 miles), including 984 kilometres (611 miles) of electrified railways and 254 kilometres (158 miles) of double track railways. The most significant railways in Croatia are within the Pan-European transport corridors Vb and X connecting Rijeka to Budapest and Ljubljana to Belgrade, both via Zagreb. Croatian Railways operates all rail services. In 2024, the European Investment Bank committed €400 million to support the revitalization of the railway system, focusing on green and digital transformations. In July 2024, a significant agreement was signed for the acquisition of six electro-diesel multiple units (EDMUs) to improve connectivity between Split and Zagreb. Valued at €57.3 million and financed through an EIB loan, this project is part of the broader initiative to modernize Croatia's railway infrastructure.
==== Pelješac Bridge ====
The construction of 2.4-kilometre-long Pelješac Bridge, the biggest infrastructure project in Croatia connects the two-halves of Dubrovnik-Neretva County and shortens the route from the West to the Pelješac peninsula and the islands of Korčula and Lastovo by more than 32 km. The construction of the Pelješac Bridge started in July 2018 after Croatian road operator Hrvatske ceste (HC) signed a 2.08 billion kuna deal for the works with a Chinese consortium led by China Road and Bridge Corporation (CRBC). The project was co-financed by the European Union with €357 million. The construction was completed in July 2022.
==== Aviation ====
There are international airports in Dubrovnik, Osijek, Pula, Rijeka, Split, Zadar, and Zagreb. The largest and busiest is Franjo Tuđman Airport in Zagreb. In July 2024, the airline took delivery of its first Airbus A220-300 aircraft, marking the beginning of a transition to a more modern and efficient fleet. This initiative includes the acquisition of 13 A220-300 and two A220-100 aircraft, aiming to enhance operational efficiency with 25% lower fuel consumption and reduced emissions. As of 2024, Croatia Airlines expanded its international network by introducing direct flights from Zagreb to Tirana, Berlin, and Stockholm. Additionally, the airline launched services connecting Hamburg to Zagreb starting 1 July 2024.
==== Ports ====
The busiest cargo seaport is the Port of Rijeka. The busiest passenger ports are Split and Zadar. Many minor ports serve ferries connecting numerous islands and coastal cities with ferry lines to several cities in Italy. The largest river port is Vukovar, located on the Danube, representing the nation's outlet to the Pan-European transport corridor VII.
==== Energy ====
610 kilometres (380 miles) of crude oil pipelines serve Croatia, connecting the Rijeka oil terminal with refineries in Rijeka and Sisak, and several transhipment terminals.
The system has a capacity of 20 million tonnes per year. The natural gas transportation system comprises 2,113 kilometres (1,313 miles) of trunk and regional pipelines, and more than 300 associated structures, connecting production rigs, the Okoli natural gas storage facility, 27 end-users and 37 distribution systems. Croatia also plays an important role in regional energy security. The floating liquefied natural gas import terminal off Krk island LNG Hrvatska commenced operations on 1 January 2021, positioning Croatia as a regional energy leader and contributing to diversification of Europe's energy supply.
In 2010, Croatian energy production covered 85% of nationwide natural gas and 19% of oil demand. In 2016, Croatia's primary energy production involved natural gas (24.8%), hydropower (28.3%), crude oil (13.6%), fuelwood (27.6%), and heat pumps and other renewable energy sources (5.7%). In 2017, net total electrical power production reached 11,543 GWh, while it imported 12,157 GWh or about 40% of its electric power energy needs.
Krško Nuclear Power Plant (Slovenia) supplies a large part of Croatian imports. 50% is owned by Hrvatska elektroprivreda, providing 15% of Croatia's electricity.
== Demographics ==
Ethnic map of Croatia by municipalities (2021)
With an estimated population of 3.87 million in 2024, Croatia ranks 128th by population in the world. Its 2018 population density was 72.9 inhabitants per square kilometre, making Croatia one of the more sparsely populated European countries. The overall life expectancy in Croatia at birth was 77.7 years in 2024.
The total fertility rate of 1.46 children per mother, is one of the lowest in the world, far below the replacement rate of 2.1; it remains considerably below the high of 6.18 children rate in 1885. Croatia's death rate has continuously exceeded its birth rate since 1998. Croatia subsequently has one of the world's oldest populations, with an average age of 45.1 years. The population rose steadily from 2.1 million in 1857 until 1991, when it peaked at 4.7 million, with the exceptions of censuses taken in 1921 and 1948, i.e., following the world wars. The natural growth rate is negative with the demographic transition completed in the 1970s. In recent years, the Croatian government has been pressured to increase permit quotas for foreign workers, reaching an all-time high of 68.100 in 2019. In accordance with its immigration policy, Croatia is trying to entice emigrants to return. From 2008 to 2018, Croatia's population dropped by 10%.
The population decrease was greater a result of war for independence. The war displaced large numbers of the population and emigration increased. In 1991, in predominantly occupied areas, more than 400,000 Croats were either removed from their homes by Serb forces or fled the violence. During the war's final days, about 150–200,000 Serbs fled before the arrival of Croatian forces during Operation Storm. After the war, the number of displaced persons fell to about 250,000. The Croatian government cared for displaced persons via the social security system and the Office of Displaced Persons and Refugees. Most of the territories abandoned during the war were settled by Croat refugees from Bosnia and Herzegovina, mostly from north-western Bosnia, while some displaced people returned to their homes.
According to the 2013 United Nations report, 17.6% of Croatia's population were immigrants. According to the 2021 census, the majority of inhabitants are Croats (91.6%), followed by Serbs (3.2%), Bosniaks (0.62%), Roma (0.46%), Albanians (0.36%), Italians (0.36%), Hungarians (0.27%), Czechs (0.20%), Slovenes (0.20%), Slovaks (0.10%), Macedonians (0.09%), Germans (0.09%), Montenegrins (0.08%), and others (1.56%). Approximately 4 million Croats live abroad.
=== Religion ===
Croatia has no official religion. Freedom of religion is a Constitutional right that protects all religious communities as equal before the law and considers them separated from the state.
According to the 2021 census, 87.39% of Croatians identify as Christian; of these, Catholics make up the largest group, accounting for 78.97% of the population, after which follows Eastern Orthodoxy (3.32%), Protestantism (0.26%), and other Christians (4.83%). The largest religion after Christianity is Islam (1.32%). 4.71% of the population describe itself as non-religious. In the Eurostat Eurobarometer Poll of 2010, 69% of the population responded that "they believe there is a God". In a 2009 Gallup poll, 70% answered yes to the question "Is religion an important part of your daily life?" Yet, only 24% of the population attends religious services regularly.
=== Languages ===
Croatian is the official language of the Republic of Croatia and has been an official language of the European Union since Croatia's accession in 2013. Croatian replaced Latin as the official language of the Croatian government in the 19th century. Following the Vienna Literary Agreement in 1850, the language and its Latin alphabet underwent reforms to create an unified "Croatian or Serbian" or "Serbo-Croatian" standard, which under various names became the official language of Yugoslavia. In SFR Yugoslavia, from 1972 to 1989, the language was constitutionally designated as the "Croatian literary language" and the "Croatian or Serbian language". It was the result of a resistance to and secession from "Serbo-Croatian" in the form of the Declaration on the Status and Name of the Croatian Literary Language as part of the Croatian Spring. Since gaining independence in the early 1990s, the Republic of Croatia constitutionally designates the language as "Croatian language" and regulates it through linguistic prescription. The long-standing aspiration for development of its own expressions and thus enrichment of the language, as opposed to the adoption of foreign solutions in the form of loanwords, has been described by linguists as Croatian linguistic purism.
Minority languages are in official use in local government units where more than a third of the population consists of national minorities or where local enabling legislation applies. Those languages are Czech, Hungarian, Italian, Serbian, and Slovak. The following minority languages are also recognised: Albanian, Bosnian, Bulgarian, German, Hebrew, Macedonian, Montenegrin, Polish, Romanian, Istro-Romanian, Romani, Russian, Rusyn, Slovene, Turkish, and Ukrainian.
According to the 2021 Census, 95.25% of citizens declared Croatian as their native language, 1.16% declared Serbian as their native language, while no other language reaches 0.26%. Croatian is a member of the South Slavic languages and is written using the Latin alphabet. There are three major dialects spoken on the territory of Croatia, with standard Croatian based on the Shtokavian dialect. The Chakavian and Kajkavian dialects are distinguished from Shtokavian by their lexicon, phonology and syntax.
A 2011 survey revealed that 78% of Croats claim knowledge of at least one foreign language. According to a 2005 EC survey, 49% of Croats speak English as the second language, 34% speak German, 14% speak Italian, 10% speak French, 4% speak Russian and 2% speak Spanish. However several large municipalities support minority languages. A majority of Slovenes (59%) have some knowledge of Croatian. The country is a part of various language-based international associations, most notably the European Union Language Association.
=== Education ===
As of 2021, the literacy rate in Croatia was 99.45%. Primary education in Croatia starts at the age of six or seven and consists of eight grades. In 2007 a law was passed to increase free, noncompulsory education until 18 years of age. Compulsory education consists of eight grades of elementary school.
Secondary education is provided by gymnasiums and vocational schools. As of the 2022/2023 school year, there were 2,073 elementary schools and 738 upper secondary schools in Croatia. Primary and secondary education are also available in languages of recognised minorities in Croatia, where classes are held in Czech, Hungarian, Italian, Serbian, German and Slovak languages.
There are 133 elementary and secondary level music and art schools, as well as 83 elementary and 44 secondary schools for disabled children and youth and 11 elementary and 52 secondary schools for adults. Nationwide leaving exams (Croatian: državna matura) were introduced for secondary education students in the school year 2009–2010. It comprises three compulsory subjects (Croatian language, mathematics, and a foreign language) and optional subjects and is a prerequisite for university education.
Croatia has eight public universities and two private universities. The University of Zadar, the first university in Croatia, was founded in 1396 and remained active until 1807, when other institutions of higher education took over until the foundation of the renewed University of Zadar in 2002. The University of Zagreb, founded in 1669, is the oldest continuously operating university in Southeast Europe. There are also 15 polytechnics, of which two are private, and 30 higher education institutions, of which 27 are private. In total, there are 131 institutions of higher education in Croatia, attended by more than 160 thousand students.
In 2022, Croatia's research and development (R&D) expenditure was approximately 1.43% of GDP, reflecting a commitment to fostering innovation and technological advancement. Among the scientific institutes operating in Croatia, the largest is the Ruđer Bošković Institute in Zagreb. The Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts in Zagreb is a learned society promoting language, culture, arts and science from its inception in 1866. Croatia was ranked 40th in the Global Innovation Index in 2025.
The European Investment Bank provided digital infrastructure and equipment to around 150 primary and secondary schools in Croatia. Twenty of these schools got specialised assistance in the form of gear, software, and services to help them integrate the teaching and administrative operations. In 2024, the EIB extended a €207 million loan to the City of Zagreb for infrastructure upgrades, including investments in renewable energy, energy efficiency projects, social and affordable housing, schools, and kindergartens. Additionally, the EIB signed a €49 million loan with the City of Split to co-finance its 2023–2027 multi-sector investment programme, which includes refurbishing public buildings, increasing energy efficiency, and improving technical equipment for public information and communication.
=== Healthcare ===
Croatia has a universal health care system, whose roots can be traced back to the Hungarian-Croatian Parliament Act of 1891, providing a form of mandatory insurance of all factory workers and craftsmen. The population is covered by a basic health insurance plan provided by statute and optional insurance. In 2017, annual healthcare related expenditures reached 22.2 billion kuna (around €3.0 billion). Healthcare expenditures comprise only 0.6% of private health insurance and public spending. In 2022, Croatia spent around 7.2% of its GDP on healthcare.
In 2025, Croatia ranked 53rd in the world in life expectancy with 75.8 years for men and 81.9 years for women, and it had a low infant mortality rate of 3.3 per 1,000 live births.
There are hundreds of healthcare institutions in Croatia, including 75 hospitals, and 13 clinics with 23,049 beds. The hospitals and clinics care for more than 700 thousand patients per year and employ 6,642 medical doctors, including 4,773 specialists. There is a total of 69,841 health workers. There are 119 emergency units in health centres, responding to more than a million calls. The principal cause of death in 2022 was cardiovascular disease at 34.3% for men and 43.8% for women, followed by hypertensive disease. In 2022 it was estimated that 37% of Croatians are smokers. According to 2022 data, 35.65% of the Croatian adult population is obese.
== Culture ==
Because of its geographical position, Croatia represents a blend of four different cultural spheres. It has been a crossroads of influences from western culture and the east since the schism between the Western Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire, and also from Central Europe and Mediterranean culture. The Illyrian movement was the most significant period of national cultural history, as the 19th century proved crucial to the emancipation of Croatians and saw unprecedented developments in all fields of art and culture, giving rise to many historical figures.
The Ministry of Culture is tasked with preserving the nation's cultural and natural heritage and overseeing its development. Further activities supporting the development of culture are undertaken at the local government level. The UNESCO's World Heritage List includes ten sites in Croatia and a list of Intangible Cultural Heritage of Croatia. The country is also rich with intangible culture and holds 15 of UNESCO's World's intangible culture masterpieces, ranking fourth in the world. A global cultural contribution from Croatia is the necktie, derived from the cravat originally worn by the 17th-century Croatian mercenaries in France.
In 2019, Croatia had 95 professional theatres, 30 professional children's theatres, and 51 amateur theatres visited by more than 2.27 million viewers per year. Professional theatres employ 1,195 artists. There are 42 professional orchestras, ensembles, and choirs, attracting an annual attendance of 297 thousand. There are 75 cinemas with 166 screens and attendance of 5.026 million.
Croatia has 222 museums, visited by more than 2.71 million people in 2016. Furthermore, there are 1,768 libraries, containing 26.8 million volumes, and 19 state archives. The book publishing market is dominated by several major publishers and the industry's centrepiece event—Interliber exhibition held annually at Zagreb Fair.
=== Arts, literature, and music ===
Architecture in Croatia reflects influences of bordering nations. Austrian and Hungarian influence is visible in public spaces and buildings in the north and the central regions, architecture found along coasts of Dalmatia and Istria exhibits Venetian influence. Squares named after culture heroes, parks, and pedestrian-only zones, are features of Croatian towns and cities, especially where large scale Baroque urban planning took place, for instance in Osijek (Tvrđa), Varaždin, and Karlovac. The subsequent influence of the Art Nouveau was reflected in contemporary architecture. The architecture is the Mediterranean with a Venetian and Renaissance influence in major coastal urban areas exemplified in works of Giorgio da Sebenico and Nicolas of Florence such as the Cathedral of St. James in Šibenik. The oldest preserved examples of Croatian architecture are the 9th-century churches, with the largest and the most representative among them being Church of St. Donatus in Zadar.
Besides the architecture encompassing the oldest artworks, there is a history of artists in Croatia reaching the Middle Ages. In that period the stone portal of the Trogir Cathedral was made by Radovan, representing the most important monument of Romanesque sculpture from Medieval Croatia. The Renaissance had the greatest impact on the Adriatic Sea coast since the remainder was embroiled in the Hundred Years' Croatian–Ottoman War. With the waning of the Ottoman Empire, art flourished during the Baroque and Rococo. The 19th and 20th centuries brought affirmation of numerous Croatian artisans, helped by several patrons of the arts such as bishop Josip Juraj Strossmayer. Croatian artists of the period achieving renown were Vlaho Bukovac, Ivan Meštrović, and Ivan Generalić.
The Baška tablet, a stone inscribed with the glagolitic alphabet found on the Krk island and dated to c. 1100, is considered to be the oldest surviving prose in Croatian. The beginning of more vigorous development of Croatian literature is marked by the Renaissance and Marko Marulić. Besides Marulić, Renaissance playwright Marin Držić, Baroque poet Ivan Gundulić, Croatian national revival poet Ivan Mažuranić, novelist, playwright, and poet August Šenoa, children's writer Ivana Brlić-Mažuranić, writer and journalist Marija Jurić Zagorka, poet and writer Antun Gustav Matoš, poet Antun Branko Šimić, expressionist and realist writer Miroslav Krleža, poet Tin Ujević and novelist, and short story writer Ivo Andrić are often cited as the greatest figures in Croatian literature.
Croatian music varies from classical operas to modern-day rock. Vatroslav Lisinski created the country's first opera, Love and Malice, in 1846. Ivan Zajc composed more than a thousand pieces of music, including masses and oratorios. Pianist Ivo Pogorelić has performed across the world.
=== Media ===
In Croatia, the Constitution guarantees the freedom of the press and the freedom of speech. Croatia ranked 64th in the 2019 Press Freedom Index report compiled by Reporters Without Borders which noted that journalists who investigate corruption, organised crime or war crimes face challenges and that the Government was trying to influence the public broadcaster HRT's editorial policies. In its 2019 Freedom in the World report, the Freedom House classified freedoms of press and speech in Croatia as generally free from political interference and manipulation, noting that journalists still face threats and occasional attacks. The state-owned news agency HINA runs a wire service in Croatian and English on politics, economics, society, and culture.
As of January 2021, there are thirteen nationwide free-to-air DVB-T television channels, with Croatian Radiotelevision (HRT) operating four, RTL Televizija three, and Nova TV operating two channels, and the Croatian Olympic Committee, Kapital Net d.o.o., and Author d.o.o. companies operate the remaining three. Also, there are 21 regional or local DVB-T television channels. The HRT is also broadcasting a satellite TV channel. In 2020, there were 147 radio stations and 27 TV stations in Croatia. Cable television and IPTV networks are gaining ground. Cable television already serves 450 thousand people, around 10% of the total population of the country.
In 2010, 267 newspapers and 2,676 magazines were published in Croatia. The print media market is dominated by the Croatian-owned Hanza Media and Austrian-owned Styria Media Group who publish their flagship dailies Jutarnji list, Večernji list and 24sata. Other influential newspapers are Novi list and Slobodna Dalmacija. In 2020, 24sata was the most widely circulated daily newspaper, followed by Večernji list and Jutarnji list.
Croatia competed in the Eurovision Song Contest as part of Yugoslavia since 1961. The first and only victory Yugoslavia achieved in the competition was accomplished by the Croatian pop band Riva in 1989. Since its debut at the 1993 contest, Croatia won two fourth places at the 1996 and 1999 contests, and one second place at the 2024 contest, marking the country's best result to date as an independent nation.
=== Film industry ===
Croatia's film industry is small and heavily subsidised by the government, mainly through grants approved by the Ministry of Culture with films often being co-produced by HRT. Croatian cinema produces between five and ten feature films per year. Pula Film Festival, the national film awards event held annually in Pula, is the most prestigious film event featuring national and international productions. Animafest Zagreb, founded in 1972, is the prestigious annual film festival dedicated to the animated film. The first greatest accomplishment by Croatian filmmakers was achieved by Dušan Vukotić when he won the 1961 Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film for Ersatz (Croatian: Surogat). Croatian film producer Branko Lustig won the Academy Awards for Best Picture for Schindler's List and Gladiator. In addition to that, Croatian filmmaker Nebojša Slijepčević got nominated for 97th Academy Awards in category for Best Live Action Short Film for his 2024 movie The Man Who Could Not Remain Silent (Croatian: Čovjek koji nije mogao šutjeti), making it first Croatian nomination in that category, and first since its independence.
Before and since its independence, Croatia has become a popular filming destination amongs international filming productions, and a lot of blockbuster films and TV series have been filmed in Croatia including: Game of Thrones, Star Wars: The Last Jedi, Robin Hood in Dubrovnik, Speak No Evil, Season of the Witch and Titius in Istria, Infinity Pool in Šibenik, Canary Black, Hitman's Wife's Bodyguard, Sophie's Choice, Armour of God and Fiddler on the roof in Zagreb, Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again on island of Vis, Succession on the island of Korčula, Hercules, The Weekend Away, Bliss in Split, The Peacemaker and many others. Croatia became international filming location due to its biodiversity, landscape that can accommodate every visual requirements and cheaper filming costs. In last 11 years there has been 122 projects for international films in Croatia, and €263 million spent as part of the Filming in Croatia which increased in last years due to high demand for its location.
=== Cuisine ===
Croatian traditional cuisine varies from one region to another. Dalmatia and Istria have culinary influences of Italian and other Mediterranean cuisines which prominently feature various seafood, cooked vegetables and pasta, and condiments such as olive oil and garlic. Austrian, Hungarian, Turkish, and Balkan culinary styles influenced continental cuisine. In that area, meats, freshwater fish, and vegetable dishes are predominant.
There are two distinct wine-producing regions in Croatia. The continental in the northeast of the country, especially Slavonia, produces premium wines, particularly whites. Along the north coast, Istrian and Krk wines are similar to those in neighbouring Italy, while further south in Dalmatia, Mediterranean-style red wines are the norm. Annual production of wine exceeds 72 million litres as of 2017. Croatia was almost exclusively a wine-consuming country up until the late 18th century when a more massive beer production and consumption started.
There are 11 restaurants in Croatia with a Michelin star and 89 restaurants bearing some of the Michelin's marks.
=== Sports ===
Croatia has a long tradition of sports dating back to Roman times, followed by popular medieval knights' tournaments. Modern organized sports began in the late 19th century with the founding of sports associations like Hrvatski Sokol in 1874. By the early 20th century, many sports organizations emerged, including the Croatian Sports Association established in 1909. Croatian sports' development has been closely related to the Olympic movement, with Franjo Bučar playing a key role in promoting sports for Croatian independence. Sport is part of the school curriculum, and many children engage in extracurricular activities. To support sports development, Croatia enacted the National Sport Programme in 2019. Funding for sports comes from the state budget, sponsorship, and membership fees. The Croatian Olympic Committee, established in 1991, oversees over 80 national sports associations.
The most popular sports in Croatia are football, basketball, handball, and water polo. With about 12,500 sports associations, football is the most popular sport, hosting nearly 1,500 clubs and 110,000 players, achieving significant milestones, including bronze at the 1998 World Cup, silver at the 2018 World Cup and another bronze at 2022 World Cup. Croatians have participated in the Olympics since 1992 and have won 59 Olympic medals, including 20 gold. The national tennis team has won two Davis Cup titles and won a gold medal at the 2020 Summer Olympics in men's doubles. The national handball and water polo teams are also been successful, each achieving multiple championships and medals. Rowing has seen success as well, winning multiple Olympic and World Championship medals. In gymnastics, athletes have also made their mark, winning medals in European and World Championships.
Croatia hosted several major sports competitions, including the 2009 World Men's Handball Championship, the 2007 World Table Tennis Championships, the 2000 World Rowing Championships, the 1987 Summer Universiade, the 1979 Mediterranean Games, and several European Championships, including the 2000, 2018 and 2025 World Men's Handball Championship, 2024 Men's European Water Polo Championship.
== See also ==
Outline of Croatia
== Explanatory notes ==
== Citations ==
== General and cited references ==
== External links ==
Wikimedia Atlas of Croatia
Geographic data related to Croatia at OpenStreetMap
Key Development Forecasts for Croatia from International Futures |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Perry | Leonard Perry | Leonard Perry Jr. (born June 13, 1968) is an American college basketball coach, who is currently an assistant coach at Weber State. He most recently served as the head coach at the University of the Pacific from 2021 to 2024. Originally from Dallas, Perry played college basketball at McLennan Community College and the University of Idaho. As a senior at Idaho playing under head coach Larry Eustachy, Perry was the starting point guard on the 1991 Big Sky Conference Tournament championship team that appeared in the 1991 NCAA Tournament.
Perry has been a college basketball coach since 1995, as an assistant under Eustachy at Idaho, Utah State, Iowa State, Southern Miss, and Colorado State. From 2001 to 2006, Perry was head coach at Idaho. He also worked for the Indiana Pacers of the NBA for five years, starting as assistant coach in the 2006–07 season and as a scout from 2007 to 2011.
From 2016 to 2021, Perry was assistant coach at the University of the Pacific under Damon Stoudamire. After Stoudamire resigned to take an NBA assistant coaching job, Perry was promoted to head coach at Pacific in 2021.
== Early life and education ==
Born and raised in Dallas, Perry graduated from Justin F. Kimball High School in Dallas in 1986. Perry was an honorable mention All-American basketball player at Kimball.
From 1986 to 1988, Perry attended McLennan Community College, playing at point guard. Perry transferred to the University of Idaho in 1988, when Street & Smith ranked Perry among the best junior college transfers in the nation.
At Idaho, Perry played under head coach Larry Eustachy for Idaho Vandals men's basketball from 1989 to 1991. As a senior, Perry averaged 7.0 points and 2.8 rebounds on an Idaho team that won the 1991 Big Sky Conference Tournament and qualified for the NCAA Tournament.
While completing his undergraduate degree, Perry was a student assistant coach at Idaho from 1993 to 1995, again under Eustachy. Perry graduated from Idaho in 1995 with a bachelor's degree in general studies with an emphasis on English.
== Coaching career ==
=== Early coaching career (1995–2001) ===
From 1995 to 1998, Perry was an assistant coach at Utah State on Eustachy's staff. Utah State had three straight winning seasons and appeared in the 1998 NCAA Tournament in that time period.
Perry then followed Eustachy to Iowa State, serving as assistant coach from 1998 to 2000 and associate head coach in the 2000–01 season. The 1999–2000 Iowa State team finished 32–5, advanced to the Elite Eight round of the NCAA Tournament, and was ranked no. 6 in the final AP Top 25 poll. Iowa State then had a second straight NCAA Tournament appearance in 2001.
=== Idaho head coach (2001–2006) ===
Perry was head coach at Idaho from 2001 to 2006. Inheriting a 6–21 team, Perry had a 9–19 record in his first season at Idaho.
In the next two seasons, Idaho improved to 13–15 in 2002–03 and 14–16 in 2003–04. However, Idaho won only 12 games in the 2004–05 and 2005–06 seasons combined, resulting in Idaho firing Perry on March 9, 2006.
=== Later assistant career (2006–2021) ===
In the 2006–07 season, Perry was an assistant coach for the Indiana Pacers NBA team under Rick Carlisle. Perry remained with the Pacers from 2007 to 2011 in a different role as a talent scout; he also directed professional scouting for the NBA and NBA Development League in 2008.
Perry returned to coaching as an assistant coach at Southern Miss in the 2011–12 season, working again under head coach Eustachy. That season, Southern Miss finished 25–9 and appeared in the NCAA Tournament.
From 2012 to 2016, Perry was associate head coach at Colorado State under Eustachy. The 2012–13 Colorado State team appeared in the NCAA Tournament and had the program's first AP Top 25 ranking since the 1950s. Colorado State later appeared in the 2015 National Invitation Tournament.
In 2016, Perry became associate head coach for new head coach Damon Stoudamire at the University of the Pacific. He would serve in that position for five seasons. During Perry's tenure, Pacific improved from 11 wins in 2016–17 to 23 wins in 2019–20.
=== Pacific head coach (2021–2024) ===
On July 7, 2021, Pacific promoted Perry to head coach after Stoudamire resigned to be an assistant coach for the Boston Celtics. In the 2022–23 season, Pacific went 15–18 overall in Perry's second season as head coach as the team tied for 5th with a record of 7–9 in the WCC.
== Personal life ==
Perry has five children and is married to Christina Erickson, a native of Mullan, Idaho, who he met when they attended the University of Idaho.
== Head coaching record ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Pacific Tigers basketball – Leonard Perry
Colorado State Rams basketball – Leonard Perry |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shai_%28band%29 | Shai (band) | Shai (pronounced "shy") is an American vocal R&B/soul quartet that rose to prominence in the 1990s. The group met and formed on the campus of Howard University, influenced by the vocal stylings of Boyz II Men, Jodeci, and Color Me Badd, among others. The group remains best known for their 1992 debut single "If I Ever Fall in Love," which peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot 100.
== History ==
=== Early beginnings and formation ===
Shai (a Swahili word meaning "personification of destiny") was formed on the campus of Howard University. In 1990, Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity brothers, Marc Gay, Carl Martin, and Darnell Van Rensalier invited fellow Howard University student Garfield Bright to join their a capella group after two other founding members departed. None of the members had professional singing experience and mostly performed in and around campus for fun, according to Gay.
The group came together seriously after winning a Howard University talent show.[1] From there, they decided to pursue a record deal in New York City but did not receive any offers. Martin later gave Paco Lopez, a local deejay at WPGC radio in DC metro, a demo cassette copy of "If I Ever Fall in Love," and he began promoting the single on the air. In September 1992, the group signed with Gasoline Alley/MCA Records and released their debut album later that year.
=== 1992-1993: If I Ever Fall In Love and Right Back at Cha ===
Shai released "If I Ever Fall in Love" as the first single from the debut album of the same title, which peaked at No. 2 in the U.S. and sold over two million copies. The next two releases from the platinum album, "Comforter" and "Baby I'm Yours", each peaked at No. 10 in the U.S.
At the insistence of the group members, the video for "Baby I'm Yours" was shot on the Howard University campus.[2] The female love interests, including future television host and model Ananda Lewis, and many of the extras were actual Howard students.
The group's next album release was Right Back at Cha, a remix album that largely consisted of new versions of their previous hits and a couple of new songs. A completely reworked version of their previous hit, "Baby I'm Yours," simply titled "Yours," was released as a single (US No. 63).
In 1993, the group won an NAACP Image Award (Outstanding New Artist), and they performed at Bill Clinton's inauguration along with Michael Jackson, Quincy Jones, Ray Charles, and Diana Ross, among others. Additionally, Shai appeared on The Arsenio Hall Show and The Tonight Show.
=== 1994-2001 ===
At the beginning of 1994, Shai made a guest appearance on the sitcom "Family Matters" in the episode, "Good Cop, Bad Cop", in a dream sequence.
The group released "The Place Where You Belong," from the Beverly Hills Cop III soundtrack. It was the group's final Top 40 single (No. 32 R&B). In late 1995, their follow-up album Blackface was released (No. 42 Pop & No. 15 R&B). It featured their final R&B Top 20 single "Come with Me" (US No. 43). The 1996 remix, "I Don't Wanna Be Alone" (featuring Jay-Z), peaked at No. 89 in the U.S. It was inspired by Belinda Carlisle's "Heaven Is a Place on Earth."
"Song For You" by Rick Braun, featuring Shai, peaked at No. 39 on the R&B chart in 2001.
As of 2025, Shai still performs with each other in various concerts and shows.
== Discography ==
=== Albums ===
=== Compilations ===
20th Century Masters – The Millennium Collection: The Best of Shai (2001)
If I Ever Fall in Love: The Best Of (3 re-recorded tracks from the original album) (2011)
If I Ever Fall in Love: Greatest Hits (same 3 tracks re-recorded with new members Dwayne Jones & George Spencer III) (2011)
In Concert (2018)
=== Singles ===
== Filmography ==
Video Personification: Vol. 1 (1993)
== Awards and nominations ==
NAACP Image Awards (1993), Outstanding new artist - winner
Soul Train Music Awards (1993), Best New R&B/Soul Artist - nominee
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randolph_College#:~:text=In%20the%20fall%20of%202021,courses%20through%20an%20entire%20semester. | Randolph College | Randolph College is a private liberal arts and sciences college in Lynchburg, Virginia. Founded in 1891 as Randolph-Macon Woman's College, it was renamed on July 1, 2007, when it became coeducational.
The college's intercollegiate athletic teams compete in NCAA Division III as a member of the Old Dominion Athletic Conference (ODAC). The college fields varsity teams in six men's and eight women's sports.
== History ==
The college was founded by William Waugh Smith, then-president of Randolph-Macon College, under Randolph-Macon's charter after he failed to convince R-MC to become co-educational. Randolph-Macon Woman's College has historic ties to the United Methodist Church. After many attempts to find a location for Randolph-Macon Woman's College, the city of Lynchburg donated 50 acres for the purpose of establishing a women's college. In 1916, it became the first women's college in the South to earn a Phi Beta Kappa charter. Beginning in 1953, the two colleges were governed by separate boards of trustees.
Main Hall, built in 1891, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979.
In August 2006, only a few weeks into the academic year, Randolph-Macon Woman's College announced that it would adopt coeducation and change its name. Former Interim president Ginger H. Worden argued in a September 17, 2006 editorial for The Washington Post that,
Today, the college is embarking on a new future, one that will include men. Yet that original mission, that dedication to women's values and education, remains. The fact of the marketplace is that only 3 percent of college-age women say they will consider a women's college. The majority of our own students say they weren't looking for a single-sex college specifically. Most come despite the fact that we are a single-sex college. Our enrollment problems are not going away, and we compete with both coed and single-sex schools. Of the top 10 colleges to which our applicants also apply, seven are coed. Virtually all who transfer from R-MWC do so to a coed school. These market factors affect our financial realities.
The decision to go co-ed was not welcomed by everyone. Alumnae and students organized protests which were covered by local and national media. Many students accused the school of having recruited them under false pretenses, as the administration did not warn new or current students that they were considering admitting men. Lawsuits were filed against the school by both students and alumnae.
It was renamed Randolph College on July 1, 2007, when it became coeducational. The ensuing period of integration was, perhaps unsurprisingly, difficult. The first full-time male students saw their mailboxes and doors vandalized, and were quickly polarized. The last class to have the option to receive diplomas from Randolph-Macon Woman's College graduated on May 16, 2010.
Randolph College is named after John Randolph of Roanoke, Virginia. Randolph (1773-1833) was an eccentric planter and politician who, in his will, released hundreds of slaves after his death and once fought a duel with Henry Clay.
=== Presidents ===
Sue Ott Rowlands, 2022–present
Bradley Bateman, 2013–2022
John E. Klein, 2007–2013
Ginger H. Worden '69 (Interim President), 2006–2007
Kathleen Gill Bowman, 1994–2006
Lambuth M. Clarke, 1993–1994
Linda Koch Lorimer, 1987–1993
Robert A. Spivey, 1978–1987
William F. Quillian, Jr., 1952–1978
Theodore Henley Jack, 1933–1952
N. A. Pattillo, 1931–1933
Dice Robins Anderson, 1920–1931
William A. Webb, 1913–1919
William Waugh Smith, 1891–1912
== Academics ==
Randolph College is primarily an undergraduate institution, offering a Bachelor of Arts, Bachelor of Science, and a Bachelor of Fine Arts across the humanities, social sciences, and natural sciences. The College also offers several Master's programs: a Master of Arts in Teaching, a Master of Fine Arts in Creative Writing, a Master of Fine Arts in Theatre, and a Master of Coaching and Sport Leadership.
In the fall of 2021, Randolph launched a new curriculum model called TAKE2. This model breaks each semester up into seven-week "sessions," during which students take two courses at a time. This is a break from the traditional curricular model where students take four or five courses through an entire semester.
== Maier Museum of Art ==
Randolph College's Maier Museum of Art features works by American artists of the 19th and 20th centuries. The college has been collecting American art since 1920 and the Maier now houses a collection of several thousand paintings, prints, drawings, and photographs in the college's permanent collection.
The Maier hosts a schedule of special exhibitions and education programs throughout the year.
In 2007, there was some controversy when Randolph College announced that it would sell four paintings from its collection.
== Traditions ==
The rivalry between 'odd' and 'even' graduating classes is the lynchpin of many traditions at Randolph College. The groups are distinguished based on whether their graduation year is an odd or even number, hence the names. As students spend four years earning their undergraduate degrees at Randolph, there are always two odd 'sister-classes' and two even 'sister-classes'. These groups participate in certain celebratory events together depending on the year.
== Special programs ==
=== Randolph College Abroad: The World in Britain ===
Since 1968, the college has hosted a study abroad program at the University of Reading, England. Each year as many as 35 students are selected for the program. Commonly taken during the junior year, students may choose to enroll for the full academic year or for the fall or spring semester only. Students live in one of three Randolph-owned houses across the street from the University of Reading campus, and travel as a class to various cities and destinations in England. In 2018, the Randolph College Board of Trustees made the decision to end The World in Britain program after the ensuing academic year.
=== The American Culture program ===
A minor in American Culture offers Randolph College students the opportunity to study American society and culture by drawing upon resources, techniques, and approaches from a variety of disciplines. The American Culture program also accepts visiting students from other American colleges and universities for a one-semester intensive study of a particular theme or region, including literature, art, history, and travel components.
== Athletics ==
Randolph College is affiliated to NCAA Division III, participating in the Old Dominion Athletic Conference (ODAC). The college athletics program offers a total of nine intercollegiate sports, which include basketball, cross country, lacrosse, soccer, swimming, tennis, track and field, volleyball, and wrestling.
== Notable people ==
=== Faculty ===
Gary Dop, poet
Celestia Susannah Parrish (1853–1918), notable psychologist and educator
Louise Jordan Smith (1869-1928), painter
Rudy Rucker (1980-1982), mathematician, computer scientist, science fiction author and one of the founders of the cyberpunk literary movement
Susan Kellermann, actress
Audrey Shuey (1910-1977), Psychology Department chair and exponent of scientific racism
=== Alumnae ===
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Athletics website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edvard_Bull_Sr. | Edvard Bull Sr. | Edvard Bull (4 December 1881 – 26 August 1932) was a Norwegian historian and politician for the Labour Party. He took the doctorate in 1912 and became a professor at the University of Kristiania in 1917, and is known for writings on a broad range of subjects. In addition to his academic work, he is known for his work on Norsk biografisk leksikon. His Marxist leanings inspired him to take up a parallel political career, in the Labour Party. Situated on the radical wing in the 1910s, he was among the architects as the Labour Party denounced the Twenty-one Conditions in 1923 and reunited with the social democrats in 1927. He was the deputy party leader from 1923 to 1932, and served as Norwegian Minister of Foreign Affairs in Hornsrud's short-lived cabinet in 1928.
== Early life ==
He was born on 4 December 1881, in Kristiania as the son of chief physician Edvard Isak Hambro Bull (1845–1925) and his wife Ida Marie Sofie Paludan (1861–1957). He was a brother of theatre director Johan Peter Bull, literary professor Francis Bull and genealogist Theodor Bull. He was also a nephew of military officer Karl Sigwald Johannes Bull, grandnephew of Anders Sandøe Ørsted Bull, great-grandson of Georg Jacob Bull and great-great-grandson of Chief Justice Johan Randulf Bull.
In July 1909, he married Lucie Juliane Antonette Voss (1886–1970). Their son Edvard Bull, Jr. became a notable historian.
== Academic career ==
Bull finished his secondary education in 1899, and studied in classical philology, geography and history at the University of Kristiania. He graduated in 1906 with the cand.mag. degree—by that time he had already published his first academic work. A study trip in Germany and France from 1906 to 1907 spurred his interest of medieval Catholicism. He planned on writing a larger work incorporating church history. He released the paper Bods- og skriftevæsenet i den norske kirke i middelalderen in 1909, and expanded upon this work to publish his doctoral thesis Folk og kirke i middelalderen. Studier til Norges historie in 1912. The work earned him the dr.philos. degree. He had been employed as a research fellow at the University of Kristiania since 1910, and became a lecturer in 1913. In 1917, he succeeded the deceased Ernst Sars as a professor.
Although he wrote several publications on miscellaneous European history, his main contribution was on Norwegian history. His main work in the field, volume two of Det norske folks liv og historie, was published as late as 1931. The study of old agricultural societies also led him on a path of local history. In 1914 and 1918 he published the two-volume Akers historie, on the history of Aker, and two volumes of Kristianias historie, on Oslo, followed later. Bull was also known as a co-editor of the biographical dictionary Norsk biografisk leksikon, the first volume of which was released by the publishing house Aschehoug in 1923. Bull was well-known at Aschehoug, having formerly contributed to its periodical Samtiden. Long-time Samtiden editor Gerhard Gran was the second co-editor, the third was Anders Krogvig. Following the early deaths of Gran and Krogvig, Einar Jansen was brought in to assist Bull. Bull was also a consultant for the Norwegian Nobel Committee from 1914 to 1918. From 1927 to 1932, he chaired the Norwegian Historical Association.
Despite influences from Karl Lamprecht and Werner Sombart, Bull clearly drew most of his inspiration from Karl Marx' historical materialism. Publications in this vein include Karl Marx (1918) and Den russiske arbeider- og bonderevolution (1922). He also wrote purely political articles and pamphlets.
== Political career ==
While studying, Bull became acquainted with radical politicians like Emil Stang, Jr., Jakob Friis and Kyrre Grepp. He became active in the Norwegian Labour Party around 1915, and was a driving force behind the molding of the Labour Party into a revolutionary workers' party towards the end of the 1910s. He was known both as a party ideologist and speaker, editing the party magazine Det tyvende Aarhundrede from 1918 to 1920 and 1927 to 1928, but also as a day-to-day politician, serving on the school board of Kristiania from 1916 to 1925 and as a member of the city council from 1919 to 1925.
In 1919, the Labour Party joined the Third Communist International. Although the revolutionary wing had taken control of the party at the 1918 national convention, dissent soon surfaced. Moderates broke out to form the Social Democratic Labour Party of Norway in 1921. The main contention surrounded the possible adaption of the Twenty-one Conditions, which was demanded by Comintern members. Bull was a staunch opponent of the Twenty-one Conditions, and following a resolution at the February 1923 national convention, the Labour Party left the Comintern. In the same year Bull was selected as deputy party leader, a position he held until his death. The Soviet-friendly Communist Party was then formed by splinters, while the road was open for a reconciliation with the Social Democratic Labour Party. Bull helped engineer the reunion between the two parties in 1927. In the same year, Labour became the largest party in the general election. Bull was never elected to Parliament, but when Christopher Hornsrud formed the first ever socialist cabinet in Norway, Bull was appointed as Minister of Foreign Affairs. However, the cabinet only lasted from 28 January to 15 February, being defeated by the other parliamentary parties on a vote of no confidence. He was both preceded and succeeded by people who were also Prime Ministers; Ivar Lykke and Johan Ludwig Mowinckel.
This defeat pushed the Labour Party in a revolutionary direction once again. Bull was among the writers of the party manifesto for the 1930 general election, which was more radical. However, this tactic caused a significant loss in the election. Historians generally agree that from this point, the Labour Party decisively drifted away from the revolutionary rhetoric and policies. Ole Colbjørnsen emerged as the new party ideologist, writing En norsk treårsplan in 1933 together with Axel Sømme, a program for turning Labour into a social democratic party. Labour politicians formed a cabinet again in 1935, and more or less held power until 1965, except for the war years 1940 to 1945 when Germany occupied Norway as well as a month in 1963, when a right-winged cabinet held office.
== Death ==
Bull, however, would not live to see any of this, as he died from a brain tumor on 26 August 1932, aged 50. This meant that he did not release further volumes of Det norske folks liv og historie, as he had planned. Volume three of Kristianias historie was underway, but was not finished. V. Sønstevold completed and published it in 1937.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blind_Guardian | Blind Guardian | Blind Guardian is a German power metal band formed in 1984 in Krefeld, West Germany. They are often credited as one of the seminal and most influential bands in the power metal and speed metal subgenres. Nine musicians have been part of the band's lineup throughout its history, which currently includes singer Hansi Kürsch, guitarists André Olbrich and Marcus Siepen, and, since 2005, drummer Frederik Ehmke.
Blind Guardian is a key player in the German heavy metal scene that emerged in the mid-1980s. The band was formed in 1984 as Lucifer's Heritage by Kürsch (who also played bass at the time), Olbrich, fellow guitarist Markus Dörk, and drummer Thomas Stauch. Dörk and Stauch left the following year and were replaced by Christof Theißen and Hans-Peter Frey, respectively, who also departed before the year ended. In 1987, Siepen joined the group, and Stauch returned; this lineup, which lasted 18 years, led the band to change their name to Blind Guardian and release their debut album, Battalions of Fear, in 1988. They have since released ten more studio albums, as well as an orchestral album released under the name Blind Guardian Twilight Orchestra.
Through their discography, Blind Guardian has established themselves as a notable and successful band and as pioneers of the power metal movement. In 1996, Kürsch ceased to act as the band's bassist to focus on vocals, with various session musicians filling in, primarily Oliver Holzwarth. However, in 2005, Stauch left the band, expressing disapproval of Blind Guardian's shift toward a more complex progressive sound with heavy backing vocals, and was replaced by Ehmke.
Most of Blind Guardian's albums have been well received by fans and critics alike: Somewhere Far Beyond (1992), Imaginations from the Other Side (1995), and Nightfall in Middle-Earth (1998) are particularly regarded as influential works. The music is primarily composed by Kürsch and Olbrich together, while the lyrics, penned by Kürsch, draw inspiration from the works of fantasy authors such as J. R. R. Tolkien, Michael Moorcock, Stephen King, George R. R. Martin, and Robert Jordan, as well as traditional legends and epics. Over the years, a theme has developed that personifies the band members as traveling storytellers, leading fans to refer to them as "The Bards". Blind Guardian has been described in one article as one of the "big four" bands of power metal, alongside Helloween, Sabaton, and DragonForce.
== History ==
=== Formation as Lucifer's Heritage (1984–1987) ===
Blind Guardian was formed in 1984 in Krefeld, West Germany, by Hansi Kürsch (vocals, bass) and André Olbrich (guitar) under the name Lucifer's Heritage, alongside Markus Dörk (guitar) and Thomen Stauch (drums). The band briefly expanded into a quintet with the addition of a second lead vocalist, Thomas Kelleners. However, after three months, Kelleners left the band by mutual agreement. Lucifer's Heritage released two demos in 1985 and 1986, despite undergoing chaotic lineup changes: Dörk and Stauch were replaced by Christof Theißen and Hans-Peter Frey, respectively. Finally, in 1987, Marcus Siepen joined, and Stauch returned to form the lineup that would remain consistent for the next 18 years.
=== Name Change and Rise to Success (1988–1996) ===
After Lucifer's Heritage signed a contract with No Remorse Records, the band changed their name to Blind Guardian to avoid any speculation regarding Satanism. In their biography, the band noted that they also wanted to distance themselves from the black metal movement, as their demos had been placed alongside black metal albums in local record shops. The new name was inspired by the Fates Warning album Awaken the Guardian. They released their debut album, Battalions of Fear, in 1988, which was essentially a speed metal album heavily influenced by Helloween. These two German bands had close ties, and Helloween founder Kai Hansen made a guest appearance on Blind Guardian's second LP, Follow the Blind (1989), where the band revealed some thrash metal influences. Their third LP, Tales from the Twilight World (1990), showcased a much more melodic and "epic" sound, incorporating elements of choir and classical music.
Blind Guardian signed with Virgin Records in 1991 and released their fourth studio album, Somewhere Far Beyond, in 1992, followed by the live album Tokyo Tales in 1993. In 1994, Flemming Rasmussen, the former producer for Metallica, began working with the band, producing their fifth studio album, Imaginations from the Other Side, released in 1995, as well as The Forgotten Tales, an album that featured a mix of covers and original material, released in 1996.
=== Later Years and Departure of Thomen Stauch (1997–2009) ===
In 1998, Blind Guardian released their epic album Nightfall in Middle-Earth. Described by Allmusic's Vincent Jeffries as "complete with anthemic choruses, spoken word storylines, and plenty of bombastic power metal punctuating every dramatic turn", he stated that "Nightfall in Middle-Earth is perhaps Blind Guardian's most triumphant" work. A concept album based on J. R. R. Tolkien's The Silmarillion, the music on Nightfall demonstrated some folk rock influence while also featuring heavy use of Queen-style layered backing vocals. Following the release of Nightfall, bass duties were taken over by session member Oliver Holzwarth, allowing Hansi to focus entirely on vocals. This album also marked the last time Blind Guardian worked with producer Flemming Rasmussen.
Four years later, the band released A Night at the Opera, named after the Queen album. On this album, the band's sound largely departed from their original speed metal influences, instead embracing power and progressive metal with over-the-top orchestral backing and consistent vocal and guitar layering throughout. While not a true concept album, many of the lyrics explored common themes of religion and the relationships between human and divine powers. This was followed by a live album in 2003 and a DVD, Imaginations Through the Looking Glass, in 2004, which was the last recorded Blind Guardian material featuring Thomen Stauch on drums. He departed from the band due to musical differences and was replaced by Frederik Ehmke. The first album with Ehmke was A Twist in the Myth, released in 2006.
Blind Guardian contributed to the soundtrack for the In the Name of the King: A Dungeon Siege Tale fantasy film directed by Uwe Boll, which was released in 2008. The band also recorded a theme song for Sacred 2: Fallen Angel, a role-playing video game and the sequel to Sacred.
=== At the Edge of Time and Beyond the Red Mirror (2010–2017) ===
"A Voice in the Dark" was the next single from Blind Guardian, released on 25 June 2010. Following this, the album At the Edge of Time was released on 30 July 2010. To promote the album, the band embarked on "The Sacred Worlds and Songs Divine Tour 2010", with opening acts including Enforcer and Steelwing for European dates, while Holy Grail and Seven Kingdoms opened for the U.S. shows. The band also announced they would perform at Wacken Open Air in 2011.
On 21 July 2011, Hansi Kürsch revealed on Blind Guardian's official website that they were working on an orchestral album. On 1 September 2011, Oliver Holzwarth joined Rhapsody of Fire as a full-time member after 13 years as Blind Guardian's session bassist.
On 27 January 2012, Blind Guardian released a compilation album titled Memories of a Time to Come, featuring re-recorded and remixed songs from their entire discography. Almost exactly one year later, on 28 January 2013, they released a box set titled A Traveler's Guide to Space and Time, which included all of the band's studio, live, and compilation albums from 1988 to 2004, along with some previously unreleased material.
On 11 July 2012, Hansi posted on the band's official website that they would cease touring after their performance at the Rockharz festival in Ballenstedt, which occurred two days later. In his announcement, he mentioned the desire to focus on a new record before returning to the road by 2014. He also expressed a wish to perform songs they had never played live before their next tour.
In October 2013, Blind Guardian was announced as the headliner for the Out & Loud Festival in Geiselwind on 31 May 2014. On 18 October 2013, Hansi shared an update via the official website, stating he expected the new record to be fully produced by May 2014. He confirmed that the album was progressing well and mentioned nine new songs by name: Irish Hill (later titled Grand Parade), Encrypted Time, Prophecies, Holy Grail, Winter's Coming, The Throne, The Ocean, and Outcast, along with two others with uncertain titles, Song 9 and Midtempo Song.
The tenth Blind Guardian album, titled Beyond the Red Mirror, was released on 30 January 2015. The first single, "Twilight of the Gods", was released on 5 December 2014. On 28 January 2015, two days before the release of Beyond the Red Mirror, Blind Guardian announced Barend Courbois as their new session/live bassist on their official Facebook page.
The band recorded live shows during the 2015 European leg of the Beyond the Red Mirror tour for a new live album, Live Beyond the Spheres, which was released on 7 July 2017.
=== Legacy of the Dark Lands and The God Machine (2017–2023) ===
When asked in July 2017 about the next Blind Guardian studio album, Kürsch stated, "We haven't done too much songwriting for the next regular Blind Guardian album, but still, we've made some steps at least, and I can sense a strong change in comparison to what we did on the last album. There's one song called 'Architect of Doom,' which is a truly heavy track. Very powerful. Very thrashy at points. And there's another song called 'American Goth,' which is kind of what you would expect from Blind Guardian, but the way we maintained the drums and the orchestra—this song features orchestral elements—makes it feel distinctly different. I'm pretty sure that you will notice a significant change when you listen to these two albums, and from that point of view, yes, Live Beyond the Spheres is the end of an era." He also mentioned that they were working on an orchestral album, which was originally scheduled to be finished and released in 2016, but was now due for release in 2019, followed by a "heavy album" slated for release in 2020.
The band's long-awaited orchestral album, Legacy of the Dark Lands, was released on 1 November 2019, after Olbrich and Kürsch had conceived and written the project since 1996. It features only Kürsch as a performer, along with the Prague Philharmonic Orchestra, and is credited to the "Blind Guardian Twilight Orchestra" rather than the band's regular name.
In November 2021, it was announced that a new single, "Deliver Us from Evil", would be released on 3 December 2021, and that the band's forthcoming twelfth album would be released in September 2022. Kürsch told Nuclear Blast, "We know that the gap between now and the album release in late 2022 is painfully long. Neither we nor our label could defy the current worldwide economic crisis. A long story short: There is no one to blame for this situation... Talking about anticipation, even though 'Violent Shadows' and 'Deliver Us From Evil' are indisputably fantastic tracks, rest assured: We won't let you wait another ten months with only two songs. I promise you, you will always be blown away—cheers to the digital era and its endless possibilities. Oh, and the album title. There is one, but I won't tell you yet. This would be giving away far too much right now."
In July 2022, Jon Van Stratum replaced Barend Courbois as a session member. Despite persistent belief among some fans that he became a permanent member, Hansi Kürsch confirmed that he is only a live session member.
In May 2022, the title of the band's twelfth album was announced as The God Machine, along with a release date of 2 September 2022.
=== Upcoming 13th studio album (2024–present) ===
In a February 2024 interview with Australia's Subculture Entertainment, Kürsch revealed that Blind Guardian will commence "real songwriting" for their thirteenth studio album in 2025. When asked that same month if there would be "a shorter turnaround time" for the album, following a seven-year gap between Beyond the Red Mirror and The God Machine, Kürsch reiterated that the band will "keep [their] focus on regular songwriting" after their upcoming tour. Regarding a possible release date, he stated, "I don't know—I would be very surprised to find out that there's no new Blind Guardian album before '27, which is an accomplishment already, but I'm hoping for either late '25 or '26."
== Musical style ==
Blind Guardian is most commonly classified as power metal. The band's first two albums, Battalions of Fear and Follow the Blind, were more in the style of speed metal compared to their subsequent works. Beginning with their third album, Tales from the Twilight World, Blind Guardian gradually started to write more intricate compositions, placing less emphasis on speed. By the time of their sixth album, Nightfall in Middle Earth, Hansi Kürsch ceased playing bass to concentrate solely on vocals. At this juncture, the band began to incorporate substantial orchestral arrangements and utilized the technique of overdubbing, heavily influenced by the English rock band Queen.
Blind Guardian's music features the staccato guitars and double bass drumming characteristic of power metal, along with the use of overdubs and numerous backing vocals to create a rich and dense sound. This proved significant on all albums after the first two, but most particularly on A Night at the Opera.
Another defining feature of Blind Guardian's music is the frequent use of folk tunes and instruments, especially in power ballads such as "Lord of the Rings", "The Bard's Song", "A Past and Future Secret", "Skalds and Shadows", and "Curse My Name", among others.
=== Influences ===
The band was initially inspired by their fellow countrymen Helloween, and in its early releases, it also displayed influences from Iron Maiden and Metallica. According to guitarist Marcus Siepen, during the songwriting for Follow the Blind, they also listened to Bay Area thrash metal bands, such as Testament and Forbidden, resulting in a somewhat heavier sound.
Starting with their third album, Tales from the Twilight World, and continuing through Somewhere Far Beyond and Imaginations from the Other Side, Blind Guardian gradually incorporated more influences from progressive and classical music. Queen had a significant impact, particularly concerning the choir arrangements and harmonies, an effect most notable on A Night at the Opera.
Singer Hansi Kürsch expressed the band's attraction to 1970s progressive rock, citing early Genesis, Gentle Giant, and ELP as key influences. However, regarding the genre, he sees more direct influences in progressive metal bands, particularly Fates Warning, Queensrÿche, and Savatage. The folkloric influences on Nightfall in Middle-Earth primarily stem from British rock band Jethro Tull.
== Side projects ==
Along with Jon Schaffer, the leader and founder of Iced Earth, Kürsch was a member of Demons & Wizards, where he served as the lead singer until its disbandment in early 2021 due to Schaffer's involvement in the January 6 U.S. Capitol attack.
Frederik Ehmke was a founding member of the band Sinbreed, in which Marcus Siepen was initially a session member. Later, in 2012, Marcus became a full member of the band.
Following the tsunami that struck Japan on 11 March 2011, Blind Guardian collaborated with their former record company, EMI Music, to auction an exclusive studio session for two at the Twilight Hall Studio in Grefrath, Germany, for charity. All proceeds were donated to tsunami relief efforts. The auction concluded on 22 April 2011 with a final bid of £1,171.00.
== Band members ==
=== Timeline ===
== Discography ==
Battalions of Fear (1988)
Follow the Blind (1989)
Tales from the Twilight World (1990)
Somewhere Far Beyond (1992)
Imaginations from the Other Side (1995)
Nightfall in Middle-Earth (1998)
A Night at the Opera (2002)
A Twist in the Myth (2006)
At the Edge of Time (2010)
Beyond the Red Mirror (2015)
Legacy of the Dark Lands (2019)
The God Machine (2022)
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Blind Guardian at AllMusic
Blind Guardian discography at MusicBrainz |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gypsy-Rose_Blanchard#Murder_of_Dee_Dee_Blanchard | Gypsy-Rose Blanchard | Gypsy Rose Blanchard (born July 27, 1991) is an American woman who conspired with her then-boyfriend for more than a year to kill her mother, Clauddine "Dee Dee" Blanchard; the murder took place in June 2015 at the house where she lived with her mother in Springfield, Missouri. She was initially charged with first-degree murder, but later pleaded guilty to second-degree murder and was sentenced to ten years in prison. After Dee Dee's death, allegations surfaced that she misrepresented Gypsy's health, which drew national attention to the case.
Allegations that Dee Dee Blanchard subjected her daughter to medical abuse have been widely reported in later interviews and dramatizations. However, these claims originate from Gypsy Rose Blanchard's own accounts and subsequent media portrayals, and have not been substantiated by any medical or legal finding.
She was released on parole on December 28, 2023, after serving about 85 percent of her ten-year sentence. Given the sensational aspects of Gypsy-Rose's childhood, including allegations that her mother forced her to pretend to be disabled and terminally ill, she gained widespread media attention. Hulu produced a limited series, The Act (2019), released while she was still in prison, and she has been featured in interviews on a variety of TV shows, such as Dr. Phil; other programs have been based on her story. In 2024, her own reality show, Gypsy Rose: Life After Lock Up, premiered on Lifetime.
== Early life ==
Blanchard was born on July 27, 1991, to 24-year-old Clauddine "Dee Dee" Blanchard and 18-year-old Rod Blanchard.
Allegations that Dee Dee Blanchard fabricated or induced illness in her daughter derive primarily from Gypsy Rose Blanchard's later statements and subsequent media portrayals. Dee Dee Blanchard was never formally diagnosed with a factitious disorder, and no medical or legal finding of medical child abuse was ever made. While one treating neurologist noted a suspicion of possible fabricated illness, it was recorded only as a differential concern and never confirmed by further testing or diagnosis.
A Slidell Sentry-News article published on February 20, 2003, titled "Life Takes Many Turns for Good for Little Girl in Slidell," reported that Dee Dee and Gypsy had been "abandoned by their family after the death of Dee Dee's mother" and had "bounced around for several years looking for affordable housing." It stated that they twice lived in their car before settling in public housing in Slidell. Dee Dee said, "The Lord really knew what He wanted for us because today we have a roof over our heads, an adopted family, a church family at Aldersgate United Methodist Church, social workers for Gypsy, and we were given a trip to Disney World ... by the Children's Wish Endowment." The article describes it as a highlight of their year and quoting Gypsy saying, "I'm a Brownie in Troop 23." Dee Dee expressed gratitude to the charity for helping with medical and travel expenses, which were enough to develop the 21 rolls of film capturing memories of their trip. The 2003 report is the last contemporaneous Louisiana-based account of the family before their move out of the state.
== Move to Missouri ==
After Hurricane Katrina destroyed their Louisiana home, Dee Dee and Gypsy-Rose lived in a rented home in Aurora in southwestern Missouri. During their time there, Gypsy-Rose was honored by the Oley Foundation, which advocates for the rights of feeding-tube recipients, as its 2007 Child of the Year. In 2008, Habitat for Humanity built them a small home with a wheelchair ramp and hot tub as part of a larger project on the north side of Springfield, to the east, and the two moved there. The story of a single mother with a severely disabled daughter forced to flee Katrina's devastation received considerable local media attention, and the community often pitched in to help the woman who now went by Clauddinnea Blancharde, and whom they knew as Dee Dee.
Dee Dee regularly shaved Gypsy-Rose's head, allegedly telling her that since her medication would eventually cause her hair to fall out, it was best to shave it in advance; Gypsy-Rose often wore wigs or hats to cover her baldness. When they left the house, Dee Dee often took an oxygen tank and feeding tube with them; Gypsy-Rose was fed the children's liquid nutrition supplement PediaSure well into her 20s.
== Growing independence ==
Dee Dee seems to have at least once forged a copy of Gypsy-Rose's birth certificate, changing her birthdate to 1995 to bolster claims that she was still a teenager. Gypsy-Rose said in a later interview that for 14 years she was unsure of her real age.
Gypsy-Rose had attended science fiction and fantasy conventions since 2001, sometimes in costume since she could blend into their diverse and inclusive communities in her wheelchair. At a 2011 event, she made what may have been an escape attempt that ended when her mother found her in a hotel room with a man she had met online. Again Dee Dee produced the paperwork giving Gypsy-Rose's false, younger birthdate and threatened to inform the police. Gypsy's father, Rod Blanchard, recalled that Dee Dee told him their daughter had a "chromosomal defect" that explained many of her health issues. Years later, genetic testing in 2011 identified a 1q21.1 microdeletion.
Sometime around 2012, Gypsy-Rose, who continued to use the Internet and phone freely, made contact online with Nicholas Godejohn, a man around her age from Big Bend, Wisconsin, whom she said she had met on a Christian singles website.
In 2014, Gypsy-Rose confided to 23-year-old neighbor Aleah Woodmansee (who, unaware that Gypsy-Rose was closer to her own age, considered herself a "big sister"), that she and Godejohn had discussed eloping and had even chosen names for potential children. According to law-enforcement reports and media coverage, Gypsy maintained multiple Facebook accounts under different names. Despite Dee Dee's efforts to prevent her from using the internet, which went as far as allegedly destroying her daughter's phone and laptop, Gypsy-Rose maintained contact with Woodmansee, who saved printouts of her posts, until 2014.
In 2015, Gypsy Rose arranged and paid for Godejohn to travel to Springfield. She planned to pretend to meet him for the first time at a movie theater with her mother, then appear to strike up a relationship based on the supposed chance encounter. At trial, Gypsy testified she had "plans A, B, and C" to be with him, with Plan A being the staged movie introduction, that she said "didn't go well at all"; she also testified they had been discussing killing Dee Dee for about a year and that she had considered other methods earlier. She said they communicated secretly for years because her mother would never allow it. The staged meeting was presented as the first option among several plans described in court.
== Murder of Dee Dee Blanchard ==
Godejohn returned to Springfield on June 10, 2015, arriving while Gypsy-Rose and her mother were away at a doctor's appointment. After they had returned home and Dee Dee had gone to sleep, he went to the Blanchard house. Gypsy-Rose let him in and allegedly gave him duct tape, gloves, and a knife with the understanding that he would use it to murder Dee Dee.
She hid in the bathroom and covered her ears so that she would not have to hear her mother screaming. Godejohn then stabbed Dee Dee 4 times in the back while she was asleep. Afterward, the two had sex in Gypsy-Rose's room, and stole more than $4,400 in cash that Dee Dee had been keeping in the house, mostly from child support checks. They fled to a motel outside Springfield, where they stayed a few days while planning their next move; during that time, they were seen on security cameras at several stores. Gypsy-Rose said at that point she believed the two had gotten away with their crime.
They mailed the murder weapon back to Godejohn's home in Wisconsin to avoid being caught with it, then took a bus there. Several witnesses who saw the pair on their way to the Greyhound station noted that Gypsy wore a blonde wig and walked unassisted.
=== Investigation and arrests ===
After seeing concerning Facebook statuses posted from Dee Dee's account, the Blanchards' friends suspected something was amiss. When phone calls went unanswered, several friends and neighbors went to the house. While the friends and neighbors knew that the two often left on medical trips unannounced, they saw Dee Dee's modified car still in the driveway, making an unannounced trip unlikely. Protective film on the windows made it hard to see inside in the low light. No one answered the door, so the gathered friends called 9-1-1. When the police arrived, they had to wait for a search warrant to be issued before they could enter, but they allowed one of the neighbors to climb through a window. He reported that the inside of the house was largely undisturbed and that Gypsy-Rose's wheelchairs were present.
When the warrant was issued, police entered the house and found Dee Dee's body. Neighbors were concerned about how Gypsy would do without her wheelchair, medications, and support equipment, such as the oxygen tanks and feeding tube. Friends set up a GoFundMe account to pay for Dee Dee's funeral expenses and possibly Gypsy-Rose's.
Woodmansee, who was among those gathered on the Blanchards' lawn, told police what she knew about Gypsy-Rose and her secret boyfriend. She showed them the printouts she had saved, which included his name. Based on that information, police asked Facebook to trace the IP address from which the posts to Dee Dee's account had been made. It turned out to be in Wisconsin, and the next day police agencies in Waukesha County raided the Godejohns' Big Bend home. Godejohn and Gypsy-Rose surrendered and were taken into custody on charges of murder and felony armed criminal action.
The news that Gypsy-Rose was safe was greeted with relief in Springfield, where she and Godejohn were soon extradited to and held on $1 million bond. But, in announcing the news, Greene County Sheriff Jim Arnott warned, "things are not always what they appear". The media in Springfield soon reported the truth of the Blanchards' lives: that Gypsy-Rose had never been sick and had always been able to walk, but her mother had made her pretend otherwise, using physical abuse to control her. Arnott urged people not to donate money to the family until investigators learned the extent of the fraud.
Gypsy-Rose pleaded guilty to second-degree murder, and was sentenced to ten years in prison. Godejohn was found guilty of first-degree murder and sentenced to life in prison without parole and an additional 25 years for armed criminal action.
== Personal life ==
Blanchard was released on parole on December 28, 2023, after serving eight years of her ten-year sentence. Following her release, she gave several television interviews, including appearances on Good Morning America, CNN, and The View. In 2024, she and her then-husband Ryan Anderson were featured in the Lifetime docuseries Gypsy Rose: Life After Lock Up. The couple separated later that year, according to People magazine.
== Fictionalizations in popular culture ==
In 2019 Hulu released an eight part mini-series, The Act. Joey King portrayed Gypsy-Rose and Patricia Arquette portrayed Dee Dee.
In 2019 a crime drama film inspired by Gypsy-Rose's case, Love You to Death aired on Lifetime, starring Marcia Gay Harden and Emily Skeggs with the characters' names changed.
Drag queen BOA portrayed Gypsy-Rose for the Snatch Game on season 1 of Canada's Drag Race.
== Documentaries and interviews ==
== References ==
== External links ==
"Gypsy Rose Part 1: Mom says daughter suffered from illnesses and needed wheelchair, feeding tube". ABC News. January 6, 2018. Archived from the original on November 18, 2021.
"Gypsy Rose Part 2: Woman allegedly suffering from multiple illnesses arrested for mom's murder". ABC News. January 6, 2018. Archived from the original on November 18, 2021.
"Gypsy Rose Part 3: Gypsy Blanchard on what happened the night mom was stabbed to death". ABC News. March 13, 2019. Archived from the original on November 18, 2021.
"Gypsy Rose Part 4: Woman once praised for battle with illness revealed to have never been sick". ABC News. March 13, 2019. Archived from the original on February 6, 2024. Retrieved February 10, 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktor_Vasnetsov#: | Viktor Vasnetsov | Viktor Mikhaylovich Vasnetsov (Russian: Ви́ктор Миха́йлович Васнецо́в; 15 May [O.S. 3 May] 1848 – 23 July 1926) was a Russian painter and draughtsman who specialised in mythological and historical subjects. He is considered a co-founder of Russian folklorist and romantic nationalistic painting, and a key figure in the Russian Revivalist movement.
== Biography ==
=== Childhood (1848–1858) ===
Viktor Vasnetsov was born in the remote village of Lopyal in Vyatka Governorate in 1848, the second of the seven children (his only sister died 4 months after her birth). His father Mikhail Vasilievich Vasnetsov (1823–1870), known to be philosophically inclined, was a member of the priesthood, and a scholar of the natural sciences and astronomy. His grandfather was an icon painter. Two of Mikhail Vasnetsov's six sons, Viktor and Apollinary, became remarkable painters, three becoming schoolteachers and one a Russian folklorist. It was in Lopyal that Viktor started to paint, mostly landscapes and scenes of village life. Recalling his childhood in a letter to Vladimir Stasov, Vasnetsov remarked that he "had lived with peasant children and liked them not as a narodnik but as a friend".
=== Vyatka (1858–1867) ===
From the age of ten, Viktor studied in a seminary in Vyatka, each summer moving with his family to a rich merchant village of Ryabovo. During his seminary years, he worked for a local icon shopkeeper. He also helped an exiled Polish artist, Michał Elwiro Andriolli, to execute frescoes for Vyatka's Alexander Nevsky cathedral.
Having graduated from the seminary, Viktor decided to move to Saint Petersburg to study art. He auctioned his paintings of Woman Harvester and Milk-maid (both 1867) to raise the money required for the trip to the Russian capital.
=== Saint Petersburg (1867–1876) ===
In August 1867 Viktor tried to enter the Imperial Academy of Arts, but failed. He succeeded one year later in August 1868. Already in 1863 a group of fourteen students left the Academy, finding its rules too constraining. This led to the Peredvizhniki movement of realist painters rebelling against Academism. Vasnetsov befriended their leader Ivan Kramskoi during his drawing classes before entering the Academy, referring to him as his teacher. He also became very close to fellow student, Ilya Repin.
Viktor, whose name would subsequently be associated with historical and mythological paintings, initially avoided these subjects at all costs. For his graphic composition of Christ and Pontius Pilate Before the People, the Academy awarded a small silver medal to him. In the early 1870s he completed a large number of engravings depicting contemporary life. Two of them (Provincial Bookseller from 1870 and A Boy with a Bottle of Vodka from 1872) won him a bronze medal at the World Fair in London (1874). During this period he also started producing genre paintings in oil. Such pieces as Peasant Singers (1873) and Moving House (1876) were warmly welcomed by democratic circles of Russian society.
=== Paris (1876–1877) ===
In 1876 Repin invited Vasnetsov to join the Peredvizhniki colony in Paris. While living in France, Viktor studied classical and contemporary paintings, academist and Impressionist alike. During that period, he painted Acrobats (1877), produced prints, and exhibited some of his works at the Salon. It was in Paris that he became fascinated with fairy-tale subjects, starting to work on Ivan Tsarevich Riding a Grey Wolf and The Firebird. Vasnetsov was a model for Sadko in Repin's celebrated painting Sadko. In 1877 he returned to Moscow.
=== Moscow (1877–1884) ===
In the late 1870s Vasnetsov concentrated on illustrating Russian fairy tales and the epic narrative poem Bylinas, executing some of his best known pieces: The Knight at the Crossroads (1878), Prince Igor's Battlefield (1878),
Three princesses of the Underground Kingdom (completed 1884 ), The Flying Carpet (1880), and Alionushka (1881). These works were not appreciated at the time they appeared. Many radical critics dismissed them as undermining the realist principles of the Peredvizhniki. Even such prominent connoisseurs as Pavel Mikhailovich Tretyakov refused to buy them. The vogue for Vasnetsov's paintings would spread in the 1880s, when he turned to religious subjects and executed a series of icons for Abramtsevo estate of his patron Savva Mamontov.
=== Kiev (1884–1889) ===
In 1884–1889 Vasnetsov was commissioned to paint frescoes in St Vladimir's Cathedral in Kiev. This was a challenging work which ran contrary to both Russian and Western traditions of religious paintings. The influential art critic Vladimir Stasov labelled them a sacrilegious play with religious feelings of the Russian people. Another popular critic, Dmitry Filosofov, referred to these frescoes as "the first bridge over 200 years-old gulf separating different classes of Russian society".
While living in Kiev, Vasnetsov made friends with Mikhail Vrubel, who was also involved in the cathedral's decoration. While they worked together, Vasnetsov taught the younger artist a great deal. It was in Kiev that Vasnetsov finally finished Ivan Tsarevich Riding a Grey Wolf and started his most famous painting, the Bogatyrs. In 1885 the painter travelled to Italy. The same year he worked on stage designs and costumes for Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov's opera The Snow Maiden.
=== Later Years (1890–1926) ===
The following two decades were productive for Vasnetsov. He increasingly turned to other media during this period. In 1897 he collaborated with his brother Apollinary on the theatrical design of another Rimsky-Korsakov premiere, Sadko.
At the turn of the century, Vasnetsov elaborated his hallmark "fairy-tale" style of Russian Revivalist architecture. His first acclaimed design was a church in Abramtsevo (1882), executed jointly with Vasily Polenov. In 1894, he designed his own mansion in Moscow. The Russian pavilion of the World Fair in Paris followed in 1898. Finally, in 1904, Vasnetsov designed the best known of his "fairy-tale" buildings – the façade of the Tretyakov Gallery.
Between 1906 and 1911, Vasnetsov worked on the design of the mosaics for Alexander Nevsky Cathedral, Warsaw; he was also involved in the design of Alexander Nevsky Cathedral, Moscow. In 1912, he was given a noble title by Czar Nicholas II. In 1914, he designed a revenue stamp intended for voluntary collection for victims of World War I.
Even prior to the Russian Revolution, Vasnetsov became active as a regent of the Tretyakov Gallery. He allocated a significant portion of his income to the State Historical Museum, so that a large part of the museum's collection was acquired on Vasnetsov's money. After the October Revolution he advocated removing some of the religious paintings from churches to the Tretyakov Gallery.
In 1915, Vasnetsov participated in the designing of a military uniform for the Victory parade of the Russian army in Berlin and Constantinopole. Vasnetsov is credited with the creation of the budenovka (initially named bogatyrka), a military hat reproducing the style of Kievan Rus' cone-shaped helmets.
Vasnetsov died in Moscow in 1926, he was 78.
== Legacy ==
A minor planet, 3586 Vasnetsov, discovered by Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Zhuravlyova in 1978, is named after Viktor Vasnetsov and Apollinary Vasnetsov.
In the film Elizabeth: The Golden Age, Vasnetsov's painting of Ivan the Terrible is anachronistically presented as if it already existed in that Tsar's lifetime, and as being sent by Ivan to England when he offers to marry Queen Elizabeth I.
Vasnetsov's grandson, Andrei Vladimirovich Vasnetsov (1924–2009), was People's Artist of the USSR.
== Works ==
== References ==
=== Bibliography ===
A. K. Lazuko Victor Vasnetsov, Leningrad: Khudozhnik RSFSR, 1990, ISBN 5-7370-0107-5
Vasnetsov Gallery
Poem of Seven Fairy Tales Archived 22 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine Victor Vasnetsov at Tanais Gallery
== External links ==
Vasnetsov's tomb
St. Vladimir Cathedral interior 360 panorama |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takao_Kondo | Takao Kondo | Takao Kondo (近藤 孝男, Kondō Takao; 1948 – 16 November 2023) was a Japanese biologist and professor of biological science at Nagoya University in Nagoya, Japan. He is best known for reconstituting the circadian clock in vitro.
== Biography ==
Kondo was born in 1948 in Kariya, Aichi, Japan, and received his B.S. in 1970 and his Ph.D. in Biology in 1977 from Nagoya University. He was appointed an assistant professor at the National Institute for Basic Biology in Okazaki, Aichi, Japan in 1978. Kondo began work as a visiting scholar at Harvard University in 1985, then continued his work abroad at Vanderbilt University between 1990 and 1991. It was at Vanderbilt University that Kondo began his research on the circadian clock of cyanobacteria. Kondo returned to Nagoya University as a professor at the Graduate School of Science in 1995. Kondo served as Dean of the School of Science from 2006 to 2009 and President of the Institute for Advanced Research of Nagoya University from 2007 to 2013. Kondo held the title of Designated Professor and Professor Emeritus of Nagoya University. Kondo died from pneumonia on 16 November 2023, at the age of 75.
== Research ==
Kondo was best known for his discoveries surrounding the molecular basis of the cyanobacteria circadian clock. Prior to Kondo's work in the late 1980s, controversy surrounding the existence of a biological clock in bacteria. Since bacteria divide rapidly and several times per day, it was thought that there was no necessity to evolve a biological clock in bacteria. Promoter-trap and microarray analysis performed by Kondo in the cyanobacteria Synechococcus revealed that many, if not all, genes displayed a rhythmic, circadian component to their expression. Kondo next employed a forward genetics approach and developed a luciferase reporter system to identify clock mutants in Synechococcus. Mutations that altered circadian behavior were grouped in a single region of the Synechococcus genome. From this observation, Kondo discovered the gene cluster kaiABC as a circadian feedback process in cyanobacteria in 1998. In 2002, Kondo demonstrated that kaiA-stimulated kaiC phosphorylation is necessary for circadian timing loops in cyanobacteria. In 2005, Kondo succeeded in reconstituting the circadian oscillation of cyanobacterial kaiC phosphorylation in vitro. Kondo's seminal 2005 discovery was the first example of a recapitulated biological rhythm in a test tube, mimicked rhythms observed in eukaryotic cells, and disproved the universal necessity of the transcription-translation autoregulatory feedback loop. Kondo's characterization of kaiABC behavior provided a molecular mechanism by which proteins respond to changes in time and enabled the fields of bacterial genetics and quantitative biochemistry to aid investigation of the biological clock.
== Honors ==
1980: American Society for Plant Physiologist
1990–20??: Society of Research on Biological Rhythms
1995: Aschoff-Homna Prize
1999: Kihara Memorial Foundation Academic Award
1999-2005: Secretary-general, Japanese Society for Chronobiology
2005: Chunichi Prize
2006: Japanese Society of Botany Prize
2007: Asahi Prize
2007: Japanese Society for the Promotion of Science Prize
2011: Kihara Prize
2011: Medal with Purple Ribbon
2011–20??: President, Japanese Society for Chronobiology
2014: Japan Academy Prize
2015: Gilbert Morgan Smith Medal
2019: Person of Cultural Merit
== References ==
== External links ==
Kondo Lab, Nagoya University
Japanese Society for Chronobiology |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konaruiyeh | Konaruiyeh | Konaruiyeh (Persian: كناروييه, also Romanized as Konārū’īyeh; also known as Kenārū and Konārū) is a village in Esfandaqeh Rural District, in the Central District of Jiroft County, Kerman Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 219, in 44 families.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ange_Postecoglou#:~:text=Angelos%20Postecoglou%20was%20born%20on,a%20suburb%20of%20Athens%2C%20Greece. | Ange Postecoglou | Angelos Postecoglou ( ANJ POS-tə-KOG-loo; born 27 August 1965) is a soccer manager and former player who was most recently the head coach of Premier League club Nottingham Forest.
Born in Greece, Postecoglou grew up in Melbourne from the age of five. As a player, he spent most of his club career as a defender for South Melbourne Hellas and played four games for the Australia national team in the late 1980s. He began managing at South Melbourne Hellas in 1996, winning the National Soccer League twice and the OFC Champions League in 1999. He then led the national under-17 and under-20 teams.
Known for his heavily attacking style of play, dubbed "Angeball", Postecoglou managed Brisbane Roar and Melbourne Victory in the A-League, winning the Premiership in 2011 and the Championship in 2011 and 2012 with Brisbane Roar. He was the men's senior national team manager from 2013 to 2017, winning the AFC Asian Cup in 2015 and also going to the 2014 FIFA World Cup. He won the J1 League with Yokohama F. Marinos in 2019, and then won five trophies (including two league titles) in two seasons with Scottish side Celtic. He became head coach of Premier League club Tottenham Hotspur in 2023, where he won the UEFA Europa League in 2025, marking the club's first trophy since 2008 and its first European trophy since 1984, before being dismissed as the triumph came amid a historically poor domestic performance that season. In September 2025, Postecoglou was appointed manager of Nottingham Forest, but was sacked after 39 days having failed to win any of his eight matches in charge.
== Early life ==
Angelos Postecoglou was born on 27 August 1965 in Nea Filadelfeia, a suburb of Athens, Greece, to a family that migrated from the Alaşehir district of Manisa during the population exchange between Turkey and Greece in 1923. Nea Filadelfeia, a settlement founded by families who had migrated from Alaşehir, Manisa, meant New Alaşehir. After his father, Dimitris ("Jim"), lost his business following the 1967 Greek military coup, the Postecoglou family migrated to Australia in 1970, when he was five years old. He grew up in Melbourne, Victoria. At the age of 10, his parents changed his surname to "Postekos", remarking: "It was a fad in those days to shorten your name if you were Greek, so that's what they did." Although Postekos is still his surname legally, he opts for Postecoglou.
== Playing career ==
After first joining South Melbourne Hellas as a nine-year-old, Postecoglou rose through the youth ranks to play 193 games from 1984 to 1993 for them in the National Soccer League.
As a player, he was involved in their 1984 and 1990–91 titles, the latter as captain in a penalty shootout win over rivals Melbourne Croatia. He was coached by Hungarian Ferenc Puskás, a renowned player whom his father had told him about as a child. According to Postecoglou, Puskás played a 4–3–3 formation rigid full-backs and attacking wingers. Postecoglou built on this strategy in his own coaching; however, his use of attacking full backs in a non-traditional inverted position differs from Puskás.
A knee injury prematurely ended Postecoglou's NSL career at the age of 27. In 2000, he went on to be named as the starting left back in South Melbourne's team of the century as voted by fans and an expert panel.
Postecoglou remained active as a player in the lower tiers of Victorian soccer, making appearances for Western Suburbs SC in the Victorian State League Division One in 1994 and Stonnington City in the Victorian State League Division Four in 1995.
== International career ==
Postecoglou represented Australia at senior level four times between 1986 and 1988. Prior to this, he represented Australia at youth level in 1985.
His international debut came on 3 August 1986 during a 1–1 draw against Czechoslovakia. The only other international opponent he ever played against was New Zealand, playing during both legs of the 1988 Trans-Tasman Cup which Australia won 4–1 on aggregate.
== Managerial career ==
=== Western Suburbs ===
In 1994, Postecoglou took charge of Western Suburbs SC in the Victorian State League Division One.
=== South Melbourne ===
Following his retirement, Postecoglou took up the role of an assistant coach at South Melbourne under coaches Jim Pyrgolios and Frank Arok. He gained the head coaching position in 1996, following the firing of Arok. He took charge of South Melbourne's final three matches of the 1995–96 National Soccer League season before being made permanent coach in June 1996.
Postecoglou led South to consecutive National Soccer League titles in 1997–98 (ending a seven-year drought) and 1998–99, as well as winning the 1999 Oceania Club Championship, which in turn led to South's participation in the 2000 FIFA Club World Championship.
After the 1999–2000 NSL season, he stood down from the South Melbourne coaching role when he was appointed coach of the Australian youth team. He is the only person to have been involved in all four of South Melbourne's NSL title-winning teams, the first two as a player and the latter two as coach.
=== Young Socceroos ===
Following his domestic coaching success, Postecoglou became coach of Australia's youth sides in May 2000. During his tenure, he played a role in identifying and developing Australian players. Postecoglou was involved in an on-air argument with football pundit Craig Foster on the television show The World Game. He was replaced as coach in February 2007 after Australia failed to qualify for the 2007 FIFA U-20 World Cup. After his departure as coach of the Australian youth teams, Postecoglou worked as a football pundit for Fox Sports and as an elite consultant to Football Federation Victoria.
Feeling that his much-publicised argument with Foster had made him unemployable, Postecoglou coached Panachaiki in the Greek third division, and Whittlesea Zebras back in Melbourne, while running coaching clinics in the city.
=== Brisbane Roar ===
On 16 October 2009, Postecoglou was signed as the new Brisbane Roar coach, replacing Frank Farina. Postecoglou started rebuilding the team by releasing Liam Reddy, Craig Moore, Bob Malcolm and Charlie Miller. Tommy Oar, Michael Zullo and Adam Sarota were bought by Dutch club Utrecht, and striker Sergio van Dijk went to Adelaide United. Postecoglou, who asked to be judged a year from the time he took over, proved the critics wrong by winning and playing an entertaining brand of football.
The 4–0 win against Adelaide United in round 13 was highly praised in the media as some of the best football the A-League has ever seen. Postecoglou led the Roar to the Premiership and Championship in the 2010–11 season, winning the Grand Final 4–2 on penalties against the Central Coast Mariners in front of 52,168 people at Lang Park. The Roar only lost one game all season and went on a 36-game unbeaten run, which broke the previous Australian football record. On 18 March 2011, he signed a two-year extension with the club until the 2013–14 season.
In the 2011–12 season, Brisbane Roar became the first team to win back-to-back A-League championships and Postecoglou became the most successful Australian domestic football coach, with four national titles.
On 24 April 2012, Postecoglou announced his resignation as head coach of Brisbane Roar. Postecoglou left the Roar after two-and-a-half years, during which he led the club to back-to-back A-League championships, a premiership and consecutive qualification for the AFC Champions League.
=== Melbourne Victory ===
On 26 April 2012, it was announced that Postecoglou had signed a three-year contract with A-League club Melbourne Victory as head coach. His first game in charge of the club was the Round 1 clash against crosstown rivals Melbourne Heart, an encounter which the Melbourne Victory lost 2–1. His first win came against Adelaide United in Round 4, with the Victory prevailing 2–1. The following year, Melbourne Victory made the A-League Preliminary Final after beating Perth Glory in an Elimination Final 2–1 at Docklands Stadium. Melbourne Victory then played in the Preliminary Final against Central Coast Mariners and lost 2–0.
=== Australia national team ===
Postecoglou was appointed head coach of the Australia national team on 23 October 2013 on a five-year contract, replacing German Holger Osieck. Postecoglou was tasked with regenerating the Australian national team, which was deemed to have been too reliant on members of their Golden Generation of 2006, subsequently leading to a stagnation of results that culminated in successive 6–0 defeats to Brazil and France. In his first game as Australia's manager, a home friendly match against Costa Rica, Australia won 1–0, courtesy of a goal from Tim Cahill.
For the 2014 FIFA World Cup, Australia were drawn in Group B alongside holders Spain, 2010 runners-up the Netherlands and Chile. The team lost to Chile 3–1 and the Netherlands 3–2 to be eliminated from Group B, and concluded with a 3–0 loss to also-eliminated Spain. Australia's competitive performances in a difficult group led to belief that a new Golden Generation was about to begin.
Postecoglou coached Australia in 2015 AFC Asian Cup, where they beat Kuwait (4–1) and Oman (4–0), but lost to South Korea (0–1) in the group stage. They then beat China 2–0 in the quarter-final and the United Arab Emirates 2–0 in the semi-final. Australia beat South Korea 2–1 after extra time to win in the final for its first AFC Asian Cup.
Two weeks after Australia qualified for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, on 22 November 2017, Postecoglou announced his resignation as Socceroos coach.
=== Yokohama F. Marinos ===
On 19 December 2017, Yokohama F. Marinos announced they had appointed Postecoglou as head coach with his tenure set to begin after the 2017 Japanese Emperor's Cup. Postecoglou's first domestic game as coach of Yokohama ended with a 1–1 draw against Cerezo Osaka at Yanmar Stadium, Osaka. After an initial difficult start to the season, which saw Yokohama F. Marinos facing potential relegation, Postecoglou guided the club to the final of the J-League Cup, and a 12th-place finish in the league.
After receiving interest from the Greece national team to become their new manager, Postecoglou extended his contract with Yokohama F. Marinos. Yokohama's belief in Postecoglou was rewarded during the 2019 season when he guided the club to their first J. League title in 15 years.
=== Celtic ===
Postecoglou became the manager of Scottish Premiership club Celtic on 10 June 2021, signing a 12-month rolling contract, making him the first Australian manager to coach a major club in Europe. Celtic, who had just lost their league title to Rangers for the first time in a decade, had abruptly missed out on hiring English manager Eddie Howe. The new appointment was mocked by Celtic fan and Talksport presenter Alan Brazil, who apologised on his show a year later, after Postecoglou had won the league. Australian Celtic player Tom Rogic reflected on the atmosphere at the appointment: "I laugh sometimes when I look back. Although I knew him quite well, there was a perception of: 'Who's this guy?'"
==== 2021–22 ====
Postecoglou's first game was a UEFA Champions League qualifier on 20 July, drawing 1–1 against Danish Superliga club FC Midtjylland; a 2–1 loss in the second leg in Denmark led to elimination eight days later. He lost his first league game 2–1 away to Heart of Midlothian on 31 July. On 19 December 2021, Celtic won the Scottish League Cup after defeating Hibernian 2–1 at Hampden Park in the final. The following 2 February, a 3–0 win over rivals Rangers put Celtic to the top of the league table for the first time in the season, ending a 13-game unbeaten start for opposing manager Giovanni van Bronckhorst. Having not let their lead slip, the league title was sealed on 11 May with a game remaining, after a 1–1 draw at Dundee United.
Though some sources called Postecoglou the first Australian to win a league title in Europe, he was preceded by several weeks by Anthony Limbrick, who won the Cymru Premier for The New Saints. He was the league Manager of the Month five times in his first season, for October 2021 and January to April 2022, while winning the PFA Scotland Manager of the Year and SFWA Manager of the Year.
==== 2022–23 ====
Celtic began the 2022–23 season with a 2–0 win against Aberdeen on 31 July at Celtic Park. Celtic dominated the Premiership in Postecoglou's second season, remaining on top and winning the league for a second straight season. On 26 February 2023, Postecoglou won his second Scottish League Cup in a row after beating rivals Rangers 2–1 in the final. Celtic ended the season with a record eighth domestic treble after they won the Scottish Cup at Hampden Park against Inverness Caledonian Thistle on 2 June in Postecoglou's last match in charge.
Postecoglou was also announced as a candidate for FIFA World Coach of the Year after winning the domestic treble.
=== Tottenham Hotspur ===
On 6 June 2023, it was announced Postecoglou would be appointed head coach of English club Tottenham Hotspur, starting 1 July, on a four-year contract. His appointment saw him become both the first Australian and first Greek to manage in the Premier League.
==== 2023–24 ====
After managing Tottenham to an unbeaten start to the 2023–24 season with two wins and a draw in his first three matches, Postecoglou received the Premier League Manager of the Month award for August, becoming the first manager since David Wagner to win the award in his first month in the division. On 24 September, Postecoglou became the first Tottenham manager to earn points from Arsenal away at the Emirates Stadium in four years since Pochettino, after the North London derby ended in a 2–2 draw. After continuing Tottenham Hotspur's unbeaten streak for a second month, Postecoglou was nominated for the Premier League Manager of the Month award for September, eventually winning it and becoming the first ever manager to win the award in each of his first two months in the competition.
On 1 October, Postecoglou guided Spurs to their first victory against Liverpool in five years, following a 2–1 win at home. On 23 October, Postecoglou achieved his seventh victory in his ninth league game, following a 2–0 win over Fulham at home. He broke the record for most points earned by a Premier League manager in their first nine games, with his side accumulating 23 points and overtaking the 22 achieved by Guus Hiddink from Chelsea in the 2008–09 season. Postecoglou guided Tottenham to three consecutive wins and the league's top spot in October, leading him to be named Manager of the Month for a third consecutive time. In doing so, Postecoglou became the first manager to win the award for the first three months of a single season.
On 6 November, Postecoglou suffered his first defeat as Tottenham manager in the 4–1 home defeat to London rivals Chelsea during which his side were down to nine men, following a straight red card to Cristian Romero and a second yellow card to Destiny Udogie. The loss marked the beginning of a five-game winless streak for the club, where they would draw one match and lose the rest, dropping their league position from first to fifth.
Leading Tottenham to an unbeaten run in their first ten games contributed to Postecoglou winning Manager of the Year honours at the London Football Awards on 29 February 2024. However, Tottenham would be unable to recapture their strong season start; a 4–2 loss to Liverpool on 5 May marked the club's first four-game league losing streak in 20 years. Postecoglou would ultimately lead Tottenham to a fifth-place finish, qualifying the team for the 2024–25 UEFA Europa League after a year-long absence from European football.
==== 2024–25: Europa League title and departure ====
Prior to the 2024–25 season, Postecoglou mentioned in an interview that he usually won things in his second year. Tottenham began their league campaign poorly, winning only one of their first four games. On 15 September, after a 1–0 loss to Arsenal, Postecoglou clarified his preseason statement, stating:
"I'll correct myself – I don't usually win things, I always win things in my second year. Nothing's changed. I've said it now. I don't say things unless I believe them." Many in the media interpreted this as Postecoglou promising a trophy by the end of the season. The campaign was marred by injuries to several players, causing many to miss a significant number of matches. This resulted in Tottenham's worst-ever Premier League finish at 17th, one spot above the relegation zone, with the club accumulating their most defeats and lowest-ever points tally in a single Premier League season. The run of bad results raised speculation throughout the year that Postecoglou would be dismissed.
Despite the poor league form, Postecoglou led Tottenham to their first trophy in 17 years when they defeated Manchester United 1–0 in the 2025 UEFA Europa League final on 21 May 2025. It was their first title since the 2007–08 Football League Cup, and their first European trophy since the 1983–84 UEFA Cup. The win earned a league phase spot in the 2025–26 UEFA Champions League and the right to play against the winners of the 2024–25 UEFA Champions League for the 2025 UEFA Super Cup. Postecoglou became the first Australian and first Greek manager to win a European competition.
During the Europa League victory parade on 23 May, Postecoglou openly campaigned to return for the next season, stating "all the best TV series, season three is better than season two." However, on 6 June, exactly two years since his appointment, Postecoglou was relieved of his duties as Tottenham's head coach.
=== Nottingham Forest ===
On 9 September 2025, Postecoglou was announced as head coach of English Premier League club Nottingham Forest, signing a two-year contract, as successor of Nuno Espírito Santo. Postecoglou lost his first game as Nottingham Forest manager 3–0 to Arsenal, soon followed by a defeat by Swansea City in the League Cup and draws against Burnley and Real Betis, having led in all three. These draws were followed by defeats by Sunderland and Newcastle United in the Premier League and FC Midtjylland in the Europa League, meaning Postecoglou was winless in his first seven fixtures – the worst start by a Forest manager in over a century – and saw his job security being questioned after less than a month in charge.
After a 3–0 home defeat by Chelsea on 18 October 2025 which saw the team drop into the relegation zone, Forest announced the departure of Postecoglou only 18 minutes after the final whistle, making him the shortest reigning manager in the club's history. Evangelos Marinakis, the club's owner, had already left his seat when Forest were 2–0 down. Postecoglou won none of his 8 games in charge, drawing 2 and losing 6. His managerial reign of just 39 days is the second shortest in English Premier League history; only Sam Allardyce's 30-day tenure at Leeds United was shorter.
He was replaced by Sean Dyche.
== Personal life ==
Postecoglou grew up in Melbourne, Victoria. He played Australian rules football from a young age and became a lifelong supporter of the Carlton Football Club in the Australian Football League (AFL).
Postecoglou married his first wife, Georgia, in December 1988. He had a son from that marriage. Postecoglou's current wife, also named Georgia, worked at South Melbourne as a marketing manager when he served as manager of the club. Together they have two sons.
He said in a 2018 interview that his father, who died that year, worked hard every day of his life: "People say they go to another country for a better life. My parents did not have a better life, they went to Australia to provide opportunities for me to have a better life." Father and son had time together only during their outings together to soccer games, from where young Ange got a life-long "fascination" with the sport. He said of his management "My motivation is always to produce teams [my] dad would enjoy watching." Postecoglou also grew up supporting Liverpool and AEK Athens.
In November 2022, Postecoglou was inducted into the Football Australia Hall of Fame for his outstanding contribution to Australian football on and off the field as a player and as a coach.
In addition to English, Postecoglou is fluent in Greek. He is a Greek Orthodox Christian. Postecoglou has been nicknamed "Big Ange", and is often mononymously called Ange or Angie by media sources.
In the post-match press conference of the 2025 UEFA Europa League final, Postecoglou mentioned that his favourite Australian Prime Minister was Paul Keating, and quoted him, stating: "After an unlikely victory, this is one for the true believers."
== Career statistics ==
=== International ===
As of match played 16 October 1988.
== Managerial statistics ==
As of 18 October 2025
== Honours ==
=== Player ===
South Melbourne
National Soccer League: 1984, 1990–91
NSL Cup: 1989–90
Dockerty Cup: 1989, 1991
Buffalo Cup: 1988
Australia
Trans-Tasman Cup: 1988
=== Manager ===
South Melbourne
National Soccer League: 1997–98, 1998–99
Oceania Club Championship: 1999
Brisbane Roar
A-League Championship: 2010–11, 2011–12
A-League Premiership: 2010–11
Yokohama F. Marinos
J1 League: 2019
Celtic
Scottish Premiership: 2021–22, 2022–23
Scottish Cup: 2022–23
Scottish League Cup: 2021–22, 2022–23
Tottenham Hotspur
UEFA Europa League: 2024–25
Australia U17
OFC U-17 Championship: 2001, 2003, 2005
Australia U20
OFC U-20 Championship: 2001, 2002, 2005
AFF U-20 Youth Championship: 2006
Australia
AFC Asian Cup: 2015
Individual
National Soccer League Coach of the Year: 1997–98
Australian Sports Medal: 2000
PFA Manager of the Year: 2010–11
A-League Coach of the Year: 2010–11
PFA Manager of the Decade: 2015
AFC Coach of the Year: 2015
Scottish Premiership Manager of the Month: October 2021, January 2022, February 2022, March 2022, April 2022, August 2022, September/October 2022
PFA Scotland Manager of the Year: 2021–22, 2022–23
SFWA Manager of the Year: 2021–22, 2022–23
Premier League Manager of the Month: August 2023, September 2023, October 2023
London Football Awards Manager of the Year: 2023–24
Football Australia Hall of Fame inductee: 2022
Football Australia Team of the Century (as a coach)
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Melbourne Victory profile
Oz Football profile
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_M._Nevius | Henry M. Nevius | Henry M. Nevius (January 30, 1841 – January 28, 1911) was an American officer in the Civil War, New Jersey state senator, lawyer and jurist.
== Early life ==
Henry Martin Nevius was born on January 30, 1841, in Freehold Township, New Jersey to Hannah (née Browne or Bowne) and James Schureman Nevius. He was educated at Freehold Public School and Institute, graduating from the Institute in 1858. In 1859, he moved to Grand Rapids, Michigan, and took post-graduate courses at Grand Rapids High School for two years.
== Career ==
Nevius joined the law office of future U.S. Secretary of War Russell A. Alger in Spring 1861. On August 12, 1861, Nevius enlisted as a private in Company K, 1st New York Cavalry Regiment ("Lincoln Cavalry") of the Union Army. He served as a Regimental Commissary Sergeant. On December 31, 1862, he was appointed as a second lieutenant to Company D, 7th Michigan Cavalry Regiment, under the command of George A. Custer. He resigned in 1864 to join a regiment out of Trenton, New Jersey, but the organization did not form. He instead re-enlisted in March 1864 as a private in Company D, 25th New York Cavalry Regiment ("Sickles Cavalry"). He was promoted for bravery to second lieutenant, and was later promoted to captain. On July 11, 1864, he commanded the center of a small band and led a charge during Early's raids near Fort Stevens in Washington, D.C. He was shot in his left arm, forcing amputation. President Abraham Lincoln promoted him to major. In May 1865, he was discharged. He was also present at the Battle of Antietam, Battle of Gettysburg and the Shenandoah Valley campaign.
In 1866, Nevius became a Deputy Collector of Internal Revenue for Monmouth County, New Jersey and then worked as an insurance agent in Marlboro. In 1868, he resumed studying law with General Charles Haight. He was admitted to the bar in Monmouth County in February 1873 and as a counselor in 1876. In 1875, he moved to Red Bank, New Jersey. He joined John Stilwell Applegate in a partnership from 1879 to 1880. In 1888, he formed Nevius & Wilson, a partnership with Edmund Wilson Sr. They remained partners until 1896. In 1896, Nevius was appointed by Governor Griggs as Judge of the Circuit Court of Hudson County. He remained in that role until 1903.
In 1881, Nevius helped organize and served as the commander of the Grand Army of the Republic chapter in Red Bank. He was elected Department Commander of the Grand Army of the Republic of New Jersey in 1884. In 1887, he was elected as a Republican to the New Jersey Senate. He remained in that role until 1890, and served as president of the Senate. In 1904, Nevius became Prosecutor of the Pleas for Monmouth County. He retired in October 1908 when he was elected the Commander-in-Chief of the Grand Army of the Republic, beating former Minnesota governor Samuel Van Sant. After serving one year as Commander-in-Chief, he returned to his private practice as a counselor-in-law and also worked in a chancery.
== Personal life and death ==
Nevius married Matilda Holmes Herbert on December 27, 1871. Together, they had a daughter, Kate. Nevius died on January 28, 1911, of a stroke at his home in Red Bank. He was interred at Fair View Cemetery in Monmouth County.
== References ==
== External links == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samajwadi_Janata_Party_%28Rashtriya%29 | Samajwadi Janata Party (Rashtriya) | Samajwadi Janata Party (Rashtriya) (SJP(R)) was an Indian political party founded by Chandra Shekhar, who served as prime minister of the country from 1990 to 1991. He led the party until his death on 8 July 2007. At the time of his death, he was the party's sole member of the Lok Sabha.
The party was formed on 5 November 1990 when Shekhar and Devi Lal broke away from the governing Janata Dal. The party was able to gather 60 MPs and form a government, supported by the Indian National Congress (Indira) with Shekhar as prime minister. The SJP(R) government lasted for seven months, from 10 November 1990 to 21 June 1991. Shekhar's government collapsed when the INC(I) withdrew support.
S. R. Bommai was the president of Karnataka state unit till the state party got merged with Janata Dal in 1993 before 1994 Karnataka Assembly elections.
As of 2012 Kamal Morarka, a former cabinet minister in the union government headed by Chandra Shekhar, was the head of the party. The party headquarters were located in Narendra Niketan, ITO Indraprastha Estate, New Delhi, India.
On 14 April 2015, the SJP(R), Janata Dal (United), Janata Dal (Secular), Rashtriya Janata Dal, the Indian National Lok Dal, and Samajwadi Party, announced that they would merge into a new national alliance, Janata Parivar in order to oppose the Bharatiya Janata Party.
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludvig_Faddeev | Ludvig Faddeev | Ludvig Dmitrievich Faddeev (also Ludwig Dmitriyevich; Russian: Лю́двиг Дми́триевич Фадде́ев; 23 March 1934 – 26 February 2017) was a Soviet and Russian mathematical physicist. He is known for the discovery of the Faddeev equations in the quantum-mechanical three-body problem and for the development of path-integral methods in the quantization of non-abelian gauge field theories, including the introduction of the Faddeev–Popov ghosts (with Victor Popov). He led the Leningrad School, in which he along with many of his students developed the quantum inverse scattering method for studying quantum integrable systems in one space and one time dimension. This work led to the invention of quantum groups by Drinfeld and Jimbo.
== Biography ==
Faddeev was born in Leningrad to a family of mathematicians. His father, Dmitry Faddeev, was a well-known algebraist, professor of Leningrad University and member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. His mother, Vera Faddeeva, was known for her work in numerical linear algebra. Faddeev attended Leningrad University, receiving his undergraduate degree in 1956. He enrolled in physics, rather than mathematics, "to be independent of [his] father". Nevertheless, he received a solid education in mathematics as well "due to the influence of V. A. Fock and V. I. Smirnov". His doctoral work on scattering theory was completed in 1959 under the direction of Olga Ladyzhenskaya.
From 1976 to 2000, Faddeev was head of the St. Petersburg Department of Steklov Institute of Mathematics of Russian Academy of Sciences (PDMI RAS).
He was an invited visitor to the CERN Theory Division for the first time in 1973 and made several further visits there.
In 1988 he founded the Euler International Mathematical Institute, now a department of PDMI RAS.
== Honours and awards ==
Faddeev was a member of the Russian Academy of Sciences since 1976, and was a member of a number of foreign academies, including the U. S. National Academy of Sciences, the French Academy of Sciences, the Austrian Academy of Sciences, the Brazilian Academy of Sciences, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences and the Royal Society.
He received numerous honors including USSR State Prize (1971), Dannie Heineman Prize (1975), Dirac Prize (1990), an honorary doctorate from the Faculty of Mathematics and Science at Uppsala University, Sweden, Max Planck Medal (1996), Demidov Prize (2002 – "For outstanding contribution to the development of mathematics, quantum mechanics, string theory and solitons") and the State Prize of the Russian Federation (1995, 2004). He was president of the International Mathematical Union (1986–1990). He was awarded the Henri Poincaré Prize in 2006 and the Shaw Prize in mathematical sciences in 2008. Also the Karpinsky International Prize and the Max Planck Medal (German Physical Society).
He also received the Lomonosov Gold Medal in 2013.
Faddeev also received state awards:
Order of Merit for the Fatherland;
3rd class (25 October 2004) – for outstanding contribution to the development of fundamental and applied domestic science and many years of fruitful activity
4th class (4 June 1999) – for outstanding contribution to the development of national science and training of highly qualified personnel in connection with the 275th anniversary of the Russian Academy of Sciences
Order of Friendship (6 June 1994) – for his great personal contribution to the development of mathematical physics and training of highly qualified scientific personnel
Order of Lenin
Order of the Red Banner of Labour
State Prize of the Russian Federation in Science and Technology 2004 (6 June 2005), for outstanding achievement in the development of mathematical physics and in 1995 for science and technology (20 June 1995), for the monograph "Introduction to quantum gauge field theory"
USSR State Prize (1971)
Honorary citizen of St. Petersburg (2010)
Academician (Finland) (1991)
== Selected works ==
Source:
Faddeev, L. D.; Slavnov, A. A. (2018), Gauge Fields: An Introduction to Quantum Theory (2nd ed.), CRC Press, doi:10.1201/9780429493829, ISBN 978-0-201-52472-7, S2CID 226468912; translated from the Russian by G. B. Pontecorvo; 1st edition 1991{{citation}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
Faddeev, L. D. (1995), 40 years in Mathematical Physics, Vol. 2, World Scientific series in 20th century mathematics, World Scientific, ISBN 978-981-02-2199-7
Faddeev, L. D. (1996), "How Algebraic Bethe Ansatz works for integrable model", arXiv:hep-th/9605187
Faddeev, L. D. (2000), "Modern Mathematical Physics: what it should be?", arXiv:math-ph/0002018
Faddeev, L. D. (2009), "New variables for the Einstein theory of gravitation", arXiv:0911.0282 [hep-th]
Ge, Molin; Niemi, Antti J., eds. (2016), Fifty years in Mathematical Physics: Selected Works of Ludwig Faddeev, World Scientific series in 20th century mathematics – Vol. 2, World Scientific, ISBN 978-981-31-0933-9; 596 pages; pbk{{citation}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Media related to Ludvig Faddeev at Wikimedia Commons
faddeev.com |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Beechey | William Beechey | Sir William Beechey (12 December 1753 – 28 January 1839) was a British portraitist during the golden age of British painting.
== Early life ==
Beechey was born at Burford, Oxfordshire, on 12 December 1753, the son of William Beechey, a solicitor, and his wife Hannah Read. Both parents died when he was still quite young in the early 1760s, and he and his siblings were brought up by his uncle Samuel, a solicitor who lived in nearby Chipping Norton.
The uncle was determined that the young Beechey should likewise follow a career in the law, and at an appropriate age he was entered as a clerk with a conveyancer near Stow-on-the-Wold. But as The Monthly Mirror later recorded in July 1798, he was: "Early foredoomed his [uncle's] soul to cross/ And paint a picture where he should engross".
== Career ==
Beechey was admitted to the Royal Academy Schools in 1772, where he is thought to have studied under Johan Zoffany. He first exhibited at the Academy in 1776. His earliest surviving portraits are small-scale full-length and conversation pieces which are reminiscent of Zoffany. In 1782, he moved to Norwich, where he gained several commissions, including a portrait of John Wodehouse and a series of civic portraits for St. Andrew's Hall, Norwich. By 1787, he had returned to London, and in 1789, he exhibited a celebrated portrait of John Douglas, Bishop of Carlisle (now in Lambeth Palace). Beechey's career during this period is marked by a succession of adept and restrained portraits in the tradition of Joshua Reynolds.
Beechey's style perfectly suited the conventional taste of the royal family, and in 1793, he was commissioned to paint a full-length portrait of Queen Charlotte and subsequently named as her official portrait painter. That same year, he was elected as an associate member of the Royal Academy.
Following his royal appointment, the number of royal commissions he undertook increased markedly, and in 1797 he exhibited six royal portraits. In 1798, he was elected a full member of the Royal Academy and painted George III and the Prince of Wales Reviewing Troops for that year's academy's exhibition. This enormous composition depicts King George III, the Prince of Wales and staff officers on horseback at an imagined cavalry review in Hyde Park. The King was reported to be delighted with the painting and rewarded Beechey with a knighthood.
Joseph Farington's Diaries give many accounts of Beechey's relations with the royal family during this period, including his temporary fall from favour in 1804, which Farington attributes to the vagaries of George III's mental condition.
Beechey's portraits of the turn of the century are considered to be his most colourful and lively. They are closer to the flamboyant and free techniques employed by his younger rivals, John Hoppner and Sir Thomas Lawrence.
Royal patronage resumed in around 1813, when Beechey was appointed portrait painter to Prince William Frederick, Duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh, and culminated with his appointment in 1830 as principal portrait painter to William IV. In 1830, he stood for election as President of the Royal Academy following the death of Thomas Lawrence, finishing second to Martin Archer Shee. In 1836, Beechey retired to Hampstead and on 9–11 June that year, the contents of his studio along with his collection were sold at Christie's.
Although capable of impetuousness and irascibility, Beechey was known for his generosity to students. In particular, he took a close interest in the career of the young John Constable.
== Subjects ==
During a prolific career spanning half a century, Beechey painted many of the leading figures of his day. His sitters included:
In his 1978 novel Desolation Island, Patrick O'Brian wrote that Capt. Jack Aubrey had been painted by Beechey. The portrait, which showed Aubrey in Royal Navy uniform wearing the insignia of the Order of the Bath, hung in his home, Ashgrove Cottage.
== Family ==
William Beechey's first marriage was to Mary Ann Jones (c. 1760–1793) in 1772 (other sources say 1778). Their children included British painter and Egyptologist Henry William Beechey (1788–1862).
Following his first wife's death, Beechey married the successful miniature painter Anne Phyllis Jessop (1764–1833) in 1793. They had many children together, including: Royal Navy captain, geographer, and politician Frederick William Beechey (1796–1856); painter George Duncan Beechey (1798–1852); clergyman St. Vincent Beechey (1806–1899); and painter and admiral in the British navy Richard Brydges Beechey (1808–1895).
== Prices at auction ==
Beechey's Portrait of James Watt sold for £153,440 at Sotheby's on 20 March 2003. His Portrait of Mirza Abu'l Hassan Khan, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to the Court of King George III sold for £181,600 at Christie's on 8 June 2006. His Portrait of George Douglas, 16th Earl of Morton in the dress of the Royal Company of Archers sold for £481,250 at Christie's on 5 July 2011. His portrait of The Dashwood Children sold at auction for $821,000 including premium at Christie's on 29 January 2014.
== Gallery ==
Beechey's works are represented in many of the world's leading collections, including the Louvre, the Smithsonian Institution, the Royal Collection, the Royal Academy of Arts, the National Portrait Gallery, London, the Tate and the Metropolitan Museum of Art.
== Coat of arms ==
Beechey was granted arms on 16 February 1829.
== References ==
== Sources ==
Hermann, Like. Nineteenth Century British Painting. Charles de la Mare, 2000.
Redgrave, Richard; Redgrave, Samuel (1947) [1890]. A Century of Painters of the English School. Sampson Low, Marston.
Roberts, W. (1907). Sir William Beechey, R.A. London: Duckworth & Co.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Beechey, Sir William" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 3 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 640.
Laughton, John Knox (1885). "Beechey, Frederick William" . In Stephen, Leslie (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 4. London: Smith, Elder & Co.
== External links ==
178 artworks by or after William Beechey at the Art UK site |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Anderson_(fashion_designer) | Jonathan Anderson (fashion designer) | Jonathan William Anderson (born 17 September 1984) is an Irish fashion designer and the founder of JW Anderson. Anderson is known for his eponymous label and having been the creative director of Spanish luxury house Loewe. He has been the creative director of Christian Dior since 2025.
== Early life ==
Anderson was born in the town of Magherafelt in Northern Ireland in 1984. He is the son of Willie Anderson, who played international rugby for Ireland between 1984 and 1990. His mother Heather Buckley worked as a secondary school English teacher. Anderson has a brother, Thomas who followed his father into professional rugby. His grandfather was a textile designer.
Anderson grew up in Northern Ireland during the The Troubles, but spent a lot of time on the Balearic island of Ibiza, where his parents owned a house. He has since said in interviews that the contrasting environments played a big role in shaping his sensibilities as a designer. Anderson describes his childhood in Northern Ireland as "..car bombs, a town getting blown up. It was awful, and really confusing as a child to live through that, but it toughened me up. I don’t take anything for granted because I know that life is like a fuse.” When he was in primary school, he was diagnosed with severe dyslexia. Anderson said in a September 2015 interview with The Guardian, “When I look back at things I'm into today, I always think it's things between (ages) 8 and 15 that influence the most.”
At the age of 18, Anderson moved to the United States to try become an actor. He was based in New York City at the Juilliard School, but developed an interest in costume design rather than acting. He moved to Dublin shortly after, securing his first fashion-based job at the department store Brown Thomas. He later moved to London, graduating from the London College of Fashion in 2005.
== Career ==
Anderson began his career working as a visual merchandiser for Prada, working for Manuela Pavesi. He launched his own menswear collection shortly after in 2008. His first collection under the JW Anderson label received critical acclaim. In 2010, Anderson received sponsorship from the British Fashion Council's Newton committee and subsequently produced his first catwalk collection at London Fashion Week.
The rising success of his JW Anderson label allowed him to secure a second NewGen sponsorship and led to a collaboration with high-street retailer Topshop in 2012. The collaboration was a collection of limited-edition items, known as the JW Anderson x Topshop collection. It featured clothing and accessories ranging from mini-kilts and paisley prints, to Halloween motifs and included a range of stationery, iPhone cases and Rubik's cubes. The collection sold out within hours of it launching. Anderson and Topshop scheduled another collaboration to launch a year later, with the release coming in February 2013.
Later that year, Donatella Versace enlisted him to replace Christopher Kane at Versace's diffusion line Versus, where he showcased his first collection in June at New York's Lexington Armoury. In September 2013, LVMH took a minority stake in JW Anderson and named Anderson as the new creative director for Spanish luxury house Loewe. By 2019, he created 18 different collections each year — six for his own label, 10 for Loewe and two for his ongoing collaborations with Uniqlo. In 2019, he became a member of the board of trustees at the Victoria and Albert Museum.
In February 2023, Anderson designed singer Rihanna's red outfit, which she used to announce her second pregnancy during her half-time Super Bowl performance. That same year Anderson served as costume designer for Luca Guadagnino's Queer. Anderson had previously worked with Guadagnino in 2022, during the production of his film Challengers. His film work has led him to being signed by UTA.
After 11 years at Loewe, Anderson stepped down as the house's creative director on 17 March 2025. On April 17th, Vogue announced his appointment as the artistic director of Dior menswear, succeeding Kim Jones, who stepped down earlier that January. In June 2025, Anderson was further named creative director of Dior womenswear and couture collections. In June 2025, Dior unveiled a reimagined version of the Lady Dior handbag, a collaboration between Anderson and textile artist Sheila Hicks; the handbag made its debut at Anderson’s Spring Summer 2026, his inaugural collection for the Dior.
== Personal life ==
Anderson is gay. He lives in Paris and London. He also maintains a weekend home in Norfolk. As of March 2025, he is in a relationship with Catalan artist Pol Anglada.
== Awards and honors ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonya_Harding | Tonya Harding | Tonya Maxene Price (née Harding; born November 12, 1970) is an American former figure skater and boxer, and reality television personality.
Born in Portland, Oregon, Harding was raised by her mother, who enrolled her in ice skating lessons when Tonya was three years old. Harding spent much of her early life training, eventually dropping out of high school to devote her time to the sport. After climbing the ranks in the U.S. Figure Skating Championships between 1986 and 1989, Harding won the 1989 Skate America competition. She was the 1991 and 1994 U.S. champion (the latter title was later vacated), and 1991 World silver medalist. In 1991, she became the first American woman and the second woman in history (after Midori Ito) to successfully land a triple Axel in an international competition. Harding is a two-time Olympian and a two-time Skate America Champion.
In January 1994, Harding became embroiled in controversy when her ex-husband, Jeff Gillooly, orchestrated an attack on her fellow U.S. skating rival Nancy Kerrigan. On March 16, 1994, Harding accepted a plea bargain in which she pled guilty to conspiracy to hinder prosecution. As a result of her involvement in covering up the assault, the United States Figure Skating Association banned her for life on June 30, 1994; she was stripped of her 1994 title.
From 2003 to 2004, Harding competed as a professional boxer. Her life has been the subject of many books, films, documentaries, and academic studies. In 2014, two television documentaries were made about Harding's life and skating career (Nancy & Tonya and The Price of Gold), inspiring Steven Rogers to write the film I, Tonya in 2017, which Margot Robbie portrayed Harding. In 2018, she was a contestant on season 26 of Dancing with the Stars, finishing in third place. In 2019, she won season 16 of Worst Cooks in America.
== Early life ==
Tonya Maxene Harding was born November 12, 1970, in Portland, Oregon, to LaVona Golden (b. 1940) and Albert Harding (1933–2009). During Harding's youth, her father held various odd jobs (managed apartments, drove a truck, and worked at a bait & tackle store), yet was often underemployed due to poor health. She was raised in East Portland, and began skating at age three, training with coach Diane Rawlinson. Harding also hunted, drag raced, and learned auto mechanics from her father. LaVona struggled to support the family while working as a waitress, and hand-sewed her daughter's skating costumes to save money. Harding's parents divorced after 19 years of marriage in 1987, when she was 16. She dropped out of Milwaukie High School during her sophomore year to focus on skating; she earned a General Educational Development (GED) Certificate in 1988.
Harding claimed she was frequently abused by her mother. She stated that by the time she was seven years old, physical and psychological abuse had become a regular part of her life. LaVona admitted to one instance of hitting Harding at an ice rink. In January 2018, Harding's childhood friend and filmmaker, Sandra Luckow, spoke in defense of Harding's mother, because she felt that the 2017 film I, Tonya stretched some truths about LaVona's character. Luckow said that although Harding's mother could be "egregious" towards her daughter, LaVona funded and appreciated Harding's skating lessons, and had "a huge amount of humanity."
In Harding's 2008 authorized biography, The Tonya Tapes (written by Lynda D. Prouse from recorded interviews with Harding), she said she was the victim of acquaintance rape in 1991, and that her half-brother, Chris Davison, molested her on several occasions when she was a child. In 1986, Harding called the police after Davison had been sexually harassing and terrorizing her. He was arrested, and spent a short time in prison. Harding said her parents were in denial about Davison's behavior, and told her not to press criminal charges against him. Davison was killed in an unsolved vehicular hit-and-run accident in 1988. On May 3, 1994, during an interview with Rolonda Watts, Harding said that Davison was the only person in her life unworthy of forgiveness, and "the only person I've ever hated."
== Skating career ==
Harding trained as a figure skater throughout her youth with coach Diane Rawlinson. In the mid-1980s, Harding began working her way up the competitive skating ladder. She placed sixth at the 1986 U.S. Figure Skating Championships, fifth in 1987 and 1988, and third in 1989. After competing in the February 1989 Nationals Championship, Harding began training with Dody Teachman. She then won the October 1989 Skate America competition, and was considered a strong contender at the February 1990 U.S. Figure Skating Championships. However, she was experiencing the flu and asthma, and had a poor free skate. After the original program, she dropped from second place and finished seventh.
Harding's breakthrough year came in 1991 when, at the U.S. Championships, she completed her first triple Axel in competition on February 16—becoming the first American woman to do so. She landed seven triple jumps in the long program, including the Axel. She won the 1991 U.S. Ladies' Singles title with the event's first 6.0 technical merit score since Janet Lynn's 1973 performance at the U.S. Championships. She won the long program when seven of the nine judges gave her first place. She scored eight 5.9s and one 6.0 for technical merit, and six 5.9s, one 5.8, and two 5.7s for composition and style. At the March 1991 World Championships, she again completed the triple Axel. Harding would finish second behind Kristi Yamaguchi and in front of Nancy Kerrigan, marking the first time one country swept the ladies' medal podium at the World Figure Skating Championships.
At the September 1991 Skate America competition, Harding recorded three more firsts:
The first ever woman to complete a triple Axel in the short program.
The first woman ever to successfully execute two triple Axels in a single competition.
The first ever to complete a triple Axel in combination (with the double toe loop).
Despite these record-breaking performances, after 1991, Harding was never again able to successfully complete the triple Axel in competition; her competitive results began to decline. She and Dody Teachman had briefly parted ways in April 1991, but then reunited in June; Harding was still training under Teachman for the upcoming 1992 season. She placed third in the January 1992 U.S. Figure Skating Championships despite twisting her ankle during practice, and finished fourth in the February 1992 Winter Olympics. On March 1, 1992, Harding gave Teachman a summary dismissal, and returned to Diane Rawlinson to be coached by her. On March 29, Harding placed sixth in the 1992 World Championships, although she had a better placement at the November 1992 Skate Canada International event, in which she finished fourth. In the 1993 season, she skated poorly in the U.S. Championships and failed to qualify for the World Championship team.
In January 1994, Harding won the U.S. Championships, but was later stripped of her title: the USFSA disciplinary panel voted to vacate the title in June 1994, following an investigation of the attack on Nancy Kerrigan. In February 1994, Harding was permitted to remain a member of the U.S. Olympic ice skating team, despite brief legal controversy. At the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer, after an issue with a broken skate lace in the long program, she was given a re-skate by the judges and finished in eighth place, behind Oksana Baiul (gold) and Nancy Kerrigan (silver). Despite her USFSA ban, she did later compete at the professional level, placing second at the ESPN Pro Skating Championship in 1999.
=== Competitive highlights ===
== Assault of Nancy Kerrigan and legal proceedings ==
=== Nancy Kerrigan ===
On January 6, 1994 (1994-01-06), one day before the U.S. Figure Skating Championship first Ladies' Singles competition, Nancy Kerrigan was attacked in a corridor after a practice session at the Detroit Cobo Arena. The aftermath of the attack was recorded on a news camera and broadcast around the world. The assailant was Shane Stant, contracted to break her right knee; he turned himself in to the FBI in Phoenix on January 14. Stant and his uncle, Derrick Smith, were hired for this assault by Harding's ex-husband, Jeff Gillooly, and her bodyguard, Shawn Eckardt. After failing to find Kerrigan in Massachusetts, Stant had taken a 20-hour bus trip to Detroit. Nancy Kerrigan was walking behind a curtain when Stant rushed behind her. Using both hands, he swung a 21-inch (53 cm) ASP telescopic baton at her right leg, striking above her knee. The attack was intended to seriously injure Kerrigan so that she could not compete in the Nationals (Kerrigan was the defending 1993 Champion) nor the Winter Olympics. Kerrigan's leg was not broken but was severely bruised, forcing her to withdraw from the Championships, and forgo competing to retain the U.S. Ladies' title. On January 8, Harding won the U.S. title; she and Kerrigan were then both selected for the 1994 Olympic team.
=== KOIN-TV interview, Eckardt and Smith arrests, USFSA comments ===
On January 11, Harding was interviewed for KOIN-TV in Portland, Oregon. Harding was asked whether someone she knew could have planned the attack. Harding replied, "I have definitely thought about it." Gillooly stood in her view behind the camera during the interview. The interview ended with Harding saying, "No one controls my life but me... if there's something in there that I don't like, I'm going to change it." Harding also confirmed she had spoken with FBI agents in Detroit and again in Portland. On January 13, Eckardt and Smith were arrested. On January 14, the United States Figure Skating Association (USFSA) made a statement on whether Eckardt's arrest affected Harding's Olympic placement: "We will deal only with the facts." Harding's and Gillooly's separate lawyers confirmed the couple were in daily contact and cooperation with law enforcement. On January 15, Harding and Gillooly spoke with reporters, but declined to comment about the investigation. On January 16, Harding's lawyer held a press conference, in which he read a statement denying Harding's involvement in the attack on Kerrigan. Harding left her home that evening to practice with her coaches, where she spoke with reporters and performed a triple Axel.
=== Harding's confession ===
On January 18, 1994, Harding was with her lawyers when she submitted to questioning by the DA and FBI. She was interviewed for over ten hours. Eight hours into the interview, her lawyer read a statement declaring her separation from Gillooly: "I continue to believe that Jeff is innocent of any wrongdoing. I wish him nothing but the best." Her full FBI transcript was released on February 1. The Seattle Times reported on the transcript, stating that Harding had "changed her story well into a long interview [...] After hours of denying any involvement in trying to cover up the plot, an FBI agent finally told [her] that he knew she had lied to him, that he would tell her exactly how she had lied to him." In the transcript's final passage, Harding stated, "I hope everyone understands. I'm telling on someone I really care about. I know now [Jeff] is involved. I'm sorry." On January 19, Gillooly surrendered to the FBI. On January 20, Diane Sawyer asked Harding on Primetime about the case. Harding said she had done nothing wrong. On January 27, it was reported that Gillooly had been testifying about the attack plot since January 26, possibly implicating Harding as allegedly assisting. Harding's close friend, Stephanie Quintero, with whom she was living, spoke to reporters on her behalf: "[Tonya] was shocked, very hurt. She was believing in [Jeff]." Harding later held a press conference to read a prepared statement. She said she was sorry Kerrigan was attacked, that she respected Kerrigan, and claimed not to have known in advance of the plot to disable her. Harding took responsibility "for failing to report things [about the assault] when I returned home from Nationals [on January 10]. Failure to immediately report this information is not a crime." Many states' laws, including Oregon's, state that the act of concealing criminal knowledge alone is not a crime.
The attack on Kerrigan received a substantial amount of publicity, and news media crews camped outside Kerrigan's home. In January 1994, the story was on the covers of Sports Illustrated, Newsweek, and Time. There was now much speculation about Harding's alleged involvement in the assault plot. Because Harding and Kerrigan would be representing the US in the February Lillehammer Olympics, speculation reached a media frenzy. Abby Haight and J.E. Vader, reporters for The Oregonian, wrote a biography of Harding called Fire on Ice, which included excerpts of her January 18 FBI interview.
=== Guilty pleas and sentencing of Gillooly, Eckardt, Stant, and Smith ===
On February 1, 1994, Gillooly's attorney negotiated a plea bargain in exchange for testimony regarding all involved parties in the attack. In July, he was sentenced to two years in prison and publicly apologized to Kerrigan, adding "any apology coming from me rings hollow." Gillooly and Eckardt pled guilty to racketeering; Stant and Smith (who drove the getaway car and funneled money) pled guilty to conspiracy to commit second-degree assault. Judge Donald Londer noted the attack could have injured Kerrigan more seriously. Eckardt died in 2007.
=== USFSA disciplinary panel ===
On February 5, 1994, the USFSA disciplinary panel stated there were reasonable grounds to believe Harding had violated the sport's code of ethics. Her admitted failure to report about an assault on a fellow competitor, supported by her FBI transcripts, led to Harding being formally charged with "[making] false statements about her knowledge." The USFSA recommended that she face a disciplinary hearing. Claire Ferguson, president of the USFSA, decided not to suspend Harding's membership before a hearing took place. If she had been suspended, she likely still would have competed at the Olympics after filing suit, seeking an injunction against the USFSA, and asserting her rights under the Amateur Sports Act of 1978. The panel examined evidence, including: the testimonies of Stant and Smith, Harding's and Gillooly's telephone records, and notes found in a Portland saloon trash bin on January 30. Harding was given 30 days to respond.
=== Harding and Connie Chung travel to Norway ===
News media began attending Harding's Portland practices, and also filmed her on February 7, running barefoot to stop a tow truck from hauling her illegally parked vehicle. On February 10, 1994, Connie Chung interviewed Harding. When asked about Gillooly, Harding said: "I never did anything to hurt [Jeff]. If I ever did anything, it was to stick up for him and protect him." Chung also negotiated to fly on the same airplane with Harding to Oslo, leaving on February 15. Chung admitted she would not have travelled to Norway were it not for the scandal.
=== Kerrigan and Harding share ice; Harding finishes eighth ===
On February 17, 1994, Harding and Kerrigan shared the ice at a practice session in the Hamar Olympic Amphitheatre. Approximately 400 members of the press were there to document the practice. Scott Hamilton thought the sport was depicted as a "tabloid event." It was noted that Nancy Kerrigan chose to wear the same skating costume at the practice session that she was wearing when Stant attacked her. Kerrigan later confirmed that her choice of dress that day was deliberate: "Humor is good, it's empowering." The tape-delayed broadcast of the February 23 Ladies' Olympic technical program is one of the most watched telecasts in the US. On February 25, Harding finished eighth in the Olympics; a bootlace broke early in her free skate routine, and amid jeers from the crowd, she was allowed to restart. Nancy Kerrigan, having recovered from her injury, won silver behind Oksana Baiul from Ukraine.
=== Guilty plea, admissions ===
On March 9, 1994, Judge Owen Panner granted Harding a requested stay until June on her disciplinary hearing. Meanwhile, Portland authorities stated the criminal investigation would conclude by March 21, with any indictments and a grand jury report to be made at that time.
On March 16, 1994, Harding pled guilty to conspiracy to hinder prosecution as a Class C felony offense at a Multnomah County court hearing. She and her lawyer, Robert Weaver, negotiated a plea bargain ensuring no further prosecution. Judge Donald Londer conducted routine questioning to make certain Harding understood her agreement, that she was entering her plea "knowingly and voluntarily." Harding told Londer she was. Her plea admissions were: knowing of the assault plot after the fact; settling on a cover story with Gillooly and Eckardt on January 10; witnessing pay phone calls to Smith affirming the story on January 10 and 11; and lying to FBI with the story on January 18. Law enforcement had known about the pay phone calls, as investigators had been following and videotaping the co-conspirators since January 10. Her penalties included three years of probation, a $100,000 fine, and 500 hours of community service. She agreed to reimburse Multnomah County $10,000 in legal expenses, undergo a psychiatric examination, and volunteered to give $50,000 to the Special Olympics Oregon (SOOR) charity. Oregon sentencing guidelines carried a maximum penalty of five years in prison.
Harding's plea conditions imposed her U.S. Figure Skating Association resignation, necessitating her withdrawal from the 1994 Worlds (for which she was scheduled to leave on March 17). District attorney Norman Frink said if Harding had not agreed to the plea, she would have faced "an indictment on all possible charges...punishment was taking away [skating] privilege."
=== Response from defense and USFSA ===
Phil Knight, CEO of Nike, donated $25,000 toward Harding's legal fees. She had also made approximately $600,000 from an Inside Edition deal.
Weaver said the plea agreement was satisfactory to Harding, partly because she avoided prison: "We would have prevailed at trial." An executive of the USFSA commented, "[We] don't know if Tonya is innocent or guilty...if [she was involved before] the national championship." On March 18, Claire Ferguson decided Harding's disciplinary hearing would proceed in June. The USFSA's executive committee met to discuss Harding seeking reinstatement, and whether they might strip her of the 1994 National Championship title. Neither issue was decided at that time.
=== Grand jury indictment ===
On March 21, 1994, a Portland grand jury issued an indictment stating there was evidence Harding participated in the attack plot. The indictment concluded more than two months of investigation and witness testimonies from Diane Rawlinson; Harding's choreographer Erika Bakacs; freelance figure skating writer Vera Marano; and Eckardt's college instructor and classmates. It stated there was evidence Harding fraudulently used USFSA-provided skating monies to finance the assault. It also read that Harding, Gillooly, Eckardt, Smith, and Stant agreed to "knowingly cause physical injury ... by means of a dangerous weapon." The grand jury said the evidence implied Harding was "involved from the beginning or very close." She was not charged in the indictment due to the terms of her March 16 plea agreement.
=== USFSA disciplinary panel meeting in June ===
On June 29, 1994, the USFSA disciplinary panel met for nine hours over two days to consider Harding's alleged role in the attack. On June 30, chairman William Hybl stated,
"By a preponderance of the evidence, the panel did conclude that she had prior knowledge and was involved prior to the incident. This is based on civil standards, not criminal standards ... bank records, phone records – the way they came together to establish a case."
The panel decided that pertinent FBI reports, court documents, and Harding's March 16 plea agreement presented:
"a clear disregard for fairness, good sportsmanship, and ethical behaviour."
Harding did not attend or participate in the two-day hearing. Weaver said the decision disappointed her, but was not a surprise, and that she had not decided on an appeal. Harding was stripped of her 1994 U.S. Championship title, and banned for life from participating in USFSA events as either a skater or coach. The USFSA has no authority over professional skating events, but after the scandal, Harding was persona non grata on the pro circuit. Few skaters and promoters would work with her, and she did not benefit from the ensuing boom in professional skating after the scandal.
=== Later interviews ===
Shortly before the 1998 Winter Olympics, the CBS and Fox news divisions re-examined the scandal for two televised special reports. Harry Smith hosted the CBS special. Harding still held to her statement from her press conference given on January 27, 1994: "I had no prior knowledge of the planned assault on Nancy Kerrigan." Smith then interviewed Kerrigan, asking how she responded to that statement. Kerrigan referred to transcripts she had read from Harding's FBI interview on January 18, 1994. After reading through the interrogation of that day, she concluded that "[Tonya] knew more than she admits." The Fox special report was called Breaking the Ice: The Women of '94 Revisited, hosted by James Brown, and featured interviews of Harding, Gillooly, and Kerrigan. Gillooly (granted a name change to Jeff Stone in 1995) said that Harding having avoided prison did not anger him, and that he felt his own punishment was just. Stone reflected on Harding's position of "limited involvement" in Kerrigan's attack, and speculated that a "guilty conscience" still troubled her. Brown then mediated a joint interview with both Kerrigan and Harding present. The two former competitors shared sincere desires for happy families and general well-wishes. Kerrigan said that she hoped Harding could learn from past mistakes and "find happiness." Harding said she was grateful to personally express remorse to Kerrigan again.
In Harding's 2008 biography, The Tonya Tapes (transcribed by Lynda D. Prouse from recorded interviews), she stated that she wanted to call the FBI in 1994 to reveal what she knew, but decided not to when Gillooly allegedly threatened her with death following a gunpoint gang rape by him and two other men she did not know. Gillooly responded with surprise that "groundless claims" against him could be published and specifically contended her gang rape accusation to be "utterly ridiculous." In 2013, Deadspin sought Gillooly for an interview, and he again defended himself against the gunpoint gang rape allegation. He expressed regret that Harding is often "remembered for what I talked her into doing," meaning allegedly plotting to injure Kerrigan. Gillooly admitted that his past "stupidity" was part of Harding's 1994 ruin, and maintained that he still considered her a great figure skater. He also said, "I've had it easy, compared to poor Tonya... she tends to be the butt of the joke. It's kind of sad to me."
In 2014, Nancy Kerrigan addressed the scandal during a brief interview with sportscaster Bob Costas: "Whatever apology Tonya has given, I accept it. It's time for all us—I've always wished [Tonya] well. She has her own family, I have my family. It's time to make that our focus, and move on with our lives."
== Later career ==
On February 15, 1994, an explicit 1991 videotape clip of Harding topless was shown on A Current Affair; three still frames from this clip were also published in The Sun (a British tabloid newspaper). The New York Post reported that Gillooly had supplied the videotaped fragment for an undisclosed sum of money.
On June 22, 1994, in Portland, Oregon, Harding appeared on an AAA professional wrestling show as the manager for wrestling stable Los Gringos Locos. The night's performance included Art Barr and Eddie Guerrero. A promotional musical event was unsuccessful when Harding and her band, the Golden Blades, were booed off the stage at their only performance, in 1995 in Portland.
On July 26, 1994, Penthouse announced that its September issue would feature different stills of Harding and Gillooly having sex from the same extended videotape. This 35-minute sex tape would also be copied and marketed exclusively by Penthouse. Both Gillooly and Harding used the same agent to negotiate equal payment on the Penthouse sale.
In 1994, Harding was cast in Breakaway, an action film, alongside Teri Fruichantie and Joseph "Joe" Estévez. The plot centered on Harding being unwittingly involved in an organized crime syndicate's attempt to violently recover $300,000 of stolen money. The film was released in 1996.
Harding has also appeared on television, on the game show The Weakest Link: "15 Minutes of Fame Edition" in 2002 along with Kato Kaelin,
and in March 2008, became a commentator for TruTV's truTV Presents: World's Dumbest....
Since leaving skating and boxing, Harding has worked as a welder, a painter at a metal fabrication company, and a hardware sales clerk at Sears. In 2017, she stated that she worked as a painter and deck builder. She lives in Vancouver, Washington.
In August 2019, Harding was seen in a television commercial in the United States promoting Direct Auto Insurance.
=== Boxing career ===
In 2002, Harding boxed against Paula Jones on the Fox Network Celebrity Boxing event, winning the fight. On February 22, 2003, she made her official women's professional boxing debut, losing a four-round split decision against Samantha Browning on the undercard of Mike Tyson vs. Clifford Etienne. Harding's boxing career came about amid rumors that she was having financial difficulties, and needed to fight in the ring to earn money. She did another celebrity boxing match, on The Man Show, and won against co-host Doug Stanhope. Stanhope later claimed on his podcast that the fight was fixed because Harding refused to "fight a man."
On March 23, 2004, it was reported that she cancelled a planned boxing match against Tracy Carlton in Oakland, California, because of an alleged death threat against her.
On June 24, 2004, she was defeated by Amy Johnson in a match held in Edmonton, Alberta. Fans reportedly booed Harding as she entered the ring, and cheered wildly for Johnson when she won in the third round.
Her boxing career was cut short by her asthma. Her overall record was three wins and three losses.
==== Professional boxing record ====
== Other appearances ==
=== Automobile racing land speed record ===
On August 12, 2009, Harding set a new land speed record for a vintage gas coupe with a speed of 97.177 mph (156.391 km/h; 43.442 m/s) driving a 1931 Ford Model A, named Lickity-Split, on the Bonneville Salt Flats.
=== Dancing with the Stars ===
On April 13, 2018, Harding was announced as one of the celebrities who would compete on season 26 of Dancing with the Stars. Her professional partner was Sasha Farber. Harding and Farber ended up finishing in third place.
=== Worst Cooks in America ===
In August 2018, Harding was announced as one of the celebrities who would compete in the fifth celebrity edition of Food Network's Worst Cooks in America, set to broadcast in April 2019. Harding, learning under Chef Anne Burrell, ultimately won the competition. The US$25,000 prize went to her chosen charity of St. Jude Children's Research Hospital.
== Personal life ==
Harding is the only child of Albert Gordon Harding and LaVona Golden, who had been married three times before and had four other children. The two divorced in 1987. Harding had a tumultuous relationship with her mother, alleging both physical and emotional abuse. She cites one occasion where her mother threw a knife at her. LaVona responded that such an incident never occurred, and said her daughter has a history of dishonesty.
Harding began a relationship with 17-year-old Jeff Gillooly in September 1986 when she was 15. They moved into a home together in 1988 when he worked in distribution at the Oregon Liquor Control Commission. They married on March 18, 1990, when she was 19 and he was 22. In January 1992, Harding told Terry Richard of The Oregonian, "Jeff always put food on the table and a roof over my head. He paid for my skating for a couple of years. If it hadn't been for him during that time, I wouldn't have been skating." They divorced on August 28, 1993. During the autumn of 1993, Gillooly was working part-time managing Harding's career and taking real estate classes. Harding and Gillooly had been continuing to see each other since early October 1993, and were sharing a rented chalet in Beavercreek, Oregon until January 18, 1994.
Harding married Michael Smith in 1995; they divorced in 1996. On October 29, 1996, Harding received media attention after using mouth-to-mouth resuscitation to help revive an 81-year-old woman who collapsed at a bar in Portland while playing video poker.
On February 22, 2000, Harding attacked her then-boyfriend, Darren Silver, repeatedly punching him in the face and throwing a hubcap at his head. The attack left Silver with a bloodied face and Harding was arrested. She initially pleaded not guilty to misdemeanor charges; but in a May trial in Clark County District Court, Harding admitted to attacking Silver, and was sentenced to three days in jail, 10 days of community service, and a suspended jail sentence of 167 days.
She married 42-year-old Joseph Price on June 23, 2010, when she was 39 years old. She gave birth to a son named Gordon on February 19, 2011.
On February 26, 2018, Harding stated on The Ellen DeGeneres Show that she is still active in skating and practices three times a week. She performed several jumps and spins on the show. She trains with her former coach, Dody Teachman.
== Cultural effects ==
Harding's life, career, and role in the 1994 attack have been widely referenced in popular culture, including a 2007 primary campaign speech by then-Democratic Presidential nominee Barack Obama, in which he said, "Folks said there's no way Obama has a chance unless he goes and kneecaps the person ahead of us, does a Tonya Harding." In 2014, Matt Harkins and Viviana Olen created the Nancy Kerrigan and Tonya Harding Museum in their Brooklyn apartment, collecting and archiving memorabilia related to Nancy Kerrigan and Harding. A contemporaneous Vogue article noted that Harding had developed a "cult following" through the years.
=== Representation in other media ===
Sharp Edges (1986), Sandra Luckow's senior-thesis project for her film studies major. Luckow was Harding's childhood friend, and the documentary followed Harding and her coaches to Uniondale, New York as she competed in the February 1986 U.S. Figure Skating Championships. The film featured interviews with Harding, her mother, and coaches.
Spunk: The Tonya Harding Story (1994), Comedy Central five-minute short film parody summarizing the scandal, estimated to have aired on February 25, 1994. Tina Yothers played Harding.
Tonya & Nancy: The Inside Story (1994), NBC TV film based on public domain material, premiered on April 30, 1994; written by previous Edgar Award winner Phil Penningroth. Alexandra Powers played Harding and Heather Langenkamp portrayed Nancy Kerrigan. It featured fourth wall-breaking by having Dennis Boutsikaris play the film's screenwriter: "We imprisoned [Tonya and Nancy] in images we use to sell newspapers, soup, and TV movies. They're victims of those that the media serve."
National Lampoon's Attack of the 5'2" Women (1994), a Showtime TV film, released on August 21, 1994; directed by the U.S. Writers Guild Award-winning comedian Julie Brown. Brown spoofed Harding by portraying her in "Tonya: The Battle of Wounded Knee," which Brown also wrote. Her original song, "Queen of the Ice," was nominated for a CableACE Award.
In Living Color (1994 sketches), Carol Rosenthal played Harding in "Tonya Harding for The Club"; aired on February 3.
"The Understudy": 1995 Seinfeld episode, alluded to Harding with Jerry Seinfeld's Broadway performer girlfriend. She has a problem with her boot laces (as Harding had in the Olympics). Jerry's girlfriend performed because the lead actress had an injury possibly caused by hitman, George Costanza; originally aired on May 18, 1995.
Harding and her role in the 1994 scandal were referenced in several songs, including "Headline News" by "Weird Al" Yankovic; "Queen of the Ice" by Julie Brown; "Breakin' Knees Is Hard to Do" by Capitol Steps; "5 Fingas of Death" by Diamond D; "Tonya's Twirls" by Loudon Wainwright III; "Aunt Dot" by Lil' Kim; "Strange Clouds" by B.o.B; "Put Some Keys On That" by Lil Wayne; "Tonya Harding" by Sufjan Stevens; "Stay Frosty Royal Milk Tea" by Fall Out Boy; "Tonya" by Brockhampton; and "If Self-Destruction was an Olympic Event, I'd be Tonya Harding" by Suicideboys
Tonya & Nancy: The Rock Opera (2006), playwright Elizabeth Searle collaborated with composer Abigail Al-Doory in May 2006 to create a chamber opera, directed by Meron Langsner. The dark comedy premiered in Portland, Oregon in 2008. It was also produced in Los Angeles, New York and Chicago. Searle said that she thought elements of the 1994 scandal reflected "life in America," and that she hoped the show would convey public sympathy towards Kerrigan, Gillooly, and Harding.
House (2007): in episode 5 of season 4, "Mirror, Mirror", in a conversation between Dr Gregory House and Dr Travis Brennan, Dr House references Dr Amber Volakis as “Tonya Harding”, presumably in reference to her ambition to succeed.
The Price of Gold (2014) documentary directed by Nanette Burstein, part of ESPN's 30 for 30 series, aired on January 16, 2014. It explored some specifics of the 1994 criminal investigation. Kerrigan could not be interviewed for the film because of her contractual obligation to NBC's Nancy & Tonya (2014) documentary. Burstein said her film was "predominantly about Tonya". Burstein later said she thought Harding was jealous of Kerrigan and that "[Tonya] was an unreliable interview subject. A lot of things she said had to be left out because I didn't think they were truthful."
Nancy & Tonya (2014), NBC documentary narrated by Olympics correspondent Mary Carillo (former tennis professional – 1977 French Open Grand Slam Mixed Doubles winner), aired on February 23, 2014. It included interviews, brief biographies of Nancy Kerrigan & Tonya Harding, and close observations of their lives and careers before 1994.
I, Tonya, 2017 biographical black comedy film directed by Craig Gillespie with Margot Robbie playing Harding, receiving mostly positive reviews. Screenwriter Steven Rogers said he neither knew nor cared about Harding's alleged part in Nancy Kerrigan's attack, that the film was really about "things we tell ourselves...how we change the narrative, and then want that to be the narrative." Gillespie was nominated for a Best Director AACTA; he said he believed Harding was guilty, but debated to what degree. Gillespie also said he wanted the film to convey "why [Tonya] is the way she is." Allison Janney played Harding's mother, LaVona, and won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress. Regarding Harding's alleged role in Kerrigan's attack, Janney said "I know [Tonya was] complicit, but...I have a lot more empathy for her than I did." Janney also said, "I think LaVona was actually a very smart woman...knowing her daughter needed to be told she couldn't do it in order to do it was LaVona's way of saying, 'I was there to inspire her.'"
=== Academic assessment ===
In 1995, the book Women on Ice: Feminist Essays on the Tonya Harding/Nancy Kerrigan Spectacle was published, containing numerous essays analyzing Harding's public image. For example, Abigail Feder wrote that there existed "overdetermined femininity in Ladies' Figure Skating...femininity and athleticism are mutually exclusive concepts in American culture." Sam Stoloff wrote that, during the scandal, the media placed more emphasis on Harding's class than her gender. He noted how she was subjected to a "litany of vaguely pejorative or mocking expressions" associated with "low class" cultural attributes, sometimes due to Harding's personal interests and hobbies. Stoloff theorized that Harding represented an American social class that required interpretation ("the class Other") as he referenced the anthropological tone of Susan Orlean's 1994 essay "Figures in a Mall", written for The New Yorker.
In writer Sarah Marshall's 2014 essay entitled "Remote Control: Tonya Harding, Nancy Kerrigan, and the Spectacles of Female Power and Pain", she noted the pervasive role of the media in the 1994 scandal: "Somehow, in the scandal's aftermath, the form of the Tonya-bash was able to alchemize even the most chilling details of Tonya's life into tabloid gold." Marshall also examined the role of Harding's "tomboy" persona in the context of figure skating. She theorized that Harding was rejected by the figure skating ethos because she did not conform – as Marshall believed many figure skaters, including Nancy Kerrigan, did – to appearing as "beautiful without being sexual, strong without being intimidating, and vulnerable without being weak."
== References ==
== Works cited ==
== External links ==
Interview with Harvey Schiller, former Exec. Dir. U.S. Olympic Committee (discussion about Harding)
FBI's notes from Shane Stant interview, dated 1/18/94 Stant was the confessed assailant of Nancy Kerrigan. Stant testified that on January 5, 1994, Derrick Smith told him that Tonya Harding had seen Stant in the Detroit Westin Hotel lobby. Smith told Stant that Harding had spoken of seeing Stant to Shawn Eckardt.
"The Tonya Harding Fall" (July 1994) article written by Randall Sullivan for Rolling Stone, Issue 686/687 — via Scribd Inc. A subjective, detailed if not factually precise account of Tonya Harding's life & scandal – referencing pertinent FBI testimonies. This may be accessed via any local library account.
Tonya Harding at IMDb
Boxing record for Tonya Harding from BoxRec (registration required) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9odore_Gardelle#cite_note-2 | Théodore Gardelle | Théodore Gardelle (30 November 1722 – 4 April 1761) was a painter and enameller.
He was born in Geneva, then in the independent Republic of Geneva, where he studied portrait miniature painting. Having acquired its first rudiments, he went to Paris in 1744. There he gained great proficiency in the art. He lived there studying and painting until 1750. Then he returned to his native place and practised his profession for some years. In 1756, he again went to Paris. In 1760, he went to England, where he was executed in Haymarket, London, for murdering his landlady Anne King.
== References ==
== External links ==
Theodore Gardelle, exclassics.com |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_P._Zakim#:~:text=Zakim%20was%20also%20co%2Dfounder,formed%20in%20Boston%20in%201986. | Leonard P. Zakim | Leonard Paul Zakim (November 17, 1953 – December 2, 1999) was a Jewish American religious and civil rights leader in Boston. Zakim died in 1999 after a five-year battle with bone-marrow cancer. Boston's Leonard P. Zakim Bunker Hill Bridge was named in his honor.
== Early life and education ==
Zakim, nicknamed "Lenny", was born in Clifton, New Jersey and became interested in civil rights and activism after he encountered anti-semitism as a boy. He earned his B.A. degree from American University in Washington, DC and his J.D. degree from the New England School of Law in 1978. He settled in the Boston area after law school and lived there until the end of his life. In 1978, he worked as the southeast Massachusetts field director for the reelection campaign of then Massachusetts Governor Michael Dukakis. Paid $50 a week to work on the ultimately unsuccessful campaign, this experience nevertheless formed the cornerstone of his later political involvement. "The campaign was the beginning of an association with Dukakis and his wife, Kitty, that would bring Zakim to the policy-making level of the national Democratic Party, a standing he retained after Dukakis's political career faded," the Boston Globe wrote in its obituary on Zakim.
In 1979, he was hired by the Anti-Defamation League (ADL) as its New England Civil Rights director and in 1984 he was named New England director for the organization. He and his wife Joyce had three children: Josh, Deena and Shari.
== Civil rights advocacy ==
Zakim was also co-founder of A World of Difference Institute, an anti-bias educational project formed in Boston in 1986. The project has been adapted in 29 other cities and six counties.
Zakim and Rev. Charles Stith founded an annual Black-Jewish Seder in Boston which inspired many interfaith Seders with Catholic, Protestant and Jewish participants in Boston and nationally. At the time of his death it was the largest Black-Jewish seder in the USA. He also "used his political connections and friendships with black ministers, Roman Catholic leaders and sports celebrities to establish community organizations and public-service events, including the 12,000-member Team Harmony antiracism rally for teenagers", the New York Times said in its obituary.
During the last years of his life, as he struggled with myeloma, he founded the Lenny Zakim Fund to fight poverty and racism in Boston. Shortly before his death, he organized a Catholic-Jewish pilgrimage to Rome with his friend Cardinal Bernard Law. There, he had an audience with Pope John Paul II, prompting the New Jersey native to say: "I've had my picture taken with the Pope, Bruce Springsteen and the Dalai Lama. Now I've got to get the three of them together." He condemned the protest by gay rights and abortion rights activists outside the Cathedral of the Holy Cross in Boston that disrupted an ordination of priests in 1990.
== Publications ==
Zakim published several articles about the Middle East, Black-Jewish and Catholic-Jewish relations, anti-Semitism, violence and hate crimes. He wrote a Brandeis University publication about coalition building and Lift Up Your Voice, a book about race and religious relations released in 1998. He co-authored, with Janice Ditchek, Confronting Anti-Semitism: A Practical Guide.
== Political relationships ==
Zakim served as a member of the Massachusetts Democratic State Committee. In addition to working on the gubernatorial and presidential election campaigns of Dukakis, he was a close advisor and good friend of Steven Grossman when Grossman was chairman of the Massachusetts Democratic Party and later the National Democratic Party.
His work in Boston revolved around his personal relationships. "I am a firm believer that relationships count more than institutions", he said. "It's because you know someone that you start to care about their issues." In particular, his relationship with Cardinal Law was crucial. The men were friendly before Law became Cardinal. (Zakim traveled with the delegation to Rome when Law was elevated from archbishop). Upon returning to Boston in 1985, Law delivered his first sermon as cardinal on anti-semitism and the two men traveled to Poland together in 1986, where they visited the Auschwitz concentration camp and spoke to Catholic groups about anti-semitism.
== Honors ==
For bringing together Catholics and Jews in Boston, he was honored with a Knighthood of St. Gregory from Pope John Paul II during his November, 1999 trip to Rome. Zakim also received the Urban League's Community Service Award and the Catholic Charities Medal. He also received an honorary degree in humane letters from Brandeis University and numerous other awards for leadership in human rights.
The Leonard P. Zakim Bunker Hill Bridge, the Charles River crossing of Interstate 93 and US 1 completed in 2003 as part of the Big Dig (the Central Artery/Tunnel Project), was named in his honor.
The World Wide Web Consortium's Zakim IRC bot is named "in honor both of human rights advocate Lenny Zakim who gave voice to the people and the Zakim bridge across the Charles."
== References ==
== External links ==
Lenny Zakim profile (1953-1999)
The Leonard P. Zakim Bunker Hill Bridge website |
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