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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vonnegut_(crater)#:~:text=Vonnegut%20is%20a%20crater%20on,scientific%20literature%20prior%20to%20naming. | Vonnegut (crater) | Vonnegut is a crater on Mercury, near the north pole. It was named by the IAU in 2017 after the American author Kurt Vonnegut. Part of Vonnegut's 1959 novel The Sirens of Titan takes place on Mercury. The crater was referred to as e5 in scientific literature prior to naming.
S band radar data from the Arecibo Observatory collected between 1999 and 2005 indicates a radar-bright area along the southern interior of Vonnegut, which is probably indicative of a water ice deposit, and lies within the permanently shadowed part of the crater. MESSENGER's Mercury Laser Altimeter (MLA) was used to measure surface reflectance of the surface of the planet, and the radar-bright material is covered by low-reflectance material.
Vonnegut is north of the slightly larger Yoshikawa crater.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_North_Miami_mayoral_special_election | 2014 North Miami mayoral special election | The 2014 North Miami mayoral special election took place on November 4, 2014, following a primary election on August 26, 2014. Following her victory in the 2013 election, Mayor Lucie Tondreau was indicted by federal prosecutors on charges relating to a $8 million mortgage fraud scheme. She was later suspended from office by Governor Rick Scott, and a special election was held to fill the remainder of her term in office.
Three candidates ran in the special election: former Mayor Kevin Burns, former City Councilman Jean Marcellus, and physician Smith Joseph, all of whom unsuccessfully ran in the previous mayoral election. In the primary election, Burns placed first, winning 45 percent of the vote, and advanced to a runoff election against Joseph, who placed second with 38 percent of vote. Joseph ultimately defeated Burns, 54–46 percent, and served out the remainder of Tondreau's term.
== Primary election ==
=== Candidates ===
Kevin Burns, former Mayor
Smith Joseph, physician
Jean Marcellus, former City Councilman
=== Results ===
== General election ==
=== Results ===
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OV1-13 | OV1-13 | Orbiting Vehicle 1–13 (also known as OV1-13 ) was a satellite launched on 6 April 1968 to measure the level of radiation in orbit at altitudes as high as 8,000 km (5,000 mi). Part of the OV1 series of USAF satellites, using standardized designs and sent to orbit on decommissioned Atlas ICBMs to reduce development and launching costs, OV1-13 was launched side-by-side with OV1-14. The launch marked the first usage of the Atlas F in the OV program. Operating for more than a year and a half, OV1-13 mapped the grosser characteristics of the Van Allen radiation belts and contributed to the understanding of how particles flow and cause increased intensities during solar storms. As of 12 May 2023, OV1-13 is still in orbit.
== History ==
The Orbiting Vehicle satellite program arose from a US Air Force initiative, begun in the early 1960s, to reduce the expense of space research. Through this initiative, satellites would be standardized to improve reliability and cost-efficiency, and where possible, they would fly on test vehicles or be piggybacked with other satellites. In 1961, the Air Force Office of Aerospace Research (OAR) created the Aerospace Research Support Program (ARSP) to request satellite research proposals and choose mission experiments. The USAF Space and Missiles Organization created their own analog of the ARSP called the Space Experiments Support Program (SESP), which sponsored a greater proportion of technological experiments than the ARSP. Five distinct OV series of standardized satellites were developed under the auspices of these agencies.
The OV1 program, managed by Lt. Col. Clyde Northcott, Jr. was an evolution of the 2.7 m "Scientific Passenger Pods" (SPP), which, starting on 2 October 1961, rode piggyback on suborbital Atlas missile tests and conducted scientific experiments during their short time in space. General Dynamics received a $2 million contract on 13 September 1963 to build a new version of the SPP (called the Atlas Retained Structure (ARS)) that would carry a self-orbiting satellite. Once the Atlas missile and ARS reached apogee, the satellite inside would be deployed and thrust itself into orbit. In addition to the orbital SPP, General Dynamics would create six of these satellites, each to be 3.66 m (12.0 ft) long with a diameter of .762 m (2 ft 6.0 in), able to carry a 136 kg (300 lb) payload into a circular 805 km (500 mi) orbit.
Dubbed "Satellite for Aerospace Research" (SATAR), the series of satellites was originally to be launched from the Eastern Test Range on Atlas missions testing experimental Advanced Ballistic Re-Entry System (ABRES) nosecones. However, in 1964, the Air Force transferred ABRES launches to the Western Test Range causing a year's delay for the program. Moreover, because WTR launches would be into polar orbit as opposed to the low-inclination orbits typical of ETR launches, less mass could be lofted into orbit using the same thrust, and the mass of the SATAR satellites had to be reduced.
Prior to the double launch of which OV1-13 was a part, there had been 12 satellites in the OV1 series, the first orbited on January 21, 1965. All were launched on decommissioned Atlas D ICBMs, with the exception of OV1-1, the last ABRES test launch, and OV1-6, launched via the Titan IIIC tasked for the Manned Orbiting Laboratory test flight.
== Spacecraft design ==
OV1-13, like the rest of the OV1 satellite series, consisted of a cylindrical experiment housing capped with flattened cones on both ends containing 5000 solar cells producing 22 watts of power. Continuing the design trend started with OV1-7, the solar cells were flat rather than curved, as had been in the case with the first six OV1 satellites. Two .46 m (1 ft 6 in) antennae for transmitting telemetry and receiving commands extended from the sides of the spacecraft. 12 helium-pressurized hydrogen peroxide thrusters provided attitude control. There was also a folding boom for mounting one of the radiation experiments. OV1-13 and 14 were the first in the OV1 series to use Pulse-code modulation digital telemetry, which afforded the return of more and more precise data from the satellite.
For stabilization purposes, the satellite was magnetically charged such that it would remain oriented parallel to the Earth's magnetic field, flipping over each time it crossed over one of the Earth's poles. A nutational dampener prevented wobble around the satellites axis of rotation.
In contrast to prior flights utilizing the Atlas D, which mounted multiple OV satellites on a paddle-like extension on the rocket nose, the Atlas F used to launch OV1-13 and 14 enclosed the satellites in a symmetrical shroud measuring 5.4 m (18 ft) in height and 2.1 m (6 ft 11 in) in diameter made of aluminum.
== Experiments ==
OV1-13 carried ten experiments, eight of which were designed to measure penetrating radiation at altitudes up to 8,000 km (5,000 mi), almost twice as high as any previous OV1 satellites. The experiments included four spectrometers measuring radiation with energies from .1 to 100 KeV, a Geiger counter, an electrostatic analyzer measuring particles in the 1-100 KeV range, and a NASA produced magnetic analyzer. The other two experiments included flexible, curved cadmium sulfide solar cells (successors of which would fly on the 1971 ASTEX satellite), and a friction experiment that interacted several combinations of materials and lubricants with bearings.
== Mission ==
OV1-13 was launched from Vandenberg's 576-A-2 launch pad along with OV-14 on an Atlas F rocket on 6 April 1968 at 09:59:42 UTC, mounted with OV1-14 on a simple truss framework. Once in orbit, they separated from the rocket carrier and each other using their attached thrusters. The spacecraft was spin-stabilized, rotating every 7.5 seconds with its axis perpendicular to its orbit plane.
The spacecraft provided useful data from its launch until November 3, 1969. This data helped map some of the gross features of the radiation belts around the Earth, although there was too little for comprehensive studies. OV-13 did measure increases in energy and intensity of electrons during a geomagnetic storm that took place 10 June 1968. OV1-13 data also clarified how the particle flow caused by solar storms created these high altitude increases.
== Legacy and status ==
As of 12 May 2023, OV1-13 is still in orbit, and its position can be tracked on-line. The OV1 program ultimately comprised 22 missions, the last flying on 19 September 1971.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Park_Geun-hye#Presidency_(2013%E2%80%9317) | Park Geun-hye | Park Geun-hye (; Korean: 박근혜 [pak‿k͈ɯn.hje] ; born 2 February 1952) is a South Korean politician who served as the 11th president of South Korea from 2013 until her removal from office in 2017. A member of Saenuri during her presidency and the eldest daughter of Park Chung Hee, she was the first woman in the country and the first in East Asia to be elected as head of state. Park previously served as the first lady of South Korea under her father's presidency from 1974 until her father's assassination in 1979.
Born in Daegu, Park graduated from Sogang University in 1974 with a bachelor's degree in electronic engineering. Before her presidency, Park was leader of the conservative Grand National Party (GNP) from 2004 to 2006 and leader of the Liberty Korea Party from 2011 to 2012. She was also a member of the National Assembly, serving four consecutive parliamentary terms between 1998 and 2012. Park started her fifth term as a representative elected via national list in June 2012. In 2013 and 2014, Park ranked 11th on the Forbes list of the world's 100 most powerful women and the most powerful woman in East Asia. In 2014, she ranked 46th on the Forbes list of the world's most powerful people, the third-highest South Korean on the list, after Lee Kun-hee and Lee Jae-yong.
On 9 December 2016, Park was impeached by the National Assembly on charges related to influence peddling by her top aide, Choi Soon-sil. Then–Prime Minister Hwang Kyo-ahn assumed her powers and duties as acting president as a result. The Constitutional Court upheld the impeachment by a unanimous 8–0 ruling on 10 March 2017, thereby removing Park from office, making her the first Korean president to be so removed. On 6 April 2018, South Korean courts sentenced her to 24 years in prison (later increased to 25 years) for corruption and abuse of power.
In 2018, two separate criminal cases resulted in an increase of seven years in Park's prison sentence. She was found guilty of illegally taking off-the-books funds from the National Intelligence Service (NIS) and given a five-year prison sentence, and also found guilty of illegally interfering in the Saenuri Party primaries in the 2016 South Korean legislative election, for which she was sentenced to two more years in prison. On 24 December 2021, it was announced that she would receive a pardon on compassionate grounds from South Korean President Moon Jae-in. She was released from prison on 31 December and returned home three months later on 24 March 2022.
== Early life and education ==
Park Geun-hye was born on 2 February 1952, in Samdeok-dong of Jung District, Daegu, South Korea as the first child of Park Chung Hee, who came to power with the May 16 military coup d'état of 1961 and was the third president of South Korea from 1963 to 1979; and his wife, First Lady Yuk Young-soo. Both of her parents were assassinated. She has a younger sister, Park Geun-ryeong, and a younger brother, Park Ji-man. She also has an older half-sister, Park Jae-ok. She is unmarried with no children. Pew Research Center described her as an atheist with a Buddhist and Roman Catholic upbringing.
In 1953, Park's family moved to Seoul, where she graduated from Jangchung Elementary School and Sungshim (literal: Sacred Heart) Girls' Middle and High School in 1970, going on to receive a Bachelor of Science degree in electronic engineering from Sogang University in 1974. She briefly studied at Joseph Fourier University in France, but left following the murder of her mother.
Park's mother was killed on 15 August 1974, in the National Theater of Korea; Mun Se-gwang, a Japanese-born ethnic Korean sympathizer of North Korea and member of the Chongryon, was attempting to assassinate her husband, President Park Chung Hee. Park Geun-hye was regarded as First Lady until the assassination of her father by his intelligence chief, Kim Jae-gyu, on 26 October 1979. During this time, activists who were political opponents of Park's father claimed to be subject to arbitrary detention. Further, human rights were considered subordinate to economic development. In 2007, Park expressed regret at the treatment of activists during this period.
Park received honorary doctoral degrees from the Chinese Culture University in Taiwan in 1987, Pukyong National University and KAIST in 2008, Sogang University in 2010, and TU Dresden in 2014.
== Political career ==
=== Early career ===
Park was elected a Grand National Party (GNP; later the Liberty Korea Party, or Saenuri Party) assemblywoman for Dalseong County (Daegu) in the 1998 by-election, and three more times in the same electoral district between 1998 and 2008, being the incumbent assemblywoman until April 2012. In 2012, Park announced she would not run for a constituency representative seat for the 19th election in Dalseong, but for a proportional representative position for the Saenuri Party instead, in order to lead the party's election campaign. She was subsequently elected as a proportional representative in the April 2012 election.
Due to the failed attempt to impeach President Roh Moo-hyun and the bribery scandal of its 2002 presidential candidate, Lee Hoi-chang (revealed in 2004), the GNP was facing a defeat in the 2004 general election. Park was appointed chairwoman of the party and led the election efforts. In the election, the GNP lost its majority position but managed to win 121 seats, which was largely considered a great achievement under such inhospitable circumstances for the party. As the chairwoman of the GNP, Park helped her party make significant gains in local elections and actually obtain a majority in 2006.
During the campaign, on 20 May 2006 in Seoul, Ji Chung-ho, a 50-year-old man with eight criminal convictions, slashed Park's face with a utility knife, causing an 11-centimeter wound that required 60 stitches and several hours of surgery. A famous anecdote from this incident occurred when Park was hospitalized after the attack: the first word that she said to her secretary after her recovery from her wound was, "How is Daejeon?" After this, the GNP candidate in the Daejeon mayoral race won the election despite having trailed by more than 20 percentage points in opinion polls up to the point of the attack. In addition, during Park's term as the GNP chairwoman between 2004 and 2006, the party won all 40 reelections and by-elections held, which was largely credited to her influence and efforts. This feat gave Park the nickname "Queen of Elections".
On 12 February 2007, Park made a much-publicized visit to Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. Her visit culminated in an address to a packed audience at the John F. Kennedy School of Government, where she said she wanted to save Korea and advocated a stronger relationship between South Korea and the United States.
Park hoped to emulate her father's success by becoming the presidential nominee of the GNP. She eventually lost to Lee Myung-bak by a narrow margin. Lee had a commanding lead at the beginning of the primary season, but Park was able to narrow the gap through allegations of Lee's corruption. Park won the "party members' bid", but she lost the "national bid", which is a larger percentage of the total presidential bid. After the 2007 presidential election, President Lee Myung-bak formed a government of mostly close supporters. Park's supporters argued that this was a kind of political reprisal and that they should secede from the GNP. Eventually, they formed parties named Pro-Park Coalition and Solidarity for Pro-Park Independents (친박 무소속 연대; Chin Park Musosok Yeondae). After the mass secession, the rebels announced that they would rejoin the GNP after the general election, but the party prohibited it. In the following 2008 general election, the rebels won 26 seats: fourteen from the Pro-Park Coalition and twelve as independents. Together, they played a pivotal role in the GNP's narrow majority. Park continually insisted that the GNP should allow the return of her supporters. As of 2011, most of these rebels had returned to the GNP, resulting in approximately 50 to 60 assembly members who supported Park out of 171 in the GNP.
In 2011, as a response to the dwindling approval rating of the GNP, the party formed an emergency committee and changed its name to the Saenuri Party, or "New Frontier" Party. On 19 December, Park was appointed as the chairwoman of the emergency committee, the de facto leader of the party. In the 2012 general election, the Saenuri Party achieved a surprise win against the opposing Democratic United Party, winning 152 seats and retaining its majority position. Because of the corruption scandals of the Lee administration revealed before the election, the party was widely expected to win no more than 100 seats. During the 13-day campaign period, Park traveled about 7,200 km (4,500 mi) around South Korea, visiting more than 100 constituencies. It is the consensus of Korean news media and political experts that the most important factor leading to Saenuri Party's victory was Park's leadership. For this reason, the 2012 election was often dubbed the "return of the Queen of Election". The party's defeat in the populous Seoul metropolitan area in this election, however, revealed the limitation of Park's political influence.
=== 2012 presidential campaign ===
Park had been the leading candidate for the 2012 presidential election in every national poll in South Korea between 2008, when the Lee administration began, and September 2011, with an approval rating of 25% to 45%, more than twice that of the second candidate. Park's approval rating was highest during the 2008 general election, and lowest in early 2010 as a result of her political stance against the Lee administration in Sejong City issue. Park also benefited from a public image of standing aloofly above the fray of politics.
In September 2011, Ahn Cheol-soo, a former venture IT businessman and the Dean of Graduate School of Convergence Science and Technology at Seoul National University, emerged as a strong independent presidential candidate. In September 2011 national presidential polls, Ahn and Park closely competed for the status of frontrunner, with Park losing the top seat in some polls for the first time since 2008.
On 10 July 2012, Park formally announced her presidential bid at Time Square, Yeongdeungpo District, Seoul. In this event, she emphasized the right to pursue happiness, a democratic economy, and customized welfare services for the Korean people. In a national survey by Mono Research on 30 August Park was the top presidential candidate with an approval rating of 45.5% when competing with all potential candidates, and according to another recent national survey result had a higher approval rating (50.6%) than Ahn (43.9%) in a two-way competition as of 11 September . The opposing Democratic Party of Korea elected Moon Jae-in as its presidential candidate on 17 September, while Ahn announced his presidential bid on 19 September . Although still a leading candidate, Park had a lower approval rating than both Ahn and Moon when engaged in two-way competition, according to a 22 September national survey. Park was elected as president of the Republic of Korea on 19 December 2012, with the approval of 51.6% of Korean voters.
In 2017, the National Intelligence Service (NIS) admitted that it had conducted an illicit campaign to influence the 2012 presidential election, mobilizing teams of experts in psychological warfare to ensure that Park defeated Moon.
=== Positions ===
In a 2012 survey by Korean Research assessing the political stance of twelve potential presidential candidates of South Korea, Park was considered the most conservative candidate. Her conservative, market-oriented political stance was well reflected in her campaign pledge for 2008 presidential bid to cut taxes, reduce regulation, and establish strong law and order. Since 2009, however, Park started to focus more on welfare issues, advocating customized welfare services to the Korean people.
Park was well known for her strict adherence to political promises. In 2010, for example, she successfully stopped the Lee administration's attempt to cancel the plan to establish Sejong City, a new national center of administration, arguing that the plan was a promise made to the people. This conflict between Park and the Lee administration cost her a considerable decrease in her approval rating at the time. In 2012, Park also vowed to construct a new airport in the southeastern region, a 2008 presidential campaign promise made by GNP but cancelled in 2011, despite claims of economic infeasibility of the plan.
The administrative vision of Park's new government was "a new era of hope and happiness". The five Administrative Goals of the government were "a jobs-centered creative economy", "tailored employment and welfare", "creativity-oriented education and cultural enrichment", "a safe and united society" and "strong security measures for sustainable peace on the Korean Peninsula". The Park Geun-hye administration planned to create a trustworthy, clean, and capable government by carrying out these goals, related strategies, and tasks.
Park chose not to vote in the 2017 South Korean presidential election.
== Presidency (2013–17) ==
=== Inauguration ===
Park became the 11th president of South Korea on 25 February 2013. At midnight, she took over all presidential authorities including the prerogative of supreme command of South Korea's armed forces from her predecessor Lee Myung-bak. In her inauguration speech at the National Assembly building, Park spoke of her plan to open a new era of hope through "economic prosperity, people's happiness, and cultural enrichment". She particularly expressed her hope that North Korea would give up its nuclear arms and walk on the path of peace and mutual development, and declared that the foundation for a happy era of unification in which all Korean people will be able to enjoy prosperity and freedom and realize their dreams would be built through the Korean Peninsula Trust-building Process. In her inauguration speech, Park presented four guiding principles to realize her administrative vision: economic prosperity, people's happiness, cultural enrichment, and establishment of a foundation for peaceful unification. Park's inauguration ceremony was the largest one in South Korean history with 70,000 participants. Diplomatic representatives in Korea, as well as high-level delegates specially sent from 24 countries around the world including Thai Prime Minister Yingluck Shinawatra, U.S. National Security Advisor Thomas Donilon, Taiwanese Legislative Speaker Wang Jin-pyng, and former Japanese Prime Minister Yasuo Fukuda, also participated in the event to congratulate Park.
=== First year (February 2013 – February 2014) ===
The goal of the newly launched Park Geun-hye Administration for governing state affairs was to open "a new era of hope and happiness for all the people". Park avowed that South Korea would break away from its long-pursued development model that centered around the nation, and shift the focus of government administration from the state to individual citizens. The administration's keywords in managing state affairs were "people", "happiness", "trust", "co-prosperity" and "principle". Right after taking office, Park restructured the Blue House and government organization. The Office of National Security at the Blue House, Ministry of Science, ICT and Future Planning, and Ministry of Oceans and Fisheries were newly launched, and the seat of Deputy Prime Minister for Economic Affairs was revived. The Chief of the National Security Office would act as a "control tower" for diplomatic, security, and national defense issues, and the Deputy Prime Minister for Economic Affairs for economic, social, and welfare issues.
Park announced her plan to build a "Creative Economy" on 5 June 2013, representing her vision for economic revival and job creation. In April, Park said "Timing is very important for our economic policy, jobs and livelihood mainly ordinary people should organize a supplementary budget in a timely manner." She encouraged the gig economy. On 8 April 2014, Park signed the Australia–Korea Free Trade Agreement with Australia's Prime Minister Tony Abbott.
Park proposed the eradication of "Four Major Social Evils" (사 대회악: "sa dae hwe ak") – sexual violence, domestic violence, school violence, and unsafe food. Statistics showed that sexual violence and domestic violence increased during these years. Without referring to statistical data, aggravating school violence or food safety is a public concern in South Korea. She also launched the National Unity Committee on 17 June with the purpose to advise the president in the process of resolving various conflicts in South Korean society and establishing a culture of co-existence and co-prosperity. Former Democratic United Party Advisor Han Kwang -ok was named as the head.
==== Foreign policy ====
After taking office, Park met with Secretary of State John Kerry and U.S. President Barack Obama. Park's trip to the United States in May 2013 was her first foreign trip after taking office. Like many of her predecessors, Park maintained a close relationship with the U.S., which has over 20,000 soldiers stationed in South Korea. During her visit to the U.S., she addressed a joint session of the U.S. Congress, where she called for a united front against any North Korean provocations. Park also called for a strong global relationship between South Korea and the United States.
Park visited the United States on her first overseas trip as president. She traveled to Washington, D.C., New York City, and Los Angeles on 5–9 May 2013. During summit talks at the White House, Presidents Park and Obama adopted a joint declaration for the American-South Korean alliance and discussed ways to further develop the bilateral relations in a future-forward manner. Also, the two leaders discussed ways to promote cooperation in building peace in the Northeast Asian region and strengthen the partnership between Seoul and Washington. The two leaders of South Korea and the United States agreed to adopt a joint statement on comprehensive energy cooperation to build a foundation for a future growth engine, and establish a policy cooperation committee on information and communication technology. In addition, Park urged her U.S. counterpart to expand the annual U.S. visa quota for South Korean professionals in order to promote co-development of both economies.
On 27–30 June 2013, Park visited China with a South Korean delegation, where she met with Xi Jinping, the Chinese president. On 13 November 2013, Park held an extended meeting with President Vladimir Putin, whose visit to South Korea was the first among leaders of four major powers including the United States, China, and Japan. During the meeting, Park and Putin considered combining Korea's Eurasian Initiative and Russia's Asia-Pacific Policy. After the summit, both presidents issued a joint communique and held a joint press conference. Earlier, Park attended the G-20 Summit in September 2013 at St. Petersburg, where she met Putin for a separate dialogue discussing economic cooperation and seeking support on North Korean issues. It marked the first Korea–Russia summit talk since Park's inauguration. When Park met with Russian Minister for the Development of Russian Far East Viktor Ishaev, who headed the Russian delegation to Park's inaugural ceremony, she stated that Russia was one of Korea's key strategic partners.
===== North Korea =====
North Korea had engaged in provocations such as violating a UN Security Council resolution and firing a long-range missile on 12 December 2012, just before 19 December presidential election. After Park was elected, North Korea conducted its third nuclear test 12 February 2013, nullified the non-aggression agreements between the two countries on 8 March and withdrew North Korean workers from the Kaesong Industrial Region on 8 April. Park maintained her stance that South Korea will not succumb to the North's provocations and threats, and will endeavor to elicit policy coordination towards North Korea with major powers such as the United States, China and the UN. Her response to North Korean issues gained the support of many South Koreans and also the United States, China, and Russia, and played a significant role in the unanimous adoption by the UN Security Council of Resolution 2094 regarding North Korea on 7 March 2013. Due to Park's response and the international community's actions, on 6 June North Korea ceased provocations and threats towards the South and suggested holding discussions on reopening the Kaesong Industrial Complex.
Park said that peace and unification on the Korean peninsula is the wish of all 70 million Koreans and that as president she will do her utmost to meet such a goal. As well, "the ultimate objective of reunification efforts is to improve the quality of life of people in both Koreas, to further expand freedom and human rights, and [from there] build a prosperous Korean Peninsula." She later stated, "to open a new era of peace and hope on the peninsula, North Korea needs to accept her administration's trust-building policy initiative".
Park's policy vision and initiative on issues concerning North Korea and unification are reflected in her Korean Peninsula Trust-building Process. The Ministry of Unification announced a new vision statement "realizing a new unified Korea that ensures everyone's happiness". The administrative tasks for this cause include normalizing inter-Korean relations through a trust-building process, embarking on small-scale unification projects that will lead to a complete integration of the two Koreas, and taking practical measures to prepare for unification by strengthening unification capabilities. According to Park, peaceful unification will be achieved in a three-stage unification initiative: starting from securing peace, going through economic integration, and finally reaching political integration. To achieve sustainable peace by the initiative, the new administration will offer humanitarian assistance for the people in North Korea, inter-Korean exchange and cooperation in economic, social, and cultural areas, and will apply 'Vision Korea project' for establishing a single economic community in the Korean Peninsula, conditioned on sufficient mutual trust and progress in denuclearizing North Korea.
=== Second year (February 2014 – February 2015) ===
Park proposed three steps to North Korea to help move toward the reunification of the Korean Peninsula, on 28 March in Dresden, during her state visit to Germany. She stated that "Starting with jointly managing rivers and forests running through the two Koreas, we need to expand joint projects that benefit both sides. In that respect, I hope North Korea will attend the UN Convention on Biological Diversity conference to be held in South Korean city of Pyeongchang in October."
In May 2014, Park warned that a new nuclear test by North Korea could lead to "a nuclear domino effect", that might provide its neighbors with a pretext to arm themselves with nuclear weapons.
On 18 May 2014, Park announced South Korea's "plans to break up its coastguard" after failing to respond well during the MV Sewol ferry disaster. According to Park, "investigation and information roles would be transferred to the South Korea National Police while the rescue and salvage operation and ocean security roles would be transferred to the Department for National Safety, not to be confused with the Korean Ministry of Security and Public Administration, which will be newly established".
On 19 November 2014, the Korea Coast Guard and National Emergency Management Agency ceased control as the Ministry of Public Safety and Security was founded at the same day.
=== Third year (February 2015 – February 2016) ===
On 26 May 2015, Park urged the head of the Asian Development Bank to cooperate with South Korea and the China-led Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank after South Korea had officially applied to join the Chinese-led Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank in late March 2015.
=== Fourth and final year (February 2016 – March 2017) ===
On 1 May 2016, Park became the first South Korean president to visit Iran. She was at the head of a 236-member delegation of businessmen and entrepreneurs during a three-day visit to Tehran to discuss bilateral trade and other matters of mutual interest. She met Iranian President Hassan Rouhani and held talks with Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei. The two countries also signed 19 basic agreements to expand mutual cooperation over a variety of areas. Earlier, Iran's President Rouhani emphasized that Iran and South Korea were set to boost their trade volume from the current $6 billion to $18 billion.
==== 2016 general elections ====
Park suffered a serious setback in the 2016 general elections on 13 April 2016, as the Saenuri Party lost both its majority and its status as first party in the National Assembly. Park had been criticized for her involvement in the elections and the party's nomination process, and other Saenuri members blamed the pro-Park faction in the party for the defeat. Park loyalists fared badly in constituency elections. The result was seen to hinder the chances of Park's passing her proposed economic reforms, and in the aftermath of the results the conservative The Chosun Ilbo stated that Park's "lame duck period has started earlier than any other administration in the past".
=== Approval ratings ===
In July 2013, public support for Park's method of governing state affairs reached up to 63 percent, higher than the percentage of the votes she had won in the presidential election, which was 52 percent. The Korean media suggested that such a high level of support came from Park's principled North Korea policy, constructive outcomes from visits to the United States and China, and distancing from internal political disputes.
By January 2015, Park's approval rating had fallen to 30 percent, partly due to the sinking of MV Sewol and disputes with North Korea. By September 2015, Park's approval had increased to 54 percent due to her diplomacy that defused a military standoff with North Korea, but in the aftermath of her party's 2016 election loss, her ratings fell to 31.5 percent, plunging 8.1 percentage points compared to the week before the election.
On 4 November 2016, Park's ratings fell to 4–5% as details of her relationship with Choi Soon-sil were investigated and exposed in what became the 2016 South Korean political scandal.
== Arrest, detention, pardon and post-presidency (2017–present) ==
Park was arrested on 31 March 2017, and held in pre-trial detention at the Seoul Detention Center in Uiwang, Gyeonggi Province. On 17 April 2017, Park was formally charged with abuse of power, bribery, coercion and leaking government secrets. Park denied the charges during five rounds of interrogation while in prison.
Prosecutors sought a 30-year prison term for Park, along with a fine of ₩188.5 billion (US$110,579,397). On 6 April 2018, a three-judge panel of the Central District Court in Seoul sentenced Park to 24 years in prison and a fine of ₩18 billion (US$16,798,683), finding her guilty of 16 out of 18 charges brought before her.
In June 2018, three former NIS directors (Lee Byung-kee, Lee Byung-ho, and Nam Jae-joon) who served in the Park administration were found guilty of bribery, related to the 2016 Park Geun-hye scandals. They illegally transferred money from the NIS budget to Park's presidential office. This illegally obtained money was used by Park and her associates for private use and to pay bribes. On 24 August 2018, Park's sentence was increased to 25 years in prison.
In July 2020, an appellate court reduced Park's prison sentence to 20 years after a retrial, taking into account that she "received little personal benefit" from her offences, and Park was also cleared of charges of alleged extortion from conglomerates paying donations to foundations of Choi Soon-sil. In January 2021, South Korea's top court upheld the 20-year prison sentence, bringing an end to the legal process.
On 24 December 2021, it was announced that Park would receive a pardon from South Korean President Moon Jae-in. In his pardon, President Moon cited Park's deteriorating health and the needs to "overcome unfortunate past history and promote national unity" as reasons for the pardon. On 31 December, she was released from prison, returning home three months later on 24 March 2022. New President Yoon Suk-yeol invited Park to his inauguration ceremony on 10 May 2022.
== Controversies and issues ==
=== Parentage controversy ===
Park had been often criticized for being the "daughter of a dictator" (Park Chung Hee) and by supporters of Lee Myung-bak for not actively supporting the Lee administration. A national-level poll conducted in July 2012 by a conservative newspaper reported that 59% of participants responded they did not believe Park was a "daughter of a dictator" while 36% agreed with the characterization. Park Chung Hee's status as a dictator became a contested topic after the 1997 Asian financial crisis. GNP party elites saw this as their chance to revitalize Park Chung Hee's image, focusing on South Korea's economic growth during his administration, thus steadily changing his public perception.
During a 2012 interview with the Cheongju broadcast station CJB, Park commented regarding her stance that her father's May 16 coup was a "revolution to save the country" by stating, "I don't think it's the place of politicians to be fighting over whether [the events of 1961] were a 'coup d'etat' or a 'revolution'." In a July 2012 survey, 50% of respondents answered that they disagreed with Park's assessment that her father's 1961 coup was "unavoidable, the best possible choice, and an advisable decision", as opposed to 37% that agreed. From another survey conducted in July 2012, 42% of respondents agreed with her opinion that her father's 1961 coup was "unavoidable", while 46% disagreed.
Because Park inherited strong regional and generational support from her father, as well as the legacy of his economic success, Park's opponents used her father as criticism against her.
=== Bu-il foundation accusations ===
Park has faced much scrutiny over an educational foundation, Jeongsoo Scholarship Foundation, formerly known as Buil (in reference to the stock it controls in the newspaper "Busan Ilbo"), which her father, and later she, headed. Its original owners claimed in court they were forced to turn it over to her father.
=== Party criticism ===
Liberty Korea Party assemblyman Nam Kyung-pil criticized the Park-centered nature of the party, regarding its preparation for the 2012 presidential election, and stated, "If we keep seeing the same situation where Park Geun-hye gives a press conference before a general meeting of lawmakers is held, and what she says then gets decided on as the party's position, then the public is going to think democracy has disappeared from the party."
Furthermore, some have said Park's behavior in the lead-up to 2012 presidential election was a mixture of trend-following and corner-cutting—a stark contrast with the vehement insistence on the principle that she showed when she opposed a revision of the plan for a multifunctional administrative city in Sejong City. For instance, Yim Tae-hee, another presidential candidate of the party, pointed to Park's voting down of a motion to arrest Chung Doo-un, a lawmaker implicated with bribery related to saving banks. Another candidate, Ahn Sang-soo, accused Park of "saying one thing yesterday and another today".
=== Spokesman scandal ===
Park fired Yoon Chang-jung, a Blue House spokesman who was alleged by Washington Police to have committed sexual assault against a young woman hired as an intern at the South Korean Embassy in Washington during Park's first visit to the United States.
=== Election-meddling scandal ===
Just a week before the presidential election date, the opposing party alleged that the public servants from National Intelligence Service (NIS) had organized to promote Park's election campaign by way of posting online articles favorable to Park and slanderous to the opposing candidates. This political behavior by public servants is strictly prohibited by the Korean Constitution. To prove their allegation, the opposing Democratic Party, along with the police and Central Election Assistance Commission. From there, the 29-year-old female agent, later known as Ha-Young Kim, who was running an illegal online election campaign operation such as spreading slanderous postings about the opposing candidate had locked herself in. The police could not force to enter the house and the standoff lasted for three days, provoking a tense political standoff. The opposition accused the intelligence service of blocking an investigation. Park and her party accused the opposition of harassing the woman. Park even said the standoff of the self-lock-in was a violation of a female right in the presidential candidate debate that took place three days before the election.
Later that night of the presidential debate, Kim Yong-pan, then the chief of Seoul Metropolitan Police Agency, publicly announced there was no evidence of illegal online postings from the collected laptop of the female agent. This announcement, which took place three days before the election, was believed to have significantly affected the outcome of the presidential election according to the opposing party. After months of probes into the alleged election meddling, the prosecution concluded in mid-June 2013 that Won Sei-hoon, then NIS chief who headed the intelligence agency for around four years under former President Lee Myung-bak, ordered agents to conduct an online smear campaign against opposition presidential candidates. The special investigation drew a conclusion that the agents systemically intervened in domestic politics by writing thousands of postings on politics in cyberspace through hundreds of different user IDs. Kim Yong-pan, then chief of the Seoul Metropolitan Police Agency (SMPA), was prosecuted without physical detention on charges of abusing his authority to hamper police investigation into the case. CCTV conversation between the computer analysts who were analyzing the laptop at police revealed that the police already knew there were illegal online postings against the opposing party's candidates, but the chief of SMPA publicly announced otherwise, an announcement that indicates intentional meddling into the presidential election.
The investigation and the trial at court are on-going, and Park faces a political blow. However, the leading Saenuri party along with government leaders has attempted to dodge its political fall-out. Their effort has involved tipping a rumor to a major conservative media, Chosun Ilbo, about an extramarital child of the Chae Dong-wook, former Prosecutor General, who has approved the prosecution of Won Se-hoon and Kim Yong-pan, which eventually led to his resignation. Yoon Suk-ryul, the director of the special investigation team, which was leading the probe into the election meddling, was fired and returned to his original position, head of Yeoju branch Supreme Prosecutors Office. The investigation of his team has further revealed that the NIS is suspected of having posted 55,689 messages on Twitter for three months until the presidential election.
Whether or not the election meddling of the NIS by way of online posts has actually affected the outcome of the presidential election is controversial. However, the false announcement by Kim Yong-pan, then chief of the SMPA, has appeared to do so. Had the police announced honestly, 14% of the electorate who voted for Park said they would have voted for Moon Jae-In, the first runner-up of the election.
=== Lack of communication ===
Park has been criticized for holding press conferences with questions and answers submitted in advance. By 11 January 2015, she had held four press conferences since taking office in February 2013. Among the four press conferences, three of them were public speeches without questions and answers. Even in the remaining press conference, the questions were submitted in advance, and she read prepared answers. Her opponents labeled her as "No communication" (불통; Bultong).
=== November 2015 protests ===
On 15 November 2015, around 80,000 anti-government protesters clashed with government forces on the streets of Seoul, demanding that Park step down, with many of the protesters chanting "Park Geun-hye, step down". The rally was triggered by Park's adopting business-friendly labour policies and a decision to require middle and high schools to use only state-issued history textbooks in classes starting in 2017, combined with plans to make labour markets more flexible by giving employers more leeway in dismissing workers. Security forces fired tear gas and sprayed water cannons into the crowd when protesters attempted to break through police barricades.
=== Censorship ===
In the wake of the April 2014 capsizing of the Sewol ferry, public outcry arose over the government's handling of the situation. In response, the Park administration established a commission to monitor and prosecute social media critics of Park.
Tatsuya Kato, a Japanese journalist who was a Seoul Bureau chief of South Korea at Sankei Shimbun, was indicted on charges of defamation for reporting the relationship between Park and Choi Soon-sil's husband, Chung Yoon-hoi, by the Supreme Prosecutors' Office of the Republic of Korea after the MV Sewol sank.
=== Public Official Election Act ===
On 25 June 2015, Park said that "Betrayal which breaks the trust shouldn't be accepted in politics and this should be punished by election with people's own hands". This mention was aimed to Yu Seungmin who was a member of Saenuri Party. Her statement was criticized by professor Jo Guk and politician Moon Jae-in because it was intended to affect Yu's election, which is forbidden by the Public Official Election Act. However, the National Election Commission decided not to treat Park's mention as a violation of the Act.
=== Comfort Women agreement ===
In 2015, Park reached an agreement with Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe regarding the comfort women issue. Japan apologized to former comfort women and provided 1 billion yen ($8.8 million) towards an assistance fund as terms of the agreement. The two governments agreed that the issue would be "irreversibly resolved". However, in 2017, Park's successor, President Moon Jae-in, stated that the deal was seriously flawed and unilaterally terminated it.
=== Choi Soon-sil scandal and impeachment ===
In October 2016, investigations into Park's relationship with Choi Soon-sil, daughter of the late Church of Eternal Life cult leader and Park's mentor Choi Tae-min, began. Several news media including JTBC and the Hankyoreh reported that Choi, who has no official government position, had access to confidential documents and information for the president, and acted as a close confidant for the president. Choi and Park's senior staff including both Ahn Jong-bum and Jeong Ho-sung used their influence to extort ₩77.4 billion (approximately $75 million) from Korean chaebols—family-owned large business conglomerates—and set up two culture and sports-related foundations, Mir and K-sports foundations. Choi was also accused of having influenced Ewha Womans University to change their admission criteria in order for her daughter Chung Yoo-ra to be given a place there. Ahn Jong-bum and Jeong Ho-sung, top presidential aides, were arrested for abuse of power and helping Choi; they denied wrongdoing and claimed that they were simply following President Park's orders. Choi was also alleged to have used a South Korean overseas development assistance project (a convention center in Myanmar) for improper personal benefits.
On 25 October 2016, Park publicly acknowledged her close ties with Choi. On 28 October, Park dismissed key members of her top office staff while her approval ratings fell to 4%. Her approval rating ranged from 1 to 3% for Korean citizens under 60 years of age, while it remained higher, at 13%, for the over-60 age group. It was the worst ever approval rate in Korean history and is worse than the 6% approval rating of former President Kim Young-sam, who was widely blamed for forcing the Korean economy into the 1997 Asian financial crisis. The controversy led to mass protests and rallies in October and November 2016 calling for her resignation. On 12 November, more than 1 million citizens participated in the protests at Gwanghwamun Square close to the presidential residence demanding Park's resignation or impeachment. On 19 November, another 1 million people participated in the national protest after Park refused to help in the investigation.
Park then fired a number of her cabinet members and the prime minister. In particular, the sacking of the prime minister, Hwang Kyo-ahn, resulted in controversy, due to the claim that his firing was carried out via a text message. The Supreme Prosecutors' Office of Korea (SPO), in laying charges against Choi and two former presidential aides, alleged that Park colluded with the three in certain criminal activities. The president would be questioned by prosecutors, the first time this has occurred with a serving South Korean president. Following the scandal, there was a series of massive demonstrations that started in the first week of November 2016. On 29 November 2016, Park offered to resign as president, and invited the National Assembly to arrange a transfer of power. The opposition parties rejected the offer, accusing Park of attempting to avoid the process of impeachment.
The National Assembly instead filed a motion for impeachment, which was put to a vote on 9 December 2016 and passed with 234 supporters. Due to the ratification of her impeachment proposal, her presidential powers and duties were suspended, and Prime Minister Hwang Kyo-ahn assumed those powers and duties as acting president.
Park was finally ousted from office by the Constitutional Court on 10 March 2017. The decision was unanimous, 8–0 in favour of the impeachment, as announced shortly thereafter. On 26 March 2017, South Korean prosecutors announced they were seeking an arrest warrant against Park. This warrant was granted by the Seoul Central District Court on 31 March 2017, and Park was arrested later that day, and was later sentenced to 25 years in prison.
=== Pardon ===
In December 2021, the government of President Moon Jae-in decided to issue Park a pardon. The Justice Ministry said the reason for doing so was to promote reconciliation and consolidate national power to help overcome the national crisis caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. Moon also said Park's declining health had played a role in the decision. Park was pardoned under a broad amnesty that benefited 700 other prisoners, whose remaining prison terms would be eradicated or cut in half. She arrived home in March 2022 after having been hospitalized at Samsung Medical Center.
== Honours ==
South Korea:
Recipient of the Grand Order of Mugunghwa
=== Foreign honours ===
Austria:
Grand Star of the Decoration of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria
Peru
Grand Cross of Order of the Sun of Peru
United Kingdom:
Honorary Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (GCB, 2013)
== Electoral history ==
=== National Assembly races (1998 to present) ===
==== 1998 ====
==== 2000 ====
==== 2004 ====
==== 2008 ====
==== 2012 ====
=== Presidential (2012) ===
== Publications ==
=== Books ===
—— (July 2007). 절망은 나를 단련시키고 희망은 나를 움직인다 [Despair Trains Me and Hope Moves Me] (in Korean). Wisdom House. ISBN 978-89-6086-033-9.
—— (January 2001). 나의 어머니 육영수 [My mother, Yuk Young-soo] (in Korean). People&People. ISBN 978-89-85541-54-1.
—— (October 1998). 결국 한 줌, 결국 한 점 [In the End Only a Fistful, One Speck] (in Korean). Busan Ilbo Books. ISBN 978-89-87236-25-4.
—— (October 1998). 고난을 벗 삼아 진실을 등대삼아 [Befriending Adversity: Truth as the Guiding Light] (in Korean). Busan Ilbo Books. ISBN 978-89-87236-24-7.
—— (May 1995). 내 마음의 여정 [Journey of My Mind] (in Korean). Hansol Media. ISBN 978-89-85656-50-4.
—— (November 1993). 평범한 가정에 태어났더라면 [If I Were Born in an Ordinary Family] (in Korean). Nam Song. ISBN 9780307455628. OCLC 33010951.
=== Articles ===
"A New Kind of Korea: Building Trust Between Seoul and Pyongyang". Foreign Affairs. September–October 2011. Retrieved 14 August 2012.
== See also ==
Politics of South Korea
== Explanatory footnotes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website Archived 12 November 2018 at the Wayback Machine (in English)
Park Geun-hye addresses "U.S.–Korea Relations in a Changing World" at Stanford University, 6 May 2009
Park Geun-hye's speech at the JFK Jr. Forum, Harvard University, 12 February 2007
"Star Rises for Daughter of South Korea", The Washington Post, 15 March 2005
"All the Queen's men and women", The Straits Times, 20 March 2017
Appearances on C-SPAN |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Hyderabad_gang_rape_and_murder#Victim | 2019 Hyderabad gang rape and murder | 2019 Hyderabad gang rape and murder of a 26-year-old veterinary doctor in Shamshabad, near Hyderabad, sparked outrage across India. Her body was found in Shadnagar on 28 November 2019, the day after she was murdered. Four suspects were arrested and according to the Cyberabad Metropolitan Police, confessed to having raped and killed the doctor.
The Telangana Police Department stated the victim parked her scooter near a toll plaza, catching the attention of two lorry drivers and their assistants. According to police, they deflated her tire, pretended to help her and pushed her into nearby bushes, where they raped and smothered her. Allegedly, they loaded her corpse onto a lorry and dropped it by the roadside.
The police arrested four men based on the evidence gathered from CCTV cameras and the victim's mobile phone. The accused were taken into judicial custody at Cherlapally Central Jail for seven days. The Chief Minister of Telangana ordered the formation of a fast-track court to try the accused for their alleged crimes. The rape and murder elicited outrage in several parts of the country. Protests and public demonstration against rape were organised nationwide after the incident, with the public demanding stricter laws against rape and rapists. The Minister of Home Affairs criticised the Telangana Police and stated that the government intended to amend the Indian Penal Code and Code of Criminal Procedure to introduce laws for quicker punishment by fast-track courts.
All four accused were killed on 6 December 2019, under a bridge on the Bengaluru-Hyderabad national highway, while they were in police custody. According to the police, the suspects were taken to the location for a reconstruction of the crime scene, where two of them allegedly snatched guns from the policemen escorting them and attacked the police. In the ensuing shootout, all four suspects were shot dead. Some accused the police of extrajudicial execution, while hundreds of thousands of people celebrated the men's deaths.
The first post-mortem of the four accused who were killed in the encounter was conducted on the same day at a government hospital in Mahbubnagar from where the bodies were subsequently moved to the Gandhi Hospital. The Telangana High Court on 21 December ordered the re-postmortem of the four accused. The second autopsy was done by a team of forensic experts of AIIMS Delhi at a hospital in Hyderabad. After re-postmortem, the bodies were handed over to the next of kin after due identification process was done. In 2022, an Inquiry Commission appointed by the Supreme Court of India concluded in its report that the custodial killing had occurred in a staged encounter, and the matter was transferred to the Telangana High Court for further action.
== Background ==
Rape is the fourth most common crime against women in India.
India has been characterised as one of the "countries with the lowest per capita rates of rape". Many rapes go unreported in various countries including India. The willingness to report rape has increased in recent years, after several incidents of rape received widespread media attention and triggered public protest. Most notably, the 2012 Delhi gang rape and murder led the Government of India to reform its penal code for crimes of rape and sexual assault.
== Victim ==
The victim had pursued a degree in a veterinary college in Rajendranagar mandal. She was a resident of Shamshabad and was working as a veterinary assistant surgeon at the state-run hospital at Kollur village. As Indian laws do not permit the use of victim's real name in such cases; pseudonyms were being used by various media houses and police officials including "Disha" and "Hyderabad Nirbhaya" which was in reference to the 2012 Delhi Gang rape and murder case.
The local police convinced the victim's family to allow the use of a fictional name, Disha, in place of the victim's true name in media reporting. They also suggested using the hashtag #JusticeForDisha for social media posts instead of using the real name. Indian laws prohibit naming rape victims, and violations are subject to legal penalties. On 3 December, a man from Nizamabad district was arrested by the Cyberabad Police, after a cyber crime case was filed against him, for posting pictures and spreading derogatory posts about the victim.
== Rape and murder ==
According to the Telangana Police Department remand report, the victim had parked her scooter near Tondupally toll plaza, where the accused ones saw her, two lorry drivers and their assistants, who had been drinking whiskey before allegedly planning the crime.
According to the remand report, on 27 November 2019 at around 6:15 p.m., after parking the scooter, the victim took a taxi to a dermatologist's office in Hyderabad. The suspects allegedly deflated her scooter's tire in her absence. After returning at around 9:15 p.m., she noticed the flat tyre and made a call to her sister. The accused told police they offered to help her, then ambushed her. Three of the suspects pushed her into bushes near the toll gate and turned off her phone. She continued screaming for help, so the men poured whiskey into her mouth in an attempt to silence her. The four men removed her clothes and took turns sexually assaulting her until she started bleeding and lost consciousness. When she regained consciousness, they smothered her, wrapped the corpse in a blanket, transported it in their truck 27 km to a location near the Shadnagar interchange on the Hyderabad Outer Ring road, and at approximately 2:30 a.m. burnt it under a bridge using diesel and petrol purchased for the purpose.
== Investigation ==
The police arrested the four accused based on the evidence gathered from CCTV cameras, an eyewitness, and the victim's mobile phone. It was reported that they were drunk during the rape and murder.
The woman's charred corpse was found under Chatanpally Bridge in Shadnagar located 30 km (19 mi) from the toll booth where she was abducted. Her scooter was found at a distance of 10 km (6.2 mi) from the place where her body was found. The police found her clothes, handbag, footwear and a liquor bottle near the toll booth. 70% of the body was covered with burns. A locket of Ganesha found on the charred corpse helped her family to identify the victim. The body was handed over to the family after a postmortem.
The executive magistrate sent the four accused into custody for 14 days to Cherlapally Central Jail. On 1 December 2019, Telangana Chief Minister ordered that a fast-track court be formed to try the accused of this crime.
== Aftermath ==
Although the case was solved by the police in twenty-four hours, the family was dissatisfied. According to the victim's family, the response by the Hyberabad Police was improper, claiming that a quicker response by the police could have saved the victim's life. The victim's father had approached the police at 11 p.m. on 27 November, after which the police allegedly wasted time over the applicability of the jurisdiction of the police station and inappropriate questioning of the family. Constables were only sent for a search along with the family at 3 a.m. to Thondupally toll plaza and could not find the victim.
The day after the incident the local police suspended three policemen, including a sub-inspector, belonging to the Shamshabad airport police station for negligence and the delay in registering a missing person case.
=== Second corpse ===
The half-burnt corpse of another woman was found nearby, and the case is under investigation as of 1 December 2019. The police stated that it was not clear if it was a case of self-immolation or if she was set on fire. Police have not confirmed a link between the second corpse and the veterinarian's murder.
=== Protests ===
The rape and murder caused outrage in several parts of the country. Protests against rape were organised across the country, including major cities like New Delhi, Mumbai, and Ahmedabad. Hyderabad was the center of the protests. Politicians including Rahul Gandhi expressed shock over the incident that happened near Rajiv Gandhi International Airport. Protesters across India demanded stricter laws against rapists. After the arrest of the four suspects, a crowd of local residents gathered at the Shadnagar police station to protest against the crime and demanding that the police either hang or shoot the culprits.
Due to the crowd of protestors around the police station, the accused could not be brought to court. Instead, the executive magistrate arrived to the police station and passed the order to send the accused on judicial custody for 14 days.
While the police were transporting the accused from the Shadnagar police station to the prison in Hyderabad, several protestors threw stones over police vehicles. Police used force and wielded batons to control the crowd, who were demanding the police hand over the accused to them. The public sentiment was against the police. The protestors questioned the priorities of the police and demanded that police act in a sensitive, responsive and proactive manner.
=== Discussion in Parliament ===
On 2 December 2019, the incident was discussed in both houses of the Indian parliament, the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha. The members of the two houses expressed outrage on the incident and demanded concrete action. In the Lok Sabha, the Union Defense Minister Rajnath Singh stated that the government was "open to every suggestion to curb such heinous crimes" and ready to explore strongest legal provisions. Minister of State for Home Affairs G. Kishan Reddy said, "There is zero tolerance towards crimes against women and children. Our government will soon bring requisite amendments to CrPC and IPC." He further added that the government will possibly try to bring the changes in the ongoing winter session of Parliament.
In Rajya Sabha, an adjournment motions over the incident was rejected by Chairman Venkaiah Naidu, but he allowed the members to discuss such incidents in the country. Member of Parliament Jaya Bachchan said during a heated debate that the rapists should be lynched. P. Wilson suggested courts be empowered "to surgically and chemically castrate convicted rapists before they are released from jails" to prevent repeat offenders. He stated that the list of sexual offenders should be released publicly. Vijila Sathyananth asked for faster delivery of justice and the hanging of the accused before 31 December. A speedy trial and death penalty for the accused was common demand of the members.
Mohd. Ali Khan asked for defined timelines for the trial in fast-track courts. He also asked to avoid giving a religious color to the accused since they belonged to different religions. The Communist Party of India which generally opposes capital punishment demanded it for the accused, and its member Binoy Viswam stated "I do not believe in death penalty, but these accused should be hanged for such a heinous crime".
=== Proposed legal changes ===
In an interview to NDTV while visiting the family of the victim, Union Minister of State for Home G. Kishan Reddy criticised the casual attitude of Telangana Police and their lack of a sense of urgency, saying it might have saved the victim. He stated "No one can be turned away from the police station like that. We will make it compulsory for every police station to accept a complaint. The FIR can be filed later; first they should have helped to search [for] the girl". He added "We take a very serious view of the developments. We intend to amend the IPC (Indian Penal Code) and CrPC (Code of Criminal Procedure) to make the law such that punishment is quick through fast-track courts. We will discuss this in great detail in a meeting of DGPs (senior police officers) between December 6 and 8. We want to publicise 112 as an emergency response system. Every woman must download the app to use in emergency. At the same time, the police and law enforcement authorities, her family, even some volunteers will be alerted, so response can be quick. We have recently introduced it in Delhi and want to publicise it everywhere."
The Bureau of Police Research and Development (BPR&D) has made additional suggestions for changes to IPC and CrPC rules.
== Killing of the suspects ==
All four accused were killed in an encounter (a term used in India for killings by police), at around 3:30 am IST on 6 December 2019, under a bridge on Bangalore Hyderabad national highway, prompting accusations of extrajudicial execution. The New York Times reported that police "had been under enormous pressure to bring the rapists to justice".
According to Prakash Reddy, Deputy Commissioner of Shamshabad Police in Hyderabad, the four suspects were taken to the location for a reconstruction of the crime scene, where two of them snatched guns and attacked the police. In the ensuing shootout all four suspects were shot dead. According to reports in The Indian Express, police alleged that one of four accused had gestured to the other three to flee after attacking the police. The four tried to run towards a deserted pathway when police opened fire in what they described as self-defence. The suspects were not wearing handcuffs. According to Hyberabad police chief V. C. Sajjanar, the suspects had managed to snatch and use the weapons because the guns were unlocked. He stated "All four accused got together and started attacking the police party. Officers maintained restraint and asked them to surrender but without listening to us they kept firing. Our officers retaliated".
=== Response ===
The family of the victim welcomed the encounter. Thousands of people celebrated at the scene of the men's deaths the following day, some setting off firecrackers, distributing candies, showering police with flower petals, hoisting police to their shoulders, and shouting "hail the police!". The New York Times reported that crowds celebrating in the streets had brought traffic to a standstill. Celebrations were also reported in other areas. Politicians and celebrities thanked police for the encounter on social media. The BBC attributed the celebrations to frustration with the "meandering pace" of the judicial system in India, which often requires years and occasionally decades to adjudicate clear cases. The BBC noted the popularity of films featuring "trigger-happy, vigilante cops brazenly carrying out extrajudicial executions" and the number of tweets comparing the Cyberabad police officers with the protagonist of Singam, a 2010 film about an avenging police officer.
The families of the accused were shocked with the news and questioned the killings. Human rights organizations and activists condemned the encounter. Maneka Gandhi stated that the case should have been tried in court. Karuna Nundy expressed concerns that "now nobody will ever know if the four men killed by the police were innocent men, arrested fast to show action. And whether four of the most brutal rapists roam free, to rape and kill more women." Amnesty International India stated that the "alleged extrajudicial execution" had raised disturbing questions and asked for an independent investigation. Other human rights organizations called the encounter a distraction from the government's failures to safeguard women's rights. Meenakshi Ganguly of Human Rights Watch tweeted, "To appease public rage over state failures against sexual assault, Indian authorities commit another violation." Activist Rukmini Rao criticized some members of parliament for adding to the pressure on police, telling News Today "The police are acting on what they see as public support. And today we find not just public support, ordinary citizens, but we are finding members of parliament demanding lynchings, demanding killings, and if that is the case, how do you expect the police to act? The parliament has to uphold constitutional law." The Telangana High Court ordered to preserve the bodies of the accused until 13 December, and permitted their transfer (due to lack of morgue space) to Gandhi Hospital.
The National Human Rights Commission of India initiated an investigation of the killings and will send a team led by a senior officer to Telangana. News Today has questioned whether the encounter was staged. In May 2022, the Inquiry Commission headed by former Supreme Court judge V. S. Sirpurkar concluded in its report that the encounter was staged, and the accused "were deliberately fired upon with an intent to cause their death". The commission went on to recommend that the involved police officers be tried for murder. The Supreme Court of India transferred the matter to the Telangana High Court for further action.
== Legacy ==
In response to the incident, the Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly passed Andhra Pradesh Disha-Criminal Law (Andhra Pradesh Amendment) Bill, 2019 and Special Courts for Specified Offences against Women and Children) Bill, 2020. The bills seek to expedite the investigation and trail of heinous cases related to sexual offences against women and children when substantial conclusive evidence is present. As of July 2021, the bills were reserved for the President's assent.
In September 2020, filmmaker Ram Gopal Varma announced the film Disha Encounter which is based on the incident. The Central Board of Film Certification initially refused to certify the film but later passed it with an adult-only rating. The film's release has been delayed by the COVID-19 pandemic and the victim's parents approached the Telangana High Court petitioning that the film would bring disrepute to their family.
== See also ==
Rape in India
2012 Delhi gang rape and murder
Aasha Encounter
Rameeza Bee rape case
2022 Hyderabad gang rape
2024 Kolkata rape and murder
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan | Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan | Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (; 5 September 1888 – 17 April 1975) was an Indian academician, philosopher and statesman who served as the Vice President of India from 1952 to 1962 and President of India from 1962 to 1967. He was the ambassador of India to the Soviet Union from 1949 to 1952. He was also the vice-chancellor of Banaras Hindu University from 1939 to 1948 and the vice-chancellor of Andhra University from 1931 to 1936. Radhakrishnan is considered one of the most influential and distinguished 20th century scholars of comparative religion and philosophy, he held the King George V Chair of Mental and Moral Science at the University of Calcutta from 1921 to 1932 and Spalding Chair of Eastern Religion and Ethics at University of Oxford from 1936 to 1952.
Radhakrishnan's philosophy was grounded in Advaita Vedanta, reinterpreting this tradition for a contemporary understanding. He defended Hinduism against what he called "uninformed Western criticism", contributing to the formation of contemporary Hindu identity. He has been influential in shaping the understanding of Hinduism, in both India and the west, and earned a reputation as a bridge-builder between India and the West.
Radhakrishnan was awarded several high awards during his life, including a knighthood in 1931, the Bharat Ratna, the highest civilian award in India, in 1954, and honorary membership of the British Royal Order of Merit in 1963. He was also one of the founders of HelpAge India, a non-profit organisation for elderly underprivileged in India. Radhakrishnan believed that "teachers should be the best minds in the country."
== Early life and education ==
Radhakrishnan was born as Sarvepalli Radhakrishnayya in a Telugu speaking Niyogi Brahmin familyof Sarvepalli Veeraswami and Sithamma. He was the fourth born of six siblings (five brothers and one sister), in Tiruttani of North Arcot district in the erstwhile Madras Presidency (now in Tiruvallur district of Tamil Nadu). His family hails from Sarvepalli village in Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh. His early years were spent in Thiruttani and Tirupati. His father was a subordinate revenue official in the service of a local Zamindar (local landlord). His primary education was at K. V. High School at Thiruttani. In 1896 he moved to the Hermansburg Evangelical Lutheran Mission School in Tirupati and Government High Secondary School, Walajapet.
=== Education ===
Radhakrishnan was awarded scholarships throughout his academic life. He joined Voorhees College in Vellore for his high school education. After his F.A. (First of Arts) class, he joined the Madras Christian College (affiliated to the University of Madras) at the age of 16. He graduated from there in 1907, and also finished his master's degree from the same college.
Radhakrishnan studied philosophy by chance rather than choice. He had wished to study mathematics. Being a financially constrained student, when a cousin who graduated from the same college passed on his philosophy textbooks to Radhakrishnan, it automatically decided his academics course.
Sarvepalli wrote his bachelor's degree thesis on "The Ethics of the Vedanta and its Metaphysical Presuppositions". It "was intended to be a reply to the charge that the Vedanta system had no room for ethics." Two of his professors, William Meston and Alfred George Hogg, commended Radhakrishnan's dissertation. Radhakrishnan's thesis was published when he was only twenty. According to Radhakrishnan himself, the criticism of Hogg and other Christian teachers of Indian culture "disturbed my faith and shook the traditional props on which I leaned." Radhakrishnan himself describes how, as a student,The challenge of Christian critics impelled me to make a study of Hinduism and find out what is living and what is dead in it. My pride as a Hindu, roused by the enterprise and eloquence of Swami Vivekananda, was deeply hurt by the treatment accorded to Hinduism in missionary institutions.
This led him to his critical study of Indian philosophy and religion and a lifelong defence of Hinduism against "uninformed Western criticism". At the same time, Radhakrishnan commended Professor Hogg as 'My distinguished teacher,' and as "one of the greatest Christian thinkers we had in India.' Besides, Professor William Skinner, who was acting Principal of the College, gave a testimonial saying "he is one of the best men we have had in the recent years", which enabled him to get the first job in Presidency College. In reciprocation, Radhakrishnan dedicated one of his early books to William Skinner.
The Spirit of Abheda
Radhakrishnan expresses his anguish, against the British critics, in The Ethics of the Vedanta. Here he wrote, "it has become philosophic fashion of the present day to consider the Vedanta system a non-ethical one." He quotes a German-born philologist and Orientalist, who lived and studied in Britain for most of his life, Max Muller as stating, "The Vedanta philosophy has not neglected the important sphere of ethics; but on the contrary, we find ethics in the beginning, ethics in the middle, and ethics in the end, to say nothing of the fact that minds, so engrossed with divine things as Vedanta philosophers, are not likely to fall victims to the ordinary temptations of the world, the flesh, and other powers."
Radhakrishnan then explains how this philosophy requires us (people) to look upon all creations as one. As non-different. This is where he introduces "The Spirit of Abheda". He quotes, "In morals, the individual is enjoined to cultivate a Spirit of Abheda, or non-difference." Thus he mentions how this "naturally leads to the ethics of love and brotherhood".
"Every other individual is to be regarded as your co-equal, and treated as an end, not a means."
"The Vedanta requires us to respect human dignity and demands the recognition of man as man."
== Personal life ==
Radhakrishnan was married to Sivakamu (1893–1956) in May 1903, a distant cousin, at the age of 14, when she was aged 10. As per tradition the marriage was arranged by the family. The couple had five daughters named Padmavati, Rukmini, Sushila, Sundari and Shakuntala. They also had a son named Sarvepalli Gopal who went on to a notable career as a historian. Many of Radhakrishnan's family members including his grandchildren and great-grandchildren have pursued a wide range of careers in academia, public policy, medicine, law, banking, business, publishing and other fields across the world. Former India cricketer & NCA director VVS Laxman is his great-grandnephew. Sivakamu died on 26 November 1956. They were married for about 52 years.
== Academic career ==
In April 1909, Radhakrishnan was appointed to the Department of Philosophy at the Madras Presidency College. Thereafter, in 1918, he was selected as Professor of Philosophy by the University of Mysore, where he taught at its Maharaja's College, Mysore. Here, Radhakrishnan along with M. Hiriyanna and A. R. Wadia groomed M. Yamunacharya, who would later hold post of Professor in Philosophy in the Department of Philosophy at Maharaja College, Mysore. By that time he had written many articles for journals of repute like The Quest, Journal of Philosophy and the International Journal of Ethics. He also completed his first book The book was published in 1918. The Philosophy of Rabindranath Tagore. He believed Tagore's philosophy to be the "genuine manifestation of the Indian spirit". His second book, The Reign of Religion in Contemporary Philosophy was published in 1920.
In 1921 he was appointed as a professor in philosophy to occupy the King George V Chair of Mental and Moral Science at the University of Calcutta. He represented the University of Calcutta at the Congress of the Universities of the British Empire in June 1926 and the International Congress of Philosophy at Harvard University in September 1926. Another important academic event during this period was the invitation to deliver the Hibbert Lecture on the ideals of life which he delivered at Manchester College, Oxford in 1929 and which was subsequently published in book form as An Idealist View of Life.
In 1929 Radhakrishnan was invited to take the post vacated by Principal J. Estlin Carpenter at Manchester College. This gave him the opportunity to lecture to the students of the University of Oxford on Comparative Religion. For his services to education he was knighted by George V in the June 1931 Birthday Honours, and formally invested with his honour by the Governor-General of India, the Earl of Willingdon, in March 1932. However, he ceased to use the title after Indian independence, preferring instead his academic title of 'Doctor'.
He was the vice-chancellor of Andhra University from 1931 to 1936. During his first convocation address, he spoke about his native Andhra as,
We, the Andhras, are fortunately situated in some respects. I firmly believe that if any part of India is capable of developing an effective sense of unity it is in Andhra. The hold of conservatism is not strong. Our generosity of spirit and openness of mind are well -known. Our social instinct and suggestibility are still active. Our moral sense and sympathetic imagination are not much warped by dogmas. Our women are relatively more free. Love of the mother-tongue binds us all.
In 1936 Radhakrishnan was named Spalding Professor of Eastern Religion and Ethics at the University of Oxford, and was elected a Fellow of All Souls College. That same year, and again in 1937, he was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature, although this nomination process, as for all laureates, was not public at the time. Further nominations for the awards continued steadily throughout the 1960s. In 1939 Pt. Madan Mohan Malaviya invited him to succeed him as the Vice-Chancellor of Banaras Hindu University (BHU). He served as its Vice-Chancellor till January 1948.
== Political career ==
Radhakrishnan started his political career "rather late in life", after his successful academic career. His international authority preceded his political career. He was one of those stalwarts who attended Andhra Mahasabha in 1928 where he seconded the idea of renaming Ceded Districts division of Madras Presidency as Rayalaseema. In 1931 he was nominated to the League of Nations Committee for Intellectual Cooperation, where after "in Western eyes he was the recognized Hindu authority on Indian ideas and a persuasive interpreter of the role of Eastern institutions in contemporary society."
When India became independent in 1947, Radhakrishnan represented India at UNESCO (1946–52) and was later Ambassador of India to the Soviet Union, from 1949 to 1952. He was also elected to the Constituent Assembly of India. Radhakrishnan was elected as the first Vice President of India in 1952, and elected as the second President of India (1962–1967). Radhakrishnan did not have a background in the Congress Party, nor was he active in the Indian independence movement. He was the politician in shadow. His motivation lay in his pride of Hindu culture, and the defence of Hinduism against "uninformed Western criticism". According to the historian Donald Mackenzie Brown,
He had always defended Hindu culture against uninformed Western criticism and had symbolized the pride of Indians in their own intellectual traditions.
=== Teacher's Day ===
When Radhakrishnan became the President of India, some of his students and friends requested him to allow them to celebrate his birthday, on 5 September. He replied,Instead of celebrating my birthday, it would be my proud privilege if September 5th is observed as Teachers' Day.
His birthday has since been celebrated as Teachers' Day in India.
=== Death ===
Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan died of natural causes on April 17, 1975,, at the age of 86 , in Madras (now Chennai), India.
=== Charity ===
Along with G. D. Birla and some other social workers in the pre-independence era, Radhakrishnan formed the Krishnarpan Charity Trust.
== Role in Constituent Assembly ==
He was against State institutions imparting denominational religious instruction as it was against the secular vision of the Indian State.
=== Global policy ===
Along with Albert Einstein, Radhakrishnan, the second president of India and the first vice president of India, was one of the sponsors of the Peoples' World Convention (PWC), also known as Peoples' World Constituent Assembly (PWCA), which took place in 1950–51 at Palais Electoral, Geneva, Switzerland.
== Philosophy ==
Radhakrishnan tried to bridge eastern and western thought, defending Hinduism against "uninformed Western criticism", but also incorporating Western philosophical and religious thought.
=== Advaita Vedanta ===
Radhakrishnan was one of the most prominent spokesmen of Neo-Vedanta. His metaphysics was grounded in Advaita Vedanta, but he reinterpreted Advaita Vedanta for a contemporary understanding. He acknowledged the reality and diversity of the world of experience, which he saw as grounded in and supported by the absolute or Brahman. Radhakrishnan also reinterpreted Shankara's notion of maya. According to Radhakrishnan, maya is not a strict absolute idealism, but "a subjective misperception of the world as ultimately real."
=== Intuition and religious experience ===
"Intuition", synonymously called "religious experience", has a central place in Radhakrishnan's philosophy as a source of knowledge which is not mediated by conscious thought. His specific interest in experience can be traced back to the works of William James (1842–1910), F. H. Bradley (1846–1924), Henri Bergson (1859–1941), and Friedrich von Hügel (1852–1925), and to Vivekananda (1863–1902), who had a strong influence on Sarvepalli's thought. According to Radhakrishnan, intuition is of a self-certifying character (svatassiddha), self-evidencing (svāsaṃvedya) and self-luminous (svayam-prakāsa). In his book An Idealist View of Life, he made a case for the importance of intuitive thinking as opposed to purely intellectual forms of thought. According to Radhakrishnan, intuition plays a specific role in all kinds of experience.
Radhakrishnan discernes eight sorts of experience:
Cognitive Experience:
Sense Experience
Discursive Reasoning
Intuitive Apprehension
Psychic Experience
Aesthetic Experience
Ethical Experience
Religious Experience
=== Classification of religions ===
For Radhakrishnan, theology and creeds are intellectual formulations, and symbols of religious experience or "religious intuitions". Radhakrishnan qualified the variety of religions hierarchically according to their apprehension of "religious experience", giving Advaita Vedanta the highest place:
The worshippers of the Absolute
The worshippers of the personal God
The worshippers of the incarnations like Rama, Kṛiṣhṇa, Buddha
Those who worship ancestors, deities and sages
The worshippers of the petty forces and spirits
Radhakrishnan saw Hinduism as a scientific religion based on facts, apprehended via intuition or religious experience. According to Radhakrishnan, "if philosophy of religion is to become scientific, it must become empirical and found itself on religious experience". He saw this empiricism exemplified in the Vedas:
The truths of the ṛṣis are not evolved as the result of logical reasoning or systematic philosophy but are the products of spiritual intuition, dṛṣti or vision. The ṛṣis are not so much the authors of the truths recorded in the Vedas as the seers who were able to discern the eternal truths by raising their life-spirit to the plane of universal spirit. They are the pioneer researchers in the realm of the spirit who saw more in the world than their followers. Their utterances are not based on transitory vision but on a continuous experience of resident life and power. When the Vedas are regarded as the highest authority, all that is meant is that the most exacting of all authorities is the authority of facts.
From his writings collected as The Hindu View of Life, Upton Lectures, Delivered at Manchester College, Oxford, 1926: "Hinduism insists on our working steadily upwards in improving our knowledge of God. The worshippers of the absolute are of the highest rank; second to them are the worshippers of the personal God; then come the worshippers of the incarnations of Rama, Krishna, Buddha; below them are those who worship deities, ancestors, and sages, and lowest of all are the worshippers of petty forces and spirits. The deities of some men are in water (i.e., bathing places), those of the most advanced are in the heavens, those of the children (in religion) are in the images of wood and stone, but the sage finds his God in his deeper self. The man of action finds his God in fire, the man of feeling in the heart, and the feeble minded in the idol, but the strong in spirit find God everywhere". The seers see the supreme in the self, and not the images."
To Radhakrishnan, Advaita Vedanta was the best representative of Hinduism, as being grounded in intuition, in contrast to the "intellectually mediated interpretations" of other religions. He objected against charges of "quietism" and "world denial", instead stressing the need and ethic of social service, giving a modern interpretation of classical terms as tat-tvam-asi. According to Radhakrishnan, Vedanta offers the most direct intuitive experience and inner realisation, which makes it the highest form of religion:
The Vedanta is not a religion, but religion itself in its most universal and deepest significance.
Radhakrishnan saw other religions, "including what Dr. S. Radhakrishnan understands as lower forms of Hinduism," as interpretations of Advaita Vedanta, thereby Hinduising all religions.
Although Radhakrishnan was well-acquainted with western culture and philosophy, he was also critical of them. He stated that Western philosophers, despite all claims to objectivity, were influenced by theological influences of their own culture.
== Influence ==
Radhakrishnan was one of world's best and most influential twentieth-century scholars of comparative religion and philosophy.
Radhakrishnan's defence of the Hindu traditions has been highly influential, both in India and the western world. In India, Radhakrishnan's ideas contributed to the formation of India as a nation-state. Radhakrishnan's writings contributed to the hegemonic status of Vedanta as "the essential world view of Hinduism". In the western world, Radhakrishnan's interpretations of the Hindu tradition, and his emphasis on "spiritual experience", made Hinduism more readily accessible for a western audience, and contributed to the influence Hinduism has on modern spirituality:
In figures such as Vivekananda and Radhakrishnan we witness Vedanta traveling to the West, where it nourished the spiritual hunger of Europeans and Americans in the early decades of the twentieth century.
=== Appraisal ===
Radhakrishnan has been highly appraised. According to Paul Artur Schillp:
Nor would it be possible to find a more excellent example of a living "bridge" between the East and the West than Professor Radhakrishnan. Steeped, as Radhakrishnan has been since his childhood, in the life, traditions, and philosophical heritage of his native India, he has also struck deep roots in Western philosophy, which he has been studying tirelessly ever since his undergraduate college-days in Madras Christian College, and in which he is as thoroughly at home as any Western philosopher.
And according to Hawley:
Radhakrishnan's concern for experience and his extensive knowledge of the Western philosophical and literary traditions has earned him the reputation of being a bridge-builder between India and the West. He often appears to feel at home in the Indian as well as the Western philosophical contexts, and draws from both Western and Indian sources throughout his writing. Because of this, Radhakrishnan has been held up in academic circles as a representative of Hinduism to the West. His lengthy writing career and his many published works have been influential in shaping the West's understanding of Hinduism, India, and the East.
=== Criticism and context ===
Radhakrishnan's ideas have also received criticism and challenges, for their perennialist and universalist claims, and the use of an east–west dichotomy.
==== Perennialism ====
According to Radhakrishnan, there is not only an underlying "divine unity" from the seers of the Upanishads up to modern Hindus like Tagore and Gandhi, but also "an essential commonality between philosophical and religious traditions from widely disparate cultures." This is also a major theme in the works of Rene Guenon, the Theosophical Society, and the contemporary popularity of eastern religions in modern spirituality. Since the 1970s, the Perennialist position has been criticised for its essentialism. Social-constructionists give an alternative approach to religious experience, in which such "experiences" are seen as being determined and mediated by cultural determinants:
As Michaels notes:
Religions, too, rely not so much on individual experiences or on innate feelings – like a sensus numinosus (Rudolf Otto) – but rather on behavioral patterns acquired and learned in childhood.
Rinehart also points out that "perennialist claims notwithstanding, modern Hindu thought is a product of history", which "has been worked out and expressed in a variety of historical contexts over the preceding two hundreds years." This is also true for Radhakrishan, who was educated by missionaries and, like other neo-Vedantins, used the prevalent western understanding of India and its culture to present an alternative to the western critique.
==== Universalism, communalism and Hindu nationalism ====
According to Richard King, the elevation of Vedanta as the essence of Hinduism, and Advaita Vedanta as the "paradigmatic example of the mystical nature of the Hindu religion" by colonial Indologists but also neo-Vedantins served well for the Hindu nationalists, who further popularised this notion of Advaita Vedanta as the pinnacle of Indian religions. It
...provided an opportunity for the construction of a nationalist ideology that could unite Hindus in their struggle against colonial oppression.
This "opportunity" has been criticised. According to Sucheta Mazumdar and Vasant Kaiwar,
... Indian nationalist leaders continued to operate within the categorical field generated by politicized religion [...] Extravagant claims were made on behalf of Oriental civilization. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan's statement – "[t]he Vedanta is not a religion but religion itself in its "most universal and deepest significance" – is fairly typical.
Rinehart also criticises the inclusivity of Radhakrishnan's approach, since it provides "a theological scheme for subsuming religious difference under the aegis of Vedantic truth." According to Rinehart, the consequence of this line of reasoning is communalism, the idea that "all people belonging to one religion have common economic, social and political interests and these interests are contrary to the interests of those belonging to another religion." Rinehart notes that Hindu religiosity plays an important role in the nationalist movement, and that "the neo-Hindu discourse is the unintended consequence of the initial moves made by thinkers like Rammohan Roy and Vivekananda." Yet Rinehart also points out that it is
...clear that there isn't a neat line of causation that leads from the philosophies of Rammohan Roy, Vivekananda and Radhakrishnan to the agenda of [...] militant Hindus.
==== Post-colonialism ====
Colonialism left deep traces in the hearts and minds of the Indian people, influencing the way they understood and represented themselves. The influences of "colonialist forms of knowledge" can also be found in the works of Radhakrishnan. According to Hawley, Radhakrishnan's division between East and West, the East being spiritual and mystical, and the West being rationalist and logical in its forms of knowledge, was constructed during the 18th and 19th centuries. Arguably, these characterisations are "imagined" in the sense that they reflect the philosophical and religious realities of neither "East' nor West."
Since the 1990s, the colonial influences on the 'construction' and 'representation' of Hinduism have been the topic of debate among scholars of Hinduism. Western Indologists are trying to come to more neutral and better-informed representations of India and its culture, while Indian scholars are trying to establish forms of knowledge and understanding which are grounded in and informed by Indian traditions, instead of being dominated by western forms of knowledge and understanding.
==== Feud with The Modern Review ====
Radhakrishnan's appointment, as a southerner, to "the most important chair of philosophy in India" in the north, was resented by a number of people from the Bengali intellectual elite, and The Modern Review, which was critical of the appointment of non-Bengalis, became the main vehicle of criticism. Soon after his arrival in Calcutta in 1921, Radhakrishnan's writings were regularly criticised in The Modern Review. When Radhakrishnan published his Indian Philosophy in two volumes (1923 and 1927), The Modern Review questioned his use of sources, criticising the lack of references to Bengali scholars. Yet, in an editor's note, The Modern Review acknowledged that "As professor's Radhakrishnan's book has not been received for review in this Journal, The Modern Review is not in a position to form any opinion on it."
In the January 1929 issue of The Modern Review, the Bengali philosopher Jadunath Sinha made the claim that parts of his 1922 doctoral thesis, Indian Psychology of Perception, published in 1925, were copied by his teacher Radhakrishnan into the chapter on "The Yoga system of Patanjali" in his book Indian Philosophy II, published in 1927. Sinha and Radhakrishnan exchanged several letters in the Modern Review, in which Sinha compared parts of his thesis with Radhakrishnan's publication, presenting altogether 110 instances of "borrowings." Radhakrishnan felt compelled to respond, stating that Sinha and he had both used the same classical texts, that his translations were standard translations, and that similarities in translations were therefore unavoidable. He further argued that he was lecturing on the subject before publishing his book, and that his book was ready for publication in 1924, before Sinha's thesis was published.
Scholars such as Kuppuswami Sastri, Ganganath Jha, and Nalini Ganguli confirmed that Radhakrishnan was distributing the notes in question since 1922. Ramananda Chatterjee, the editor of The Modern Review, refused to publish a letter by Nalini Ganguli confirming this fact, while continuing publishing Sinha's letters. The General Editor of Radhakrishnan's publisher, professor Muirhead, further confirmed that the publication was delayed for three years, due to his stay in the United States.
In Summer 1929, the dispute escalated into a juristic fight. Responding to the alleged "systematic effort [...] to destroy Radhakrishnan's reputation as a scholar and a public figure," Radhakrishnan filed a suit for defamation of character against Sinha and Chatterjee, demanding Rs. 100,000 for the damage done, and Sinha filed a case against Radhakrishnan for copyright infringement, demanding Rs. 20,000. The suits were settled in May 1933, the terms of the settlement were not disclosed, and "all the allegations made in the pleadings and in the columns of the Modern Review were withdrawn."
== Awards and honours ==
=== National honours ===
India:
Bharat Ratna (1954)
British India:
Knight Bachelor (1931)
=== Foreign honours ===
Mexico:
Order of the Aztec Eagle, Collar (1954)
West Germany:
Pour le Mérite, For Sciences and Arts (1954)
United Kingdom:
Order of Merit, Honorary Member (1963)
=== Other awards ===
A portrait of Radhakrishnan adorns the Chamber of the Rajya Sabha.
1938: elected Fellow of the British Academy.
1947: election as Permanent Member of the Institut International de Philosophie.
1959: Goethe Plaque of the City of Frankfurt.
1961: the Peace Prize of the German Book Trade.
1962: Institution of Teacher's Day in India, yearly celebrated at 5 September, Radhakrishnan's birthday, in honour of Radhakrishnan's belief that "teachers should be the best minds in the country".
1968: Sahitya Akademi Fellowship, The highest honour conferred by the Sahitya Akademi on a writer (he is the first person to get this award)
1975: the Templeton Prize in 1975, a few months before his death, for advocating non-aggression and conveying "a universal reality of God that embraced love and wisdom for all people." He donated the entire amount of the Templeton Prize to Oxford University.
1989: institution of the Radhakrishnan Scholarships by Oxford University in the memory of Radhakrishnan. The scholarships were later renamed the "Radhakrishnan Chevening Scholarships".
He was nominated sixteen times for the Nobel Prize in Literature, and eleven times for the Nobel Peace Prize.
Commemorative stamps released by India Post (by year):
== In popular culture ==
Sarvepalli Radhakrishna (1988) is a documentary film about Radhakrishnan, directed by N. S. Thapa, produced by the Government of India's Films Division.
== Quotes ==
"It is not God that is worshipped but the authority that claims to speak in His name. Sin becomes disobedience to authority not violation of integrity."
"Reading a book gives us the habit of solitary reflection and true enjoyment."
"When we think we know, we cease to learn."
"A literary genius, it is said, resembles all, though no one resembles him."
"There is nothing wonderful in my saying that Jainism was in existence long before the Vedas were composed."
"A life of joy and happiness is possible only on the basis of knowledge.
"If he does not fight, it is not because he rejects all fighting as futile, but because he has finished his fights. He has overcome all dissensions between himself and the world and is now at rest... We shall have wars and soldiers so long as the brute in us is untamed."
== Notable Works ==
=== Works by Radhakrishnan ===
The Philosophy of Rabindranath Tagore (1918), Macmillan, London, 276 pages
Radhakrishnan, S. (October 1922). "The Hindu Dharma". International Journal of Ethics. 33 (1). Chicago: University of Chicago Press: 1–22. doi:10.1086/intejethi.33.1.2377174. ISSN 1539-297X. JSTOR 2377174. S2CID 144844920.
Indian Philosophy (1923) Vol. 1, 738 pages. (1927) Vol. 2, 807 pages. Oxford: Oxford University Press (1st edition).
The Hindu View of Life (1927), London: Allen & Unwin. 92 pages
Indian Religious Thought (2016), Orient Paperbacks, ISBN 978-81-222042-4-7
Religion, Science and Culture (2010), Orient Paperbacks, ISBN 978-81-222001-2-6
An Idealist View of Life (1929), 351 pages
Kalki, or the Future of Civilization (1929), 96 pages
Gautama the Buddha (London: Milford, 1938); 1st India ed., 1945.
Eastern Religions and Western Thought (1939), Oxford University Press, 396 pages
Religion and Society (1947), George Allen and Unwin Ltd., London, 242 pages
The Bhagavadgītā: with an introductory essay, Sanskrit text, English translation and notes (1948), 388 pages
The Dhammapada (1950), 194 pages, Oxford University Press
The Principal Upanishads (1953), 958 pages, HarperCollins Publishers Limited
Recovery of Faith (1956), 205 pages
A Source Book in Indian Philosophy (1957), 683 pages, Princeton University Press, with Charles A. Moore as co-editor.
The Brahma Sutra: The Philosophy of Spiritual Life. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1959, 606 pages.
Religion, Science & Culture (1968), 121 pages
=== Biographies and monographs on Radhakrishnan ===
Several books have been published on Radhakrishnan:
Murty, K. Satchidananda; Ashok Vohra (1990). Radhakrishnan: His Life and Ideas. SUNY Press. ISBN 9780791403440.
Minor, Robert Neil (1987). Radhakrishnan: A Religious Biography. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-88706-554-5.
Gopal, Sarvepalli (1989). Radhakrishnan: A Biography. Delhi: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-562999-X.
Pappu, S.S. Rama Rao (1995). New Essays in the Philosophy of Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan. Delhi: South Asia Books. ISBN 978-81-7030-461-6.
Parthasarathi, G.; Chattopadhyaya, Debi Prasad, eds. (1989). Radhakrishnan: Centenary Volume. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
== See also ==
Indian philosophy – Philosophical traditions of the Indian subcontinent
List of heads of state and government Nobel nominees
List of Indian writers
List of members of the Order of Merit
List of recipients of the Pour le Mérite for Sciences and Arts
Postcolonialism – Study of the cultural legacy of colonialism and imperialism
Vedanta Society – Religious organisation
== Notes ==
== References ==
=== Sources ===
==== Printed sources ====
==== Online sources ====
== External links ==
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan at the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Works by or about Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan at the Internet Archive
"Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan- The philosopher president", Press Information Bureau, Government of India
"Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (1888—1975)" by Michael Hawley, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
S. Radhakrishnan materials in the South Asian American Digital Archive (SAADA)
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan Biography :The Youth Icon of India by Sagadoor.in |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streamy_Awards#:~:text=The%20winners%20of%20awards%20in,Actor)%2C%20and%20web%20series. | Streamy Awards | The YouTube Streamy Awards, also known as the Streamy Awards or Streamys, are an awards show presented annually by Dick Clark Productions and Tubefilter to recognize excellence in online video, including directing, acting, producing, and writing. The formal ceremony at which the awards are presented takes place in Los Angeles, California. It was the first awards show dedicated entirely to web series.
== History ==
The Streamy Awards were initially devised by Drew Baldwin, Brady Brim-DeForest and Marc Hustvedt of Tubefilter and Joshua Cohen and Jamison Tilsner of Tilzy.tv. Prior to the Streamy Awards, other award shows existed to celebrate online content, but the Streamy Awards was the first to celebrate web series in particular.
The 1st Annual Streamy Awards were held on March 28, 2009 at the Wadsworth Theatre in Los Angeles. Presented by the International Academy of Web Television (IAWTV) and co-hosted by Tubefilter, NewTeeVee and Tilzy.TV, the event was reportedly attended by 1,300 audience members. Winners in the 25 categories included The Guild and Dr. Horrible's Sing-Along, which both won multiple awards, Joss Whedon and Felicia Day.
The 2nd Annual Streamy Awards were hosted by comedian Paul Scheer and streamed live online from the Orpheum Theatre on April 11, 2010. The production experienced technical problems and interruptions due to people streaking the stage. Scheer's jokes were also poorly received with audience members and influencers in attendance finding them unfunny, sexist and deprecatory of internet culture. Due to poor reception and execution of the show, the IAWTV halted its partnership with Tubefilter and co-production of the award ceremony and formed their own Web TV awards presentation.
Following the poorly received 2nd Streamy Awards, the Streamys went into hiatus for two years. During this time, in 2011, Tubefilter entered a partnership with established entertainment industry awards show producer Dick Clark Productions (producers of the American Music Awards, among others) to co-produce the 3rd Streamy Awards in an attempt to repair the award's legitimacy. They were held in 2013 at the Hollywood Palladium in Los Angeles, and livestreamed across YouTube and multiple streaming networks simultaneously. Commentators noted the show's increased professionalism but some creators such as Felicia Day criticized the shift towards acceptance of old media.
The 4th Streamy Awards were hosted by Grace Helbig and Hannah Hart and were held on September 7, 2014 at The Beverly Hilton hotel in Beverly Hills. The event introduced ten new award categories, including one for the short-form video website Vine, and featured fan-voted submissions for the first time. A toast dedicated to the recently passed-away Joan Rivers was described as "the evening's most somber moment" and "an authentic and intimate salute". But the show was also criticized for being more corporate, with the inclusion of product placement and shout-outs to large companies.
The 5th Streamy Awards were broadcast live on VH1 on September 17, 2015, and hosted by Grace Helbig and Tyler Oakley. Held at the Hollywood Palladium, they were the first Streamy Awards to be televised. They were also simultaneously livestreamed. New award categories were once again added for videos posted to social media websites such as Instagram, Snapchat, and Vine. They were also the first Streamys to feature the Breakout Creator and Breakthrough Artist awards.
The 6th Streamy Awards were hosted by King Bach and broadcast live on YouTube on October 4, 2016, from The Beverly Hilton hotel. Unlike the 5th Streamy Awards, the show was not televised, apparently due to a desire to "return to its digital roots". The ceremony featured a medley of songs dedicated to Christina Grimmie, who was shot and killed outside of a concert venue earlier in the year, which was praised by a number of publications.
The 7th Streamy Awards were hosted by Jon Cozart and broadcast live on Twitter on September 26, 2017, from The Beverly Hilton. It featured the first live musical performance by the Village People in over 30 years. TheWrap described the event as "rowdy, political and Jake Paul-hating" and The Hollywood Reporter said that the night's main themes were politics and diversity. The first annual Purpose Awards @ the Streamys were also held on September 25, 2017, hosted by Burnie Burns and Ashley Jenkins.
The 8th Streamy Awards were hosted by The Try Guys and was broadcast live on YouTube on October 22, 2018, from the Beverly Hilton Hotel.
The 9th Streamy Awards was broadcast live on YouTube on December 13, 2019, from the Beverly Hilton Hotel. It was the first Streamy Award ceremony to run without a host.
In 2020, YouTube acquired the naming rights to the Streamy Awards.
The 10th Streamy Awards were broadcast on YouTube on December 12, 2020, and were hosted by drag queens Trixie Mattel and Katya Zamolodchikova. To adhere to social distancing restrictions, the duo presented the awards on a party bus being driven around Los Angeles.
The 11th Streamy Awards were broadcast on YouTube on December 11, 2021. They were hosted by American YouTuber Larray, alongside Issa Twaimz, once again being driven in a party bus around Los Angeles.
The 12th Streamy Awards were held on December 4, 2022, at The Beverly Hilton in Los Angeles and were hosted by the YouTuber Airrack (known in real life as Eric Decker), and also featured a performance by Yung Gravy.
The 13th Streamy Awards was held on August 27, 2023, at The Beverly Hilton and was hosted by MatPat. MrBeast won Creator of the year for the fourth year in a row.
The Streamy Awards did not hold ceremonies in 2024 and 2025.
== Award categories ==
The current award categories for the Streamy Awards are separated into the main Streamy Awards and the Streamys Brand Awards.
== List of shows ==
== See also ==
Shorty Awards
Emmy Awards
Webby Awards
List of web awards
TikTok Awards Night
== References ==
== External links ==
Streamy Awards |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martyn_Poliakoff | Martyn Poliakoff | Sir Martyn Poliakoff (born 16 December 1947) is a British chemist known for his work on green chemistry and for being the main presenter on the popular YouTube channel Periodic Videos. The core subjects of his academic work are supercritical fluids, infrared spectroscopy and lasers. He is a research professor in chemistry at the University of Nottingham. As well as carrying out research at the University of Nottingham, he is a lecturer, teaching a number of modules including green chemistry.
== Early life and education ==
Poliakoff was born to a British-Jewish mother, Ina (née Montagu), and a Russian-Jewish father, Alexander Poliakoff. He has a younger brother, the screenwriter and director Stephen Poliakoff. His paternal grandfather, Joseph Poliakoff, was a prolific inventor of electrical devices who experienced the communist revolution in Russia first-hand, and emigrated to the United Kingdom in 1924.
Poliakoff was educated at Westminster School. He then studied chemistry at King's College, Cambridge, graduating with a BA degree in 1969. While an undergraduate, he became close friends with Tony Judt, who later became a historian and writer. Poliakoff received a PhD in chemistry from Cambridge in 1973 for research supervised by J.J. Turner.
== Career and research ==
In 1972, Poliakoff moved to Newcastle University and in 1979 was appointed a lecturer at the University of Nottingham, where he was subsequently promoted to professor in 1991. His research has been funded by the EPSRC.
Poliakoff is a global leader in the field of green chemistry with a specific interest in the applications of supercritical fluids. These highly compressed gases possess properties of gases and liquids that permit interesting chemical reactions without the need for organic solvents, which endanger both health and the environment. His contributions have enabled the development of supercritical carbon dioxide and water solvent systems to replace traditional organic solvents at the industrial scale. As foreign secretary and vice-president of the Royal Society from 2011 to 2016, he worked to represent and further the impact of UK science around the world.
=== Popular science ===
Poliakoff is the narrator in most of a series of over 600 short videos called The Periodic Table of Videos, a popular science project produced by Brady Haran, originally intended to familiarise the public with all 118 elements of the periodic table. The project has since expanded to cover molecules; there are also several special videos about other chemical topics. He hit the news for calculating that the FIFA World Cup Trophy could not have been made from solid gold as it would be too heavy to raise aloft. Poliakoff showed some videos at IUPAC's elements inauguration in the Central Club of Scientists of the Russian Academy of Sciences in Moscow.
In 2019 he collaborated with his daughter Ellen, among others, to produce an experimental version of the periodic table which was turned upside down, to see if that helped young learners get to grips with the underlying mechanisms.
=== Honours and awards ===
Poliakoff was awarded the Meldola Medal and Prize from the Royal Society of Chemistry in 1976. He was elected Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 2002, Fellow of the Royal Society of Chemistry (FRSC) also in 2002, and Fellow of the Institution of Chemical Engineers (FIChemE) in 2004. He served on the IChemE Council between 2009 and 2013. Poliakoff was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2008 New Year Honours and is a member of the Advisory Council for the Campaign for Science and Engineering since 2008. In 2008, he was elected an Honorary Member of the Chemical Society of Ethiopia and a Foreign Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences in 2011. He took up the positions of Foreign Secretary and vice-president of the Royal Society in November 2011, positions which are held for a fixed five-year period. In 2011, he won the Nyholm Prize for Education.
Poliakoff also received an Honorary Doctorate from Heriot-Watt University in 2011.
In 2012, Poliakoff was elected a Fellow of the Academia Europaea and in 2013, an Associate Fellow of TWAS, the World Academy of Science. He was elected an Associate Member of the Ethiopian Academy of Sciences in 2014. Poliakoff was knighted in the 2015 New Year Honours for services to the chemical sciences. He was also elected an Honorary Fellow of the Chinese Chemical Society in 2015. Poliakoff was awarded the Lord Lewis Prize in 2016 for his work concerning the applications of supercritical fluids, and for his work in the development of science policy within the EU and globally. In 2016, Poliakoff was elected Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (FAAAS), and in 2017 a Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering (FREng). In 2019, he was awarded the Royal Society of London Michael Faraday Prize for science communication for his work on the Periodic Videos. He was also awarded the 2019 Longstaff Prize for his "outstanding contributions to green chemistry and for participating centrally in the creation of the Periodic Table Videos". At the end of 2023, Poliakoff was elected (in the division of chemistry) a Foreign Academician of the Chinese Academy of Sciences.
A tram in Nottingham's tram network was named after him in 2021.
== Personal life ==
Poliakoff has a daughter, Ellen Poliakoff, a psychology lecturer at the University of Manchester; and a son, Simon Poliakoff, a physics teacher at The Priory School Hitchin. Martyn Poliakoff produced a web eulogy of close friend Tony Judt in 2010.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Deer_(federal_electoral_district) | Red Deer (federal electoral district) | Red Deer is a federal electoral district in Alberta, Canada. A riding of the same name was previously represented in the House of Commons of Canada from 1908 to 2015.
== Demographics ==
According to the 2021 Canadian census
Languages: 85.7% English, 3.6% Tagalog, 1.7% Spanish, 1.6% French,
Religions: 50.7% Christian (20.0% Catholic, 4.8% United Church, 2.5% Anglican, 2.1% Lutheran, 1.0% Pentecostal, 20.2% Other), 45.0% No religion, 1.9% Muslim
Median income: $43,200 (2020)
Average income: $56,050 (2020)
== History ==
This riding was created in 1907 from Calgary and Strathcona ridings. At the time this was a vast riding taking in much of Central Alberta between the two major cities of Calgary and Edmonton. The only major urban centre was Red Deer, then a small town of only 1,500 people.
Once an overwhelmingly rural constituency, it has been consistently reduced in geographic size over the years due to Red Deer's continued growth. In 2003, about 20% of the district was transferred to the Wetaskiwin riding.
The riding was represented by centre-right MPs from 1935 onward. Like most other Alberta ridings outside Calgary and Edmonton, the major right-wing party of the day usually won here by blowout margins. A centre-left candidate last cleared 20 percent of the vote in 1968, and from 1979 onward centre-left candidates were usually lucky to get 15 percent of the vote.
The riding was split almost in half for the 2015 election. The southern portion, including downtown, became Red Deer—Mountain View, while the northern portion was merged with Wetaskiwin to form Red Deer—Lacombe.
The riding was reinstated by the 2022 Canadian federal electoral redistribution, reuniting the city of Red Deer and combining it with rural areas to its southeast.
=== Historical boundaries ===
=== Members of Parliament ===
This riding elected the following members of Parliament:
== Election results ==
=== 2023 representation order ===
=== 2003 representation order ===
Note: Conservative vote is compared to the total of Progressive Conservative and Canadian Alliance vote in 2000.
=== 1996 representation order ===
Note: Canadian Alliance vote is compared to the Reform vote in 1997.
=== 1987 representation order ===
=== 1976 representation order ===
=== 1966 representation order ===
=== 1952 representation order ===
Note: NDP vote is compared to CCF vote in 1958 election.
=== 1933 representation order ===
Note: Progressive Conservative vote is compared to "National Government" vote in 1940 election.
Note: "National Government" vote is compared to Conservative vote in 1935 election.
=== 1924 representation order ===
=== 1914 representation order ===
Note: Conservative vote is compared to Unionist vote in 1917 election.
Note: Unionist vote is compared to Liberal-Conservative vote in 1911 election.
=== 1905 representation order ===
== See also ==
List of Canadian electoral districts
Historical federal electoral districts of Canada
== References ==
"Red Deer (federal electoral district) (Code 48023) Census Profile". 2011 census. Government of Canada - Statistics Canada. Retrieved 6 March 2011.
=== Notes ===
== Notes ==
== External links ==
Riding history for Red Deer from the Library of Parliament
Expenditures - 2008
Expenditures - 2004
Expenditures - 2000
Expenditures - 1997
Elections Canada
Website of the Parliament of Canada |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natasha_C._Merle#:~:text=From%202013%20to%202015%2C%20Merle,Fund%20(%22LDF%22). | Natasha C. Merle | Natasha Clarise Merle (born 1983) is an American lawyer from New York who serves as a United States district judge of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York.
== Education ==
Merle received her Bachelor of Arts in government and Spanish, with honors, from the University of Texas at Austin in 2005 and she graduated, cum laude, with a Juris Doctor from the New York University School of Law in 2008.
== Career ==
Merle began her legal career as a law clerk for Judge Robert L. Carter of the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York from 2008 to 2009. From 2009 to 2011, she was a staff attorney at the Gulf Region Advocacy Center. Merle then became an assistant federal public defender at the Office of the Federal Public Defender. She also served as a law clerk for Judge John Gleeson of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York from 2012 to 2013.
From 2013 to 2015, Merle was a litigation associate and civil rights fellow at Fried, Frank, Harris, Shriver & Jacobson in New York City.
From 2016 to 2021, she served as assistant counsel and then senior counsel for the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund ("LDF"). From 2021 to 2023, she was the deputy director of litigation at LDF.
From 2019 to 2021, Merle was a adjunct professor of clinical law at the New York University School of Law and from 2020 to 2021, she was a lecturer in law at Columbia Law School.
=== Notable cases ===
In 2017, Merle was a member of the petitioner team in Buck v. Davis.
In 2017, Merle was lead counsel for NAACP LDF v. Trump.
=== Federal judicial service ===
On January 19, 2022, President Joe Biden nominated Merle to serve as a United States district judge of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York. President Biden nominated Merle to a new seat created following the appointment of Roslynn R. Mauskopf as director of the Administrative Office of the United States Courts. On April 27, 2022, a hearing on her nomination was held before the Senate Judiciary Committee. During Merle's confirmation hearing, Republican senators criticized her over comments she made in 2017 in which she said that proposals for voter ID laws and a border wall were based in white supremacy. On May 26, 2022, her nomination was reported out of committee by a 12–10 vote. On January 3, 2023, her nomination was returned to the President under Rule XXXI, Paragraph 6 of the United States Senate; she was renominated later the same day. On February 2, 2023, the committee failed to report her nomination by a 10–10 vote. On February 9, 2023, her nomination was reported out of committee by an 11–10 vote. On June 21, 2023, the Senate invoked cloture on her nomination by a 51–50 vote, with Vice President Kamala Harris voting in the affirmative. Later that day, her nomination was confirmed by a 50–49 vote. Senator Joe Manchin joined all the Senate Republicans in opposing her nomination. Merle was President Biden's 100th district court judge to be confirmed. She received her judicial commission on August 11, 2023.
== See also ==
List of African-American federal judges
List of African-American jurists
Joe Biden judicial appointment controversies
== References ==
== External links ==
Natasha C. Merle at the Biographical Directory of Federal Judges, a publication of the Federal Judicial Center. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evi_Nemeth | Evi Nemeth | Evi Nemeth (born June 7, 1940 – missing-at-sea June or July 2013) was an engineer, author, and teacher known for her expertise in computer system administration and networks. She was the lead author of the "bibles" of system administration: UNIX System Administration Handbook (1989, 1995, 2000), Linux Administration Handbook (2002, 2006), and UNIX and Linux System Administration Handbook (2010, 2017). Evi Nemeth was known in technology circles as the matriarch of system administration.
Nemeth was best known in mathematical circles for originally identifying inadequacies in the "Diffie–Hellman problem", the basis for a large portion of modern network cryptography.
== Career ==
Nemeth received her bachelor's degree in mathematics from Penn State in 1961 and her PhD in mathematics from the University of Waterloo, Ontario in 1971. She taught at Florida Atlantic University and the State University of New York at Utica (SUNY Tech) before joining the computer science department at the University of Colorado Boulder (CU-Boulder) in 1980. She served as manager of the college's computing facility from 1982 to 1986. She also was a visiting Associate Professor at Dartmouth College in 1990, and at UC San Diego in 1998, while on sabbatical from CU-Boulder.
While at CU-Boulder, Nemeth was well known for her undergraduate systems administration activity, in which students over the years had the opportunity to develop in-depth knowledge and skills in Unix system administration. Together with Steve Wozniak, Nemeth established the Woz scholarship program at CU-Boulder which funded inquisitive undergraduates for many years. Nemeth also had a special talent for inspiring and teaching young people. She mentored numerous middle- and high-school students, who worked with her to support computing in the college and came to be known as "the munchkins". She also mentored talented young undergraduates, taking them to national meetings where they installed networks and broadcast the meetings' sessions on the Internet on the multicast backbone. She coached the university's student programming teams in the ACM International Collegiate Programming Contest.
From 1998 to 2006, Nemeth worked with Cooperative Association for Internet Data Analysis (CAIDA) at the University of California, San Diego, on various Internet measurement and visualization projects.
Outside the United States, Nemeth helped bring Internet technology to the developing world through her involvement with programs of the Internet Society and the United Nations Development Programme.
A network guru T-shirt
from the 1980s shows OSI Model layers with additional Layer 8 as the "financial" layer, and Layer 9 as the "political" layer. The design was credited to Evi Nemeth.
During the Summer 1994 USENIX conference in Boston, a commemorative deck of playing cards was created celebrating the 25th anniversary of UNIX. Evi Nemeth coordinated the production of the card deck.
== Later life ==
After her retirement, Nemeth sailed her 40-foot sailboat Wonderland around various parts of the world, including a circuit of the Atlantic; the Panama Canal; and across the Pacific to New Zealand.
=== Disappearance at sea ===
In late May 2013 she, along with six other people aboard the vintage yacht Niña, traveled across the Tasman Sea en route to Australia from New Zealand. On June 4, the day the last message, sent by Nemeth, was received from Niña, the Tasman Sea had 65 mile-per-hour winds and swell height reaching 26 feet. A natural disaster (e.g., a rogue wave) might have led to the disappearance of the boat. On July 5 New Zealand authorities officially ended the search for the Niña, though relatives of the crew of Niña continued to search.
== Selected publications ==
Nemeth, E., Hein, T., Snyder, G., and Whaley, B., Unix and Linux System Administration Handbook, 4th edition, Prentice Hall, 2010.
Nemeth, E., Snyder, G., Hein, T., Whaley, B., and Makin, D., Unix and Linux System Administration Handbook, 5th edition, Prentice Hall, 2017.
Brownlee, N.; Claffy, K. C.; Nemeth, E. (2001). "DNS measurements at a root server". GLOBECOM'01. IEEE Global Telecommunications Conference (Cat. No.01CH37270). Vol. 3. p. 1672. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.18.3882. doi:10.1109/GLOCOM.2001.965864. ISBN 978-0-7803-7206-1. S2CID 10140817.
Broido, A.; Nemeth, E.; Claffy, K. (2002). "Internet expansion, refinement and churn". European Transactions on Telecommunications. 13: 33–51. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.18.3182. doi:10.1002/ett.4460130105.
Mullin, R., Nemeth, E. and Weidenhofer, N., "Will Public Key Crypto Systems Live up to Their Expectations? HEP Implementation of the Discrete Log Codebreaker", Proc. of the 1984 Intl Conf on Parallel Processing, Aug. 21–24, 1984, pp. 193–196. Selected for the best paper award for this conference.
"Otter: A general-purpose network visualization tool". International Networking Conference (INET) '99. June 1999. Retrieved 2013-06-28.
== Awards ==
1984 - Best Paper Award, International Parallel Processing Conference, Chicago, August 1984
1995 - USENIX/LISA Lifetime Achievement Award
1999 - Top 25 Women on the Web Award
2007 - Distinguished Engineering Honoree at CU-Boulder
5th Annual Telluride Tech Fest Honoree
2018 - NCWIT Pioneer in Tech Award
== See also ==
List of people who disappeared mysteriously at sea
Layer 8
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyholm_Prize_for_Education#:~:text=1973/74%20%E2%80%93%20H%20F%20Halliwell | Nyholm Prize for Education | The Nyholm Prize for Education commemorates the life and work of Australian-born chemist Sir Ronald Nyholm, who – alongside his research in coordination chemistry – passionately campaigned for the improvement of science education. He acted as president of the Royal Society of Chemistry from 1968 to 1970.
The prize, which was first awarded in 1973, is awarded biennially by the Royal Society of Chemistry. It recognises outstanding achievements by those working in chemical science education, specifically major contributions to national or international research or innovation.
Before 2008, the prize was known as the Sir Ronald Nyholm Lectureship (Education Division). The recipient receives £5,000, a medal and a certificate.
== Recipients ==
The recipients are:
1973/74 – H F Halliwell
1975/76 – Douglas James Millen
1977/78 – A K Holliday
1979/80 – A H Johnstone
1981/82 – M J Frazer
1982/83 – Peter J Fensham
1984/85 – Professor David J Waddington
1986/87 – M H Gardner
1988/89 – No award
1990/91 – R F Kempa
1992/93 – M Gomel
1994/95 – David Phillips
1996/97 – C. John Garratt
1998/99 – Peter Atkins
2000/01 – Patrick D Bailey
2002/03 – George M Bodner
2004/05 – Zafra M. Lerman
2006/07 – Norman Reid
2008/09 – David D Kumar
2009 – Tina Overton
2011 – Martyn Poliakoff
2013 – Peter Wothers
2015 – Nick Greeves
2017 – Dudley Shallcross, University of Bristol
2019 – Marcy Towns, Purdue University
2021 – Michael Seery, The Open University
2023 – Savita Ladage, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research
2025 – Vicente Talanquer, University of Arizona
== See also ==
List of chemistry awards
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diane_Disney_Miller | Diane Disney Miller | Diane Marie Disney-Miller (December 18, 1933 – November 19, 2013) was the eldest daughter and only biological child of Walt Disney and his wife Lillian Bounds Disney. Diane co-founded the Walt Disney Family Museum alongside her family. She was president of the Board of Directors of the Walt Disney Family Foundation.
== Early life, education, and personal life ==
Diane Marie Disney was born in Los Angeles on December 18, 1933. She attended Los Feliz Grammar School before moving to Immaculate Heart High School (Los Angeles) for junior high school and high school. Disney went on to study English at the University of Southern California.
When she was 20 years old, Disney was introduced to 21-year-old University of Southern California student Ron Miller, a member of the USC Trojans football team, on a blind date after a University of California–USC game. They married in a small Episcopal church ceremony in Santa Barbara on May 9, 1954. Together, the couple had had seven children: Christopher (b. 1954), Joanna (b. 1956), Tamara (b. 1958), Jennifer (later Miller-Goff; b. 1960), Walter (b. 1962), Ronald (b. 1964), and Patrick (b. 1966). Her husband then served in the Army and played professional football before Walt Disney convinced him to work for the Walt Disney Studios, and ascended from film directing and production to president and CEO of what is now The Walt Disney Company.
== Philanthropy ==
Miller was a patron of the arts, as well as a lifelong classical music enthusiast and a generous philanthropist.
Miller published a series of eight pieces for the Saturday Evening Post in 1956 titled "My Dad, Walt Disney", co-written with Pete Martin. In 1957 she published the book The Story of Walt Disney. After her husband was removed from his executive position at Walt Disney Productions in 1984, Miller began to limit her involvement with the company.
After her husband joined the Disney company, Miller traveled to Napa Valley with her mother, Lillian, to visit several wineries. The trip inspired Miller to start a vineyard, with the possibility of a winery. With the children grown, Ron left the company and the entertainment industry in 1984. Both he and Diane went on to develop the renowned Silverado Vineyards Winery in Napa, which became their home. In 1976, the family purchased a large property along the Silverado Trail in the Stags Leap District. They planted Cabernet Sauvignon and Chardonnay and started making wine in 1981. They expanded the winery to only using estate-grown grapes, and Diane helped create a home and a family-like atmosphere rather than just a business.
Miller was instrumental in pushing ahead with the Walt Disney Concert Hall in downtown Los Angeles. In 1988, Lillian Disney, her mother, announced plans to contribute $50 million to the Los Angeles Concert Hall in Downtown Los Angeles, which Miller would later come to support throughout her life. More than 70 architectural firms submitted proposals to the head director, Frank Gehry. By 1996, the project was almost dead, but Miller persuaded Gehry to move forward with it, despite problems with poor management and disagreements over the design, and Los Angeles County officials' attempts to cancel it. It was supposed to be worth $10 million by 1997. Diane arranged for the Walt Disney Family Foundation to contribute about $25 million to keep Gehry in control, and the hall finally opened in 2003, at the cost of $247 million. Although Lillian Disney died in 1997 and never saw a concert there, Miller continued to support the concert hall.
After devoting her earlier life to raising her seven children, Miller undertook an active advocacy to document the life and accomplishments of her father, who she perceived to have been the subject of poorly researched biographies and inaccurate rumors. She was also concerned that his name had become more of a corporate identity than a reference to the man himself. In 2001, the Walt Disney Family Foundation released The Man Behind the Myth, a documentary film about Walt Disney's life featuring interviews with his colleagues, peers, and family. In 2009, Miller co-founded the Walt Disney Family Museum with her son Walter Elias Disney Miller, who is a movie producer, and Miller was also the president of the Board of Directors of the Walt Disney Family Foundation at the time of her death, which is a nonprofit organization that owns and operates the Walt Disney Family Museum, located in Presidio in San Francisco.
In 2015, the inaugural Diane Disney Miller Lifetime Achievement Award was created to honor the museum's founder, to recognize those who have made an outstanding impact in the field of arts, education, community involvement, or technological advancements.
=== Honorees ===
2015 – Richard Sherman
2016 – Marty Sklar
2017 – John Lasseter
== Death and dedication ==
Miller died on November 19, 2013, at age 79, one month before her 80th birthday, from medical complications that developed after a fall in September the same year.
The film Saving Mr. Banks is dedicated to her memory; Miller died shortly before it opened theatrically.
Ron and Diane Disney Miller received a special thank you in Inside Out (2015).
== References ==
== External links ==
Diane Disney Miller at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_Annabel_Goldsmith | Lady Annabel Goldsmith | Lady Annabel Goldsmith (née Vane-Tempest-Stewart, formerly Birley; 11 June 1934 – 18 October 2025) was an English socialite, author, and political activist. She was the eponym of Annabel's, the exclusive Mayfair nightclub founded by her first husband, businessman Mark Birley. A prominent London society hostess during the 1960s and 1970s, she attracted media attention for her relationship with financier Sir James Goldsmith, which began during her marriage to Birley and later led to their own marriage. In her later years, she published memoirs and supported political and philanthropic causes.
== Background and image ==
Annabel Vane-Tempest-Stewart was born on 11 June 1934 in London, the second of three children in an Anglo-Irish aristocratic family with roots in Ulster and County Durham. She was the younger daughter of Robin Vane-Tempest-Stewart, 8th Marquess of Londonderry, and Romaine Combe, whose father was Major Boyce Combe of Surrey.
She became Lady Annabel as a young girl in February 1949, when her father became marquess on the death of his father, the controversial Ulster Unionist politician The 7th Marquess of Londonderry. Her mother died of cancer in 1951, but the illness was kept a secret by her parents. She later said, "Cancer was such a taboo then – Mummy didn't even tell her sisters." Subsequently, her father became a chronic alcoholic and died from liver failure at the age of 52 on 17 October 1955. "My father was a really wonderful man but after my mother died, we couldn't talk to him as we had done before. He couldn't face life without her and he turned into Jekyll and Hyde almost overnight", she explained.
She was named after her mother's favourite song, "Miss Annabel Lee", and grew up as a country child at her family's former estates of Mount Stewart, Wynyard Park, and Londonderry House. She was educated at Southover Manor School in Sussex and Cuffy's Tutorial College in Oxford. Awkward and shy in her youth, she was an avid reader, equestrian, and a Girl Guide for the Bullfinch Patrol. She transformed from an unconfident and self-described "skinny, gauche young girl" into a socialite during the 1950s and 1960s. Queen Elizabeth II attended her coming-out ball in 1952. As part of the London social circle, she was known for her sense of humour, down-to-earth personality, and love of children and dogs. She was never a drinker. She chain-smoked until the age of 40.
== Personal life ==
Lady Annabel was the mother of Rupert, Robin, India Jane Birley and Jemima, Zac, and Ben Goldsmith. She had referred to herself as "an incredible mother, rather a good mistress, but not a very good wife". With six children and five miscarriages, her primary vocation was motherhood, which prompted her to say: "I'm not judgmental about women who work, but I was so besotted with my children I never wanted them out of my sight." She was also considered a mother figure by her nieces, Ladies Cosima and Sophia Vane-Tempest-Stewart, and Diana, Princess of Wales. As the wife and ex-wife of two unfaithful men, she explained her marriage philosophy to the Times in 1987: "I can never understand the wives who really mind, the wives who set such store by fidelity. How extraordinary, and how mad they are. Because, surely, if the man goes out and he comes back, it's not actually doing any harm."
=== Annabel's and the Birleys ===
On 10 March 1954, at the age of 19, she married businessman Mark Birley at the Caxton Hall register office in London. Birley famously paid tribute to her by naming in her honour his nightclub, Annabel's, which opened on 4 June 1963 and was run by Birley for more than forty years. During the 1960s, Lady Annabel was a constant presence at Annabel's, known as one of the grandest nightclubs of the sixties and seventies, where she entertained guests ranging from Ted and Robert F. Kennedy to Frank Sinatra, Prince Charles, Richard Nixon, and Muhammad Ali. "I used to be there every night, even when I had three small children to take to school the next day. It was like a second home to me", she recalled.
She raised her three children with Birley at Pelham Cottage. Her eldest son Rupert, who was born on 20 August 1955, studied at Eton College and Christ Church, Oxford. In 1986, he disappeared off the coast of Togo in West Africa, where he was presumed drowned. "There really is nothing worse than losing a child – and there is something special about your first-born", she said, adding that, "Because I was so young when Rupert was born ... we were more like good friends than mother and son." Her second son Robin (b. 19 February 1958) is a businessman, whose face was disfigured as a child when he was mauled by a tigress at John Aspinall's private zoo. Having let him go near the pregnant tigress, Lady Annabel said, "It was my own fault. I was, am, angry with myself." Her first daughter India Jane (born 14 January 1961), the granddaughter of society portrait painter Sir Oswald Birley, is an artist.
The Birleys separated in 1972 and later divorced in 1975 after the birth of her second child with James Goldsmith. "Our breakup was because of Mark's infidelities, not because I fell in love with Jimmy", she told Vanity Fair writer Maureen Orth after Birley's death. Revealing that Birley had numerous other girlfriends from the beginning of their relationship, she added: "I think he was absolutely incapable of being faithful. He was a serial adulterer. Like a butterfly, he had to seduce every woman."
Despite their divorce, the two remained best friends, talking to each other every day and holidaying together until Birley's death in August 2007. Birley said they were "the true loves of each other's lives".
=== Goldsmith affair and remarriage ===
In 1964, she embarked on a decade-long extramarital affair with Sir James Goldsmith, a member of the Goldsmith family. Though both she and Goldsmith, who was then married to his second wife Ginette Lery, believed that the affair would be a passing fling, it soon gained her notoriety in London's gossip columns as a modern mistress. She was eventually coaxed into having his children by their friend John Aspinall, who was also a former friend of Mark Birley who introduced her to Goldsmith.
While still legally married to Birley, she gave birth to Jemima (b. 30 January 1974) and Zac (b. 20 January 1975). Her last child Ben Goldsmith was born on 28 October 1980 at 46, after two consecutive miscarriages. The children were raised in Ormeley Lodge in Ham, London. The half-Jewish and half-Catholic Goldsmith was an occasional presence in their lives as he divided time between three families. In 1978, Goldsmith and Lady Annabel married solely to legitimise their children.
Goldsmith moved to New York with his new mistress Laure Boulay de la Meurthe, daughter of Alfred, Comte Boulay de la Meurthe, in 1981 and spent the last years of his life mostly in France and Mexico. He became known for quoting Sacha Guitry's words, "If you marry your mistress you create a job vacancy." Often wrongly credited with the quote, Goldsmith admitted, "I quoted him at dinner, and it was pinned on me. I don't mind. ... I just don't want to claim what's not mine." In 1997, she and her youngest three children inherited a portion of Goldsmith's wealth, estimated varyingly at £1.6 and $1.7–$2.4 billion.
She resided in Ormeley Lodge, a 6-acre (2.4 ha) Georgian mansion on the edge of Richmond Park, with two Grand Basset Griffon Vendéens, Daisy and Lily, and three Norfolk terriers, Barney, Boris and Bindy. In 2003, she remarked on her children's varied marital patterns by observing, "All my children with James marry young and breed, and my children with Mark do the opposite."
=== Later life and death ===
Lady Annabel had fourteen grandchildren. She spent part of each year at her 250-acre (1.0 km2) organic farm in the hills above Benahavís and had a 1930s holiday home by the seaside in Bognor Regis, West Sussex. Asked about her regrets in life, in 2004, she confessed wishing that she had, instead of marrying twice, been "a one-man woman".
Lady Annabel died on 18 October 2025, at the age of 91.
== Activism and philanthropy ==
Lady Annabel was president of the Richmond Park branch of the Royal Society of St George, a patriotic outreach society aimed to motivate youth. She was a donor to and supporter of the Countryside Alliance, the environmental charity The Soil Association, and African Solutions to African Problems (ASAP), which works to mitigate the impact of HIV/AIDS on orphans and vulnerable children in South Africa. As an animal lover, she was also one of the patrons of the Dogs Trust and a supporter of the Battersea Dogs & Cats Home, along with being vice-president of the British Show Pony Society.
She had an early interest in journalism but declined a low-level position at the Daily Mail at age 19 to get married instead. She contributed opinion editorials to national newspapers The Sunday Times, The Daily Telegraph and The Sunday Telegraph, among others.
Inspired by Hungarian Premier Imre Nagy's radio address during the Hungarian Revolution, in November 1956, she and Birley volunteered with the Save the Children organisation in Vienna. She organised charitable donations and travelled daily to look after refugees who crossed the Austrian border into the frontier town of Andau. In May 1997, she campaigned with her second husband in Putney, the constituency unsuccessfully contested by Goldsmith for his Referendum Party. She continued to support her husband's ideas, like the single currency referendum, after his death as part of the Referendum Movement, which was headed by Paul Sykes and Lord McAlpine of West Green and of which she became honorary president.
In January 1999, she launched the Democracy Movement, of which she was president and her son Robin was chairman until 2004. Starting from 12 January 2001, the organisation launched a £500,000 advertising and leafleting campaign to expose the parliamentary votes of pro-Brussels candidates in 120 "target" seats before the May general elections. The Democracy Movement released two million pamphlets carrying gloom-ridden headlines about a European state and published full page local newspaper advertisements in the constituencies of 70 Labour MPs, 35 Liberal Democrats, six Conservatives and three Scottish National Party candidates. Describing the campaign as an effort "in memory of Jimmy", she said:
I'm not anti-European – my husband was half European and my children are a quarter French. I just don't want to be governed by Brussels, and I don't think people want to give up their sovereignty. Jimmy used to describe it as sitting at the top of the mountain watching a train crash – that was like us heading for the European superstate.
On 17 December 2007, she testified at the inquest into the death of Diana, Princess of Wales, where she denied the rumour that the princess was in love with and/or pregnant by Dodi Fayed. "She was in love with Hasnat Khan. I felt she was still on the rebound from Hasnat Khan... She might have been having a wonderful time with him, I'm sure, but I thought her remark that she needed marriage like a rash meant that she was not serious about it", Lady Annabel told the jury.
== Books ==
In March 2004, Weidenfeld & Nicolson published her memoirs Annabel: An Unconventional Life, which recounted her life from a pre-World War II aristocratic childhood and her glamorous social circle of the 1960s to her status as an active grandmother. The book was serialised in The Mail on Sunday. On the promotion tour, she gave numerous interviews and participated in a discussion with historian Andrew Roberts at the annual Cheltenham Festival of Literature in April 2004. A Daily Telegraph profile observed that, "What seems to have kept Annabel afloat is her almost naive ability to let bygones be bygones". Claudia FitzHerbert's review in the same newspaper denounced the autobiography as "woodenly hilarious" and "disappointingly vague".
David Chapman, reviewing the book for the Newsquest Media Group Newspapers, concluded, "This is a decidedly funny memoir that includes the scrapes and japes of nob culture." Lorne Jackson of the Sunday Mercury was totally dismissive of what he called "a dull memoir", stating: "This could have all been explained in one page, possibly two if the type was particularly large." The Sunday Times commented that, "Annabel comes across as a decent woman ... but her writing is flat, with a few too many clumsy constructions, and her story lacks drama, even when terrible things happen to her." Biographer Selina Hastings called it "a well-ordered, decently written book," while the Evening Standard wrote, "Goldsmith herself comes across as fun and warm, a good sport, if sometimes strangely submissive and a little overfond of her own breasts." Annabel became a No.1 London best-seller for non-fiction. Nationally, the memoirs reached the top ten non-fiction best-sellers in England, fluctuating from No. 7 to No. 4 and then No. 6.
She followed her autobiography, two years later in September 2006, by ghost-writing her pet dog Copper's autobiography in the name of Copper: A Dog's Life. Her daughter India Jane illustrated the book. Copper was originally bought by the Goldsmiths as a reward to their daughter Jemima for passing her Common Entrance Examination, but he remained in Lady Annabel's care for most of his life and had an adventurous time in Richmond. "Amid tough competition, he was probably the greatest character I ever knew", she told The Daily Telegraph. The mongrel, who died in 1998, was famed for travelling by bus, chasing joggers and visiting a Richmond pub, the Dysart Arms.
Her literary efforts originated after the experience, according to her, of a life-defining moment on 29 December 2000. She, her son Benjamin, daughter Jemima and her two sons, plus her niece Lady Cosima Somerset and her two children were travelling to Kenya, when a passenger on their British Airways plane stormed into the cockpit and tried to seize the controls. The autopilot on the flight to Nairobi became temporarily disengaged and the jumbo was knocked off course, abruptly diving and plunging 17,000 feet (5,200 m) below. "Nobody on that plane thought, 'am I going to die?'" she later recalled. "They all thought, 'we are going to die'. It was horrible, horrible." This near-death incident was credited by Lady Annabel as the catalyst for her writings. "I had always thought that I would write a book", she claimed, "but writing my memoirs didn't really come into my head until after that flight." In the introduction to Annabel, she wrote:
Shortly after the accident, with an awareness of how close my children and their children came to being denied their future, an understanding of the fragility of my own hold on life and a profound appreciation for my own past, I decided to write this book.
Her third book, No Invitation Required: The Pelham Cottage Years, was released in November 2009. The book is composed of "intimate and perceptive essays [and] pen-portraits of some of the extraordinary figures that entered the Birley and Goldsmith circles – among them, Lord Lambton, Patrick Plunket, John Aspinall, Geoffrey Keating, Lord Lucan, Dominic Elwes and Claus von Bülow."
== Bibliography ==
Goldsmith, Annabel (2004). Annabel: An Unconventional Life: The Memoirs of Lady Annabel Goldsmith. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 0-297-82966-1.
—— (2006). Copper: A Dog's Life. Illustrated by India Jane Birley. London: Time Warner. ISBN 0-316-73204-4.
—— (2009). No Invitation Required: The Pelham Cottage Years. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 978-0-297-85451-7.
== References ==
== External links ==
Lady Annabel Goldsmith at IMDb
Woman's Hour: Leading Women interview, audio appearance during promotional tour for Annabel—BBC Radio 4
Democracy Movement, a non-party and anti-EU pressure group founded by Lady Annabel |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dove_World_Outreach_Center_Quran-burning_controversy | Dove World Outreach Center Quran-burning controversy | In July 2010, Terry Jones, the pastor of the Dove World Outreach Center in Gainesville, Florida, United States, announced plans to burn 200 copies of the Quran on the ninth anniversary of the September 11 attacks. The announcement attracted significant media attention and sparked international outrage, particularly throughout the Islamic world. Numerous world leaders urged Jones to cancel the event. His threat led to protests across the Middle East and Asia, resulting in at least 20 deaths. In early September 2010, Jones announced the event was cancelled and pledged not to burn the Quran.
Despite his earlier statement, on March 20, 2011, Jones held a "trial of the Quran" at his church in Gainesville. During the event, the Quran was declared "guilty" of crimes against humanity and was subsequently burned in the church sanctuary. The act triggered widespread protests in Afghanistan, including a violent attack in the city of Mazar-i-Sharif, where demonstrators stormed a United Nations compound, killing at least 30 people, including seven UN staff members, and injuring more than 150 others. Jones disclaimed any responsibility. Norwegian, Swedish, Nepalese and Romanian nationals were among the UN workers killed. On April 4, 2011, two U.S. soldiers were killed by an Afghan police officer, an act that was attributed to outrage over the Quran burning. American news analysts criticized and blamed Hamid Karzai, President of Afghanistan, for drawing attention to the Quran burning.
== Terry Jones ==
Terry Jones was born in October 1951 in Cape Girardeau, Missouri. He attended college for two years, worked at a hotel, and joined the now defunct Maranatha Campus Ministries. He moved to Cologne, Germany, where in 1981, he founded a charismatic church, the Christian Community of Cologne (CGK).
Jones received an honorary degree from an unaccredited theology school in 1983, and began using the title "Doctor." He was fined for this misuse of a credential title by a German administrative court. By the late 2000s, the CGK grew to have a membership of approximately 800–1000. According to the German magazine, Der Spiegel, the congregation kicked Jones out in 2008 due to the "climate of fear and control" that he employed, which included elements of "brainwashing" and telling congregants to beat their children with rods. He was accused of improper use of church funds, and forcing congregants to labor for free. A leader of the Cologne church said Jones did not "project the biblical values and Christianity, but always made himself the center of everything." Others accused him of being violent and fanatical. Deutsche Presse-Agentur reported that church members said Jones ran the Cologne church like a cult, using psychological pressure.
Between 2001 and 2008, Jones served as the part-time pastor of the Gainesville, Florida church Dove World Outreach, frequently traveling back and forth between Germany and the United States. Jones assumed full-time duties at Dove World Outreach in 2008 after leaving the German church. By September 2010, Dove World was said to have 50 members, with about 30 members reportedly attending services.
In 2010, Jones published Islam Is of the Devil, a polemic that claims Islam promotes violence, and that Muslims want to impose sharia in the United States. After Jones announced the Quran burning, the German Evangelical Alliance denounced his theological statements and his craving for attention.
Following an invitation from the English Defence League, Jones considered attending a rally in Luton in the UK in February 2011 to share his views. The anti-fascist group Hope not Hate petitioned the Home Secretary to ban Jones from entering the country. In January 2011, Home Secretary Theresa May announced that Jones would be refused entry to the UK 'for the public good'.
Jones' actions have prompted a religious group to place a $1.2 million bounty on his head; Hezbollah, a Lebanese political party and militant group, has announced a $2 million bounty.
On April 22, 2011, Jones planned to visit the Islamic Center of America in Dearborn, Michigan, to protest sharia, but was arrested, tried and jailed. Local authorities had required him either to post a $45,000 "peace bond" to cover Dearborn's cost if Jones was attacked by extremists or to go to trial. Jones contested that requirement, and the jury voted to require the posting of a $1 "peace bond", but Jones and his co-pastor Wayne Sapp continued to refuse to pay. They were held briefly in jail, while claiming violation of First Amendment rights. That night Jones was released by the court. On November 11, 2011, Wayne County Circuit Court Judge Robert Ziolkowski vacated the "breach of peace" ruling against Terry Jones and Wayne Sapp on the grounds that they were denied due process. Both men's criminal records have since been expunged.
On the evening of April 22, 2012, soon after he was interviewed at WJBK, Jones' gun fired accidentally as he got into his car.
The city allowed him to protest on April 29, a week after the trial, in a designated "free speech zone" outside Dearborn City Hall. Muslim protesters lined Michigan Avenue across the street from City Hall. About an hour into the protest, the crowds broke the barricades and a police line. They rushed the street but were quickly contained by riot police crews. The crowd was throwing water bottles and shoes at supporters of Jones. Police worked to push the crowd back across Michigan Avenue. At least one arrest was made.
== 2010 threat to burn a Quran ==
In 2010, Jones announced plans to burn the Quran on the ninth anniversary of the September 11 attacks, which he dubbed "International Burn a Quran Day". A wide range of politicians and religious groups strongly condemned the planned Quran desecration event. Jones said he canceled the event and intended to go to New York to meet with the imam of Park51, Feisal Abdul Rauf. After saying he would never burn the scriptures, on March 20, 2011, Jones oversaw the burning of a Quran.
This prompted protests, including an attack in Afghanistan that resulted in the deaths of at least 14 people. In April 2011, Jones said he is considering a trial of Muhammad for "crimes against humanity".
=== Background ===
Dove World Outreach Center, where the Quran burning was to occur, is a small congregation in Gainesville, with approximately 50 members. The church, led by pastor Terry Jones and his wife, Sylvia, first gained media attention in the late 2000s (decade) for its anti-Islamic and anti-homosexual messages. In 2009, Dove World posted a sign on its lawn which stated in large red letters "Islam Is of the Devil". Several members of the church also sent their children to their first day of school in August 2009 wearing t-shirts with "Islam Is of the Devil" printed on the back.
The proposal to burn Qurans began with a series of Twitter messages on July 12, and a related discussion on the now-removed Facebook group "Islam Is of the Devil", named after Terry Jones' book. Jones invited Christians to burn the Muslim holy book to remember all 9/11 victims. It was to be held from 6 p.m. to 9 pm. The idea initially had little support and considerable opposition, but Religion News Service ran a story describing Jones' claim that he had received Qurans to burn. CAIR refused to respond, but other religious organizations did. On July 25, Jones posted a YouTube video in which he held up a Quran and said "This is the book that is responsible for 9/11. No, to me it looks like the religion of the devil" which garnered substantial media attention. On August 3, Gainesville mayor Craig Lowe asked the world's media to ignore Jones' church as a "tiny fringe group and an embarrassment to our community", but coverage continued to increase. In early August, Sunni scholars at al-Azhar University in Cairo issued a statement warning of "dangerous consequences" if Qurans were burned. U.S. President Obama condemned the plan saying it would endanger the lives of U.S. troops abroad. American Muslims responded by saying they would celebrate September 11, 2010, as 'love Jesus day' emphasizing the fact that Jesus is believed to be a messenger of God in Islam. Other groups asked people to celebrate Read the Quran Day as a means to international understanding.
=== Reactions ===
==== Local (Florida) ====
A Gainesville Interfaith Forum which was established in November 2009 in response to earlier anti-Islam activities of the church requested for the declaration of September 11 as "Interfaith Solidarity Day", a request that was honored by mayor Craig Lowe. The Forum scheduled a "Gathering for Peace, Understanding and Hope" at Trinity United Methodist Church on the day before the planned burning. Mayor Lowe referred to Dove World as a "tiny fringe group and an embarrassment to our community". Twenty local religious leaders gathered Thursday, September 2, 2010, to call for citizens to rally around Muslims "in a time when so much venom is directed toward them."
==== National ====
Shortly after the event was announced, the National Association of Evangelicals recommended that the event be canceled. The Southern Baptist convention also spoke out against it. The World Evangelical Alliance "asks Muslim neighbors to recognize that the plans announced by a Florida group to burn copies of the Quran on September 11 do not represent the vast majority of Christians." "It dishonors the memory of those who died in the 9/11 attacks and further perpetuates unacceptable violence." The event is broadly condemned by American religious leaders.
John Rankin, President of the Theological Education Institute in Connecticut, has started a "Yes to the Bible, No to the Burning of the Quran" effort. Also Jennifer Bryson is advocating Christian intra-faith dialogue and Christian rejection of "Burn a Quran Day".
Feisal Abdul Rauf, the cleric behind the move to build a Muslim community centre near "Ground Zero" (Park51) said that, should the burning of Qurans have gone ahead, it would have created a disaster in the Muslim world, strengthened the radicals, and enhanced the possibility of terrorist acts against America and American interests.
He also added that retracting the decision to build the mosque would send a wrong message that "moving it is that the headline in the Muslim world will be 'Islam is under attack in America'."
A group of American veterans of the Iraq War and the War in Afghanistan wrote an open letter to HuffPost calling on the American public to respect "the values we risked our lives to protect". "When citizens here participate in hateful rhetoric and intolerance toward Muslims, it leaves soldiers over there exposed." The letter concludes by asking "America, you gotta have our back."
U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton said, "It's regrettable that a pastor in Gainesville, Florida with a church of no more than fifty people can make this outrageous and distressful, disgraceful plan and get, you know, the world's attention." She also said, "It doesn't in any way represent America or Americans or American government or American religious or political leadership," and she emphasized the hope of the U.S. Government that the church would not go through with their plans. U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert Gates called Pastor Jones asking him not to go through with his Quran burning. The U.S. embassy in Kabul issued a statement condemning the plans. Robert Gibbs, White House Press Secretary, criticized the plans stating "any type of activity like that that puts our troops in harm's way would be a concern to this administration."
The commander of the International Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan, General David Petraeus said, "It is precisely the kind of action the Taliban uses and could cause significant problems. Not just here, but everywhere in the world we are engaged with the Islamic community." On the same day hundreds of Afghans protested in Kabul against the planned Quran burning event, chanting "death to America" and throwing rocks at a passing military convoy. Military officials also expressed fears that the protests would spread to other cities. Military officers at the Pentagon consequently said they hoped the rare incursion into politics by a military commander would convince Pastor Jones to cancel his plans. The pastor responded to Petraeus' statement that, "We understand the General's concerns. We are sure that his concerns are legitimate. [Nonetheless] [w]e must send a clear message to the radical element of Islam. We will no longer be controlled and dominated by their fears and threats."
Republicans in Congress also criticized Jones and his plans. House Minority Leader John Boehner said: "Just because you have a right to do something in America does not mean it is the right thing to do." Former Alaska governor Sarah Palin also criticized Jones, calling his plans "insensitive and an unnecessary provocation," and Republican 2008 presidential nominee John McCain and Senate Minority Leader Mitch McConnell both argued that the actions of Jones put American troops overseas at risk. President Barack Obama made a statement on ABC News regarding the event, stating that "what he is proposing to do is completely contrary to our values as Americans." He added that Terry Jones' plan to burn the Quran will put American soldiers at risk. One book distribution website, SacredBookSource.com, offered to give away 1,001 free Qurans and 1,000 free Bibles for every Quran Jones destroyed.
==== International ====
The German Evangelical Alliance formally dissociated itself from the proposed Quran burning, because of the widely circulated report that in his time in Cologne, Jones had been associated with the evangelical alliance.
The Al-Falluja web forum threatened a bloody war against America in response to the burning of the Quran.
Various other Muslims, such as Ahmadiyya have argued that the Dove World Outreach Center is not following the true teachings of Christianity of tolerance and love. They quote Jesus: "But I say unto you, Love your enemies, bless them that curse you, do good to them that hate you, and pray for them which despitefully use you, and persecute you..."(Gospel of Matthew 5:44–45). The Head of the Community, Mirza Masroor Ahmad, has stated that "Religious extremism, be it Christian extremism, Muslim extremism or any other kind, is never a true reflection of the religion".
On August 27, approximately 100 people protested in Indonesia outside the U.S. Embassy. Roni Ruslan of Hizb ut-Tahrir, which advocates Islamic law, said,
No one will be able to control this reaction.... We urge the U.S. government and Christian leaders to stop the crazy plan from this small sect. It's an insult to Islam and to 1.5 billion Muslims around the world.
On September 4, thousands of Indonesians, mostly Muslims, took part in events across the country organized by Hizbut Tahrir. Rokhmat Labib, chairman of the group, called the planned book burning a provocation and predicted that Muslims would fight back should it take place. Lahib said that Muslims must not stay silent when their faith is threatened.
The World Evangelical Alliance condemned the plans to burn the Quran.
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints issued a statement declaring that "A key tenet of our faith is to accord everyone the freedom to worship as they choose. It is regrettable that anyone would regard the burning of any scriptural text as a legitimate form of protest or disagreement."
Humanists International was also critical of the plans to burn the Quran.
On Friday, September 10 in the northern Afghan city of Fayzabad, thousands took part in a protest against the planned Quran-burning following Eid ul-Fitr prayers. Violent demonstrators threw stones at a German-controlled NATO base. Initial reports said troops inside opened fire, killing up to three people and injuring several others, but a local police official said that only local police, not the NATO troops, were involved in the shooting. According to the acting police chief of Badakhshan, the protesters broke down the first perimeter gate surrounding the base and beat Afghan security guards and police on duty with sticks. Before opening, fire police allegedly fired warning shots and were also fired upon from the direction of the demonstrators, said the police official. A local police chief talking to the BBC gave his estimates of the number of protesters to around 1,500 but said that the incident that led to the shooting was a separate one with 150 people participating. This official also said that private security guards were the ones who fired at the people who tried to force their way inside the base. NATO has launched an investigation into the incident. General Zahir Khan of the Kabul police described Quran-burning a thinly disguised pretext for anti-government rallies with the Taliban in attendance.
Protest rallies were held in several other Afghan provinces: Nimruz, Kunar, Nangarhar, Parwan, Baghlan, Kunduz, Balkh and Farah. The Afghan President Hamid Karzai also spoke out against the burning of Qurans saying, "By burning the Quran, they cannot harm it. The Quran is in the hearts and minds of one-and-a-half billion people. Insulting the Quran is an insult to nations." Protests continued throughout the next two days, with three protesters wounded on September 11 and four on September 12 as Afghan security forces shot into groups of protesters, some armed with sticks or throwing stones, to disperse them. Two died in hospital due to severe gunshot wounds. On September 11, protests continued in the country, when Afghan security forces fought back thousands of demonstrators. Four demonstrators were wounded by security forces; firing when they tried to storm several government buildings in Puli Alam, in Logar Province. They also hurled stones at such buildings as the department for women's affairs. In Badakhshan province, another thousand people protested three separate districts, though the police chief said it was peaceful.
The prominent Qatar based scholar, Yusuf al-Qaradawi despite condemning the desecration said,
Responding to an assault is not by carrying out another assault, as this is discouraged in Islam .... Moreover, we, as Muslims, are required to show respect to and believe in the divinely-revealed books and all preceding prophets. If a person insults Jesus (peace be upon him), I, as a Muslim, should feel annoyed by this and act in his defense. This is what happened upon the release of a film which attacked Jesus: Muslims living in the country where the film was shown reacted angrily in protest. We believe in and highly respect all prophets and messengers, including Moses and Jesus (peace be upon them all).... The noble Quran even goes further and forbids us from cursing the pagans' idols, saying: (And do not abuse those whom they call upon besides Allah, lest exceeding the limits they should abuse Allah out of ignorance.) (Al-An`am 6:108).
Small rallies were reported in Pakistan in Karachi and the central Pakistani city Multan with around 200 protesters. There were also protests in Indonesia, Gaza, and India, a non-Muslim majority country. On September 15, regarding reports that at least 20 deaths worldwide were connected to Quran desecration protests, Randall Terry responded that "Such logic is like saying that a woman who is abused by her boyfriend or husband is guilty of bringing violence on herself because she said or did something that irritated him."
Protests in Kashmir escalated over several days, as Quran demonstrations quickly turned into separatist protests against the Indian government in the Muslim-majority province. On September 13, protesters defied a military-imposed curfew, setting fire to a Christian missionary school and government buildings. At least 13 people were shot dead by police, and one policeman was killed by a thrown rock; at least 113 policemen and 45 protesters were wounded. On September 12, a church was burned and a curfew instituted in Punjab. Violence also spread into Poonch in the Jammu division, with three protesters shot by police. Protesters burned several government offices and vehicles. Police prevented the burning of a Christian school in Poonch, and another in Mendhar the next day, in clashes leaving four protesters killed, 19 wounded, but dozens of government offices, a police station, and eight vehicles were burned. As of September 16, the Hindustan Times placed the death toll at 90, blaming much of the resentment on the indefinite military curfew, the first in ten years to affect the entire Kashmir Valley.
In Somalia, the al-Qaeda–inspired group Al-Shabaab organized a protest rally against the Quran-burning attended by thousands.
The head of Iran's Islamic Culture and Relations Organization labeled the Quran burning proposal a "Zionist" insult. A group of Iranian students also protested outside the Swiss embassy in Tehran to protest the desecration of the Quran, and chanted slogans condemned the desecration on the anniversary of the 9/11 attacks. The Iranian House of Cartoon invited international artists to an online exhibition to condemn the desecration of the Qurans on the theme of Devil against Holy Books, Devil against Human Nature and Terry Jones. More than 30 cartoons had been submitted from Iran, Turkey, Brazil, Ukraine and other countries since the event was announced on September 13. While there would be no prizes, the entries would be published at a later date. Foreign Minister Manouchehr Mottaki called the proposal "heinous" at a joint press conference with his Malawian counterpart Etta Banda. He also added that "The stance of the Muslim world, including the Islamic Republic of Iran, is transparent: Condemnation of this heinous, insulting and sacrilegious act by whoever perpetuated it. We clearly see the hands of the Zionists behind all threats and provocative moves [aimed to strain relations] between the believers of various faiths. This is exactly the sort of extremist move that seeks to realize their objectives through creating religious discord."
Iran's ambassador to the United Nations, Mohammad Khazaee, said he had filed a complaint with the body to "attract the international community's attention to Iran's stance and to warn against the serious repercussions of insulting the holy book of Muslims and hurting the religious feelings of more than one-fourth of the world's population." He also condemned the actions as "abhorrent." Iran's parliament speaker Ali Larijani censured the US for its apparent silence on the "outrageous act of desecrating the holy Quran, urging the Muslim world to take swift action against it." He added that the "silence of those who beat the drums for freedom and democracy on the blasphemous decision has drawn the ire of freedom-seeking humans and stirred international hatred of the U.S." He also said the desecration of the Quran would be a "brutal" act that shows "barbarism in the modern era." While he concluded that such measures would "undoubtedly hurt spiritual and religious feelings of millions of Muslims across the world as well as followers of all divine faiths," and warned American legislators they should expect a "harsh fate" if they do not act "wisely." The parliament's Presiding Board member, Mohammad Dehqan, said that "Whenever Zionists want to cover up their atrocities in Palestine, they try to trigger anti-Islamic sentiments across the United States and the West to deflect global public attention from their brutalities against Palestinians." He also criticised the "Zionists" for trying to paint a violent picture of Islam to discourage others from converting to Islam; he went on to urge Muslims around the world to "remain united to stop the recurrence of similar profane moves." The head of the National Security and Foreign Policy Commission of parliament, Alaeddin Boroujerdi, said the "U.S. police reluctance to react to such sacrilegious action indicates Washington's green light to such a heinous crime. The U.S. government should take serious action against the perpetrators of this provocative move and declare its stance on that regard." Grand Ayatollahs Hossein Noori Hamedani and Naser Makarem Shirazi favored the killing of Quran-burners, but that the permission of a religious judge was required.
In Iraq, Grand Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani cautioned people to show restraint labeling the act "expression of hatred of Islam."
==== Counter protests ====
A hacker with nickname "Iraq Resistance" posted a voice-altered video to YouTube published under the byname "iqziad", claiming to have released the "Here you have" computer worm to "demand respect for Islam", blaming Terry Jones, and saying "I can smash all of those infected, but I wouldn't". The worm, first discovered August 20, attacked organizations including NASA, Walt Disney, and the Florida Department of Transportation, and produced spam that rose to 10% of all email traffic on September 9.
In South Africa, on September 10, Johannesburg businessman Mohammed Vawda had announced his own intention to burn the Bible on September 11 in the Johannesburg CBD in response to DWOC's own announcement. However, an Islamic lawyers' association, Scholars of the Truth, quickly intervened by filing an injunction against Vawda in court on the basis of opposition against burning any religious texts, and Judge Sita Kolbe of the Gauteng Division granted the injunction, thus prohibiting Vawda's announced burning. Lawyer and Scholars of the Truth spokesperson Yasmin Omar, who spearheaded the injunction with her husband Zahir, stated that the judge's ruling established that "freedom of expression is not unlimited if one exercises freedom of expression that is harmful to others".
==== Governmental reactions ====
Canada. Prime Minister Stephen Harper, condemned the planned Quran-burning in unequivocal terms, and said, "My God and my Christ is a tolerant God, and that's what we want to see in this world".
Cuba. Former president Fidel Castro called the planned book burning "a huge media show". After Jones called off the event, Castro said, "It would be nice to know what the FBI agents who visited him said 'to persuade him.'"
France. Defence minister Hervé Morin said that the threatened Quran burning and a French ban on face coverings enacted shortly afterward did not put French or NATO troops at increased risk: "when you are at the maximum, you cannot go higher".
Germany. Chancellor Angela Merkel said of the planned Florida event, "It is plainly disrespectful – even abhorrent. It's simply wrong."
Indonesia. President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono warned in a televised speech that the plans to burn the Quran threatened world peace.
Iran. Supreme Leader of Iran Ali Khamenei said "All Muslims hold the U.S. government and their politicians accountable. If the US government is sincere in its claims of not having been involved in this incident, it must mete out a befitting punishment to the main perpetrators of this serious crime". President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad called the plan a "Zionist plot that is against the teachings of all divine prophets."
Lebanon. President Michel Suleiman denounced the plans adding that burning the Quran is a clear contradiction of the teachings of the three Abrahamic religions [Christianity, Islam and Judaism] and of dialogue among the three faiths."
Pakistan's government strongly condemned the plan. Pakistani Foreign Ministry spokesman Abdul Basit told reporters "This is against the spirit of any religion, the government and the people of Pakistan, including Pakistani Christians, are outraged at this planned, shameful act by a self-proclaimed pastor."
Palestine. In Gaza, Hamas Prime Minister Ismail Haniyeh called Terry Jones a "crazy priest who reflects a crazy Western attitude toward Islam and the Muslim nation."
United States. President Barack Obama said "I just want [Jones] to understand that this stunt that he is talking about pulling could greatly endanger our young men and women in uniform who are in Iraq, who are in Afghanistan." He also said that the planned event was being used as an al-Qaeda recruitment tool, and urged that the Quran burning be cancelled because it violated U.S. principles of religious tolerance. The president also expressed frustration that under the law, nothing could be done other than citing the church under a local ordinance for public burnings.
Vatican City. The Dicastery for Interreligious Dialogue issued a statement saying that the book burning would be "an outrageous and grave gesture".
Supranational bodies
NATO. Anders Fogh Rasmussen, NATO Secretary General, said that the church's plans would violate NATO's values and might have a negative impact on the security of its soldiers.
Organisation of the Islamic Conference expressed deep concern and alarm at the burnings.
United Nations. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon said he was "deeply disturbed", adding that such a gesture would be intolerable by any religion.
==== Media reactions ====
Some in the media attributed the event to silly season and sensationalism.
James Poniewozik, of Time gave a few reasons for media coverage of the event: "tiny groups of fringe idiots" often get coverage, presumably because the vast majority of readers find them strange and different. The event also happens to coincide with a seeming American "Islamophobia" and concern over the "Ground Zero mosque;" he also added that "This is, unfortunately, one of those cases in which, by having become news, the story is now making legitimate news." Slate's (the title of his blog post on the controversy). "[Jones] gets to hold the country, or at least the part of the country that pays attention to such news, hostage, with reporters getting the secretary of state and our general in Afghanistan on the record to condemn this nobody. Instead of dying in obscurity, he'll die a has-been. Good work." ABC News' Chris Cuomo wrote that the "media gave life to this Florida burning ... and that was reckless." Roger Simon, a columnist for Politico responded to David Petraeus' remarks saying "The issue is not the images; it is the acts."
Both the Associated Press and Fox News stated their intention to ignore it.
Other media reactions
The conservative Powerline blog stated it was against the Quran burning, but also said that "what gives rise to this dilemma, of course, is the fanaticism of radical Muslims, who have, indeed, responded violently to real or perceived slights to their religion." John Hinderaker, a lawyer and freelance writer, argued that "Perversely, the crazier radical Muslims behave, the more it benefits them (those burning the Qurans). Today it is burning Qurans, but the broader objective is to outlaw, de facto, any criticism of Islam." Another conservative writer Michelle Malkin, echoed an article by Christopher Hitchens, when she bemoaned "the eternal flame of Muslim outrage. When everything from sneakers to stuffed animals to comics to frescos to beauty queens to fast-food packaging to undies serves as dry tinder for Allah's avengers, it's a grand farce to feign concern about the recruitment effect of a few burnt Qurans in the hands of a two-bit attention-seeker in Florida."
A Facebook page support the pastor's plan got more than 16,000 fans by eve of the event, while fans opposing the event numbered in the hundreds of thousands.
==== Actions against Dove World Outreach Center ====
The Gainesville fire department refused to grant the church a burning permit; regardless, the church planned to proceed with the event despite the potential fine. Following the July 2010 announcement of the Quran burning, the bank holding a $140,000 mortgage loan on the church property, demanded immediate repayment of the balance, and the property insurance was canceled. A lighted sign and an acrylic cross on the property were damaged by rocks. On September 8, 2010, Rackspace, the provider of web hosting service to the Dove World Outreach website, disconnected the site, citing a violation of their terms of use policy. A spokesman for Rackspace told news media that the shutdown was not "a constitutional issue," it was "a contract issue."
The city of Gainesville has said it would charge the church $200,000, representing the cost of a security presence by the police department, the Alachua County Sheriff's Office, and some city public works employees. The Alachua County Sheriff's Office estimated that it spent $100,000 on providing security to Jones, and specifically assigned 160 of the 242 deputies on duty September 11 to police activities related to the planned burning.
==== Death threats ====
Jones said that he hoped the event would not lead to violence. He said that he had been receiving death threats regularly since the event was announced. Evan Kohlmann of Flashpoint Global Partners, a firm that "tracks radical militant websites," said that a suicide bomber had threatened to drive a truck into the church and others had discussed setting the building on fire, though it was not known if the discussions were serious. The Wall Street Journal quoted an individual calling himself Abu Dujanah from a jihadist website, "Now, I wish to bomb myself in this church as revenge for the sake of Allah's talk... And here I register my name here that I want to be an intended martyr."
When death threats directed against Jones were mailed to The Gainesville Sun in a letter postmarked from Johnstown, Pa., the American Muslim Association of North America issued a statement signed by 15 imams including Ahmed Al Mehdawi of the Islamic Center of Gainesville condemning the death threats. During Jones' September 11 visit to New York, Police Commissioner Ray Kelly said that police plan to keep a "close tab on him" for his own safety.
In March 2013 the al-Qaeda English-language magazine Inspire published a poster stating "Wanted dead or alive for crimes against Islam" with a prominent image of Terry Jones.
==== Other Quran desecration incidents ====
Within hours of Jones' cancellation announcement on September 9, Westboro Baptist Church member Megan Roper announced via Twitter that the church would proceed with its own Quran-burning ceremony; Her mother said she was angry that the media had not covered WBC's 2008 Quran-burning similarly to its approach in 2010. Phelps announced his intention to "burn the Quran and the doomed American flag at noon on September 11", subsequently doing so without incident.
Duncan Philp of the Wyoming Tyranny Response Team obtained a permit to protest outside the Wyoming State Capitol from 11:00 to 13:00 on September 11. He expressed the intent to set a Quran on fire at noon, or, if the public burning was not permitted, to tear up the Quran and move the pieces in a garbage can to a private business to be burned. Members of the local Unitarian Universalist Church planned a counter-protest. Later the group described the exercise as a test of free speech and said they would take no action on state property.
In Pueblo West, Colorado, a Quran was bolted to a stop sign during the weekend of September 11–12.
In Nashville, Evangelical pastor Bob Old and another preacher burned a Quran with lighter fluid in a private yard. A group of protesters came to his house, but there were no confrontations. He decided not to post the burning to YouTube.
In lower Manhattan, protesters against the "Ground Zero mosque" took some actions against the Quran. The latter, who refused to identify himself, was reported to have been "escorted away to safety a few blocks away" by police after burning a few pages. He was subsequently recognized as a New Jersey transit worker, and was fired by the agency for violating a code of conduct, despite being off-duty while at a protest in New York. This in turn has drawn criticism from New Jersey state senator Ray Lesniak and the American Civil Liberties Union, which said a person employed in a non-policy related role cannot be fired for off-the-job political expression.
Also, in Texas, on the ninth anniversary of the 9/11 terrorist attacks, a group of protesters made up of Christians, Muslims, Buddhists and atheists gathered at Sam Houston Park to challenge the plan of evangelist David Grisham, director of a Christian activist group to burn the Quran. An activist named Isom took away the Quran from Grisham and he left the park.
Alex Stewart, a research lawyer in Brisbane, Australia, purportedly rolled "joints" using pages from the Quran and the Bible and smoked them in a YouTube video. The video was quickly removed from YouTube, but many copies have since been posted and related links. According to Michael Cope, president of the Queensland Council for Civil Liberties, "I don't think on the face of it that what he's done is an offence...nor do we think it should be," referring to the Queensland Anti-Discrimination Act. Stewart was placed on leave from Queensland University of Technology, where he worked, by its vice-chancellor Peter Coaldrake pending a review under the university's code of conduct. Coaldrake said, "The university is obviously extremely, extremely unhappy and disappointed that this sort of incident should occur... It may have occurred in the individual's private time or on a weekend – it doesn't matter... There is always, in the community, collateral damage to these sorts of things." Stewart was returned to his job on September 22 after he had "apologised unreservedly" for the nature of the incident.
With mainstream media sources pledging to limit coverage of Quran burning, individuals took to YouTube. A YouTube spokesperson indicated that they do not prescreen videos, and generally responded to complaints about the issue by placing warnings about offensive material. HuffPost questioned why the Quran-burning story was treated as major news, while many news outlets did not cover the prosecution of 12 soldiers for crimes including the premeditated murder of Afghan civilians, possibly for sport, and the keeping of body parts as trophies. Keith Richburg, a journalist for The Washington Post in Beijing, said that professional journalists "act as a filter on what information should be released or left out so that it does not hurt society", and warned that digital media allows the role of media as a gatekeeper to be undermined. American counterintelligence experts said that with no images of Quran burnings televised during the September 11 anniversary, that violent anti-American protests in Muslim countries would soon fizzle.
A Quran was found shot and burned in the driveway of the Annoor Mosque in Knoxville, Tennessee. Knoxville police and the FBI began investigating the incident as a possible civil rights violation, a threat, and a hate crime. A YouTube video posted by a user "MuslimKnoxvilleOrg" showing the burning of a Quran stuffed with bacon and doused with lighter fluid was also being investigated, though it was not immediately connected to the mosque. According to Knoxville FBI Special Agent Richard L. Lambert, "The fact that the burnt and shot Quran was placed on mosque property can be construed as a threat of force ... The issue comes down to determining what was the perpetrator's intent." Federal charges were considered, based on a 1968 law making it an offense "to use force to prevent anyone from carrying out their religious beliefs"; state charges were also considered under Tennessee civil rights law prohibiting intimidation, and misdemeanor offenses such as disorderly conduct were also explored.
In Michigan, a burned Quran was found in front of the Islamic Center of East Lansing. Local police and the FBI were called in to investigate. Dawud Walid, director of Michigan's Islamic council chapter said, "This is no different than someone painting a swastika on a synagogue or burning a cross on a black church." On September 21, the County Prosecutor said the man who turned himself in for the incident would not face charges because the act was not a crime under Michigan's criminal code.
On the north side of Chicago, Illinois, a burned Quran and a letter were found on the sidewalk outside the Muslim Community Center over the September 11–12 weekend, and were turned over to be investigated by Chicago police bomb and arson unit.
=== Cancellation (postponement) and aftermath ===
On September 9, Jones announced the cancellation of the event, and a plan to fly to New York to meet with the Imam of Park51, Feisal Abdul Rauf. In an interview on the morning of September 11, the day of the intended protest, he said, "We will definitely not burn the Quran...Not today, not ever." Despite the cancellation, visiting protesters from both sides attempted to reach the rally, but a heavy police presence dominated the area. A visitor from Atlanta who attempted to burn a Quran had his book and lighter seized by police.
The World Evangelical Alliance later contacted Jones, asking him to apologize for the planned Quran burning. In a public statement, he refused, saying, "We will not repent for standing up for the gospel", adding that Christian churches "have lost their guts to stand up for Christianity. But instead, they bow down to the political powers and the false doctrines of the nations."
As of October 22, 2010, Jones collected a new car which was offered as a reward to Jones in a "quirky radio" ad by a New Jersey Hyundai dealership owned by former New York Giants player, Brad Benson if Jones did not burn Qurans. Jones said he did not learn of the reward until several weeks after canceling the burning.
On January 19, 2011, it was announced that Jones had been banned from entering the United Kingdom by the British Home Secretary Theresa May. Jones had been invited to give a speech for a Right-Wing group England is Ours in Milton Keynes.
== 2011 burning of the Quran ==
On March 20, 2011, Dove World Outreach Center held a trial which they called "International Judge the Quran Day". Jones played the part of a "judge", wearing traditional robes. The Quran was placed on trial for six hours, charging it with responsibility for violence. At the end of the "trial" the jury found the Quran guilty of all charges and "sentenced" to burning. Pastor Wayne Sapp then "executed" the Quran by burning it.
Jones sought a permit in April 2011 to hold a rally at the Islamic Center of America in Dearborn, Michigan. A jury sided with prosecutors, ruling that Jones and Sapp would breach the peace. Judge Mark Somers set the bond for each man at $1, which they refused to pay. Somers remanded them to jail. Jones was barred from the area of the mosque for three years.
On November 11, 2011, Wayne County Circuit Court Judge Robert Ziolkowski vacated the "breach of peace" ruling against Terry Jones and Wayne Sapp on the grounds that they were denied due process. Both men's criminal records have since been expunged.
=== Reactions ===
After a sermon on April 1 in the city's main mosque, angry demonstrators in Mazar-i-Sharif, Afghanistan, killed at least 12 people, including five Nepalese security guards and three other members of staff working for the United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA). Jones denied responsibility. Pajhwok Afghan News reported that the dead included Norwegian, Romanian and Swedish nationals, two of them decapitated. BBC quoted police general, Abdul Rafu Taj, as saying that "according to the initial reports... none were beheaded", and that they were shot in the head. Up to 2,000 protesters took to the streets on April 2 in Kandahar, chanting anti-U.S. slogans. The protesters burned several vehicles and hurled stones at police who were trying to control the mob. They also torched a girls' high school and burned down a school bus in the centre of the city. Security forces killed nine protesters and injured 73. Smaller protests occurred in other cities.
The Gambian government has called for the arrest of Terry Jones. Ebrima O. Camara, the secretary general and head of the civil service, described the burning as "heinous" and asked for prosecution to proceed "as soon as possible".
An affiliate website of Iran's Revolution Guard Cyber Defense Command quoted a report by the newspaper Vatan-e Emrooz that claimed Iranian border patrols were burning copies of "smuggled" Bibles in Iran. On March 25, 2011, the Iranian Ambassador to the United Nations, Mohammad Khazaee, condemned the burning and called for Jones' prosecution.
In southern Lebanon, students protested peacefully with Shia sheikh Hassan al-Zayyat outside the Lebanese International University to construct the largest Quran on Earth, weighing 100 kg. Lebanese Shia militant group Hezbollah has put a $2.4 million bounty on the head of pastor Terry Jones, according to the FBI.
On March 22, 2011, Pakistanis protested in the Punjab Christian neighborhoods and burned tires in front of a church. On March 22, 2011, Amir Hamza, the leader of Pakistan's banned Islamic organization Lashkar-e-Taiba, issued a $2.2 million fatwa for anyone who kills pastor Terry Jones. On March 25, 2011, protests erupted in Pakistan, where the Jamiat-e-Ulema-e-Islam organized province-wide protests, including a road blockage and burnings of effigies and American flags in the province of Sindh. A man desecrated the Bible at the gates of Saint Anthony's Catholic Church in Lahore to "avenge" Jones' desecration of the Quran in Florida; he was arrested by Pakistani police. The President of the Pakistani Bishops' Conference, Lawrence Saldanha, who currently serves as the Metropolitan bishop of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Lahore, called for the arrest of Jones. Saldanha said Jones' burning of the Quran has caused scandal and fury in the Muslim world and the deaths of more than 20 people. Archbishop Saldanha said the U.S. government should detain Jones.
A South African Islamic organization called Scholars for Truth turned to the country's courts to prevent a fellow-Muslim from burning Bibles in retaliation to threats by Jones to burn the Quran.
United States president Barack Obama strongly condemned both the Quran burning, calling it an act of "extreme intolerance and bigotry", and the "outrageous" attacks by protesters, referring to them as "an affront to human decency and dignity". "No religion tolerates the slaughter and beheading of innocent people, and there is no justification for such a dishonorable and deplorable act." U.S. legislators, including Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid, also condemned both the burning and the subsequent violence. Gen. David Petraeus said, "This was a surprise," and "That action was hateful; it was intolerant."
On April 4, 2011, two U.S. soldiers were shot and killed by an Afghan policeman in an attack that was attributed to his anger over the burning of the Quran. The attacker was later killed in a shootout with NATO troops. The attacker has been called a hero and a martyr by some of the local community, with his grave becoming an unofficial shrine, and local mosques being named after him. However, at least one local cleric has stated that the attack could not be justified on religious grounds.
== See also ==
2005 Quran desecration controversy
2008 Eucharist incident
2012 Afghanistan Quran burning protests
Book burning
Criticism of Islam
Freedom of speech in the United States
Islamophobia
== References ==
== External links ==
Muslim Community Organizes Vigils, Teach-Ins to Counter Planned Quran Burning – video report by Democracy Now!, September 8, 2010
Terry Jones
Stand Up America (Terry Jones' political group)
Braveheart Show's channel on YouTube (Terry Jones)
Appearances on C-SPAN
Terry Jones collected news and commentary at Al Jazeera English
Pastor Terry Jones collected news and commentary at The Guardian
Terry Jones (pastor) collected news and commentary at The New York Times |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Kerr,_7th_Marquess_of_Lothian | John Kerr, 7th Marquess of Lothian | John William Robert Kerr, 7th Marquess of Lothian (1 February 1794 – 14 November 1841), styled Lord Newbottle until 1815 and Earl of Ancram from 1815 to 1824, was a Tory politician. He served briefly as Captain of the Yeomen of the Guard under Sir Robert Peel between September and November 1841.
== Background ==
Kerr was the eldest son of William Kerr, 6th Marquess of Lothian, and his first wife Lady Harriet, daughter of John Hobart, 2nd Earl of Buckinghamshire. Styled Lord Newbottle from birth, he became known by the courtesy title Earl of Ancram when his father succeeded to the marquessate in 1815.
== Career ==
Lord Ancram entered the House of Commons in 1820 as one of two representatives for Huntingdon, a seat he held until he succeeded his father in the marquessate in 1824. He also succeeded his father as Colonel of the Edinburgh Militia, a position that he held until his own death. In September 1841 he was sworn of the Privy Council and appointed Captain of the Yeomen of the Guard in the Tory administration of Sir Robert Peel, a post he held until his early death in November of the same year. He also served as Lord-Lieutenant of Roxburghshire between 1824 and 1841.
== Family ==
Lord Lothian married Lady Cecil Chetwynd-Talbot, daughter of Charles Chetwynd-Talbot, 2nd Earl Talbot, in 1831. They had five sons and two daughters. Their two elder sons, William and Schomberg, both succeeded in the title. Their third son Lord Ralph Kerr became a major-general in the army and was the father of Philip Kerr, 11th Marquess of Lothian, while their fourth son Lord Walter Kerr became an admiral in the Royal Navy and was the grandfather of Peter Kerr, 12th Marquess of Lothian, and great-grandfather of Michael Kerr, 13th Marquess of Lothian. Lord Lothian died in November 1841, aged 47. After his death, the Marchioness converted to Catholicism with her two younger sons, Lord Ralph Kerr and Lord Walter Kerr, and her daughters. The Marchioness of Lothian died in May 1877, aged 69.
== References ==
== External links ==
Hansard 1803–2005: contributions in Parliament by John Kerr, 7th Marquess of Lothian |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pherzawl_district | Pherzawl district | Pherzawl district is located in the southern part of the state of Manipur. It is bounded on the east by Churachandpur District; on the north by Tamenglong District, Noney District and Jiribam district; on the west by the Cachar District of Assam and on the South by Sinlung Hills, Mizoram. Pherzawl District has approximately 200 villages.
== History ==
The Pherzawl district was formed in 2017 from two western subdivisions of Churachandpur district, viz., Tipaimukh subdivision and Thanlon subdivision. Two more subdivisions have since been created: Vangai Range subdivision out of Tipaimukh, and the Pherzawl subdivision out of Thanlon. The latter is described as "non-functional", which probably means that it does not have separate subdivisional offices. The district was inaugurated on 16 December 2018 by chief minister Okram Ibobi Singh.
== Geography ==
Pherzawl District is located between 93° 11' 16" East longitude and 24° 15' 43" North latitude, and is in the southwestern part of Manipur. The district's elevation is approximately 1037 meters, equivalent to 3,402 feet above sea level. Situated in the extreme southwest of Manipur, it shares borders with Churachandpur, Noney, Tamenglong and Jiribam districts of Manipur, as well as the states of Assam and Mizoram.
The district covers a total area of 2285 sq.km, characterized by rugged hill terrain with prominent rivers such as Barak (Tuiruong), Tuipi, Tuivai, and Hringtuinek (Sartuinek), along with numerous streams and rivulets. Tipaimukh (Ruonglevaisuo), the confluence of Tuivai and Barak rivers, serves as a significant trading hub and port for river transportation. It is also the proposed site for the controversial Tipaimukh Dam project, aimed at flood control and Hydroelectric power generation. Pherzawl District experiences a humid subtropical climate, with moderately fertile soil conducive to agriculture. The district's main crops include rice, maize, and ginger, with agriculture being the primary occupation of the residents.
The region falls within a humid subtropical climate classification. Its soil composition predominantly consists of moderately fertile clay loam, interspersed with patches of clay and loam. Temperature fluctuations span from a minimum of 3.4 °C (38.1 °F) to a maximum of 34.1 °C (93.4 °F). Annual precipitation levels vary between 670 to 1,450 mm (26 to 57 in).
== Administration ==
Pherzawl District is administered by a Deputy Commissioner, supported by an Additional Deputy Commissioner, Sub-Divisional Officer, and other field staff. The district is divided into four sub-divisions, each with its own administrative setup, including a Sub-Divisional Officer responsible for both administrative and developmental initiatives. Its current MLA is Ngursanglur Sanate from Tipaimukh AC, a constituency which covers the majority of Pherzawl district.
== Facilities ==
Pherzawl district is connected with the state capital Imphal via National Highway 2. There is also helicopter service at Parbung. A bus service running between Imphal and Pherzawl began in 2017. The district has one Community Health Centre (CHC) at Parbung.
== Languages ==
== Notable people ==
Ngursanglur Sanate
Ngurdinglien Sanate
Lalthlamuong Keivom
Lal Dena
Rochunga Pudaite
== Villages ==
Damdiei
Parbung
Pherzawl
Phulpui
Senvawn
Sipuikawn
Taithu
Sartuinek
Lungthulien
Leisen
Patpuihmun
Loibuol (Lawibual/Lawibuol)
Ankhasuo
== See also ==
List of populated places in Pherzawl district
Hmar Ethnic Cultural Sites
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official government site
Pherzawl Diksawnari - Hmar to English Dictionary |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA_Astronaut_Group_8#:~:text=NASA%20Astronaut%20Group%208%20was,largest%20group%20to%20that%20date. | NASA Astronaut Group 8 | NASA Astronaut Group 8 was a group of 35 astronauts announced on January 16, 1978. It was the first NASA selection since Group 6 in 1967, and was the largest group to that date. The class was the first to include female and minority astronauts; of the 35 selected, six were women, one of them being Jewish American, three were African American, and one was Asian American. Due to the long delay between the last Apollo lunar mission in 1972 and the first flight of the Space Shuttle in 1981, few astronauts from the older groups remained, and they were outnumbered by the newcomers, who became known as the Thirty-Five New Guys (TFNG). Since then, a new group of candidates has been selected roughly every two years.
In Astronaut Group 8, two different kinds of astronaut were selected: pilots and mission specialists. The group consisted of 15 pilots, all test pilots, and 20 mission specialists. NASA stopped sending non-pilots for one year of pilot training. It also ceased appointing astronauts on selection. Instead, starting with this group, new selections were considered astronaut candidates rather than fully-fledged astronauts until they finished their training.
Four members of this group, Dick Scobee, Judith Resnik, Ellison Onizuka, and Ronald McNair, died in the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster. These four, plus Shannon Lucid, received the Congressional Space Medal of Honor, giving this astronaut class five total recipients of this top NASA award. This is second only to the New Nine class of 1962, which received seven. The careers of the TFNGs would span the entire Space Shuttle Program. They reshaped the image of the American astronaut into one that more closely resembled the diversity of American society, and opened the doors for others that would follow.
== Background ==
=== Equal employment opportunity at NASA ===
The enactment of the Equal Employment Opportunity Act of 1972 gave teeth to the promise of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to address the persistent and entrenched employment discrimination against women, African Americans and other minority groups in American society. Specifically, it empowered the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission to take enforcement action against individuals, employers, and labor unions that violated the employment provisions of the 1964 Act, and expanded the jurisdiction of the commission to deal with them. It also extended the scope of affirmative action, mandating that all executive branch agencies also comply with the act. Supporters of the legislation hoped that it would spur social change, but culture was not so easily changed. Women in science and engineering still found the culture off-putting, and while colleges dramatically increased their enrollment of women in these fields, many women found themselves in classrooms mostly filled with men, some of whom were openly hostile to their presence. Although in the early 1970s women received 40 percent of the PhDs awarded in biology, they represented just 4 percent of those in engineering; the 10 percent mark was not reached until the 1990s, by which time African Americans were awarded 2 percent of doctorates in all fields of science and engineering.
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) was no paragon of diversity in 1972. Most of its twelve major facilities were located in the southern United States. Eight of them had created equal employment/affirmative action offices, but six of them were entirely staffed by white people. In 1971, the Administrator of NASA, James C. Fletcher, appointed Ruth Bates Harris, an African-American, as NASA's Director of Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO), but before she commenced work on 4 October 1971, Fletcher demoted her to deputy director, and reduced her responsibility to dealing with contractors only. In 1973, 5.6 percent of NASA staff were minorities, and 18 percent were women at a time when the United States federal civil service averages were 20 and 34 percent respectively. Although NASA employed 4,432 women, only 310 were in science and engineering, of which just four were in the top grades, counting Harris. Although it could be argued that women and minorities were under-represented in the aerospace engineering industry as a whole, NASA was no better at recruiting women as lawyers than as scientists, and while minorities were well represented in the ranks of NASA's janitors (69 percent), it employed no women to perform this work. The Kennedy Space Center had 43 grades of secretaries so women could be promoted without reaching management levels.
Harris soon proved a feisty and forceful presence who was unafraid to ask uncomfortable questions. After reading a newspaper report that Wernher von Braun had used slave labor to build his rockets during World War II, she asked him if it was true. She wanted her original job back, and civil service rules required that affirmative action directors report directly to the administrators of government agencies. To fill the position, NASA's deputy administrator, George Low, appointed Dudley McConnell, NASA's most senior African-American engineer to the position, with Harris as one of his deputies. Harris, Samuel Lynn (a former Tuskegee airman) and Joseph M. Hogan prepared a report on the state of equal opportunity in NASA on their own time, and submitted it directly to Fletcher. The report concluded:NASA has demonstrated to the world that it has limitless imagination, vision, capability, courage and faith, limitless persistence and infinite space potential. It made the United States a winner in space and improved the quality of life for all people. ... However, in spite of sincere efforts on the part of some NASA management and employees, human rights in NASA have not even gotten off the ground. In fact, Equal Opportunity is a sham in NASA.
Fletcher fired Harris, transferred Hogan, and gave Lynn a stern warning. To the surprise of Fletcher and Low, Harris's firing generated a storm of negative coverage in the media. Seventy NASA employees protested the decision, and NAACP Legal Defense Fund lawyers petitioned the United States Civil Service Commission to rule Harris's dismissal as an unlawful reprisal. NASA's legal counsel advised Fletcher to settle. The United States Senate Committee on Appropriations wanted for an explanation, and Senator William Proxmire grilled McConnell. Aides urged Fletcher to appear before the United States Senate Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences. Fletcher demurred; he was a Mormon, and his church practised racial exclusion until 1978, so he sent the Jewish Low in his place in January 1974. Low urged McConnell to hire Harriet G. Jenkins as his deputy, and when he resisted, Low had Fletcher hire her. In August 1974, Harris was re-hired, but in a new role in community outreach and public relations, and she left NASA in 1976. Jenkins replaced McConnell, and would hold down the position until 1992. Great changes would occur on her watch.
=== Preparing for the Space Shuttle ===
Harris noted that one issue that came up constantly was that of when the all-white, all-male NASA Astronaut Corps would recruit its first woman or a minority astronaut. In a July 19, 1972, memorandum to Ted Groo, the Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight, she urged that this be rectified as a matter of urgency. NASA's directors agreed in September 1972 on the need for a plan to be drawn up defining the schedule and requirements for crewing the Space Shuttle, but it was not expected to fly before 1978, and NASA already had sufficient astronauts to carry out scheduled missions and the proposed early Space Shuttle flights too, so no new astronauts would be required before 1982. Assuming twenty months between a call for applications and an individual's first flight, it was estimated NASA would not need to initiate an astronaut recruitment process before 1980.
Planning proceeded on the make up of a Space Shuttle crew. By 1972, five roles were envisaged:
Commander (CDR), an astronaut who would be responsible for flying the spacecraft, and for all aspects of the mission;
Pilot (PLT), a co-pilot, an astronaut who would be a deputy to the commander;
Mission specialist (MS), astronauts who would perform other duties related to the operation of the spacecraft, of which there might be more than one per mission;
Payload specialist (PS), a non-astronaut with expertise in the spacecraft's payload; and
Passenger, a non-astronaut present as an uninvolved observer.
Although the payload specialist and passengers would not be astronauts, it was expected that they would have to undergo some astronaut training for safety purposes. An early decision was that mission specialist astronauts would not be required to undergo pilot training, which had been required of the scientist astronauts selected in NASA Astronaut Group 4 in 1965 and NASA Astronaut Group 6 in 1967. The inclusion of a space toilet in the Space Shuttle design permitted a degree of privacy impossible in the Gemini and Apollo spacecraft. This encouraged NASA management to believe that women could fly in space without offending contemporary American social and cultural mores regarding sexuality and hygiene, which might have caused embarrassment to the agency.
== Recruitment ==
=== Selection board ===
A comprehensive recruitment plan for pilots was drawn up in 1974, and for mission specialists the following year, but specific provisions to recruit women and minorities were not completed until early 1976. The Director of the Johnson Space Center (JSC), Christopher C. Kraft Jr., created an Astronaut Selection Board on March 12, 1976, and it held its first meeting on March 24. The makeup of the board was:
Chairman
George Abbey, Director of Flight Crew Operations, JSC
Recorder
Jay F. Honeycutt, Assistant to the Director of the JSC
Pilot Panel
John W. Young, astronaut, Chief of the Astronaut Office
Vance Brand, astronaut
Martin L. Raines, Director of Safety, Reliability and Quality Assurance
Joseph D. Atkinson, Chief of the Equal Opportunity Programs Office, JSC
Jack R. Lister, Personnel Office, JSC
Donald K. Slayton, astronaut, Manager of Approach and Landing Tests, JSC
Mission Specialist Panel
Joseph Kerwin, astronaut, Chief of the Mission Specialist Group, Astronaut Office, JSC
Robert A. Parker, astronaut
Edward Gibson, astronaut
Carolyn Huntoon, Chief of Metabolism and Biochemistry Branch, JSC
Joseph D. Atkinson, Chief of the Equal Opportunity Programs Office, JSC
Jack R. Lister, Personnel Office, JSC
James Trainor, Associate Chief of the High Energy Physics Laboratory, Goddard Space Flight Center
Robert Piland, Associate Director for Program Development, JSC
By this time it had been nearly ten years since NASA had last conducted an astronaut selection process in June 1967; NASA Astronaut Group 7 had transferred from the United States Air Force's Manned Orbiting Laboratory in June 1969 without one. The presence of Huntoon, a white woman, and Atkinson, a black man, meant that this was the first time people other than white men had served on a NASA astronaut selection board.
=== Call for applications ===
On July 8, 1976, NASA issued a call for applications for at least 15 pilot candidates and 15 mission specialist candidates. For the first time, new selections would be considered astronaut candidates rather than fully-fledged astronauts until they finished training and evaluation, which was expected to take two years. Pilot candidate applicants had to have at least a bachelor's degree in engineering, a physical science or mathematics from an accredited institution, although an advanced degree was desirable, and at least 1,000 hours of pilot flying time, preferably in high performance jet aircraft, but 2,000 hours was desirable. They had to pass a NASA Class 1 physical examination, and a height between 64 and 76 inches (160 and 190 cm) was desirable. For mission specialist candidates, the academic degree could also be in the biological sciences, only a NASA class 2 physical was required, no pilot experience was necessary, and the minimum desirable height was 60 inches (150 cm). The main difference between the two physical classes was that glasses were acceptable for the class 2 physical, if eyesight was 20/20 when corrected.
Military personnel would have to forward applications through their service departments. They would be seconded to NASA, and would receive their usual pay and allowances. Civilians astronaut candidates could apply directly. Their pay was set at Federal government General Schedule grades 7 to 15, depending on achievements and academic experience, with salaries ranging from around $11,000 to $34,000 (equivalent to $61,000 to $188,000 in 2024). Minorities and women were encouraged to apply. The deadline for applications was June 30, 1977, with training expected to commence on July 1, 1978.
NASA management were certain that there were highly qualified women and minorities out there, but they needed to persuade them to apply. A special team consisting of Mary Wilmarth and Baley Davis from the JSC Personnel Office, and Joseph D. Atkinson and Jose R. Perez from the JSC Equal Opportunity Programs Office was created to publicize the recruitment effort. NASA centers and NASA contractors were canvassed for prospective applicants, minority and women's professional organizations were contacted, and graduate schools and government agencies were asked to notify their students and employees. Political organizations like the Congressional Black Caucus and NAACP were contacted. Advertisements were placed in minority magazines with minority readership like Ebony, Black Enterprise, Essence and Jet. Nichelle Nichols, an African-American actor best known for the television series Star Trek was hired to do spot advertising. Her publicity firm, Women in Motion, was paid $49,000 ($equivalent to $271,000 in 2024). She met with members of community organizations, colleges and institutions to familiarize them with the requirements for Space Shuttle astronaut candidates.
Unlike previous calls for applications, the 1976 one did not specify a requirement for citizenship of the United States. This was because on June 1, 1976, the Supreme Court had ruled in the case of Hampton v. Mow Sun Wong that the Civil Service Commission could not issue regulations prohibiting the employment of non-citizens. It however, left the door open to their prohibition through statute or executive order. On September 2, 1976, President Gerald Ford issued Executive Order 11935, requiring citizenship for Federal employment, thereby effectively nullifying the Supreme Court's ruling. Some applications were received from non-citizens. On December 7, 1976, NASA's Director of Personnel, Carl Grant, advised the selection board that any applications accepted from non-citizens should be on the understanding that they would take up US citizenship before the end of the two-year training and evaluation period.
=== Selection process ===
Between July 1976 and June 1977, the JSC received 24,618 inquiries. Of these 20,440 requested and were sent application packages. Eventually, the total number of applications was 8,079. Most were received in the final two weeks before the deadline date. It was not possible for the selection board to evaluate this many applications, so they were pre-screened to identify the most promising ones. The first pass was to eliminate those that did not meet the minimum requirements. This eliminated over 2,000 applications. The selection board then began processing the remaining 5,680. A point system was then used to rank candidates. For pilots, this took account of hours flown, test pilot experience, types and numbers of different aircraft flown, and grade point average for undergraduate and graduate degrees. For mission specialists, points were awarded for academic degrees, grade point averages, and years of experience.
The selection board assessed 649 of the pilot applicants as qualified. Of these, 147 were military and 512 were civilians; ten were minorities and eight were women. From these, 80 were selected for interviews, of whom 76 were military and four were civilians; three were minorities but there were no women. The first woman to graduate from the United States Naval Test Pilot School, Beth Hubert, did not do so until 1985, and the first to graduate from the U.S. Air Force Test Pilot School, Jane Holley, in 1974.
Of the mission specialist applicants, 5,680 were regarded as qualified. Of these, 161 were military, six of whom were minorities and three of whom were women. The other 5,519 were civilians. Of these, 332 were minorities and 1,248 were women. The selection board reduced the number of applicants to 208, of which 80 were pilot applicants and 128 were the mission specialist applicants. Of the pilot applicants, 76 were from the military and four were civilians; three of the military applicants were minorities. Of the 128 mission specialist applicants, 45 were from the military, four of whom were minorities and two were women, and 83 were civilians, of whom four were minorities and twelve were women.
The 208 applicants were divided into ten groups of about twenty, and called in to the JSC for interviews and medical tests. The latter were conducted under the supervision of Sam L. Pool, the chief of the Medical services Division at JSC. On April 1, 1977, twenty volunteers were run through the medical selection to work out the procedures and logistics of it. The tests involved 24 procedures, including a general examination by a flight surgeon. The candidate's medical history was examined, and psychological, psychiatric, ophthalmological, neurological, dental, musculoskeletal and eye, nose and throat examinations were conducted. Tests were conducted using a rotating chair to test susceptibility to motion sickness, on a treadmill to measure heart rate, and with a Personal Rescue Enclosure to test for claustrophobia. The psychiatric process was not free of gender bias; one consultant was later found to have rejected 40 percent of female applicants in the 1978, 1980, 1984 and 1985 selections but only 7 percent of male ones. Applicants were put up at the Kings Inn Ramada in Clear Lake, Texas, where an evening reception and pre-interview briefing was held. The medical tests eliminated 56 applicants, and three more indicated that they did not wish to proceed. That left 149 applicants (74 pilots and 75 mission specialists) who were listed.
From this group, the selection board nominated 20 pilot and 20 mission specialist astronaut candidates. However, in November 1977, NASA Administrator Robert A. Frosch noted that NASA had enough pilot astronauts, and instructed Abbey to reduce the numbers to 15. All five of those dropped at the last minute would later be selected with NASA Astronaut Group 9 in 1980. In all, six of finalists who were passed over in 1978 would later qualify as pilot astronaut candidates in 1980: John Blaha, Roy Bridges, Guy Gardner, Ronald Grabe, Bryan O'Connor, and Richard Richards as pilots, and six as mission specialists: James Bagian, Bonnie Dunbar, Bill Fisher, John Lounge, Jerry Ross and Robert Springer. Another unsuccessful finalist, John Casper, would be selected with NASA Astronaut Group 10 in 1984. Two others who were not selected would eventually fly in space as payload specialists: Millie Hughes-Fulford and Byron Lichtenberg.
On January 16, 1978, Abbey contacted the 35 successful applicants and notified them of their selection, and asked them to confirm that they still wanted the job. Three were outside the United States; Kathy Sullivan was in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, working on her PhD; Steven Hawley was doing post-doctoral research in Chile, and David Walker was serving on the aircraft carrier USS America in the Mediterranean Sea. The names of the 35 were then publicly released.
== Group members ==
=== Pilots ===
=== Mission specialists ===
== Nickname ==
Of the 73 astronauts in the seven groups before Group 8, only 27 were still active in 1978, and were outnumbered by the new class. Group 8's name for itself was "TFNG". The abbreviation was deliberately ambiguous; for public purposes, it stood for "Thirty-Five New Guys"; however, within the group itself, it was known to stand for the military phrase, "the fucking new guy", used to denote newcomers to a unit. The selection of a nickname started a tradition that has continued ever since.
An official class patch was designed by NASA artist Robert McCall. It depicted the Space Shuttle, the number 35, and the year 1978. The class patch became another NASA tradition. Judy Resnik and Jim Buchli also designed a class logo depicting a Space Shuttle with 35 astronauts clinging to it. Below was the group name "TFNG" and the group motto "We Deliver". The artwork adorned coffee mugs and T-shirts, which came in red and blue for the two teams into which the TFNG were split.
== Demographics ==
The 35 new astronaut candidates were introduced to the public in a press conference at the Olin E. Teague auditorium at JSC on February 1, 1978. Most of the attention was on the six women, and, to a lesser extent, the four minority men. Mike Mullane later recalled that the 25 white males were "invisible". The hiring of the six women as astronaut candidates doubled the number of women in technical roles in JSC, but they found counsellors and role models in Carolyn Huntoon and Ivy Hooks. Huntoon was the most senior woman in a technical position at JSC, and became the default liaison between the six women astronaut candidates and NASA management. She spoke with them before the initial news conference, and urged them to consider how much personal information they would divulge. They decided to adopt a group approach, and keep their private lives remaining private. The Houston Post chose to write about how the husbands of Fisher and Lucid had chosen to leave their jobs and move to Houston with their astronaut candidate wives. Psychological testing soon showed that the women astronauts had far more in common with their male counterparts than with the female population of the United States as a whole.
Of the 35 astronaut candidates, 20 came from the armed services, and four others (Terry Hart, David Griggs, Norman Thagard and Ox van Hoften) had previously served in the military but were civilians at the time of their selection. Twenty had served in combat. Of the 15 pilot astronaut candidates, eight came from the US Navy, six from the USAF, and one (David Griggs) was a NASA test pilot. All were test pilots, eight having graduated from the US Naval Test Pilot School at NAS Patuxent River, Maryland, and seven from the USAF Test Pilot School at Edwards Air Force Base in California. Of the twenty mission specialist astronaut candidates, seven came from the armed services, of whom four were from the USAF, and one each from the US Navy, USMC and US Army; Bob Stewart became the first Army officer to become an astronaut. Ten had never served in the military, although one of them, Katherine Sullivan, later served in the US Navy Reserve as an oceanographer from 1988 to 2006. Ten of the 35 had bachelor's degrees, thirteen had master's degrees and twelve had doctorates.
== Training ==
Training was different from that of earlier astronaut classes in several ways, mainly because it was focused on the Space Shuttle. The human centrifuge was removed, since the Space Shuttle was not expected to subject the crew to more than 3 g (29 m/s2) on takeoff and 1.5 g (15 m/s2) on landing. Jungle and desert survival training were dropped as the Space Shuttle was not expected to land in such locations, although water survival training was continued.
Nineteen of the 35 had already undergone this training in the military, so the remaining 16 (which included all six women) were sent to Homestead Air Force Base in Florida for training with the 3613th Combat Crew Training Squadron. The training was highly realistic, and concluded with each candidate being towed aloft under a parasail before being released 400 feet (120 m) above the water and dropped in while wearing their full flight gear. The candidate would then have to inflate their rubber raft, fire off a flare, and be plucked from the water by a waiting helicopter. This was followed by training at Vance Air Force Base in Oklahoma in the correct procedure in case they had to bail out of a T-38. This time 24 of the TFNGs had already completed this training, leaving just eleven, again including all six women. In addition to the T-38, Kathy Sullivan and Pinky Nelson qualified as scientific operators on the Martin/General Dynamics WB-57F Canberra aircraft.
Much of the first eight months of the astronaut candidates' training was in the classroom. Because there were so many of them, the astronaut candidates did not fit easily into the existing classrooms, so during classroom instruction they were split into two groups, red and blue, led by Rick Hauck and John Fabian respectively, who were chosen because they were older and of higher military rank than the other candidates; as leaders they became the ones who would report to George Abbey. Classroom training was given on a wide variety of subjects, including an introduction to the Space Shuttle program, space flight engineering, astronomy, orbital mechanics, ascent and entry aerodynamics and space flight physiology. Those accustomed to military and academic environments were surprised that subjects were taught, but not tested. Training in geology, a feature of the training of earlier classes, was continued, but the locations visited changed because the focus was now on observations of the Earth rather than the Moon.
The astronaut candidates were sent on a geological field trip to Arizona. They also visited Houston's Burke Baker Planetarium, the key NASA centers, including the Ames Research Center, Marshall Space Flight Center, Goddard Space Flight Center and Lewis Research Center, and Rockwell International's facility in Palmdale, California, where the Space Shuttle Orbiters were being built. Zero gravity training was carried out in the "Vomit Comet", a modified Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker, and Extra-vehicular activity (EVA) training was conducted in the Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory, an enormous water tank. Some accommodation had to be made for the women: Space suits were made in smaller sizes, the Shuttle's cargo bay doors were made easier to open, and the design of the Space Shuttle orbiters was modified to make it easier for women to negotiate and reach the switches.
NASA maintained a small fleet of Northrop T-38 Talon jet aircraft at Ellington Field, not far from the JSC. These were used by the astronauts for visiting NASA and contractor installations around the country. They were also used as chase planes for the Space Shuttle, and it became a tradition for the crew to fly to KSC in T-38s before a mission. The T-38 was a trainer commonly used by the USAF and Navy, so most of the pilot astronaut candidates had flown it before, but none of the mission specialist candidates had, even among those who were trained pilots. Unlike previous astronaut groups, they were not sent to a military flight school to learn how to pilot the aircraft, but were required to learn how to fly in the back seat as a crew member. Jim Buchli and Dale Gardner had qualified for this role in the T-38 as Naval Flight Officers, and they drew up a training syllabus for mission specialist candidates with no flight experience that covered subjects such as navigation and the correct protocol for talking on the radio. Due the energy crisis of the 1970s and the consequent soaring cost of jet fuel, flight time was restricted to 15 hours a month.
On August 31, 1979, NASA announced that the 35 astronaut candidates had completed their training and evaluation, and were now officially astronauts, qualified for selection on space flight crews. This brought the number of active astronauts to 62. Their training, which had been expected to last 18 to 24 months, had been completed in just 14. Training of subsequent classes was shortened to just 12 months. The initiation of a selection of the next class of astronaut candidates had already been announced on April 1. Although NASA considered them astronauts, most did not feel like real astronauts until they were "veterans:" astronauts who had flown in space. Had the Space Shuttle program been running on schedule, they would have been immediately assigned to flights, but it was now running more than two years behind. Veteran astronaut Alan Bean, the TFNG's coordinator, counseled patience, reminding them that the Group 7 astronauts had been waiting over ten years for their first flights.
== Operations ==
=== First missions ===
The first six Space Shuttle missions were orbital flight tests (OFTs). Each was commanded by a veteran astronaut, starting with John Young, a Next Nine astronaut who had walked on the Moon on Apollo 16, and piloted by a Group 7 astronaut on his first flight, starting with Bob Crippen. The TFNG performed support roles. As with earlier classes, each astronaut was allocated an area of expertise to specialize in. For the OFTs, the role of capsule communicator (CAPCOM), the astronaut at the Mission Control Center at JSC who spoke directly to the crew, was allocated to veteran astronauts, with a member of the TFNG as his backup, but Dan Brandenstein stepped up to become the CAPCOM for the ascent phase of the first mission, STS-1, when Ed Gibson retired.
Once the OFTs were completed, the Space Shuttle could commence its designated role of launching satellites. The pilots of the STS-1 and STS-2, Bob Crippen and Dick Truly, were given command of STS-7 and STS-8 respectively, with TFNGs Rick Hauck and Dan Brandenstein assigned as their pilots. This established a pattern that would continue of a pilot astronaut flying as a pilot on one mission, and then as a commander on the next. NASA management wanted a woman and an African American flown as soon as possible, so George Abbey selected Sally Ride and Guion Bluford. Chris Kraft thought that this decision should be considered further, so Bob Crippen, Carolyn Huntoon, Leonard S. Nicholson (the acting associate director of JSC) and Samuel L. Pool from NASA's Space Sciences directorate were consulted. Ultimately, John Fabian was named as MS-1 for STS-7, with Sally Ride as MS-2, and Guion Bluford as MS-1 for STS-8 with Dale Gardner as MS-2.
The MS-1 on a Space shuttle flight sat behind the pilot on the flight deck, and monitored displays and checklists. The MS-2 was the flight engineer, and sat behind the commander. The Flight Engineer assisted the commander and pilot, and acted as the third member of the flight deck crew, and an additional set of eyes during the critical phases of a mission. The hopes of NASA management that a CDR-PLT-MS2 team would be able to fly three or four missions a year were never realized. After a single mission as pilot, a pilot astronaut became eligible to be commander on their next mission. Although some of the mission specialists were fully qualified pilots, none ever flew as pilot on a mission, and therefore never served as a mission commander. As more than one mission specialist flew on each flight, they began flying at a faster rate than their pilot classmates. Two pilot astronauts, David Griggs and Steven Nagel, flew their first missions as mission specialists. Nagel later flew as the pilot on STS-61-A and as the commander on STS-37 and STS-55. Griggs was assigned as the STS-33 pilot, but he was killed in an air crash prior to the mission.
=== Achievements ===
These missions began a sizable number of American spaceflight "firsts" achieved by the group:
First American woman in space: Sally Ride (June 18, 1983, STS-7)
First African-American in space: Guion Bluford (August 30, 1983, STS-8)
First American woman to perform an EVA: Kathryn Sullivan (October 11, 1984, STS-41-G)
First mother in space: Anna Fisher (November 8, 1984, STS-51-A)
First Asian-American in space: Ellison Onizuka (January 24, 1985, STS-51-C)
First African-American to pilot and command a mission: Frederick Gregory (April 29, 1985, STS-51-B; November 23, 1989, STS-33)
First American to launch on a Russian rocket: Norman Thagard (March 14, 1995, Soyuz TM-21)
First American woman to make a long-duration spaceflight: Shannon Lucid (March to September 1996, Mir NASA-1)
First American active duty astronauts to marry: Robert Gibson and Rhea Seddon
First Army astronaut: Bob Stewart
Four members of the group, Dick Scobee, Judy Resnik, Ellison Onizuka and Ronald McNair, died in the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster These four, plus Shannon Lucid, received the Congressional Space Medal of Honor, giving this astronaut class five total recipients of this top NASA award. This is second only to the New Nine class which received seven. By the time of the Challenger disaster, all 35 members of the group had flown in space, and some had flown twice.
=== Final missions ===
The last flight made by a member of the group was STS-93 in July 1999, which carried Steve Hawley into space for the fifth time. He had served as flight engineer on all five of his missions. The mission involved the deployment of the Chandra X-ray Observatory; nine years earlier he had help deploy the Hubble Space Telescope. In all, the Group 8 astronauts flew 103 missions, totaling over 981 days in space. The leader was Shannon Lucid, who spent over 223 days in space over the course of five missions.
Group 8 astronauts also performed important ground-based duties. Sally Ride served on both the Rogers Commission after the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster in 1986, and on the Columbia Accident Investigation Board after the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster in 2003. Sixteen members of the group served various selection boards for later groups of astronauts, the first being for NASA Astronaut Group 10 in 1984. Dan Brandenstein was Chief of the Astronaut Office from April 1987 through September 1992, and Hoot Gibson from December 1992 to September 1994. Dan Brandenstein had been CAPCOM for the first Space Shuttle mission in April 1981, and Shannon Lucid continued to perform as CAPCOM duties for shuttle missions until and including STS-135, the final Space Shuttle mission in 2011. She retired on January 31, 2012.
With Lucid's retirement, only Anna Fisher remained at NASA. She worked for the Capsule Communicator and Exploration branches of NASA as a station CAPCOM and on display development for the Orion project. She was on the selection board for NASA Astronaut Group 20 in 2009, the first group since 1978 who would not be trained to fly the Space Shuttle. The role of mission specialist was abolished, and crew members who flew to the ISS were classified as flight engineers. Fisher served as an ISS Capsule Communicator (CAPCOM) at the Mission Control Center from January 2011 through August 2013, and was the lead CAPCOM for Expedition 33 in 2012. She retired on April 29, 2017, the last of the Group 8 astronauts who had been selected nearly forty years before. The Thirty Five New Guys reshaped the image of the American astronaut into one that reflected the diversity of American society, and they paved the way for future classes of astronauts, which would include women as pilots and commanders.
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Astronaut Biographies: Home Page
Astronaut Selection and Training Archived March 27, 2008, at the Wayback Machine |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solicitor_General_of_India | Solicitor General of India | The Solicitor General of India (SGI) is subordinate to the Attorney General for India. The SGI is the second-highest law officer of the country, assists the Attorney General, and is assisted by Additional Solicitors General of India (Addl. SGIs). The SGI and the Addl. SGIs advise the Union of India and appear on its behalf in terms of the Law Officers (Conditions of Service) Rules, 1987.
Unlike the post of Attorney General for India, which is a Constitutional post under Article 76 of the Indian Constitution, the posts of the Solicitor General and the Additional Solicitor General are neither Constitutional nor statutory. The conditions of service of Law Officers are defined by The Law Officers (Conditions of Service) Rules, 1987, made under the powers conferred by the proviso to Article 309 of the Indian Constitution.
The Appointments Committee of the Cabinet (ACC) recommends the appointment and officially appoints the Solicitor General. The proposal for appointment of Solicitor General, Additional Solicitor General is generally moved at the level of Joint secretary (or Law Secretary) in the Department of Legal Affairs and after obtaining the approval of the Minister of Law & Justice, the proposal goes to the ACC and then to the president.
Currently, the Solicitor General of India is Tushar Mehta.
== Duties ==
The Solicitor General works under the Attorney General of India. The duties of the Solicitor General are laid out in Law Officers (Conditions of Service) Rules, 1987:
to give advice to the Government of India upon such legal matters, and to perform such other duties of a legal character, as may from time to time, be referred or assigned to him by the Government of India.
to appear, whenever required, in the Supreme Court or in any High Court on behalf of the Government of India in cases (including suits, writ petitions, appeal and other proceedings) in which the Government of India is concerned as a party or is otherwise interested;
to represent the Government of India in any reference made by the President to the Supreme Court under Article 143 of the Constitution; and
to discharge such other functions as are conferred on a Law Officer by or under the Constitution or any other Law for the time being in force.
== Restrictions of private practice ==
As law officers representing the Government of India, SGIs are bound by certain restrictions concerning private practice. A law officer is not allowed to:
hold briefs in any court for any party, except the Government of India or the government of a State or any University, Government School or College, local authority, Public Service Commission, Port Trust, Port Commissioners, Government aided or Government managed hospitals, a Government company, any Corporation owned or controlled by the State, any body or institution in which the Government has a preponderating interest;
advice any party against the Government of India or a Public Sector Undertaking, or in cases in which he is likely to be called upon to advise, or appear for, the Government of India or a Public Sector Undertaking;
defend an accused person in a criminal prosecution, without the permission of the Government of India; or
accept appointment to any office in any company or corporation without the permission of the Government of India;
advise any Ministry or Department of Government of India or any statutory organisation or any Public Sector Undertaking unless the proposal or a reference in this regard is received through the Ministry of Law and Justice, Department of Legal Affairs.
== Fee and allowances payable ==
Fee and allowances payable to the law officers (including Attorney General of India, Solicitor General of India and the Additional Solicitors General) of the Government of India are as under:
In addition to the above fee payable for cases, a retainer fee is paid to the Solicitor General and the Addl. Solicitors General at the rate of Rs. 40,000, and Rs. 30,000 per month, respectively.
== List of incumbent Law Officers ==
The list of incumbent Law Officers (i.e. AGI, SGI, Addl. SGIs) as of 10 September 2024 are as follows:
== List of Solicitors General of India ==
The Solicitors General of India since independence are listed below:
== Notes ==
1.^ Later appointed as the Attorney-General for India.
2.^ Later appointed as a judge in the Supreme Court of India.
== See also ==
Attorney General of India
Additional Solicitor General of India
Advocate general (India)
Mohan Jain, Additional Solicitor General of India (2009-2014)
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website of Supreme Court of India
List of law officers of India |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ricky_Whittle | Ricky Whittle | Richard George Whittle (born 31 December 1979) is a British actor. Whittle first came to prominence as a model for Reebok in the early 2000s. He is known in the United Kingdom for his role as Calvin Valentine in the soap opera Hollyoaks. In 2009, he finished second in the BBC reality competition Strictly Come Dancing. In 2012, Whittle crossed over to American television when he booked a recurring role on VH-1's Single Ladies, followed by a recurring role on ABC's Mistresses in 2014. From 2014 to 2016, Whittle appeared in The CW's post-apocalyptic drama The 100 as Lincoln. Whittle starred in the Starz television series American Gods for three seasons.
== Early life and education ==
Richard George Whittle was born on 31 December 1979 in Oldham, England, to Harry and Maggie (Goodwin) Whittle. He is the oldest of three children. His mother is from England and his father is from Jamaica. His father was in the Royal Air Force so the family moved to a different country every few years. However, Whittle was primarily raised in Northern Ireland and revealed that he had been bullied as a child because he was the only black child in school. At one point, Whittle told his mother he wanted to be white so he could fit in. Whittle studied law at Southampton Solent University where he was football team captain. In order to pay for text books, he started to model. However, Whittle left university just before graduation.
== Career ==
=== 2002–2011: Career beginnings and Hollyoaks ===
Whittle took up modelling in college. He would go on to become the face of Reebok in 2000. Whittle made his acting debut in 2002 the television series Dream Team which aired on Sky 1. The actor said the show was a "dream job" for a young actor just starting out. Whittle's agent surprised him and sent him to audition for Dream Team. Whittle credits his career to his co-star Terence Maynard whom he auditioned with. Whittle left the show in 2006 after series 9 and in May 2006, it was announced that Whittle had joined the cast of the Channel 4 soap opera Hollyoaks in the role of Calvin Valentine. In December 2009, it was announced that Whittle would leave Hollyoaks and the character would be killed off in 2010. In an interview with Digital Spy he explained his reasons for leaving Hollyoaks and revealed his plans to try his hand at American television and film. He only planned to do four years with the series.
In the summer of 2009, Whittle joined series 7 of the BBC reality series, Strictly Come Dancing. He was paired with professional dancer Natalie Lowe. Whittle would place second after sports presenter Chris Hollins. He permanently relocated to Los Angeles in the summer of 2011 to further his career.
=== 2012–2016: American TV breakthrough and The 100 ===
Upon his arrival in the US, Whittle met with someone to put a reel together. The meeting led to him signing with manager Ken Jacobsen. Jacobsen has also represented James Franco, Michelle Williams and Hilary Swank. Not long after, Whittle was cast in the feature film Austenland opposite Keri Russell, Jane Seymour and Jennifer Coolidge. Whittle joked that he only booked the role because of his body as the audition tape he submitted cut off his head. He found it ironic that it filmed on location in the UK when he travelled to Los Angeles to pursue American TV projects. After that, Whittle had no problem booking gigs. However, his immigration status caused him to pull out of a few projects. Whittle was set to film an episode of the NBC sitcom Up All Night when his management contacted him the night before to inform him that the network would not accept his visa. After this incident, Whittle decided to apply for his green card.
In March 2012, it was announced that Whittle was cast in the recurring role of Charles, a love interest of Denise Vasi's character, in the second season of the VH1 comedic-drama Single Ladies. Whittle submitted his audition tape just as he returned to the UK for Christmas. While he was too young for the role he initially auditioned for, the producers found another role for him. Whittle was initially supposed to appear in two episodes, and that turned into six. However, Whittle made such an impression on producer Stacy A. Littlejohn that she wrote him into the rest of the season. Whittle filmed the series in Atlanta from January to June 2012.
In 2013, Whittle appeared in an episode of the CBS drama NCIS, "Detour." In 2014, Whittle joined the cast of The CW's post-apocalyptic drama The 100 in the role of Lincoln. On 25 July 2014, at San Diego Comic-Con, it was announced that Whittle had been promoted to series regular for season 2. Around the same time, Whittle booked the recurring role of Daniel on ABC's prime-time drama Mistresses. Whittle wrapped filming for The 100 the week before he was scheduled to start production on Mistresses. Daniel Zamora is the love interest for April played by Rochelle Aytes. Whittle appeared in 10 episodes.
In January 2016, it was reported that Whittle was in talks for the lead role on another series. During an interview with AfterBuzz TV in April 2016, Whittle announced his decision to leave The 100. Whittle controversially accused the show's creator Jason Rothenberg of bullying him into leaving the series by marginalizing his character. The actor explained that once Warner Bros. Television President Peter Roth and The CW President Mark Pedowitz were made aware of the situation, he was allowed to audition for other projects.
=== 2017–present: American Gods and Nappily Ever After ===
In January 2016, it was announced that Whittle had been cast as Shadow Moon, the lead role in Starz television adaptation of Neil Gaiman's 2001 novel American Gods opposite Ian McShane. Though Whittle had no prior knowledge of the novel, he was a fan favourite pick to play Shadow when Starz announced the series in August 2015. Out of the 2,000 audition tapes submitted, Whittle was chosen out of approximately 600 actors that met with the producers. Whittle submitted 16 audition tapes over the five-month process. In September 2017 Whittle was cast opposite Sanaa Lathan in the Netflix original film, Nappily Ever After based on the novel of same name by Trisha R. Thomas. On 16 April 2018 it was announced that Whittle signed with talent agency William Morris Endeavor.
== Personal life ==
Whittle dated his Hollyoaks co-star Carley Stenson from 2007 to 2009. The two have remained close friends. Whittle dated Kirstina Colonna from 2016 until 2018.
== Filmography ==
=== Film ===
=== Television ===
== Awards and nominations ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Ricky Whittle at IMDb
Ricky Whittle interview |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proposed_political_status_for_Puerto_Rico | Proposed political status for Puerto Rico | Proposed political status for Puerto Rico includes various ideas for the future of Puerto Rico, and there are differing points of view on whether Puerto Rico's political status as a territory of the United States should change.
Puerto Rico is a Caribbean island that was a colony of the Spanish Empire for about four centuries until it was ceded in the Treaty of Paris to the United States in 1898. Over the course of the 20th century, more rights were granted to the people, and especially important dates were 1917, when U.S. citizenship was granted, and the 1950s and 60s, when it became a commonwealth of the United States. Referendums in the 1960s and 1990s supported this as the will of the Puerto Rican people, and they maintain their own elected officials and a non-voting representative in Congress.
The U.S. has had many territories since its establishment, and currently there are 50 states, five inhabited territories, and one federal district. In the 21st century, the status quo was disrupted by a referendum in 2012 that tilted towards change, with one of the most favored options being statehood. Though questions have been asked about the referendums in 12 years, four referendums have all had statehood as the most favored option. The power to change its status lies in the United States Congress; a majority in both houses and the president signing it into law would make it possible. However, the changes would be dramatic, with Puerto Rico becoming fully integrated into the United States; it would gain two senators and several representatives and would vote in the presidential election. Several U.S. Presidents going back to Ronald Reagan have stated they support Puerto Rico's right to determine its fate.
If it continues its current status, some changes are possible but difficult; for example, for Washington D.C. to vote in presidential elections, it took a constitutional amendment as it is not a state. Independence would have severe changes also; Puerto Rico would become a sovereign nation with no help from the United States and would no longer participate in U.S. politics; the people of Puerto Rico would cease to be U.S. citizens. Free association would result in independence also, but various economic benefits like visas, monetary aid, defense, or currency agreements would be negotiated between the two nations. There are three nations that maintain free association with the United States under the Compact of Free Association: Palau, Micronesia, and the Marshall Islands.
== Summary ==
Four major viewpoints emerge in principle: that Puerto Rico maintains its current status, becomes a US state, becomes fully independent, or becomes a freely associated state.
Even though Puerto Rico was granted local autonomy in 1952, it remains a territory of the United States. On July 4, 1950, it was signed into law that Puerto Ricans could draft their own constitution establishing the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. The U.S. Congress had granted commonwealth status on Puerto Rico that enhanced Puerto Rico's political status from protectorate to commonwealth. They would have their own elected governor and other representatives. For the next half a century this was satisfactory to both parties. However, the status continues to spark political debates which dominate Puerto Rican society. The debate over Puerto Rico has also been discussed at various UN hearings where it was declared a colony of the United States by the UN Special Committee on Decolonization at certain points but not others. For example, in 1952 it was removed from the colony list due to its Commonwealth freedoms after having been put on it after WW2. However, it was put back on the list since 1972 by the UN committee, pushing for its self-determination and even independence.
Various US presidents have expressed themselves in favor of statehood but ultimately left the decision to Puerto Rico. President's Task Force on Puerto Rico's Status were published in 2005, 2007, and 2011. Nonbinding referendums regarding Puerto Rico's status have been held in 1967, 1993, 1998, 2012, 2017, 2020, and 2024.
The results of the referendums favored the current territorial status of Commonwealth territory, until 2012 when, for the first time, the majority of Puerto Ricans voted for Statehood as the preferred option (61%) of those vote. The results were highly controversial: many ballots were left blank and the results were criticized by several parties. The federal government provided funding for a subsequent referendum. In each successive referendum, Statehood has won including the latest in 2020 and 2024, with support ranging from about 60 to 90 percent. In the United States Congress this led to the Puerto Rico Status Act, which prepares the U.S. to support the island's decision.
In the past commonwealth status was more popular then statehood, but since 2012, Statehood has taken the lead. Results of official referendums of those voting Statehood are as follows: 1967 - 274,312 (39.0%),1993- 788,296 (46.3%),1998- 728,157 (46.49%), 2012- 834,191 (61.3%), 2017- 508,862 (97.2%), 2020- 655,505 (52.52%), and 2024 528,379 (56.82%) however in the 2024 the option to continue the Commonwealth was not included. Also, the 2017 vote was criticized for low voter turn out due to a political boycott.
To become a U.S. state, a bill must pass both houses of Congress with a simple majority and be signed into law by the U.S. President; one difference compared to other bills though is once passed it cannot be repealed. See also United States party politics and the political status of Puerto Rico.
== Background ==
Before 1898 Puerto Rico was a colonial possession of Spain; the main focus of this background is the 20th and 21st century in relation to the United States of America.
=== Prior to Jones Act ===
Puerto Rico became an American territory in 1898 when, as per the terms of the Treaty of Paris which concluded the Spanish–American War, Spain ceded the island (and several other possessions) to the United States.
The U.S. Congress enacted the Foraker Act (also known as the Organic Act of 1900) sponsored by Senator Joseph B. Foraker, signed by President McKinley on April 2, 1900. This act established a civil government and free commerce between Puerto Rico and the United States. The structure of the insular government included a governor appointed by the president, an executive council (the equivalent of a senate), and a legislature with 35 members, though the executive veto required a two-thirds vote to override. The first appointed civil governor, Charles Herbert Allen, was inaugurated on May 1, 1900.
On June 5, President McKinley appointed an Executive Council which included five Puerto Rican members and six U.S. members. The act also established the creation of a judicial system headed by the Supreme Court of Puerto Rico and allowed Puerto Rico to send a Resident Commissioner as a representative to Congress. The Department of Education was subsequently formed, headed by Dr. Martin Grove Brumbaugh (later governor of Pennsylvania). Teaching was conducted entirely in English with Spanish treated as a special subject. However, both Spanish and English were official languages in the island. On November 6, the first elections under the Foraker Act were held and on December 3, the first Legislative Assembly took office. Federico Degetau took office in Washington as the first Resident Commissioner from Puerto Rico on March 14, 1901.
=== Jones Act and the 1940s ===
The Jones Act was approved by the U.S. Congress on December 5, 1916, and signed into law by President Woodrow Wilson on March 2, 1917. The law made Puerto Rico a United States territory which is "organized but unincorporated." Puerto Ricans were also collectively given a restricted U.S. citizenship. This implied that Puerto Ricans in the island did not have full American citizenship rights, such as the right to vote for electors for the president of the United States. The act divided governmental powers into three branches: executive (appointed by the President of the United States), legislative (consisting of a 19-member senate and a 39-member house of representatives, all elected by the Puerto Rican people), and judicial. A bill of rights, which established elections to be held every four years, was also created. The act also made English the official language of the Puerto Rican courts. Section 27 of the Jones Acts deals with cabotage and requires that all goods by water between U.S. ports be carried in U.S.-flag ships, constructed in the United States, owned by U.S. citizens, and crewed by U.S. citizens and U.S. permanent residents. The act also allowed conscription to be extended to the island, and over 20,000 Puerto Rican soldiers were sent to the United States Army during the First World War.
In the years after World War II, social, political and economic changes began to take place that have continued to shape the island's character today. The late 1940s brought the beginning of a major migration to the continental United States, mainly to New York City, for work, and to remit money back to their families. The main reasons for this were an undesirable economic situation brought by the Great Depression, as well as heavy recruitment made by the U.S. armed forces and U.S. companies.
Political changes began in 1946 when President Harry Truman designated the first Puerto Rican, Commissioner Resident Jesús T. Piñero, to serve as the island's governor. On June 10, 1948, Piñero signed into law what became known as the Ley de la Mordaza (Gag Law), officially Law 53 of 1948, which started as a bill passed by the Puerto Rican legislature, presided by Luis Muñoz Marín, in May 1948. The new law made it illegal to display the Puerto Rican flag, sing a patriotic song, talk of independence or to fight for the liberation of the island. It resembled the anti-communist Smith Act passed in the United States in 1940.
In 1947, the U.S. Congress passed the Elective Governor Act, signed by President Truman, allowing Puerto Ricans to vote for their own governor, and the first elections under this act were held on November 2, 1948. Luis Muñoz Marín, president of the Puerto Rican Senate, successfully campaigned and became the first democratically elected Governor of the island on January 2, 1949.
=== 1950s to present-day ===
Puerto Rico continues to struggle to define its political status.
==== Operation Bootstrap ====
In 1950, Washington introduced Operation Bootstrap, an attempt to transform Puerto Rico's economy to an industrialized and developed one, which greatly stimulated economic growth from 1950 until the 1970s. Due to billions of dollars of corporate investments, the growth rate was 6% for the 1950s, 5% for the 1960s, and 4% for the 1970s. Puerto Rico became one of the most affluent economies in Latin America. But it had to import 80% of its food.
Operation Bootstrap was sponsored by governor Muñoz Marín. It was coupled with agrarian reform (land redistribution) that limited the area that could be held by large sugarcane interests. Operation Bootstrap enticed U.S. mainland investors to transfer or create manufacturing plants by granting them local and federal tax concessions, but maintaining the access to mainland markets free of import duties. Another incentive was the lower wage scales in the densely populated island. The program accelerated the shift from an agricultural to an industrial society. The 1950s saw the development of labor-intensive light industries, such as textiles; later, manufacturing gave way to heavy industry, such as petrochemicals and oil refining, in the 1960s and 1970s. Muñoz Marín's development programs brought some prosperity for an emergent middle class. The industrialization was in part fueled by generous local incentives and freedom from federal taxation, while providing access to continental US markets without import duties. As a result, a rural agricultural society was transformed into an industrial working class.
==== Commonwealth status ====
On July 4, 1950, President Harry S. Truman signed Public Act 600, which allowed Puerto Ricans to draft their own constitution establishing the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. The U.S. Congress had granted commonwealth status on Puerto Rico that enhanced Puerto Rico's political status from protectorate to commonwealth. This, coupled with Muñoz Marín's reversal on not pursuing Puerto Rican Independence angered some Puerto Ricans.
On July 25, 1952, the Constitution of Puerto Rico was approved by voters in a referendum, and the island organized as the Estado Libre Asociado (Commonwealth of Puerto Rico). That same year marked the first time that the Flag of Puerto Rico could be publicly displayed.
Puerto Ricans and other U.S. citizens residing in Puerto Rico cannot vote in presidential elections as that is a right reserved by the U.S. Constitution to admitted states and the District of Columbia through the Electoral College system. Nevertheless, both the Democratic Party and Republican Party, while not fielding candidates for public office in Puerto Rico, provide the islands with state-sized voting delegations at their presidential nominating conventions. Delegate selection processes frequently have resulted in presidential primaries being held in Puerto Rico. U.S. Citizens residing in Puerto Rico do not elect U.S. Representatives or Senators, however, Puerto Rico is represented in the House of Representatives by an elected representative commonly known as the Resident Commissioner, who has the same duties and obligations as a representative, with the exception of being able to cast votes on the final disposition of legislation on the House floor. The Resident Commissioner is elected by Puerto Ricans to a four-year term and does serve on congressional committee. Puerto Ricans residing in the U.S. states have all rights and privileges of other U.S. citizens living in the states.
=== President's Task Force on Puerto Rico's Status ===
Several U.S. presidents have signed executive orders to define, study, and initiate activities regarding the political status of Puerto Rico. the three reports of 2005, 2007, 2011, indicate in particular:
According to the 2005 Report of the President's George HW Bush Task Force on Puerto Rico, it contained this clear statement about the relationship between the United States and Puerto Rico:
“The Federal Government may surrender U.S. sovereignty by granting independence or ceding territory to another nation; or it may, as provided for in the Constitution, admit a territory as a state, thereby rendering the Territory Clause inapplicable. The U.S. Constitution allows no other options.” [As an Enhanced Commonwealth]
Ceding territory to another nation only means giving Puerto Rico away or selling it, as happened in 1898 from Spain to the United States. Congress can give Puerto Rico away, sell it, exchange it, or simply give it independence or statehood.
In the 2007 Report of the President's Task Force on Puerto Rico, he expressed it again with the same clarity:
“The plenary authority of Congress over a non-state area shall last as long as the area retains that status. It terminates when the area loses that status either by virtue of its admission as a state, or by the termination of United States sovereignty over the area by the grant of independence, or by its surrender to the sovereignty of another country.”
In other words, Congress could give Puerto Rico away to whomever it wanted, approve the territory's independence without the consent of Puerto Ricans, or admit it as a state.
Cuba - It was handed over to the United States and not to the native forces that aspired to independence, after the end of the Spanish-American War in 1898. Philippines, Guam, and Puerto Rico - Sold to the United States in 1898 at the end of the war, for $20,000,000.
On the other hand, the Task Force of President Barack Obama, 2011, provides the same, but adds the parameters for Free Association:
"Free Association would provide for an independent Puerto Rico with a close relationship to the United States, similar in status to the Republic of the Marshall Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia, and the Republic of Palau. The United States provides defense and various forms of economic assistance to these countries and exercises control over their defense and security policies. Their citizens may work and attend schools in the United States, but are not U.S. citizens".
There is nothing that the U.S. Congress cannot do with Puerto Rico, whether it be unilaterally granting independence, statehood, independence with a Free Association, selling, or giving away the island of Puerto Rico to another country. The only thing that is unconstitutional is the enhanced commonwealth; Obama states on page 24 that the Unincorporated Territory does not admit changes, it is what it is. When Washington, D.C., the Federal District was granted presidential voting rights in 1961, see District of Columbia federal voting rights, it took the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution to make it legal.
President Trump's statement on Puerto Rico in 2016 was, "There are 3.7 million American citizens living in Puerto Rico. As citizens, they should be entitled to determine for themselves their political status. I am firmly committed to the process where Puerto Ricans might resolve their status according to Constitutional and Congressional protocols. I believe the people of Puerto Rico deserve a process of status self-determination that gives them a fair and unambiguous choice on this matter. As president I will do my part to insure that Congress follows the Constitution. The will of the Puerto Rican people in any status referendum should be considered as Congress follows through on any desired change in status for Puerto Rico, including statehood." Trump won the election in 2016, and was U.S. President from 2017 to 2021, and won the election again 2024.
==== Three 20th century referendums ====
On July 23, 1967, the first plebiscite on the political status of Puerto Rico was held. Voters overwhelmingly affirmed continuation of Commonwealth status (with 60.4% voting to remain a commonwealth, 39% voting to work towards statehood, and 0.6% wishing for independence). Other referendums have been held to determine the political status of Puerto Rico, in 1993 and in 1998. Both times, although by smaller margins, the status quo was upheld.
==== 2012 referendum ====
Following the recommendations of the President's Task Force on Puerto Rico's Status reports, in October 2011, Governor Luis Fortuño set August 12, 2012 as the date to hold the first part of a two-step status plebiscite. The first question was whether voters want to maintain the current commonwealth status under the territorial clause of the U.S. Constitution or whether they prefer a non-territorial option. The second question presented three status options: statehood, independence or free association. Each option was to be an internationally recognized, constitutionally viable, non-territorial alternative to the current territory status. A bill was brought before the Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico in 2011 to effect the governor's proposal. The bill passed on December 28, 2011.
In the event, both referendum questions were placed on a single ballot for voting on November 6, 2012. The New Progressive Party of Puerto Rico endorsed statehood. The Popular Democratic Party of Puerto Rico endorsed the current Commonwealth position; it called for abstention in the second question. The Puerto Rico Independence Party endorsed the independence position.
During the 2012 U.S. presidential campaign, leading candidates for both major parties said they supported the referendum process. Former Massachusetts governor Mitt Romney said: "I will support the people of Puerto Rico if they make a decision that they would prefer to become a state; that's a decision that I will support. I don't have preconditions that I would impose." President Barack Obama had also supported the referendum, writing, "I am firmly committed to the principle that the question of political status is a matter of self-determination for the people of Puerto Rico."
The fourth Puerto Rico statehood referendum occurred on November 6, 2012. The result a 54% majority of the ballots cast against the continuation of the island's territorial political status, and in favor of a new status. Of votes for new status, a 61.1% majority chose statehood. This was by far the most successful referendum for statehood advocates. In all earlier referendums, votes for statehood were matched almost equally by votes for remaining an American territory, with the remainder for independence. Support for U.S. statehood has risen in each successive popular referendum.
Because there were almost 500,000 blank ballots in the 2012 referendum, creating confusion as to the voters' true desire, Congress decided to ignore the vote but provided funding for a future referendum.
==== 2017 referendum ====
The previous plebiscites provided voters with three options: statehood, free association/independence and maintaining the current status. The 2017 plebiscite was to offer only two: Statehood and Independence/Free Association. If the majority vote for the latter, a second vote will be held to determine the preference: full independence as a nation or associated free state status with independence but with a "free and voluntary political association" between Puerto Rico and the United States.
Governor Ricardo Rosselló is strongly in favor of statehood to help develop the economy and help to "solve our 500-year-old colonial dilemma ... Colonialism is not an option ... It's a civil rights issue ... 3.5 million citizens seeking an absolute democracy," he told the news media. Benefits of statehood include an additional $10 billion per year in federal funds, the right to vote in presidential elections, higher Social Security and Medicare benefits, and a right for its government agencies and municipalities to file for bankruptcy. The latter is currently prohibited.
If the majority favor free association with the U.S. a Compact of Free Association would be negotiated, covering topics such as the role of the U.S. military in Puerto Rico, the use of the US currency, free trade between the two entities, and whether Puerto Ricans would be U.S. citizens.
Statehood might be useful as a means of dealing with Puerto Rico's financial crisis, since it would allow for bankruptcy and the relevant protection. According to the Government Development Bank, this might be the only solution to the debt crisis. Congress has the power to vote to allow Chapter 9 protection without the need for statehood, but in late 2015 there was very little support in the House for this concept. Other benefits to statehood include increased disability benefits and Medicaid funding, the right to vote in Presidential elections and the higher (federal) minimum wage.
At approximately the same time as the referendum, Puerto Rico's legislators are also expected to vote on a bill that would allow the Governor to draft a state constitution and hold elections to choose senators and representatives to the federal Congress. Regardless of the outcome of the referendum, action by the United States Congress would be necessary to implement changes to the status of Puerto Rico under the Territorial Clause of the United States Constitution.
==== 2018 Puerto Rico Admission Act ====
In 2018, the 2018 Puerto Rico Admission Act was introduced to United States Congress. The bill was introduced to U.S. Congress by Jenniffer González Colón, and had 34 co-sponsors; it would have mandated the PR becoming a state of the Union by start of 2021.
==== 2020 referendum ====
A yes-no vote on statehood was held on November 3, 2020. It had not been approved by the US Justice Department, but it did not have to be. Congresswomen Nydia Velázquez (D-NY) and Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez (D-NY) proposed on August 25, 2020 that the question of Puerto Rico's political status should be decided by a convention rather than a referendum. Velázquez and Ocasio-Cortez wrote: "Many in Puerto Rico would view Congress pushing statehood not as an end to colonization, but the culmination of it." Resident Commissioner Jenniffer González-Colón (R) replied on Twitter, "The people's decision is through everyone's vote, not a meeting of the few. Puerto Rico has voted three consecutive times for statehood and it's our tough reality that it's up to Congress to act."
==== 2024 referendum ====
Another status referendum was scheduled for November 5, 2024, alongside the 2024 Puerto Rican general election and the 2024 United States elections.
The non-binding referendum had three choices: statehood, independence, and independence with free association. The top choice was 57% voted for Statehood from 528 thousand votes. To become a U.S. State, U.S. Congress must pass a bill and have it signed by the President and the bill cannot be repealed. There have now been four referendums in 12 years in favor of statehood, though the latest poll did not include the option to continue the Commonwealth, it was considered that those who wanted that, or another option did not have to vote on any of those choices.
== Options for political status ==
Plebiscites on the status issue have presented the people of Puerto Rico these options:
=== Commonwealth (current status) ===
This is the status for Puerto Rico in June 2017 and the next referendum was not originally to offer this as an option for voters.
As a Commonwealth, Puerto Rico receives less in federal funding than the states. It receives lower Social Security and Medicare benefits. Neither the Commonwealth nor municipal governments of Puerto Rico can file for bankruptcy; that is currently prohibited.
Puerto Ricans and other U.S. citizens residing in Puerto Rico cannot vote in presidential elections as that is a right reserved by the U.S. Constitution to admitted states and the District of Columbia through the Electoral College system. Nevertheless, both the Democratic Party and Republican Party, while not fielding candidates for public office in Puerto Rico, provide the islands with state-sized voting delegations at their presidential nominating conventions. Delegate selection processes frequently have resulted in presidential primaries being held in Puerto Rico. U.S. Citizens residing in Puerto Rico do not elect U.S. Representatives or Senators, however, Puerto Rico is represented in the House of Representatives by an elected representative commonly known as the Resident Commissioner, who has the same duties and obligations as a representative, with the exception of being able to cast votes on the final disposition of legislation on the House floor. The Resident Commissioner is elected by Puerto Ricans to a four-year term and does serve on a congressional committee. Puerto Ricans residing in the U.S. states have all rights and privileges of other U.S. citizens living in the states.
In the Puerto Rican status referendum, 2012, 54% of the ballots cast were against the continuation of the island's status as a territory of the U.S. Of the votes for new status, a 61.1% majority chose statehood. This was by far the most successful referendum for statehood advocates. In all earlier referendums, votes for statehood were matched almost equally by votes for remaining an American territory, with the remainder for independence. Support for U.S. statehood has risen in each successive popular referendum.
The Puerto Rican status referendum, 2017 was held on June 11, 2017, and offered three options: "Statehood", "Independence/Free Association" and the current status as a Commonwealth. It was originally to be the first referendum not to offer the choice of retaining the current status as a Commonwealth until early 2017. Those who voted overwhelmingly chose statehood by 97%; turnout, however, was 23%, a historically low figure. Action by the United States Congress would be necessary to implement changes to the status of Puerto Rico under the Territorial Clause of the United States Constitution. On December 15, 2022, the U.S. House of Representatives voted in favor of the Puerto Rico Status Act. The act sought to resolve Puerto Rico's status and its relationship to the United States through a binding plebiscite. In April 2023, Puerto Rico's Status Act was reintroduced in the House by Democrats.
In September 2023, Roger Wicker reintroduced legislation in the United States Congress on the territorial status of Puerto Rico. In a two-round consultation process, Wicker proposed a vote scheduled for August 4, 2024, where Puerto Ricans would have the choice between four alternatives: annexation to the United States, independence, sovereignty in free association, and a free state associated with the United States.
In July 2024, Governor Pedro Pierluisi calls a plebiscite on the status of Puerto Rico in November 2024, for the first time the island's current status as a U.S. territory will not be an option during the non-binding plebiscite. The executive order follows the U.S. House of Representatives' 2022 approval of a bill to help Puerto Rico move toward a change in territorial status. voters are given the choice of statehood, independence, or independence with free association, the terms of which would be negotiated regarding foreign affairs, U.S. citizenship, and use of the U.S. dollar.
=== Statehood ===
If this status were granted, Puerto Rico would become the 51st state of the United States. The state would have due representation in the United States Congress with full voting rights; Puerto Rico would be represented in the Senate by two senators, and the size of its delegation to the House of Representatives would be determined by its population (Utah, which has a similar population, currently has four representatives). Similarly, Puerto Rico would get a population-dependent number of electors to the electoral college for the Presidency (cf. Utah's current six electors). The apportionment of federal aid to the island would be handled as for other states (increased).
The outcome of the referendum will not offer any benefit unless the US Congress agrees to implement the change desired by Puerto Ricans.
The impact of PR joining as a U.S. state depends in part on decisions made by U.S. Congress and Puerto Rico. In 2017, when it had a population of 3.4 million, this would be about 5 seats in the house. That means other states would have to give up seats unless Congress increased the number of seats. The number of seats is capped at 435 for the last century, though it was briefly 437 when Alaska and Hawaii joined the Union in the late 1950s. In the Senate, PR would have two voting members of Congress. The combination of House and Senate, in turn, affects the electoral college, which would have an increased number depending on whether the seats were replaced or added. In one situation, PR could get 5-7 seats and Congress could either add to 435 for a total of 440-442 seats or replace other States' representatives; the total number of senators would increase to 102, with two for Puerto Rico; then the electoral number could be seven, making the number to win the presidential race 271 and not 270, but it would depend on choices made by Congress because there are complex legalities that decide the numbers of representatives and electoral votes in the Presidential race.
Admission to statehood in the United States of America is controlled by the U.S. Congress, requiring a bill to pass a majority vote in the House and Senate and be signed into law by the President. This means that other state governments have no power to block such a statehood bill except in situations where part of their own state territory is being divided or transferred to create the new state, which would not be applicable in Puerto Rico's case as its pre-existing boundaries would be retained unchanged if it were to become a state.
Though population varies, in 2017 it was about 3.4 million people which would make it about population of Iowa or Connecticut, while in terms of land area it is bigger than only Rhode Island and Delaware. Economically in 2017, its GDP was over 100 million USD which would place it between Mississippi and New Mexico at that time.
It is about a two-three hour flight to Miami, and geographically is between Florida and the U.S. Virgin Islands, another U.S. territory, which was bought from Denmark in 1917.
The coastline of PR is as big as some larger states however, at 700 mi (1,100 km), which places it between Wisconsin and Connecticut, though Puerto Rico is only a little smaller than Connecticut in land area.
=== Independence with free association agreement ===
If the majority of Puerto Ricans were to choose this option - and only 33% voted for it in 2012 - and if it were granted by the US Congress, Puerto Rico would become a Free Associated State. This could give Puerto Rico a similar status to Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, and Palau, countries which currently have a Compact of Free Association with the United States.
The White House Task Force on Puerto Rico offers the following specifics:
"Free Association is a type of independence. A compact of Free Association would establish a mutual agreement that would recognize that the United States and Puerto Rico are closely linked in specific ways as detailed in the compact. Compacts of this sort are based on the national sovereignty of each country, and either nation can unilaterally terminate the association."
The specifics of the association agreement would be detailed in the Compact of Free Association that would be negotiated between the U.S. and Puerto Rico. That document might cover topics such as the role of the US military in Puerto Rico, the use of the US currency, free trade between the two entities, and whether Puerto Ricans would be U.S. citizens.
The three current Free Associated States use the American dollar, receive some financial support and the promise of military defense if they refuse military access to any other country. Their citizens are allowed to work in the U.S. and serve in its military. Their agreements with the U.S. must be renegotiated from time to time (such as every 15 years). One report states that "the amounts of financial support ... have been reduced at each renegotiation, and movement toward complete independence is often encouraged". If an FAS is unable to reach a mutually-acceptable agreement on the conditions, it would have no alternative but to become a totally independent nation.
=== Independence ===
Should Puerto Rico become fully independent, it would be a sovereign nation, with an independent judiciary and full control over domestic and foreign policy. Relations with the U.S. would be a matter of foreign policy. The U.S. would have no formal obligations to Puerto Rico and its citizens (and vice versa), other than those agreed by bilateral agreements of both nations.
=== Reunification with Spain ===
This option calls for Puerto Rico to become part of Spain once again as an autonomous community, such as the Canary Islands. Many Puerto Ricans recently requested Spanish Citizenship per the Historical Memory Law. In addition, becoming part of Spain again would allow Puerto Ricans to move to the European Union per the European Union citizenship.
=== Former option for an Antillean Confederation ===
This option was very popular with Puerto Rican Political leaders of the late nineteenth century. It involved Puerto Rico with Cuba and the Dominican Republic joining and becoming a confederation. There are still a few supporters of this option in the island.
=== United States trades Puerto Rico for Greenland ===
Ron Lauder suggested to Donald Trump that the United States purchase Greenland which was discussed in the White House Situation Room as a trade involving Puerto Rico according to Elizabeth Neumann.
== United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization ==
Since 1953, the UN has been considering the Political status of Puerto Rico and how to assist it in achieving "independence" or "decolonization". In 1978, the Special Committee determined that a "colonial relationship" existed between the US and Puerto Rico.
Note that the United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization has referred to Puerto Rico as a nation in its reports, because, internationally, the people of Puerto Rico are often considered to be a Caribbean nation with their own national identity. Most recently, in a June 2016 report, the Special Committee called for the United States to expedite the process to allow self-determination in Puerto Rico. More specifically, the group called on the United States to expedite a process that would allow the people of Puerto Rico to exercise fully their right to self-determination and independence. ... [and] allow the Puerto Rican people to take decisions in a sovereign manner and to address their urgent economic and social needs, including unemployment, marginalization, insolvency and poverty".
In June 2025, the United Nations adopted a resolution in favor of self-determination and independence for the state of Puerto Rico.
== See also ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Report By the President's Task Force On Puerto Rico's Status (December 2005) - President William J. Clinton.
Report By the President's Task Force On Puerto Rico's Status (December 2007) - President George W. Bush.
Report By the President's Task Force On Puerto Rico's Status (March 2011) - President Barack Obama. Archived February 16, 2017, at the Wayback Machine
Political Status of Puerto Rico: Options for Congress - Congressional Research Service (CRS Report) Archived August 4, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
Puerto Rico’s Political Status and the 2012 Plebiscite: Background and Key Questions - Congressional Research Service (CRS Report) Archived April 30, 2016, at the Wayback Machine |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julie_Mehretu#Personal_life | Julie Mehretu | Julie Mehretu (born November 28, 1970) is an Ethiopian American contemporary visual artist, known for her multi-layered paintings of abstracted landscapes on a large scale. Her paintings, drawings, and prints depict the cumulative effects of urban sociopolitical changes.
== Early life and education ==
Mehretu was born in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, in 1970, the first child of an Ethiopian college professor of geography and a Jewish American Montessori teacher. They fled the country in 1977 to escape political turmoil and moved to East Lansing, Michigan, for her father's teaching position in economic geography at Michigan State University.
A graduate of East Lansing High School, Mehretu received a Bachelor of Arts degree from Kalamazoo College in Kalamazoo, Michigan, and did a junior year abroad at Cheikh Anta Diop University (UCAD) in Dakar, Senegal, then attended the Rhode Island School of Design in Providence, Rhode Island, where she earned a Master of Fine Arts degree in 1997. She was chosen for the CORE program at the Museum of Fine Arts in Houston, a residency that provided a studio, a stipend, and an exhibition at the museum.
== Art career ==
Mehretu's canvases incorporate elements from technical drawings of various urban buildings and linear illustrations of urban efficiency, including city grids and weather charts. The pieces do not contain any formal, consistent sense of depth, instead utilizing multiple points of view and perspective ratios to construct flattened re-imaginings of city life. Her drawings are similar to her paintings, with many layers forming complex, abstracted images of social interaction on a global scale. The relatively smaller-scale drawings are opportunities for exploration made during the time between paintings.
In 2002, Mehretu said of her work:
I think of my abstract mark-making as a type of sign lexicon, signifier, or language for characters that hold identity and have social agency. The characters in my maps plotted, journeyed, evolved, and built civilizations. I charted, analysed, and mapped their experience and development: their cities, their suburbs, their conflicts, and their wars. The paintings occurred in an intangible no-place: a blank terrain, an abstracted map space. As I continued to work I needed a context for the marks, the characters. By combining many types of architectural plans and drawings I tried to create a metaphoric, tectonic view of structural history. I wanted to bring my drawing into time and place.
Emperial Construction, Istanbul (2004) exemplifies Mehretu's use of layers in a city's history. Arabic lettering and forms that reference Arabic script scatter around the canvas. In Stadia I, II, and III (2004) Mehretu conveys the cultural importance of the stadium through marks and layers of flat shape. Each Stadia contains an architectural outline of a stadium, abstracted flags of the world, and references to corporate logos.
Mogamma: A Painting in Four Parts (2012), the collective name for four monumental canvases that were included in dOCUMENTA (13), relates to 'Al-Mogamma', the name of the all purpose government building in Tahrir Square, Cairo, which was both instrumental in the 2011 revolution and architecturally symptomatic of Egypt's post-colonial past. The word 'Mogamma', however, means 'collective' in Arabic and historically, has been used to refer to a place that shares a mosque, a synagogue and a church and is a place of multi faith. A later work, The Round City, Hatshepsut (2013) contains architectural traces of Baghdad, Iraq, itself – its title referring to the historical name given to the city in ancient maps. Another painting, Insile (2013) built up from a photo image of Believers' Palace amid civilian buildings, activates its surface with painterly ink gestures, blurring and effacing the ruins beneath.
In 2007, the investment bank Goldman Sachs gave Mehretu a $5 million commission for a lobby mural. The resulting work Mural was the size of a tennis court and consisted of overlaid financial maps, architectural drawings of financial institutions, and references to works by other artists. Calvin Tomkins of the New Yorker called it "the most ambitious painting I've seen in a dozen years", and another commentator described it as "one of the largest and most successful public art works in recent times".
While best known for large-scale abstract paintings, Mehretu has experimented with prints since graduate school at the Rhode Island School of Design, where she was enrolled in the painting and printmaking program in the mid-1990s. Her exploration of printmaking began with etching. She has completed collaborative projects at professional printmaking studios across America, among them Highpoint Editions in Minneapolis, Crown Point Press in San Francisco, Gemini G.E.L. in Los Angeles, and Derrière L'Étoile Studios and Burnet Editions in New York City.
Mehretu was a resident of the CORE Program, Glassell School of Art, Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, (1997–98) and the Artist-in-Residence Program at the Studio Museum in Harlem (2001). During a residency at the Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, in 2003, she worked with thirty high school girls from East Africa. In the spring of 2007 she was the Guna S. Mundheim Visual Arts Fellow at the American Academy in Berlin. Later that year, she led a monthlong residency program with 40 art students from Detroit public high schools.
During her residency in Berlin, Mehretu was commissioned to create seven paintings by the Deutsche Guggenheim; titled Grey Area (2008–2009), the series explores the urban landscape of Berlin as a historical site of generation and destruction. The painting Vanescere (2007), a black-and-white composition that depicts what appears to be a maelstrom of ink and acrylic marks, some of which are sanded away on the surface of the linen support, propelled a layering process of subtraction in the Grey Area series. Parts of Fragment (2008–09) and Middle Grey (2007–09) feature this erasing technique. Another in the series that was painted in Berlin, Berliner Plätze (2008–09), holds a phantom presence of overlapped outlines of nineteenth-century German buildings that float as a translucent mass in the frame. The art historian Sue Scott has this to say of the Grey Area series: "In these somber, simplified tonal paintings, many of which were based on the facades of beautiful nineteenth-century buildings destroyed in World War II, one gets the sense of buildings in the process of disappearing, much like the history of the city she was depicting." As Mehretu explains in Ocula Magazine, "The whole idea of 20th-century progress and ideas of futurity and modernity have been shattered, in a way. All of this is what is informing how I am trying to think about space."
In 2017, Mehretu collaborated with jazz musician and interdisciplinary artist Jason Moran to create MASS (HOWL, eon)]. Presented at Harlem Parish as part of the Performa 17 biennial, MASS (HOWL, eon) took the audience on an intensive tour of Mehretu's canvas while musicians played the composition by Moran.
Mehrhtu's first work in painted glass was installed in 2024. The 85 foot (26 m) tall artwork, Uprising of the Sun, is inspired by a quote from Barack Obama delivered in a speech at a memorial ceremony for the civil-rights-era
Selma marches. It was installed as a window in the museum tower of the Barack Obama Presidential Center.
Mehretu is a member of the Artists Committee of Americans for the Arts.
Mehretu has created the 20th BMW art car (BMW M Hybrid V8) in 2024. The car bore the number 20 for the 24h of Le Mans in 2024 and crashed early in the race. It was repaired overnight and finished.
== Recognition ==
In 2000, Mehretu was awarded a grant from the Foundation for Contemporary Arts Grants to Artists Award. She was the recipient of the 2001 Penny McCall Award and one of the 2005 recipients of the MacArthur Fellowship, often referred to as the "genius grant."
In 2013, Mehretu was awarded the Barnett and Annalee Newman Award, and in 2015, she received the US Department of State Medal of Arts from Secretary of State John Kerry. In 2020, Time magazine included Mehretu in its list of the 100 most influential people. In 2023, German automaker BMW selected Mehretu to paint its annual "art car" for entry at the 24 Hours of Le Mans race.
Art critic for The Australian newspaper Christopher Allen described Mehretu's work as "the last feeble gasp of an overhyped and exhausted New York art market".
Mehretu is included in Time's 100 Most Influential People of 2020. The following year, The New York Times described her as a "rare example of a contemporary Black female painter who has already entered the canon."
In 2023, she was one of two women artists whose work was among the top ten in contemporary auction sale price.
== Notable works in public collections ==
In 2016, the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art commissioned Mehretu to create a diptych, with each massive painting flanking the staircase in the atrium which is accessible and free to the public. HOWL, eon (I, II) (2016-2017) was first exhibited to the public on September 2, 2017. To facilitate the creation of the scale of the diptych, Mehretu used a decommissioned church in Harlem as her studio to create. Throughout the creation of her piece, she collaborated with jazz pianist Jason Moran. HOWL, eon (I, II) is a political commentary on the history of the western United States' landscape, including the San Francisco Bay Area. The foundation of each work contains digitally abstracted photos from recent race riots, street protests, and nineteenth-century images of the American West.
== Exhibitions ==
In 2001, Mehretu participated in the exhibition Painting at the Edge of the World at the Walker Art Center. She later was one of 38 artists whose work was exhibited in the 2004-5 Carnegie International: A Final Look. She has participated in numerous group exhibitions, including one at the Center for Curatorial Studies, Bard College, Annandale-on-Hudson (2000). Her work has appeared in Freestyle exhibition at the Studio Museum in Harlem (2001); The Americans at the Barbican Gallery in London (2001); White Cube gallery in London (2002), the Busan Biennale in Korea (2002); the 8th Baltic Triennial in Vilnius, Lithuania (2002); and Drawing Now: Eight Propositions (2002) at the Museum of Modern Art in New York. Mehretu's work was also included in the "In Praise of Doubt" exhibition at the Palazzo Grassi in Venice in the summer of 2011 as well as dOCUMENTA (13) in Kassel in 2012. In 2014, she participated in The Divine Comedy: Heaven, Purgatory and Hell Revisited by Contemporary African Artists, curated by Simon Njami.
In 2021, the Whitney Museum of American Art devoted an entire floor to a retrospective of Mehretu's career. Mehretu's work is included in Every Sound Is a Shape of Time, a 2024 collections-based exhibition organized by the Pérez Art Museum Miami and curated by Franklin Sirmans, the museum director.
The first exhibition dedicated to Mehretu in Australia and the Asia-Pacific region, titled A Transcore of the Radical Imaginatory, was held by the Museum of Contemporary Art Australia, Sydney, from November 2024 to April 2025.
== Art market ==
Mehretu's painting Untitled 1 (2001) sold for $1.02 million at Sotheby's in September 2010. Its estimated value had been $600–$800,000. At Art Basel in 2014, White Cube sold Mehretu's Mumbo Jumbo (2008) for $5 million. In 2023, Michael Ovitz sold Mehretu's Walkers With the Dawn and Morning (2008) for $10.7 million, setting a new record both for the artist herself and any artist born in Africa.
In 2005, Mehretu's work was the object of the Lehmann v. The Project Worldwide case before the New York Supreme Court, the first case brought by a collector regarding their right to secure primary access to contemporary art. The case involved legal issues over her work and the right of first refusal contracts between her then-gallery and a collector. In return for a $75,000 loan by the collector Jean-Pierre Lehmann to the Project Gallery, made in February 2001, the gallery was to give Lehmann a right of first refusal on any work by any artist the gallery represented, and at a 30 per cent discount until the loan was repaid. Lehmann saw this loan as direct access to Mehretu's work, however, there were four other individuals who were also given right of first choice from the gallery's represented artists. The gallery sold 40 works by Mehretu during the period of the contract, with some offered for discounts of up to 40 percent. Lehmann saw that several Mehretu pieces available in the catalog of the Walker Art Center had been sold to collector Jeanne Greenberg Rohatyn, and suspected that the agreement was not being kept. He subsequently wrote Haye demanding $17,500, and, after no offer of Mehretu pieces was made, he filed suit. The case, eventually won by Lehmann, revealed to a wider public precisely what prices and discounts galleries offer various collectors on paintings by Mehretu and other contemporary artists – information normally concealed by the art world.
In October 2023, Mehretu broke the auction record for an African artist at Sotheby's Hong Kong, with her piece Untitled (2001), which sold for $9.32 million.
== Personal life ==
Mehretu lives in a two-story house in Harlem. She married artist Jessica Rankin in 2008, with whom she has two children, Cade Elias (born 2005) and Haile (born 2011); her mother-in-law is author and poet Lily Brett. The couple separated in 2014.
Mehretu maintains a studio in Chelsea near the Whitney Museum of American Art. In 2004, she co-founded – together with Lawrence Chua and Paul Pfeiffer – Denniston Hill, an artist residency on a 200-acre campus in Sullivan County, New York. She also worked from an old arms factory in Berlin in 2007 and the former St. Thomas the Apostle Church in Harlem from 2016 to 2017.
In October 2024, The Whitney Museum announced that Mehretu had donated more than two million dollars to its "Free 25 and Under" program that provides free access to museum guests under the age of twenty-five.
== References ==
== External links ==
Website of her gallery carlier | gebauer including CV and works Archived February 28, 2024, at the Wayback Machine
Julie Mehretu at Highpoint Center for Printmaking, Minneapolis
Julie Mehretu at Walker Art Center, Minneapolis
Julie Mehretu interviewed for Ethiopian Passages Archived September 27, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
2010 article including an image of Untitled 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Resnick#:~:text=Resnick%20listed%20his%20primary%20research,as%20a%20result%20of%20leukemia. | Stephen Resnick | Stephen Alvin Resnick (; October 24, 1938 – January 2, 2013) was an American Marxist economist. He was well known for his work (much of it written together with Richard D. Wolff) on Marxian economics, economic methodology, and class analysis. His work, along with that of Wolff, is especially associated with a post-Althusserian perspective on political economy.
== Biography ==
Resnick earned a B.S. in economics from the University of Pennsylvania in 1960. He received his Ph.D. in 1964 from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. His dissertation was an econometric analysis of the European Common Market. His early work (during his tenure at Yale University between 1965 and 1971) was with Stephen Hymer and focused on issues of economic development and international political economy.
After a brief period at the City College of New York (1971–1973), Resnick began teaching at the Economics Department of the University of Massachusetts Amherst in 1973. He began working with Richard D. Wolff in this period, and from then until Resnick's death they published numerous articles and books together, formulating a nondeterminist, class analytical approach. Topics included Marxian theory and value analysis, overdetermination, radical economics, international trade, business cycles, social formations, the Soviet Union, and comparing and contrasting Marxian and non-Marxian economic theories.
Resnick's work with Wolff took Louis Althusser and Étienne Balibar's Reading Capital as its point of departure and developed a very subtle reading of Karl Marx's Capital Volumes II and III in their influential Knowledge and Class. In Resnick's work, Marxian class analysis entails the detailed study of the conditions of existences of concrete forms of performance, appropriation, and distribution of surplus labor. While there could be an infinite number of forms of surplus appropriation, the Marxist canon refers to ancient (independent), slave, feudal, capitalist, and communist class processes.
In 1989, Resnick joined efforts with a group of colleagues, ex- and then current students to launch Rethinking Marxism, an academic journal that aims to create a platform for rethinking and developing Marxian concepts and theories within economics as well as other fields of social inquiry. He remained a member of the editorial board of the journal until 1994, and continued thereafter to serve as a member of the advisory board of the journal.
Resnick continued to teach graduate seminars and undergraduate courses and direct dissertation research in economics at the University of Massachusetts Amherst until 2013. He received multiple teaching awards and taught classes in economic theory, economic development, and economic history. Resnick listed his primary research interests as Marxian theory and economic history and development.
Resnick died on January 2, 2013, as a result of leukemia.
== Bibliography ==
Notable works of Stephen Resnick include:
Hymer, S., & Resnick, S. (1969). A model of an agrarian economy with nonagricultural activities. The American Economic Review, 59(4), 493–506.
Richard D. Wolff and Stephen A. Resnick. Economics: Marxian versus Neoclassical (Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, 1987).
Stephen A. Resnick and Richard D. Wolff. Knowledge and Class: A Marxian Critique of Political Economy (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1987).
J.K. Gibson-Graham, Stephen A. Resnick and Richard D. Wolff. Class and Its Others (Minnesota University Press, Minneapolis, 2000).
J.K. Gibson-Graham, Stephen A. Resnick and Richard D. Wolff. Re/Presenting Class: Essays in Postmodern Marxism (Duke University Press, Durham NC, 2001).
Stephen A. Resnick and Richard D. Wolff. Class Theory and History: Capitalism and Communism in the USSR (Routledge, NY, 2002).
Stephen A. Resnick and Richard D. Wolff. New Departures in Marxian Theory (Economics as Social Theory (Routledge, NY, 2006).
Stephen A. Resnick and Richard D. Wolff. Contending Economic Theories: Neoclassical, Keynesian, and Marxian (The MIT Press, 2012).
== Videos ==
"Course on Marxian Economics"
"Course on Socialist Economics"
"Past Present and Future of the Economics Department" Round table with Resnick, Katzner, Bowles
"Memorial for Stephen Resnick" Remarks of Richard D. Wolff
"The POLITICS of OUR 40-YEAR COLLABORATION"
== See also ==
Paul Hirst
Barry Hindess
J. K. Gibson-Graham
== References ==
== External links ==
Stephen A Resnick's website with Richard D. Wolff
Rethinking Marxism: A Journal of Economics, Culture and Society
Re-centering Class in Critical Theory: A Tribute to Stephen A. Resnick (1938-2013)
Obituary article on Umass.edu |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pehr_Löfling | Pehr Löfling | Pehr Löfling (31 January 1729 – 22 February 1756) was a Swedish botanist and an apostle of Carl Linnaeus.
== Biography ==
Löfling was born in Tolvfors Bruk, Gävle, Sweden. He studied at the University of Uppsala where he attended courses taught by Carl Linnaeus. When the Spanish ambassador asked Linnaeus to select a botanist for service in the American colonies, the professor at once named Loefling. He went to Spain in 1751 to learn Spanish, and then embarked with other scientists for South America in February 1754. The Treaty of Madrid (13 January 1750) had fixed the colonial borders of Spain and Portugal. In Cumaná, Venezuela (then a Spanish colony) Löfling joined a project to demarcate the border with Brazil, the Expedicion de Limites al Orinoco. He was put in charge of a natural history department evaluating the resources of the region. Assisted by two young Spanish doctors, he was involved in the expedition for the remainder of his life.
He died in a remote mission San Antonio de Caroni, on the banks of the Caroní River near the modern city of Ciudad Guayana, Venezuela. His death was considered a great loss to natural history, and especially to botany. Linnæus believed the loss irreparable. The manuscripts of Löfling, which were found after his death, were preserved by his two assistants.
== Legacy ==
In 1753, Linnæus used the name Loeflingia for the genus of some plants in the family Caryophyllaceae, one species of which grows in Spain and the other in Spanish America. Then in 1923, Sprague published Pehria, a monotypic genus of plant from South America in family Lythraceae and also named after Löfling.
Parque Löefling in Ciudad Guayana, Venezuela is named after him. The park includes a zoo.
=== Publications ===
Linnæus posthumously published his Iter Hispanicum, eller resa til Spanska Länderna uti Europa och America 1751 til 1756 in 1758.
== Notes ==
== References ==
Wilson, J. G.; Fiske, J., eds. (1888). "Loefling, Peter" . Appletons' Cyclopædia of American Biography. New York: D. Appleton.
== External links ==
Pehr Löfling. Polymath Virtual Library, Fundación Ignacio Larramendi |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Moreau_Gottschalk | Louis Moreau Gottschalk | Louis Moreau Gottschalk (May 8, 1829 – December 18, 1869) was an American composer, pianist, and virtuoso performer of his own romantic piano works. He spent most of his working career outside the United States.
== Life and career ==
Louis Moreau Gottschalk was born on May 8, 1829, in New Orleans, Louisiana, to Edward Gottschalk and Aimée Marie Bruslé. He had six brothers and sisters, five of whom were half-siblings by his father's biracial mistress. Gottschalk's family lived for a time in a tiny cottage at Royal and Esplanade in the Vieux Carré. He later moved in with relatives at 518 Conti Street; his maternal grandmother Bruslé and his nurse Sally were both Saint Dominican Creoles. Gottschalk was therefore exposed to a variety of musical traditions and played the piano from an early age. He was soon recognized as a prodigy by the New Orleans bourgeois establishment, making his informal public debut in 1840 at the new St. Charles Hotel.
Only two years later, at age 13, Gottschalk left the United States and sailed to Europe, as he and his father realized a classical training was required to fulfill his musical ambitions. However, the Paris Conservatoire rejected Gottschalk's application without hearing him on the grounds of his nationality; Pierre Zimmerman, head of the piano faculty, commented that "America is a country of steam engines". Gottschalk eventually gained access to the musical establishment through family friends, but important early compositions like Bamboula (Danse Des Nègres) and La Savane established him as a genuinely American composer, and not a mere imitator of the European written tradition; they were a major artistic statement as they carried a legacy of music of enslaved African people in a romantic music context, and as such they were also precursors of jazz. They still stand as the first examples of Louisiana Creole music in classical music culture. After a concert at the Salle Pleyel, Frédéric Chopin remarked: "Give me your hand, my child; I predict that you will become the king of pianists." Franz Liszt and Charles-Valentin Alkan, too, recognized Gottschalk's extreme talent.
After Gottschalk returned to the United States in 1853, he traveled extensively; a sojourn in Cuba during 1854 was the beginning of a series of trips to Central and South America. Gottschalk also traveled to Puerto Rico after his Havana debut and at the start of his West Indian period. Gottschalk was quite taken with the music he heard on the island, so much so that he composed a work, probably in 1857, entitled Souvenir de Porto Rico; Marche des gibaros, Op. 31 (RO250). "Gibaros" refers to the jíbaros, or Puerto Rican peasantry, and is an antiquated way of writing this name. The theme of the composition is a march tune which may be based on a Puerto Rican folk song form.
At the end of the tour, Gottschalk rested in New Jersey before returning to New York City. There, he continued to rest and took on a very young Venezuelan student, Teresa Carreño. Gottschalk rarely took on students and was skeptical of prodigies, but Carreño was an exception, and he was determined that she would succeed. With his busy schedule, Gottschalk was only able to give her a handful of lessons, yet Carreño would remember him fondly and performed his music for the rest of her days. A year after meeting Gottschalk, she performed for Abraham Lincoln and would go on to become a renowned concert pianist earning the nickname "Valkyrie of the Piano".
In late 1855 and early 1856, Gottschalk made connections with several notable figures of the New York art world, including the sculptor Erastus Dow Palmer, composer and musician George William Warren and Hudson River School landscape painter Frederic Edwin Church. Like Gottschalk, Church had traveled extensively in Latin America (primarily Ecuador and Colombia) and produced a series of large-scale canvases of South American subject. Gottschalk dedicated a Mazurka poétique to Church, who gave Gottschalk a small (now unidentified) landscape painting. Gottschalk also possibly collaborated with Warren on his 1863 The Andes, Marche di Bravoura, a solo piano piece inspired by Church's large-scale South American painting of 1859, The Heart of the Andes.
By the 1860s, Gottschalk had established himself as the best known pianist in the New World. Although born and raised in New Orleans, he was a supporter of the Union cause during the American Civil War. Gottschalk returned to his native city only occasionally for concerts, but he always introduced himself as a New Orleans native. Gottschalk composed the tarantella, Grande Tarantelle, Op. 67, subtitled Célèbre Tarentelle, during 1858–64.
In May 1865, Gottschalk was mentioned in a San Francisco newspaper as having "travelled 95,000 miles by rail and given 1,000 concerts". However, he was forced to leave the United States later that year because of an alleged affair with a student at the Oakland Female Seminary in Oakland, California. Gottschalk denied any wrongdoing, saying that the subsequent publication of this incident was an attempt to undermine his reputation by a rival of the piano manufacturer Chickering & Sons, the same brand of piano that Gottschalk used on his tours. He never returned to the United States.
Gottschalk chose to travel to South America, where he continued to give frequent concerts. During one of these concerts, at the Teatro Lyrico Fluminense in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, on November 24, 1869, Gottschalk collapsed from yellow fever. Just before collapsing, he had finished playing his romantic piece Morte! (translated from Portuguese as "Death"), although the actual collapse occurred just as Gottschalk started to play his celebrated piece Tremolo. Gottschalk never recovered from the collapse.
Less than a month later, on December 18, 1869, at age 40, Gottschalk died at his hotel in Tijuca, Rio de Janeiro, probably from an overdose of quinine. According to an essay by Jeremy Nicholas for the booklet accompanying the recording "Gottschalk Piano Music" performed by Philip Martin on the Hyperion label, "He died ... of empyema, the result of a ruptured abscess in the abdomen."
In 1870, Gottschalk's remains were returned to the United States and were interred at the Green-Wood Cemetery in Brooklyn, New York City. His burial spot was originally marked by a magnificent marble monument, topped by an "Angel of Music" statue, which was irreparably damaged by vandals in 1959. In October 2012, after nearly 15 years of fundraising by the Green-Wood Cemetery, a new "Angel of Music" statue, created by sculptors Giancarlo Biagi and Jill Burkee to replace the damaged one, was unveiled.
== Works ==
Gottschalk's music was very popular during his lifetime and his earliest compositions created a sensation in Europe. Early pieces like Bamboula, La Savane, Le Bananier and Le Mancenillier were based on Gottschalk's memories of the music he heard during his youth in Louisiana and are widely regarded as the earliest existing pieces of creole music in classical culture. In this context, some of Gottschalk's work, such as the 13-minute opera Escenas campestres, retains value. Gottschalk also utilized the Bamboula theme as a melody in his Symphony No. 1: A Night in the Tropics. A melody from Gottschalk's Souvenirs d'Andalousie (Memories of Andalusia) forms the basis of a highly popular 20th century piece "Malagueña" by Ernesto Lecuona.
Many of Gottschalk's compositions were destroyed after his death or are lost. Musicologist Richard Jackson served as the editor of a 1973 published collection of Gottschalk’s piano music and concurrently organized an exhibition of Gottschalk and his music at the New York Public Library.
== Recordings ==
Various pianists later recorded his piano music. The first important recordings of his orchestral music, including the symphony A Night in the Tropics, were made for Vanguard Records by Maurice Abravanel and the Utah Symphony Orchestra. Vox Records issued a multi-disc collection of his music, which was later reissued on CD. This included world premiere recordings of the original orchestrations of both symphonies and other works, which were conducted by Igor Buketoff and Samuel Adler.
In 1984, Nimbus Records issued The Lady Fainted, a selection of piano fantasies, caprices, meditations and paraphrases played by Alan Marks. Lambert Orkis recorded a selection of Gottschalk's music on an 1865 Chickering concert grand in 1988 as part of The Smithsonian Collection of Recordings. The music of Gottschalk was used in the soundtrack for the Michel Deville film Aux Petits Bonheurs , which was played by Noël Lee on a Steinway piano and released by Erato Records in 1994. Beginning in the 1990s, Philip Martin recorded most of Gottschalk's extant piano music for Hyperion Records.
== In popular culture ==
Author Howard Breslin wrote a historical novel about Gottschalk titled Concert Grand in 1963.
A version of Gottschalk's Bamboula, with added lyrics, was recorded in April 1934 by trumpet player Abel Beauregard's dance band, the Orchestre Créole Matou from the French Caribbean Guadeloupe island. This is the first recording of this composition, as the first 'classical piano' recordings of Gottschalk's works were not recorded until 1956, by American pianist Eugene List. Other recordings related to the specific bamboula rhythm heard by Gottschalk in New Orleans' Congo Square and used on his famous 1845 composition Bamboula can be found on a 1950 Haitian voodoo recording Baboule Dance (three drums). On the 1962 Cuban folk tune Rezos Congos (Bamboula, Conga Music). Comments by musicologist Bruno Blum are included in each of the above releases. New Orleans singer and pianist Dr. John's recording of Litanie des Saints from Goin' Back to New Orleans was inspired by Gottschalk's Souvenir de Porto Rico.
== See also ==
Great Galloping Gottschalk, a contemporary ballet set to the music of Gottschalk
Clara Gottschalk Peterson, Gottschalk's sister and a pianist and composer in her own right
Louis F. Gottschalk, Gottschalk's great nephew
== References ==
=== Notes ===
=== Sources ===
Irving Lowens/S. Frederick Starr: "Louis Moreau Gottschalk", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (Accessed June 28, 2007), (subscription required)
== External links ==
Louis Moreau Gottschalk, pianiste itinérant (French dedicated website with scores and audio extracts)
English Works List on French dedicated site Archived 2011-01-08 at the Wayback Machine
Louis Moreau Gottschalk, a dedicated website
Louis Moreau Gottschalk: Pioneering Pianist/Composer of the Americas (Catalogue of works, links to reference information)
Louis Moreau Gottschalk at Find a Grave
Biographical sketch at the Library of Congress Web Archives (archived 2009-07-18)
Adam Kirsch, “Diary of a ‘One-Man Grateful Dead’,” New York Sun, June 7, 2006.
Free scores by Louis Moreau Gottschalk at the International Music Score Library Project (IMSLP)
Jewish Encyclopedia: “Gottschalk, Louis Moreau” by Isidore Singer and Joseph Sohn (1906).
Free scores at the Mutopia Project
Louis Moreau Gottschalk Collection at The Historic New Orleans Collection
=== Listening ===
Art of the States: Louis Moreau Gottschalk (six works by the composer) at the Wayback Machine (archived 2005-10-22)
Creole Eyes (Dance Cubaine), Op. 37 on YouTube
Berceuse (Cradle Song), Op. 47 on YouTube, piano and clarinet– restful fan dance (note:pasties), Ann Arbor, Michigan, 2017
Kunst der Fuge: Louis Moreau Gottschalk – MIDI files (piano works) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemidactylus_boavistensis | Hemidactylus boavistensis | Hemidactylus boavistensis, the Boa Vista leaf-toed gecko, is a species of gecko in the family Gekkonidae. The species is endemic to the Cape Verde Islands. The specific name, boavistensis, refers to the island Boa Vista, one of the islands where it has been found. It has also been found on the island of Sal and the islets of Curral Velho and Sal Rei. It had long been considered a subspecies of Hemidactylus bouvieri but was re-elevated as a separate species in 2008.
The Boa Vista leaf-toed gecko reaches lengths of 50 mm (2.0 in) from snout to vent. The head is relatively broad and the snout narrow with a concave or straight profile on the dorsal surface. It has about 35–38 fine ventral scales across the mid-belly. The first hind toe typically has 5 scales underneath while the fourth toe has 7–9 scales. In comparison, H. bouvieri is smaller, up to 40 mm (1.6 in) from snout to vent, with a narrower head, 20–25 coarse ventral scales, and only 3–4 scales under the first hind toe and 4–5 under the fourth.
Although it is common where it is found, it was listed as a "near threatened" species on the IUCN Red List in 2012 due to its limited distribution, pressures from development, and competition with introduced species such as the house gecko (Hemidactylus angulatus).
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julie_Depardieu | Julie Depardieu | Julie Marion Depardieu (born 18 June 1973) is a French actress who has appeared in a number of successful films.
== Early life ==
Born 18 June 1973 in Boulogne-Billancourt, she is the daughter of Gérard and Élisabeth Depardieu and the sister of the late Guillaume Depardieu – all of whom have worked as film actors. She has two paternal half-siblings: half-sister Roxane and half-brother Jean.
She has two sons, Billy (b. 2011) and Alfred (b. 2012), with her musician boyfriend Philippe Katerine.
== Career ==
In 2004, she won two César Awards (Best Supporting Actress and Best Young Actress) for La petite Lili and won another (Best Supporting Actress) for Un secret in 2008. Depardieu was also nominated for a César Award for Best Supporting Actress in 2005 for her performance in Podium.
In 2008, she also directed her first operette les contes d'Hoffmann (Tales of Hoffmann) at the Vaux le Vicomte castle, the castle which inspired king Louis XIV to build Versailles.
== Filmography ==
== Theatre ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Julie Depardieu at IMDb
Julie Depardieu at Allmovie
Julie Depardieu at uniFrance
Julie Depardieu at AlloCiné (in French) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotfi_A._Zadeh | Lotfi A. Zadeh | Lotfi Aliasger Zadeh (; Azerbaijani: Lütfi Rəhim oğlu Ələsgərzadə; Persian: لطفی علیعسکرزاده; 4 February 1921 – 6 September 2017) was a mathematician, computer scientist, electrical engineer, artificial intelligence researcher, and professor of computer science at the University of California, Berkeley.
Zadeh is best known for proposing fuzzy mathematics, consisting of several fuzzy-related concepts: fuzzy sets, fuzzy logic, fuzzy algorithms, fuzzy semantics, fuzzy languages, fuzzy control, fuzzy systems, fuzzy probabilities, fuzzy events, and fuzzy information.
Zadeh was a founding member of the Eurasian Academy.
== Early life and career ==
=== Azerbaijan ===
Zadeh was born in Baku, Azerbaijan SSR, as Lotfi Aliasgerzadeh. His father was Rahim Aleskerzade, an Iranian Muslim Azerbaijani journalist from Ardabil on assignment from Iran, and his mother was Fanya (Feyga) Korenman, a Jewish pediatrician from Odesa, Ukraine, who was an Iranian citizen. The Soviet government at this time courted foreign correspondents, and the family lived well while in Baku. Zadeh attended elementary school for three years there, which he said "had a significant and long-lasting influence on my thinking and my way of looking at things."
=== Iran ===
In 1931, when Stalin began agricultural collectivization, and Zadeh was ten, his father moved his family back to Tehran, Iran. Zadeh was enrolled in Alborz High School, a missionary school, where he was educated for the next eight years, and where he met his future wife, Fay (Faina) Zadeh, who said that he was "deeply influenced" by the "extremely decent, fine, honest, and helpful" Presbyterian missionaries from the United States who ran the college. "To me they represented the best that you could find in the United States—people from the Midwest with strong roots. They were really 'Good Samaritans' – willing to give of themselves for the benefit of others. So this kind of attitude influenced me deeply. It also instilled in me a deep desire to live in the United States." During this time, Zadeh was awarded several patents.
Zadeh sat for the Iran national university exams and placed third in the nation. As a student, he ranked first in his class in his first two years. In 1942, he graduated from the University of Tehran with a degree in electrical engineering, one of only three students in that field to graduate that year, due to the turmoil created by World War II, when the United States, Britain and the Soviet Union invaded Iran. Over 30,000 American soldiers were based there, and Zadeh worked with his father, who did business with them as a contractor for hardware and building materials.
=== United States ===
In 1943, Zadeh decided to leave for the United States to continue his education. He travelled to Philadelphia by way of Cairo after months of delay waiting first for the proper papers and later for the right ship to appear. He arrived in mid-1944, lived in New York and worked for an electronic association, and entered the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) as a graduate student in September that year. While in the United States, he shortened his family name, creating a new middle name from the part he removed, and was thenceforth known as Lotfi Aliasker Zadeh. He received an MS degree in electrical engineering from MIT in 1946.
In 1947, as his parents had settled in New York City, Zadeh went to work as an engineer at Columbia University. Zadeh then applied to Columbia University. Columbia admitted him as a doctoral student and offered him an instructorship as well. He received his PhD in electrical engineering from Columbia in 1949 and became an assistant professor the next year. Zadeh taught for ten years at Columbia and was promoted to full professor in 1957.
The chairman of the electronic engineering department at the University of California, wrote and offered him work. In 1959, Zadeh joined the electrical engineering faculty at the University of California, Berkeley. During his lengthy research career, Zadeh made important scientific contributions in two distinct areas: (1) linear system theory and classical control systems, and (2) fuzzy sets, fuzzy logic, and related science and technology.
Zadeh was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1967 for Natural Sciences in Applied Mathematics.
Zadeh's first important research contribution, well known among scholars of his generation in the electrical engineering community, was in the area of classical control systems. His pioneer work, co-authored with Charles Desoer, Linear System Theory: The State Space Approach, laid a critical foundation for all modern approaches to system analysis and control. The second and more well-known contribution of Zadeh's research is his lifelong dedication to the creation, enhancement and the real-world impacts of a broad collection of science and technology based on fuzzy sets and fuzzy logic. He published his seminal work on fuzzy sets in 1965, in which he described the motivation of replicating human-like reasoning and detailed the mathematics of fuzzy set theory.
In 1973 he proposed his theory of fuzzy logic. Together, fuzzy sets and fuzzy logic provide the necessary foundations for a broad class of related innovations, including (but not limited to):
fuzzy control – a practical approach to non-linear control using fuzzy if-then rules in fuzzy logic
fuzzy pattern recognition – a generalization of conventional pattern recognition techniques using fuzzy sets (e.g., fuzzy k-means generalizes k-means clustering)
fuzzy database – generalizes classical database query language using fuzzy sets and fuzzy logic
fuzzy mathematics – generalizes conventional mathematics using fuzzy sets and fuzzy logic
neuro-fuzzy systems – a synergistic combination of fuzzy logic and neural networks, providing the first interpretable AI system based on neural network learning
He was also on the Board of Governors for International Neural Network Society (INNS) in 2003.
== Impacts to higher education ==
Zadeh became the chair of Department of Electrical Engineering at the University of California, Berkeley, in 1963. One of the lasting impacts of his leadership in this role is the expansion and the integration of computer science. He initiated and completed (in 1968) the transformation of the Electrical Engineering department at UC Berkeley to the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (EECS). This strategic move not only led UC Berkeley's advancement into the top ranks of computer science education and research, but also led other research universities globally to add computer science to their electrical engineering departments.
In 1973, Zadeh received the prestigious (Institute of Electronic and Electrical Engineers) IEEE Education Award, largely in recognition of his performance as chair of EE and then EECS. Other important services to UC Berkeley include his Academic Senate committee memberships: Academic Planning & Resource Allocation (1992–95); Committees (1969–70; 1980–81); Courses of Instruction (1975–80); and Faculty Awards (1990–92). Professor Zadeh graduated more than 50 PhD students, many of whom went on to become leaders in various areas of engineering, management and information sciences.
== Personal life and beliefs ==
Zadeh photographed people around him.
Zadeh was called "quick to shrug off nationalism, insisting there are much deeper issues in life", and was quoted as saying in an interview: "The question really isn't whether I'm American, Russian, Iranian, Azerbaijani, or anything else. I've been shaped by all these people and cultures, and I feel quite comfortable among all of them." He noted in the same interview: "Obstinacy and tenacity, not being afraid to get embroiled in controversy – that's very much a Turkish tradition. That's part of my character, too. I can be very stubborn. That has probably been beneficial for the development of fuzzy logic." He described himself as "an American, mathematically oriented, electrical engineer of Iranian descent, born in Russia."
He and his wife Fay Zadeh had two children, Stella and Norman Zada. His wife wrote a book, My Life and Travels with the Father of Fuzzy Logic about their travels and experiences together, visiting "exotic places" and meeting interesting people around the world.
Zadeh died in his home in Berkeley, California, on 6 September 2017, at the age of 96. He was buried at the First Alley of Honors, on 29 September 2017 in Baku, Azerbaijan, the city in which he was born. His funeral was well attended by "highly respected people." A month prior to his death, the University of Tehran had released an erroneous report that Zadeh had died, but withdrew it several days later.
== Work ==
According to Google Scholar, as of November 2021, Zadeh's work has been cited at least 269,091 times in scholarly works, with the 1965 Fuzzy sets paper receiving at least 122,743 citations.
=== Fuzzy sets and systems ===
Zadeh, in his theory of fuzzy sets, proposed using a membership function (with a range covering the interval [0,1]) operating on the domain of all possible values. He proposed new operations for the calculus of logic and showed that fuzzy logic was a generalisation of classical and Boolean logic. He also proposed fuzzy numbers as a special case of fuzzy sets, as well as the corresponding rules for consistent mathematical operations (fuzzy arithmetic).
=== Fuzzy logic and artificial intelligence ===
Zadeh's research career has had a lasting impact on artificial intelligence (AI). Fuzzy sets and fuzzy logic are both motivated by our understanding of human cognition: that we are comfortable with concepts that have vague boundaries. This is well aligned with the Physical symbol system assumption in AI (by Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon), inspired by another aspect of human cognition: that humans are comfortable with concepts that are described by symbols.
The concept of a linguistic variable in fuzzy logic connects a symbol that is typically a predicate in classical logic (e.g., "John is Bold", or in predicate logic – Bold(John)) – to linguistic values (e.g., "John is somewhat bold." or in fuzzy logic – Bold(John)=Somewhat ) – which generalizes the binary value of predicate logic in two ways.
First, the two possible values (True or False) in predicate logic are generalized to a continuum (typically from 0, which corresponds to False, to 1, which corresponds to True). This allows the expression of Bold(John)= 0.5, which indicates that John is midway between being devoid of boldness and being entirely bold.
The second generalization enabled by fuzzy logic is to use a fuzzy set such as "somewhat bold" to describe a person's boldness level in a way that is more natural to human understanding and communication. Without this generalization, we can only describe the value of a person's boldness as a number (e.g., 0.5) or as an interval (e.g., [0.25, 0.75]). With this generalization, one can express the semantic meaning of "somewhat bold" as a fuzzy set in the domain of 0 and 1.
Zadeh was also an active contributor to the AI community, including at the Dartmouth Workshop that coined the term "artificial intelligence". He was subsequently a frequent contributor to leading AI conferences such as AAAI and IJCAI, as well as other top venues such as AI Magazine.
=== Other contributions ===
Zadeh is credited, along with John R. Ragazzini, in 1952, with having pioneered the development of the Z-transform method in discrete-time signal processing and analysis. These methods are now standard in digital signal processing, digital control, and other discrete-time systems used in industry and research. He was an editor of the International Journal of Computational Cognition.
Zadeh's work also included computing with words and perceptions. His later papers include "From Search Engines to Question-Answering Systems" and "Toward a Generalized Theory of Uncertainty (GTU)—An Outline".
== Selected publications ==
A complete list of publications is available.
== Lectures ==
1991 - Fuzzy logic: principles, perspectives, and applications Lecture sponsored by the Dept. of Electrical and Computer engineering, University of California, San Diego. Electrical and Computer Engineering Distinguished Lecture Series. Digital Object Made Available by UC San Diego Library.
== Awards and honors ==
Zadeh was a Fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the Association for Computing Machinery, the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence and the International Fuzzy Systems Association, and a member of the National Academy of Engineering. He was also a member of the Academies of Science of Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Finland, Korea and Poland, and of the International Academy of Systems Studies in Moscow. He received 24 honorary doctorates.
Awards received by Zadeh include, among many others:
IEEE Education Medal; 1973
Eringen Medal; 1976
IEEE Richard W. Hamming Medal, for "seminal contributions to information science and systems, including the conceptualization of fuzzy sets"; 1992
American Society of Mechanical Engineers Rufus Oldenburger Medal; 1993.
Honorary Professorship from the Azerbaijan State Oil Academy; 1993
IEEE Medal of Honor, for "pioneering development of fuzzy logic and its many diverse applications"; 1995
American Automatic Control Council's Richard E. Bellman Control Heritage Award; 1998.
ACM Allen Newell Award; 2001
Outstanding Contribution Award, Web Intelligence Consortium (WIC), Halifax, Canada, 2003.
Wall of Fame, Heinz Nixdorf MuseumsForum (HNF), Paderborn, Germany, 2004.
V. Kaufmann Prize and Gold Medal, International Association for Fuzzy-Set Management and Economy (SIGEF), Barcelona, Spain, Nov. 15, 2004.
J. Keith Brimacombe IPMM Award in recognition of his development of fuzzy set theory and fuzzy logic, 2005.
Benjamin Franklin Medal in Electrical Engineering from The Franklin Institute in Philadelphia, for inventing and developing the field of "fuzzy logic"; 2009
Induction into the IEEE Intelligent Systems' AI's Hall of Fame, 2011, "for his work on soft computing, fuzzy logic, and neural-net theory".
BBVA Foundation Frontiers of Knowledge Award in the category of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT), Spain, 2012.
Honorary Doctor of the Óbuda University (Budapest, Hungary) 2011
Golden Goose Award, for Fuzzy Logic; 2017
== Legacy ==
In 2014, the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Society established the "Lotfi A. Zadeh Pioneer Award", which is given to honour a person or persons with "outstanding and pioneering contributions to academic and/or industrial research in systems science and engineering, human-machine systems, and/or cybernetics." The award is funded from a $100,000 donation from Zadeh's son, Norm Zadeh, and is administered by the IEEE. Nominees must have "pioneered and developed innovative research, executed in either academe or industry," that has resulted in major scientific advances in "systems science and engineering, human-machine systems, and/or cybernetics." Contributions must have been made at least 15 years prior to the award date.
In February 2019, ADA University in Baku, Azerbaijan presented the first "Lotfi Zadeh Scholarships", which honour the academic success of undergraduate students in the university's School of IT and Engineering. Winners of the scholarship receive a complete tuition waiver for the semester or semester-equivalent in which they achieved a 4.0 average.
On 4 February 2021, the IEEE Computational Intelligence Society and the International Fuzzy Systems Association (IFSA) jointly celebrated the centenary of Zadeh's birth.
On 30 November 2021, Google honored Zadeh with a Google Doodle. His seminal paper Fuzzy sets was submitted for publication on this day in 1964.
== See also ==
Concept of Stratification
== References ==
=== Citations ===
=== General bibliography ===
== Further reading ==
== External links ==
Lotfi A. Zadeh , Academic profile, College of Engineering, Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of California, Berkeley
"Lotfi A. Zadeh". Google Scholar.
Dubois, Didier; Prade, Henri. "Celebrating the centenary of Lotfi A. Zadeh (1921-2017)" on YouTube
Azerbaijan International:
Lotfi Zadeh (interview): Reflections on the Beginnings of "Fuzzy Logic" in Azerbaijan International, Vol. 2:4 (1994), pp. 46–47.
Lotfi Zadeh, Berkeley Commencement Speech: "Commercialism and Human Values: When You Can't Stop for Lunch," in Azerbaijan International, Vol. 6:1 (Spring 1998), p. 65.
"Famous People: Then and Now, Lotfi Zadeh (reflecting on his childhood) in Azerbaijan International, Vol. 7:4 (Winter 1999), pp. 28–29.
Lotfi Zadeh: "Short Biographical Sketch". Azerbaijan International, Vol. 2:4 (Winter 1994), p. 49.
Lotfi Zadeh, Honorary Chair and Keynote Speaker, ICCCC 2008. Agora University of Oradea
Lotfi A. Zadeh at the AI Genealogy Project. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristi_Noem# | Kristi Noem | Kristi Lynn Arnold Noem ( NOHM; née Arnold; born November 30, 1971) is an American politician serving as the 8th United States secretary of homeland security since 2025. A member of the Republican Party, she served as the 33rd governor of South Dakota from 2019 to 2025 and represented South Dakota's at-large congressional district in the U.S. House of Representatives from 2011 to 2019.
Born in Watertown, South Dakota, Noem began her political career in the South Dakota House of Representatives, serving from 2007 to 2011. Noem was elected as the first female governor of South Dakota in 2018 with the endorsement of President Donald Trump. She gained national attention during the COVID-19 pandemic for opposing statewide mask mandates and advocating voluntary measures. Noem has conservative positions on most domestic issues, particularly gun rights, abortion, and immigration.
Noem is a farmer, rancher, and member of the Civil Air Patrol. She has published two autobiographies, Not My First Rodeo: Lessons from the Heartland (2022) and No Going Back (2024), the latter of which sparked controversy for its account of her killing a young family dog and inaccurate claims about meeting with foreign leaders. Donald Trump nominated her for Secretary of Homeland Security in his second cabinet. She was confirmed in January 2025 by a Senate vote of 59–34.
== Early life ==
Noem was born Kristi Lynn Arnold to Ron and Corinne Arnold on November 30, 1971, in Watertown, South Dakota, and raised with her siblings on the family ranch and farm in Hazel, South Dakota. She has Norwegian ancestry and is a descendant of Ephraim Wilson, who fought in the American Revolutionary War. In 1990, Noem graduated from Hamlin High School in Hayti, South Dakota, and was crowned South Dakota Snow Queen.
Noem attended Northern State University from 1990 to 1994 but did not graduate. In March 1994, her father was killed in a grain bin accident and Noem left college early to run the family farm. Her daughter, Kassidy, was born weeks later, on April 21, 1994. She added a hunting lodge and restaurant to the family property. Her siblings also moved back to help expand the businesses.
Noem subsequently took classes at the Watertown campus of Mount Marty College and at South Dakota State University, and online classes from the University of South Dakota. She obtained a Bachelor of Arts degree with a major in political science from South Dakota State University in 2012 while serving as a U.S. representative. The Washington Post dubbed her Capitol Hill's "most powerful intern" for receiving college intern credits from her position as a member of Congress.
== South Dakota House of Representatives (2007–2011) ==
In 2006, Noem won a seat as a Republican in the South Dakota House of Representatives, representing the 6th district, comprising parts of Beadle, Clark, Codington, Hamlin, and Kingsbury counties. In 2006, she won with 39% of the vote. In 2008, she was reelected with 41% of the vote.
Noem served for four years, from 2007 to 2010. She was an assistant majority leader during her second term. During her tenure, Noem was the prime sponsor of 11 bills that became law, including several property tax reforms and two bills to increase gun rights in South Dakota. In 2009, she served as vice chair of the Agriculture Land Assessment Advisory Task Force. Senator Larry Rhoden chaired the task force, and later served as her lieutenant governor. During her tenure, she joined the Civil Air Patrol as a "state legislative member". She holds the rank of lieutenant colonel.
== U.S. House of Representatives (2011–2019) ==
In 2010, Noem ran for South Dakota's at-large seat in the U.S. House of Representatives. She won the Republican primary and defeated incumbent Democrat Stephanie Herseth Sandlin in the general election. Noem was reelected three times, serving in Congress until 2019.
=== Tenure ===
The 2011 House Republican 87-member freshman class elected Noem as liaison to the House Republican leadership, making her the second woman member of the House GOP leadership. According to The Hill, her role was to push the leadership to make significant cuts to federal government spending and to help Speaker John Boehner manage the expectations of the freshman class. In March 2011, Republican Representative Pete Sessions of Texas named Noem one of the 12 regional directors for the National Republican Congressional Committee during the 2012 election campaign.
On March 8, 2011, she announced the formation of a leadership political action committee, KRISTI PAC. Former South Dakota Lieutenant Governor Steve Kirby is its treasurer. Noem was among the top freshman Republicans in PAC fundraising in the first quarter of 2011, raising $169,000 from PACs.
==== Abortion ====
Noem co-sponsored legislation that would federally ban abortion. In 2015, she co-sponsored a bill to amend the 14th Amendment to define human life and personhood as beginning at fertilization, federally banning abortion from the moment of fertilization. She also voted for a bill to ban abortion after 20 weeks of pregnancy.
==== Energy and environment ====
Noem denies the scientific consensus on climate change. In 2022 she said she believes "the science has been varied on it, and it hasn't been proven to me that what we're doing is affecting the climate."
Noem has said that the U.S. needs an "all-of-the-above energy approach" that includes renewables like wind and ethanol while still realizing the need for a "balanced energy mix" that ends American dependence on foreign oil.
Noem supported the Keystone XL Pipeline and supports offshore oil drilling. She co-sponsored three bills that she argued would reduce American dependence on foreign oil by ending the 2010 United States deepwater drilling moratorium in the Gulf of Mexico and reopening sales on oil leases in the Gulf and off the coast of Virginia. In 2011, she sponsored a measure to block Environmental Protection Agency funding for tighter air pollution standards for coarse particulates.
Noem opposed a bill introduced by South Dakota Senator Tim Johnson that would designate over 48,000 acres (190 km2) of the Buffalo Gap National Grassland as protected wilderness. She supports the designation of the land as a national grassland. She said the land is already managed as roadless areas similar to wilderness and argued that changing the land's designation to wilderness would further limit leaseholder access to the land and imperil grazing rights.
==== Foreign affairs ====
From 2013 to 2015, Noem served on the House Armed Services Committee, where she worked on the 2014 National Defense Authorization Act. Her appointment to the committee was seen as a benefit to South Dakota's Ellsworth Air Force Base. In March 2011, Noem was critical of President Barack Obama's approach to the NATO-led military intervention in the 2011 Libyan civil war, calling on him to provide more information about the U.S.'s role in the conflict, and characterizing his statements as vague and ambiguous.
==== Health care ====
Noem opposes the Affordable Care Act (Obamacare) and has voted to repeal it. Having unsuccessfully sought to repeal it, she sought to defund it while retaining measures such as the Indian Health Care Improvement Act, the provision allowing parents to keep their children on their health insurance plan into their 20s, and the high-risk pools. Noem wanted to add such provisions to federal law as limits on medical malpractice lawsuits and allowing patients to buy health insurance plans from other states. She supported cuts to Medicaid funding proposed by Republican Budget Committee chairman Paul Ryan. A study found that this action would reduce benefits for South Dakota Medicaid recipients by 55 percent.
==== Immigrants and refugees ====
Noem supported President Donald Trump's 2017 Executive Order 13769, that suspended the U.S. refugee program for 120 days and banned all travel to the U.S. by nationals of seven Muslim-majority countries for 90 days. She said she supported a temporary ban on accepting refugees from "terrorist-held" areas, but "did not address whether she supports other aspects of the order, which led to the detention of legal U.S. residents such as green-card holders, and people with dual citizenship as they reentered the country" in the aftermath of the order's issuance.
In 2019, Noem consented to South Dakota's participation in the U.S. Refugee Resettlement Program following a Trump executive order that allowed state and local governments to opt out.
==== In-vitro fertilization and embryonic stem-cell research ====
In August 2010, while running for Congress, Noem responded to a questionnaire from the Christian Coalition voter guide indicating that she would vote to ban embryonic stem-cell research. In 2015, she co-sponsored legislation to amend the 14th Amendment to define human life and personhood as beginning at the moment of fertilization, without exceptions for in-vitro fertilization or embryonic stem-cell research.
==== Taxes ====
In 2017, Noem was on the conference committee that negotiated the passage of the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act, which she touted as giving the average South Dakota family a $1,200 tax cut.
In 2018, Noem was reported to have "pitched the idea to members of the conservative House Freedom Caucus" to attach her online sales tax bill to the government funding package as part of an omnibus. A court case under consideration in the South Dakota Supreme Court involved requiring "certain out-of-state retailers to collect its sales taxes." Noem said that South Dakota businesses (and by extension businesses nationwide) "could be forced to comply with 1,000 different tax structures nationwide without the tools necessary to do so", adding that her legislation "provides a necessary fix."
Noem has called the budget deficit one of the most important issues facing Congress. She cosponsored H. J. Res. 2, which would require that total spending for any fiscal year not exceed total receipts. She cited the Environmental Protection Agency, the Department of Veterans Affairs, Medicaid, high-speed rail projects, cap-and-trade technical assistance, and subsidies for the Washington Metro rapid transit system as examples of federal programs where she would like to see cuts.
In 2011, Noem indicated that she would vote to raise the federal debt ceiling, but only if "tied to budget reforms that change the way we spend our dollars and how Washington, D.C., does business. It won't just be a one-time spending cut." She ultimately voted for S. 365, The Budget Control Act of 2011, which allowed Obama to raise the debt ceiling in exchange for spending cuts to be decided by a bipartisan committee. She also said she wanted to eliminate the estate tax, lower the corporate tax rate, and simplify the tax code. She said she would not raise taxes to balance the budget.
Committee assignments
Committee on Ways and Means
Subcommittee on Human Resources
Subcommittee on Select Revenue Measures
Caucus memberships
Republican Study Committee
Congressional Arts Caucus
Afterschool Caucuses
Congressional Western Caucus
== Governor of South Dakota (2019–2025) ==
=== Elections ===
==== 2018 ====
In November 2016, Noem announced she would run for governor of South Dakota in 2018 rather than seek reelection to Congress. She defeated South Dakota Attorney General Marty Jackley in the June Republican primary, 56 to 44 percent, and Democratic nominee Billie Sutton in the general election, 51 to 48 percent.
==== 2022 ====
In November 2021, Noem announced she was running for reelection as governor. State Representative Steven Haugaard, a Republican, announced he was running against Noem. In February 2022, House Democratic Minority Leader Jamie Smith announced he was seeking the Democratic nomination.
In the Republican primary in June, Noem defeated Haugaard, 76% to 24%. In the general election, she defeated Smith, 62% to 35%. Despite predictions of a competitive race, Noem flipped 17 counties that had previously voted Democratic and set a record for the most votes received by a candidate for governor in South Dakota.
=== Tenure ===
Noem was sworn in as governor on January 5, 2019, the first woman in that office in the state.
==== Abortion ====
Noem is anti-abortion. She has been lauded by the anti-abortion group Susan B. Anthony List and said she intends to maintain her 100% anti-abortion voting record.
In 2019, Noem signed bills restricting abortion, saying they would "crack down on abortion providers in South Dakota" and that a "strong and growing body of medical research provides evidence that unborn babies can feel, think, and recognize sounds in the womb. These are people, they must be given the same basic dignities as anyone else."
Following the overturning of Roe v. Wade, South Dakota became one of the first states to enact trigger laws banning abortions. Noem defended South Dakota's abortion ban, which only allows exceptions in cases in which the mother's life is in danger. When asked about the case of the 10-year-old child abuse victim who traveled from Ohio to Indiana to receive an abortion, Noem said she would not support changing the law to allow exceptions for rape victims, explaining that she did not "believe a tragic situation should be perpetuated by another tragedy".
Noem proclaimed 2024 the "Freedom for Life Year", promoting anti-abortion laws. In April 2024, she announced that she had reversed her support for a federal ban on abortion, saying she believed abortion law should be determined at the state level, and continued to support South Dakota's law banning abortion except to save the life of the pregnant patient, without exceptions for rape or incest.
==== Early childhood education ====
Noem is a vocal opponent of subsidized child care. Her administration rejected $7.5 million in federal funding for free summer meal programs for low-income residents and defeated multiple attempts to provide school lunches for eligible students. In 2023, Noem said, "I just don't think it's the government's job to pay or to raise people's children for them".
==== Access to public records ====
While running for governor in 2018, Noem made government transparency part of her platform. In her first State of the State address she pledged to "work toward building the most transparent administration South Dakota has ever seen".
Throughout her tenure, news outlets and government transparency advocates sued Noem for failing to provide the transparency she advocated. Complaints included denial of immediate access to a state-funded report about the alleged presence of critical race theory and "divisive concepts" in South Dakota schools; denial of access to pardon records; not releasing the cost of the governor's security team; whipping votes against a bill to make public records of the cost of the governor's security; and attempts to seal records on an ethics investigation involving her daughter.
==== Anti-protest legislation ====
In response to protests against the Keystone Pipeline, Noem's office collaborated with the energy company TransCanada Corporation to develop anti-protest legislation, which Noem signed into law in 2019. The law created a fund to cover the costs of policing pipeline protests. Another law was passed to raise revenue for the fund by creating civil penalties for advising, directing, or encouraging participation in rioting. The Pine Ridge Indian Reservation banned Noem from their grounds as a result. The Indigenous Environmental Network, Sierra Club, and other groups challenged the laws in suits, arguing that they violated First Amendment rights by incentivizing the state to sue protesters. In 2020, after a federal court struck down sections of the legislation as unconstitutional, Noem brought legislation to repeal sections of the previous bill and clarify the definition of "incitement to riot".
==== China ====
Noem has called China "an enemy" of the U.S. In 2022, she issued an order banning TikTok from state-owned devices, saying the "Chinese Communist Party uses information it gathers on TikTok to manipulate the American people". In 2023, she signed an order prohibiting the downloading or use of any application or visiting of any site owned by the Chinese company Tencent, including WeChat, on state-owned devices. In 2024, she signed a bill prohibiting the governments of six countries—China, Cuba, Iran, North Korea, Russia, and Venezuela—and entities from those countries from buying agricultural land in South Dakota.
==== Conflict of interest action to professionally benefit daughter ====
In 2020, after Noem's 26-year-old daughter, Kassidy Peters, was denied a real estate appraisal license, Noem summoned to her office Sherry Bren, a state employee who had directed South Dakota's Appraiser Certification Program for 30 years. Attendees included Peters, Noem's chief of staff Tony Venhuizen, Department of Labor Attorney Amber Mulder and Labor Secretary Marcia Hultman.
By telephone, the group was joined by the governor's general counsel, Tom Hart, and a lawyer from the state's Department of Labor and Regulation, Graham Oey. A week later, Hultman demanded Bren's resignation. Bren repeatedly, but unsuccessfully, tried to resolve the issues short of resigning, eventually filing an age discrimination complaint. She received a $200,000 settlement as part of a nondisclosure agreement to withdraw her complaint and leave her position. Noem's spokesperson characterized the allegations as an example of how Noem cut through "bureaucratic red tape".
After the Associated Press published a story about the incident, the State Senate's Government Operations and Audit Committee was delegated to investigate. In October 2021, the Committee invited Hultman and Bren to come before it to discuss the appraisal program in light of the controversy. On December 14, 2021, Bren testified before the Government Operations and Audit Committee. She said that Peters received an Agreed Disposition around March/April 2020. Around July 20, 2020, Peters received a letter and/or Findings of Fact and Conclusions of Law when she failed to meet the requirements of the Agreed Disposition. Bren said that on July 26, Department of Labor attorney Amber Mulder told her to be prepared to discuss "what is the definition of a serious deficiency; what criteria do you use for denials; how many are denied each year; how many are approved; are we saying that Kassidy can take certain classes and resubmit".
Bren said she felt "very nervous" and "intimidated" when meeting with Noem and attorneys and Labor Secretary Hultman. Bren mentioned during the meeting at the mansion some appraisal classes that she thought would be helpful to Peters. Bren said that Noem was upset that she was just now hearing about the classes. Bren testified that the decision to depart from recognized upgrade procedures and offer a third opportunity would be Hultman's. Bren said this was beyond the recognized procedures and "not normal."
On November 1, 2021, the Government Accountability Board set an agenda to discuss this issue and another issue based on complaints brought by Ravnsborg. On December 15, 2021, the Government Accountability Board referred one of the two complaints to Noem for a response and sent the other back to the complainant for further information. On February 3, 2022, the Government Accountability Board referred the second complaint to Noem for a response and gave her until April 15, 2022, to answer both pending complaints.
On February 24, 2022, Republican State Representative John Mills introduced House Resolution 7004, "Addressing the Governor's unacceptable actions in matters related to the appraiser certification program", against Noem. On March 1, the resolution was debated and failed by a margin of 29 to 38 with three excused, including Noem's primary opponent Steven Haugaard and U.S. House candidate Taffy Howard.
==== Conflict with Native American tribes ====
In 2024, it was reported that all nine tribes of South Dakota banned Noem from entering any tribal lands, prohibiting her from entering almost 20% of South Dakota. Other media reported that one of the nine tribes, the Yankton Sioux, had not officially banned Noem. The Oglala Sioux banned Noem in February, followed by the Cheyenne River Sioux, the Standing Rock Sioux, and the Rosebud Sioux in April, and the Sisseton Wahpeton Oyate, the Crow Creek Sioux, and the Flandreau Santee Sioux in May.
The tribes took action after demanding that Noem apologize for her comments about them. In January 2024, Noem said that an "invasion is coming over the southern border" of the United States, and the "enemy is the Mexican drug cartels", which are "perpetrating violence in each of our states, even here in South Dakota ... The cartels are using our reservations to facilitate the spread of drugs throughout the Midwest." In March 2024, Noem said there were "some tribal leaders that I believe are personally benefiting from the cartels being there", but gave no evidence, and that there were people "who actually live in those situations, who call me and text me every day and say, 'Please, dear governor, please come help us in Pine Ridge. We are scared.'" She added: "they live with 80% to 90% unemployment. Their kids don't have any hope. They don't have parents who show up and help them."
Around January 2025, Noem apologized to the tribes for the misunderstanding between them, and the Flandreau Santee Sioux tribe dissolved its order banning Noem from its land. The tribe said, "the Governor has shown us that she is committed to protecting the people of South Dakota including the citizens of the nine Tribal Nations, who share mutual borders with the state", and expressed its support for her nomination as the Secretary of Homeland Security.
==== COVID-19 pandemic ====
During the COVID-19 pandemic in South Dakota, Noem was at first open to containment strategies. Over the following months, she segued to a hands-off approach. In November 2020, Noem used pandemic relief funds to promote tourism during a surge in cases in the state. She did not implement face mask mandates, raised doubts about the efficacy of mask-wearing, encouraged large gatherings without social distancing or mask-wearing, and questioned public health experts' advice.
As of December 2020, Noem was one of few governors who had not maintained statewide stay-at-home orders or face-mask mandates. Her response mirrored Trump's rhetoric and handling of COVID-19. She was rewarded for her COVID-19 response with a speech at the August 2020 Republican National Convention, which elevated her national profile. The Argus Leader called the RNC speech a "defining moment in her political career".
Early in the pandemic, Noem requested that the legislature pass a bill giving the state health secretary and county officials the power to close businesses and other entities. The House rejected the bill. On March 13, 2020, Noem ordered K-12 schools to close, and on April 6, she extended that order for the remainder of the school year. Also on April 6, Noem ordered businesses and local governments to practice social distancing and other CDC guidelines.
Early on, Noem also emphasized South Dakota's role in evaluating hydroxychloroquine, an antimalarial drug that Trump had touted as a cure for COVID-19. It was never shown to be useful in treating COVID-19 but can produce fatal cardiac arrhythmia.
In early 2020 one of the largest COVID-19 outbreaks in the U.S. occurred in South Dakota. The Smithfield Foods production plant in Sioux Falls had four deaths, with nearly 1,300 workers and their family members testing positive. Secretary of Health and Human Services Alex Azar misinformed a group of legislators that meatpacking plants employees were unlikely to be infected at work, but that their "home and social" habits were spreading the contagion. Noem may have been the first officeholder to publicly express that view.
On April 13, 2020, of an outbreak where hundreds of workers had tested positive at a Smithfield pork plant, she told Fox News, "We believe that 99 percent of what's going on today wasn't happening inside the facility". The industry didn't explain the deaths from COVID-19 of USDA food-safety inspectors from three plants. Almost 200 inspectors contracted symptomatic COVID-19.
In the pandemic's early days, the Food Safety and Inspection Service did not provide protective equipment to its monitors, forbidding them from wearing masks in the slaughterhouses as it feared that might accentuate the risks. On April 9, 2020, the agency said its inspectors would be allowed to wear masks if the meatpacking plants' owners gave the federal employees permission to do so. Inspectors were expected to supply their own masks. A month later, after publication of the risk of spreading the virus, the USDA started giving its inspectors masks. Noem had said that the plant was in full operation as an essential food manufacturing facility. Forty-eight of Smithfield's workers were hospitalized. On April 6, 2020, Noem issued an executive order that said people "shall" follow guidance from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; she also ordered everyone over age 65 in Minnehaha and Lincoln counties to stay home for three weeks.
Noem did not mandate social distancing or the wearing of face masks at a July 3, 2020, event at Mount Rushmore with Trump present. Health experts warned that large gatherings without social distancing or mask-wearing posed a risk to public health. Noem publicly doubted scientific recommendations on the usefulness of masks. In an opinion piece in the Rapid City Journal, she defended her views, citing analysis by the Association of American Physicians and Surgeons, a group known for promoting pseudoscience. The Association of American Physicians and Surgeons had called vaccination the equivalent of "human experimentation."
COVID cases increased drastically in South Dakota after the 2020 Sturgis Motorcycle Rally, in which Noem participated. COVID-19 patients hospitalized in South Dakota on October 22, 2020, reached a record high of 355, including 75 in Intensive Care Units. South Dakota's two largest hospital systems rescheduled elective procedures to increase available space and personnel to accommodate the surge. In the absence of a statewide mask mandate, hospital systems urged people to wear masks while in the company of those outside their own households. Sioux Falls Mayor Paul TenHaken advised his constituents, "Wear a dang mask."
Sixteen weeks after Trump's 2020 executive order that provided enhanced weekly unemployment benefits of $300 as part of the U.S. federal government response to the pandemic, Noem opted out of the program, citing a low state unemployment rate. South Dakota was the only state to refuse the assistance. Its jobless rate in June was 7.2%, up from 3.1% in March, though down from 10.9% in April. Acceptance of the funding required the state to augment the benefit by $100 unless other jobless assistance allowed the match to be waived.
From 2020 to 2021, the following events took place:
Noem supported the annual Sturgis Motorcycle Rally in August 2020, despite warnings from experts that it could spread COVID-19. Nearly 500,000 bikers attended the event. Public health notices were issued for saloons and other businesses in the Sturgis area. By the end of August, dozens of cases linked to attendance at the event were reported in several states.
In September 2020, amid a surge of new cases, Noem announced that she would spend $5 million of relief funding on a state tourism campaign. She used $819,000 of those funds to have the state's Department of Tourism run a 30-second Fox News commercial she had narrated during the 2020 Republican National Convention.
During September 2020, over 550 students became infected at South Dakota universities; 200 more cases were reported in K–12 schools.
In October 2020, as South Dakota reported the country's second-highest number of new COVID-19 cases per capita and hospitals began to prioritize treatment of severe COVID-19 cases over lesser ones, Noem said the higher case numbers were because of more testing, despite the positive test rate and hospitalization rate also increasing.
In February 2021, Noem signed a bill limiting civil liability for certain exposures to COVID-19. The bill exempted healthcare providers and other businesses, including those selling personal protective equipment, from lawsuits unless COVID-19 exposure resulted from gross negligence, recklessness, or willful misconduct.
Also in February 2021, Noem announced her opposition to a bill prohibiting schools and universities from requiring students to get vaccinated. In May, she signed an executive order prohibiting government facilities from requiring proof of vaccination to access services, a policy she called "un-American". In August, Noem opposed legislation proposed by Republican state legislators Jon Hansen and Scott Odenbach that would prohibit businesses from requiring vaccinations as a condition for employment.
In July 2021, Noem criticized other Republican governors for enacting mandatory measures against COVID-19 and trying to "rewrite history" about it. She argued that South Dakota had effectively combated the pandemic by, instead, testing and isolating cases. South Dakota had the 10th-highest death rate and third-highest case rate at that time.
==== Department of Corrections ====
In July 2021, Noem placed Secretary of the Department of Corrections Mike Liedholt on administrative leave, and fired South Dakota State Penitentiary Warden Darin Young and Deputy Warden Jennifer Dreiske, after receiving an anonymous note with complaints regarding pay, medical coverage and instances of sexual harassment. Liedholt later announced his retirement. Later that month, after meeting with prison employees, despite lingering COVID-19 cases, Noem ended the prison's mask mandate.
In August 2021, Noem announced that the CGL Group, a California-based company, was hired for $166,410 to comprehensively review the Department of Corrections operations. At the same time, the director of the prison work program was fired, and two other DOC employees relieved of their duties.
The prison work program director, Stephany Bawek, subsequently filed a complaint with the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), alleging that she was retaliated against for reporting sexual harassment by Young. On March 14, 2022, Bawek filed a lawsuit in federal district court alleging that she was fired for reporting incidents of sexual harassment in the workplace.
==== Deployment of South Dakota National Guard to southern border (2021) ====
In June 2021, Noem announced that she was sending members of the South Dakota National Guard to Texas's border with Mexico. Tennessee billionaire Willis Johnson said he would donate the money necessary for the deployment. On September 22, 2021, the Center for Public Integrity sued the South Dakota National Guard and the U.S. Department of Defense in the federal district court in the District of Columbia to obtain documents about the deployment and the donation. The 2022 National Defense Authorization Act banned National Guard members from crossing state borders to perform duties paid for by private donors.
==== Fireworks at Mount Rushmore lawsuit (2021) ====
In 2021, Noem sued U.S. Secretary of the Interior Deb Haaland, seeking to have fireworks at Mount Rushmore for Independence Day. Fireworks displays had been halted at the site in 2009 by the National Park Service due to fire risks and other reasons. Noem hired the private Washington D.C. law firm Consovoy McCarthy to bring the case, with South Dakota state taxpayer money paying for the suit. The U.S. District Court dismissed the suit, with Judge Roberto Lange finding that four of the five reasons given by the NPS and Secretary Haaland were valid. On July 13, Noem filed an appeal with the 8th Circuit Court of Appeals.
On March 14, 2022, the National Park Service again denied Noem's application for a permit to have fireworks at Mount Rushmore for the 4th of July, citing opposition from Native American groups and the possibility of wildfires.
==== Governor's mansion spending ====
In May 2019, Noem proposed to build a fence around the governor's mansion, estimated to cost approximately $400,000, but retracted the proposal. In 2020, the 2019 project was revived; a senior Noem advisor told the media that the decision was based on the recommendations of Noem's security team. In late November 2021, it was reported that Noem spent $68,000 of taxpayer dollars on imported rugs from India, chandeliers and a sauna for the mansion.
==== Guns ====
In 2019, Noem signed a bill into law abolishing South Dakota's permit requirement to carry a concealed handgun. In 2022, she sought to build a gun range in Meade County with government funds, but the legislature rejected it.
At a 2023 NRA forum in Indiana, Noem said that her two-year-old granddaughter had a shotgun, a rifle, and a "little pony named Sparkles".
==== LGBTQ rights ====
Noem opposes same-sex marriage. In 2015, she said she disagreed with Obergefell v. Hodges, the Supreme Court's ruling that same-sex marriage bans are unconstitutional.
On March 8, 2021, Noem announced on Twitter that she would sign into law H.B. 1217, the Women's Fairness in Sports Bill, which bans transgender athletes from playing on or against women's school and college sports teams. Some critics of the bill said they were worried it might turn away business and cost the state money. On March 19, Noem issued a style and form veto to H.B. 1217 that substantially altered the bill, not just correcting grammar and spelling mistakes. She defended her position on Tucker Carlson Tonight.
On March 29, the South Dakota House rejected Noem's veto, 67–2. The bill was returned to Noem for reconsideration, and she vetoed it again. The House failed to override her veto, by a vote of 45–24. 47 votes were needed to override. Many conservative commentators criticized Noem for vetoing the bill.
In December 2021, Noem and her office signaled their support for a bill called "An Act to Protect Fairness in women's sports." The bill would require young athletes to join teams that align with their sex assigned at birth.
In 2021, Noem signed a religious refusal bill into law. The legislation amended the state RFRA to allow business owners to cite religious beliefs as a basis to deny products or services to people based on sexual orientation or gender identity. The legislation, S.B. 124, was criticized by civil rights groups who said it would enable discrimination against LGBTQ+ people, women, and members of minority faiths. This bill was the first major state RFRA law signed into law in six years, and resembles the 2015 bill signed into law by Indiana Governor Mike Pence.
==== "Meth. We're on It" campaign ====
On November 18, 2019, Noem released a meth awareness campaign named "Meth. We're on It". The campaign was widely mocked and Noem was criticized for spending $449,000 of public funds while hiring an out-of-state advertising agency from Minnesota to lead the project. She defended the campaign as successful in raising awareness.
==== Opposition to cannabis legalization ====
In 2020, Noem opposed two ballot measures to legalize cannabis for medical use and recreational use in South Dakota, saying, "The fact is, I've never met someone who got smarter from smoking pot. It's not good for our kids. And it's not going to improve our communities." After both measures passed, she and two police officers filed a lawsuit seeking a court decision against the measure legalizing recreational use, Amendment A.
On February 8, 2021, circuit court judge Christina Klinger struck down the amendment as unconstitutional. After the ruling, she also sought to delay the implementation of the medical marijuana initiative for a year. Ultimately, her efforts failed and medical marijuana became legal on July 1, 2021.
Noem has opposed the cultivation of industrial hemp, vetoing a bill that passed the South Dakota House and Senate in 2019 to legalize hemp cultivation. She said, "There is no question in my mind that normalizing hemp, like legalizing medical marijuana, is part of a larger strategy to undermine enforcement of the drug laws and make legalized marijuana inevitable."
==== RV park in Custer State Park proposal ====
In 2022, Noem sought to locate a government-paid RV park in Custer State Park. The proposal was met with significant opposition to include government competing with private business and disturbing the pristine nature of the park. The House Agricultural and Natural Resources deferred the bill to the 41st day, effectively killing it, by a vote of 9–3.
==== School prayer bill ====
In 2022, Noem sought to have prayer put back in school after mentioning it in a speech in Iowa. On January 21, 2022, the "prayer bill", HB 1015, was defeated in the House Education Committee by a vote of 9–6. An aide to Noem admitted to the committee that no schools were consulted about the proposal.
==== Staff ====
On November 19, 2021, Noem named her fifth chief of staff, Mark Miller, to replace outgoing chief of staff Aaron Scheibe. Scheibe served as chief of staff from May 1 to November 19, 2021. Tony Venhuizen preceded Scheibe from March 2, 2020, to April 23, 2021. Josh Shields preceded Venhuizen from October 1, 2019, to January 1, 2020. Herb Jones was Noem's first chief of staff, and served from January 5 to October 1, 2019.
==== Trade ====
In February 2019, she said that the Trump administration's trade wars with China and the European Union had devastated South Dakota's economy, particularly the agricultural sector, "by far" the state's largest industry.
==== Supplemental income from political donations ====
In 2023, while serving as South Dakota's governor, Noem funneled $80,000 in fees from a nonprofit, American Resolve Policy Fund, into her personal company. She failed to disclose this payment in her federal ethics filings upon joining DHS, which ethics experts say violates disclosure rules.
== Secretary of Homeland Security (2025–present) ==
=== Nomination and confirmation ===
On November 12, 2024, President-elect Trump selected Noem to serve as Secretary of Homeland Security in his second term. The Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs held a confirmation hearing for her on January 17, 2025. The committee advanced her nomination in a 13–2 vote on January 20. On January 25, the Senate confirmed Noem by a vote of 59–34, with seven Democrats voting to confirm.
=== Tenure ===
After resigning as governor of South Dakota, Noem was sworn in on January 25, 2025, by Supreme Court Justice Clarence Thomas as Secretary of Homeland Security, with Louisiana Governor Jeff Landry holding the Bible.
In the early morning of January 28, Noem joined multiple federal law enforcement agencies, including ICE, to lead a raid on illegal immigrants in New York City. Her department posted a video of the raid on X that showed an apparent arrest.
After the 2025 Potomac River mid-air collision, Noem deployed U.S. Coast Guard resources for search and rescue efforts.
One of Noem's first acts in office was to rescind an 18-month extension of temporary protected status for about 600,000 Venezuelans who had fled Nicolás Maduro's authoritarian regime. In March, she revoked legal protections for 532,000 people from Cuba, Haiti, Nicaragua, and Venezuela who had settled in the U.S. since 2022.
In February, CNN host Dana Bash interviewed Noem about the new administration's policies and the Department of Homeland Security, including the use of Guantanamo Bay to detain migrants, which Noem said would be temporary. Noem also told Bash that she was comfortable with the Department of Government Efficiency (DOGE) having access to sensitive data, saying that it was identifying waste, fraud, and abuse. She added, "information he [Elon Musk] has is looking at programs, not focusing on personal data and information."
In April, The Washington Post reported that Noem and acting Social Security Administration commissioner Leland Dudek had instructed the Social Security Administration to falsely list over 6,000 living immigrants in its database of dead people.
On the evening of April 20, Noem's purse was stolen from a D.C. burger restaurant. The purse contained important items, like her government access badge, apartment keys, $2,000–3,000 in cash, her passport, and blank checks. The incident raised various concerns, including about her Secret Service detail presence.
The Trump administration has claimed that around 140,000 people had been deported as of April 2025, though some estimates put the number at roughly half that.
During a May 20 Senate Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs Committee hearing on the Department of Homeland Security's budget for fiscal year 2026, Noem incorrectly defined habeas corpus as "a constitutional right that the president has to be able to remove people from this country" in response to a question from Senator Maggie Hassan. In actuality, habeas corpus is the constitutional right for a detainee to request that a court review the lawfulness of their detention, which would require the government to justify the detention. After being corrected on the definition, Noem said that the American president "has the authority under the Constitution to" choose to suspend habeas corpus. In fact, the constitutional clause on the suspension of habeas corpus, which reads "Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may require it", is in Article One of the United States Constitution on the powers of Congress, not Article Two of the United States Constitution on the powers of the executive branch.
On May 22, Noem attempted to revoke the Student and Exchange Visitor Program certification for Harvard University (see Education policy of the second Donald Trump administration).
During a news conference in Los Angeles on June 12, Noem failed to recognize the senior U.S. Senator from California, Alex Padilla, who was present at the news conference. When Padilla attempted to ask Noem a question, he was forcibly removed from the room, pushed to the ground, and handcuffed by FBI and Secret Service agents.
In June 2025, ProPublica reported that Noem failed to disclose past income from a dark money group in her federal ethics filings upon joining DHS, which ethics experts say violates disclosure rules. ProPublica announced in November 2025 that a firm tied to Noem had received $200 million in DHS ad contracts during the government shutdown. The firm, Strategy Group has multiple ties with Noem and her political career.
In August 2025, Noem announced that 1.6 million unauthorized immigrants had left the United States since January of that year.
== Electoral history ==
== Presidential politics ==
=== 2020 presidential election ===
In 2020, the Trump-Pence ticket carried South Dakota, receiving 261,043 votes to 150,471 for the Biden-Harris ticket. Noem was initially designated to be one of Trump's three presidential electors for South Dakota, but later withdrew.
Noem has claimed that the 2020 presidential election, in which Biden defeated Trump, was marred by widespread voter fraud; no evidence supports this claim. On December 8, 2020, Noem tacitly acknowledged the outcome of the election when she referred to a "Biden administration" during her annual state budget address, but even after Biden was inaugurated in January, she still refused to accept that the election was "free and fair".
After the U.S. Capitol was attacked by a pro-Trump mob on January 6, 2021, disrupting the counting of the electoral votes formalizing Biden's victory, Noem spoke out against the violence, saying: "We are all entitled to peacefully protest. Violence is not a part of that." One day after calling for peace and reconciliation in the aftermath of the assault on the Capitol, Noem called the two newly elected Democratic senators from Georgia, Jon Ossoff and Raphael Warnock, "communists" in an op-ed for The Federalist, prompting criticism from South Dakota Democrats.
=== 2024 presidential election ===
Noem endorsed Trump in the 2024 Republican Party presidential primaries in September 2023, at a rally hosted for him in Rapid City, South Dakota. Trump invited her to appear with him at a March 2024 rally in Vandalia, Ohio.
During Trump's 2024 presidential campaign, commentators suggested that Noem was a potential running mate for Trump. In September 2023, when asked on Newsmax if she would agree to serve as Trump's running mate, Noem responded that she would "in a heartbeat". At the February 2024 CPAC conference, Noem tied with Vivek Ramaswamy as attendees' top choice for Trump's running mate, with each receiving 15% of the vote in a straw poll. Also that month, Trump acknowledged that Noem was one of the names on his shortlist to be his running mate. In March 2024, CNN reported that Noem was one of four people Trump had shown increased interest in selecting as his running mate.
In April 2024, insiders said that her odds of being selected as Trump's running mate had waned due to her stance on abortion and the revelation in her book No Going Back that she shot and killed her pet dog and a goat. It was noted that "additions, subtractions and the emergence of dark-horse candidates remain possible", but on June 5, NBC News reported that Noem was no longer on Trump's shortlist of running mates.
== Personal life ==
She married Bryon Noem in 1992, in Watertown, South Dakota. They have three children. In 2011, when Noem moved to Washington to take her congressional office, her family continued to live on a ranch near Castlewood, South Dakota.
Noem is a Protestant. As of 2018, her family attended a Foursquare Church in Watertown, South Dakota. She is a grandmother.
In September 2021, conservative media outlet American Greatness reported that Noem was having an extramarital affair with political operative Corey Lewandowski. Noem called the report a "disgusting lie", saying, "these old, tired attacks on conservative women are based on a falsehood that we can't achieve anything without a man's help." In September 2023, the New York Post and the Daily Mail published similar reports about Noem and Lewandowski, which Noem's spokesman denied. In September 2025, New York reported that the romantic relationship between Noem and Lewandowski is ongoing, and that Lewandowski plays a significant role in running the Department of Homeland Security, acting as Noem's "de facto chief of staff".
In March 2024, Noem shared a video in which she identified herself as the South Dakota governor and promoted a cosmetic dentist business that she said helped her after she lost her front teeth in a biking accident years before: "I love my new family at Smile Texas!" Noem has since become one of the most prominent examples of so-called "Mar-a-Lago face", a cosmetic surgery trend among conservative women, and what has been called Republican makeup.
In August 2024, Noem and her sister, Cindy Grantham, were inducted into the Daughters of the American Revolution by State Regent Katherine Tarrell at the South Dakota State Fair.
=== No Going Back ===
In April 2024, pre-release excerpts of Noem's second autobiography, No Going Back, received broad criticism and condemnation. In a chapter titled "Bad Day to Be a Goat", Noem recounts that she brought her family's 14-month-old female wirehaired pointer, Cricket, along for a pheasant hunt with guests at her family's hunting lodge. Expecting Cricket to emulate the older, trained, dogs on the hunt, Noem instead felt that Cricket ruined the hunt by "chasing all those birds and having the time of her life". After the dog killed several chickens on the same day, Noem decided Cricket was "dangerous" and "untrainable", and shot the dog dead in a gravel pit. Noem then killed her family's male goat, which she said was "disgusting, musky, rancid".
Noem initially responded that "tough decisions like this happen all the time on a farm", and subsequently said the incident occurred 20 years ago, and that "the fake news ... put the worst spin" on the story, as Cricket was a "working dog" that "came to us from a family who had found her way too aggressive ... a responsible owner does what they need to do". The story led to bipartisan criticism of Noem and doubt about the likelihood of her selection as Trump's vice presidential running mate intensified. A fundraising dinner for Noem in Colorado scheduled for May 4 was canceled after the group and the hotel hosting the event received death threats.
Later in the memoir, Noem wrote of imagining herself becoming president in 2025, taking over from Biden, and that the first thing she would do would be to "make sure Joe Biden's dog was nowhere on the grounds ('Commander, say hello to Cricket for me')", in an apparent suggestion that Commander be killed. Months earlier, Commander had been moved out of the White House after having bitten Secret Service agents and others on over a dozen occasions. In an interview, Noem said that Biden was "accountable" and called for Biden to "make a decision" on "what to do" about Commander.
Noem also wrote “I remember when I met with North Korean dictator Kim Jong Un. I'm sure he underestimated me, having no clue about my experience staring down little tyrants (I'd been a children's pastor, after all). Dealing with foreign leaders takes resolve, preparation, and determination.” Her spokesperson said the claim was an error and would be expunged from the book's future editions. Separately, Noem claimed in the book that she was once "slated to meet with French president Emmanuel Macron", but called off the meeting because he made a "very pro-Hamas and anti-Israel comment to the press"; the French government responded that it had neither invited Noem nor had any record of a scheduled meeting with her.
The Washington Post's literary critic Ron Charles wrote that the "description of Cricket's Last Stand is the one time in this howlingly dull book that Noem demonstrates any sense of setting, character, plot and emotional honesty. Otherwise, it's mostly a hodgepodge of worn chestnuts and conservative maxims".
=== Health ===
On June 17, 2025, Noem was hospitalized for an unspecified allergic reaction. She was released that night.
== Autobiographies ==
Noem, Kristi (2022). Not My First Rodeo. New York: Twelve. ISBN 978-1538707050.
Noem, Kristi (2024). No Going Back. Nashville: Center Street. ISBN 978-1546008163.
== See also ==
List of female governors in the United States
Women in conservatism in the United States
Women in the United States House of Representatives
== References ==
== External links ==
Official site of the Governor of South Dakota
Kristi Noem for Governor
Appearances on C-SPAN
Biography at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
Financial information (federal office) at the Federal Election Commission
Legislation sponsored at the Library of Congress
Profile at Vote Smart |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_of_Technology,_Srinagar | National Institute of Technology, Srinagar | National Institute of Technology Srinagar (NIT Srinagar or NITSRI) is a public technical university located in Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, India. It is one of the 31 National Institutes of Technology (NITs) and, as such, is directly under the control of the Ministry of Education (MoE). It was established in 1960 as one of several Regional Engineering Colleges established as part of the Second Five-Year Plan (1956–61) by the Government of India. It is governed by the National Institutes of Technology Act, 2007, which has declared it an Institute of National Importance.
NIT Srinagar admits its undergraduate students through the Joint Entrance Examination (Mains), previously AIEEE. It has 12 academic departments covering Engineering, Applied Sciences, Humanities, and Social Sciences programs. Also, the medium of instruction is English. Prof. Binod Kumar Kanuajia is an academic administrator currently serving as the director of the National Institute of Technology Srinagar. He is known for his contributions to the field of education, as well as his leadership in advancing the educational and research initiatives at NIT Srinagar.
== History ==
NIT Srinagar was established in 1960 as the Regional Engineering College, Srinagar. The first chairman was Wajahat Habibullah IAS (2004–2014). It was one of the first eight Regional Engineering Colleges established by the Government of India during the first Five-Year Plan. The institute shifted to its present campus in 1965. The Regional Engineering College, Srinagar, was upgraded to become the National Institute of Technology, Srinagar, in July 2003. In the same year, the institution was granted Deemed University status with the approval of the University Grants Commission, All India Council of Technical Education, and the Government of India. On 15 August 2007, it became an Institute of National Importance under the NIT Bill passed by the parliament of India.
== Location ==
The institute is located on the western bank of Dal Lake near the Hazratbal Shrine in the north eastern region of Srinagar city.
The institute is located 23 km from the Srinagar International Airport and 13 km from Srinagar railway station.
== Admissions ==
The admissions to undergraduate through the Joint Entrance Examination (Main) (JEE-Main) or Direct Admission of Students Abroad (DASA) (through SAT), for non-resident Indians. Admission to postgraduate courses is done based on Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering (GATE) scores, through Centralized Counselling for M.Tech. (CCMT) for M.Tech. Courses and though Joint Admission Test for M.Sc. for M.Sc. courses.
== Academics ==
The university includes eight engineering departments, for Chemical Engineering, Civil Engineering, Computer Science and Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Communication Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, and Information Technology, as well as four Physical Sciences departments for Physics, Chemistry, Humanities, and Mathematics.
== Rankings ==
NIT Srinagar is ranked 79th among the engineering colleges of India by the National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF) in 2024. In "India Today's Annual Rankings 2022", NIT Srinagar secures 24th Rank among the best Engineering Colleges in India.
== Campus and student life ==
The NIT campus is located on the bank of Dal Lake. Hazratbal Shrine is at a walkable distance from the institute. The campus consists of academic buildings, student hostels with hostel accommodation for only non-locals, and some far-flung areas of the valley.
However, there are no residential facilities for PhD Scholars. The Health Centre provides medical care to students, teachers, staff, and family members.
The Central Library is automated and provides services seven days a week, catering to more than 3500 users belonging to 12 departments and centers. The library houses 75,000 books.
There are a campus-wide fibre optic and Wi-Fi network, which covers all the departments, teachers' quarters, and students' hostels. There are a central computer lab and computer labs in each Departments. Institute is also part of high speed National Knowledge Network.
The Institute provides separate hostels for the male and female students with separate mess facilities. There are also guesthouses available to meet additional temporary housing needs.
Halls of residence
Indus Boys Hostel (for 1st year B.Tech. students).
Chenab Boys Hostel (for 2nd year B.Tech. students)
Tawi Boys Hostel (for M.Tech and Ph.D. students)
Mansar and Manasbal hostel( For 3rd Year B.Tech. Students)
Jehlum Boys Hostel (for 4th year B.Tech. students)
8-Block Dal Boys' Hostel (For 4th and 3rd-year B.Tech. Students)
Dal Extension ' Hostel (Renovated)
Girls' Hostel (Combined for B.Tech., M.Tech.) (All Years)
For the first three years of Btech, each hostel room is shared by 5 students each while in the 4th year, each student is allotted a single room in the Jhelum hostel. The rooms in the Jhelum hostel are allotted based on CGPA(up to the 5th semester). The students who are not able to get a single room in the Jhelum hostel are allotted the Dal hostels, where the students reside in the ratio of 2 students per room. The M-tech students and Ph.D. scholars are allotted the Tawi hostel during their stay on the campus. In the Tawi hostel, each room is shared by three students.
There is a Common Hall, adjacent to the hostels, which provides facilities for indoor games like table tennis and carom, along with a gymnasium. The institute has a Maintenance Engineering Centre set up under the Indo-Italian collaboration. The center caters to the maintenance engineering needs of the Institute and the region as a whole in respect of research, consultancy, and academics.
=== Technical Festival ===
Techvaganza is the National Level Technical Festival (Tech-Fest) of NIT Srinagar. It usually occurs in the month of April every year.
3.
Techvaganza is a national level technical festival held annually at National institute of technology Srinagar in Srinagar. It is the first Techno-Management festival in region.
== Notable alumni ==
Subhash Kak, Computer Scientist, Regents Professor, and an Ex Head of Computer Science Department at Oklahoma State University, Stillwater
Vijay Vaishnavi, Computer Information Systems Researcher and Scholar
Mansoor Ali Khan, Member of the 13th Lok Sabha
Davoud Danesh-Jafari, Minister of Economy and Finance Affairs of Iran.
Narinder Kumar Gupta, Academic and Padma Shri Awardee.
Sonam Wangchuk (engineer), Engineer, innovator, and education reformist
== See also ==
2016 NIT Srinagar Student Protests
Indian Institutes of Technology
Indian Institute of Science
Indian Institutes of Management
University of Kashmir
Srinagar
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_Nogueira#:~:text=Juan%20Nogueira%20(born%201%20May,for%20the%202016%20Summer%20Olympics. | Juan Nogueira | Juan Nogueira (born 1 May 1988) is a Brazilian amateur heavyweight boxer who won a bronze medal at the 2014 South American Games. He competed at the 2013 and 2015 world championships and qualified for the 2016 Summer Olympics.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuwakot_District#:~:text=The%20district%20accordingly%20has%20nine,%22City%20of%20nine%20hills%22. | Nuwakot District | Nuwakot District (Nepali: नुवाकोट जिल्ला), a part of Bagmati Province, is one of the seventy-seven districts of Nepal. The district, with Bidur as its district headquarters, covers an area of 1,121 km2 (433 sq mi) and had a population of 288,478 in 2001 and 277,471 in 2011.
The district contains places of historical significance such as the town of Nuwakot, and the village of Devighat (the death place of Prithvi Narayan Shah) located at the confluence of the Tadi and Trishuli Rivers. Kakani is popular among Nepalese people as a touristic place and picnic spot.
== Etymology ==
The name 'Nuwakot' is composed of two words 'nawa' and 'kort'. Nawa' means nine in Nepali and 'kort' means sacred religious sites on top of hills. Accordingly, the district has nine hills on which various deities are said to dwell and watch over and protect Nuwakot. This has led to Nuwakot often being referred to as the "City of Nine Hills". The Gorkhali king Prithivi Narayan Shah invaded Nuwakot, which was under the rule of Jaya Prakash Malla, and made Nuwakot the capital of his kingdom.
== Geography and climate ==
== Demographics ==
At the time of the 2021 Nepal census, Nuwakot District had a population of 263,391. 7.22% of the population is under 5 years of age. It has a literacy rate of 69.07% and a sex ratio of 1042 females per 1000 males. 94,451 (35.86%) lived in municipalities.
Ethnicity wise: Hill Janjatis were the largest group, making up 54% of the population. Tamangs were the largest Hill Janjati group, making up 43% of the population, with smaller populations of Rai, Magar and Gurung people. Khas are the second largest group, making up 37% of the population. Newars were the third largest group, making up 7% of the population.
At the time of the 2021 census, 51.01% of the population spoke Nepali, 40.78% Tamang, 3.28% Nepal Bhasha, 1.11% Danuwar and 0.97% Rai as their first language. In 2011, 54.5% of the population spoke Nepali as their first language.
== Administration ==
The district consists of 12 municipalities, out of which two are urban municipalities and ten are rural municipalities. These are as follows:
Bidur Municipality
Belkotgadhi Municipality
Kakani Rural Municipality
Panchakanya Rural Municipality
Likhu Rural Municipality
Dupcheshwar Rural Municipality
Shivapuri Rural Municipality
Tadi Rural Municipality
Suryagadhi Rural Municipality
Tarkeshwar Rural Municipality
Kispang Rural Municipality
Myagang Rural Municipality
== Economy ==
Nuwakot, being a hilly area with very less plains, most of the areas are still undeveloped. In last few years, huge changes are observable. The city areas are provided with schools, colleges, hospitals and the road infrastructure is also developed. Two hydro power stations are currently in operation, and from 2020 the first part of the biggest solar power station (Nuwakot Solar Power Station) was consented to the electric grid of Nepal. People are dependent on agriculture, teaching, foreign economy, livestock farming, business, hotels, Agro Tourism, Eco-Tourism and Khadya Bank, etc.
== Special Economic Zone ==
Jiling is recognized as an SEZ Area where business flourishes and there is an intent to grow business and economy of Nuwakot. NEPAL KHADYA BANK LTD. has established at Kashitar to serve farmers in Food Security, Food Banking, Grain Storage, Supply and Distribution.
== See ==
Nuwakot, Bagmati : A seven-storey palace lies on the top of Bidur Municipality. Views of Nuwakot can be observed from the spot.
Trishuli River : One of the major river of Saptagandaki passes right through mid area of Nuwakot.
Kakani : A gateway from Kathmandu to Nuwakot. A common place for observing sunset and the mountains.
Devighat : Near the union of Trishuli and Suryamati (Tadi) river lies devighat. This place is historically important. The death place of the great king Prithvi Narayan Shah lies here.
Kashitar : One of the major place where people work in Eco Tourism, Agri Tourism and Food Security.
== Religious places ==
Nuwakot, being mainly Hindu by religion, has many historically as well as religiously important places.
Bhairabi Temple
Jalpa devi Temple
Dupcheshwar Mahadev Temple
Chimteshor Mahadev
Bandevi Temple
Panchakanya Temple
Indra Kamala Temple
Baghabhairam Temple
Uttargaya Dhama
Shree Bachchhala Devi Temple
Sundaradevi Satatale Temple
Kali Pokhari Mahadev Temple
Trishuli Ram Mandir
Dudhelama mai Temple
SuryaGadhi Temple
Buddish Stupa
Indrakamala Mai Temple is a religious and cultural place in Nuwakot district, which is 18 km far from Bidur the headquarter of Nuwakot and 8 km from Kakani Rural Municipality Office. It lies in the Kakani Rural Municipality ward number -8 under Bagmati province. It is surrounded with natural greenery and located at the beach of the three gorges where thousands of devotees come for worshiping god Indrakamala basically in Dashain. It is believed to achieved aims and desires after worshiping.
== See also ==
Nuwakot, Bagmati
Bidur
Kakani
== Notable people ==
Ram Sharan Mahat
Arjun Narasingha KC
Prakash Chandra Lohani
Mahendra Bahadur Pandey
Kedar Narsingh KC
Anjali Lama
Narayan Prasad Khatiwada
Kishor Nepal
Ramraja Shrestha
Suman Bikram Pandey
== References ==
"Districts of Nepal". Statoids. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_C._Hart | Thomas C. Hart | Thomas Charles Hart (June 12, 1877 – July 4, 1971) was an admiral in the United States Navy, whose service extended from the Spanish–American War through World War II. Following his retirement from the navy, he served briefly as a United States Senator from Connecticut.
== Life and career ==
Hart was born in Davison, Michigan. He attended the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis, graduating 13th in a class of 47 in 1897. Naval policy at the time required two years of sea duty following graduation from Annapolis before a naval cadet was commissioned an ensign. Hart spent the next two years aboard the battleship USS Massachusetts (BB-2). During the Spanish–American War, Massachusetts became part of the American fleet blockading the Spanish squadron at Santiago de Cuba. Hart received a letter of commendation for his command of a steam cutter dispatched to reconnoiter Cabanas Bay for possible landing sites. Under a withering fusillade of fire from Spanish shore batteries, Hart completed the mission and returned his craft to the ship without any casualties although the skiff was struck several times. Because of his ship handling skills, Hart was sent to augment the crew of a converted yacht, USS Vixen (PY-4). under Lt. Alexander Sharp Jr. and executive officer Ensign Arthur MacArthur III, older brother of Douglas MacArthur. The three quickly became lifelong friends.
Following the Spanish–American War, Hart spent two years on the sloop-of-war USS Hartford, after which he was posted to the Naval Academy, where he taught ordnance and gunnery for two years. While at Annapolis, he courted Miss Caroline Brownson, daughter of Rear Admiral Willard H. Brownson, then superintendent of the Naval Academy and later commander of the Asiatic Fleet in 1906–07. Following his time at Annapolis, Hart served as a division officer on USS Missouri (BB-11) and then assumed his first command, the destroyer USS Lawrence (DD-8). At that time, LCDR Hart was assigned to inspect the building of the new Delaware-class battleship North Dakota at the Fore River Shipyard in Quincy, Massachusetts, to which he was assigned prior to its commissioning on Monday, April 11, 1910. The Harts spent their honeymoon at the newly rebuilt luxury resort "The Homestead", in Hot Springs, Bath County, Virginia.
Following his assignment on USS North Dakota, Hart became qualified to command submarines. In 1917 he was chief of staff to the Commander, Submarine Force, Atlantic Fleet (COMSUBLANT), commanding COMSUBLANT's flagship Chicago at New London, Connecticut. He also served in World War I as Director of Submarine Operations for the Navy Department. Serving in this office as its head until 1922, Hart fought doggedly to improve the lot of the submarine arm of the navy. His tenacity was responsible for the U.S. Navy's acquisition of surrendered German U-boats after World War I to learn the details of the technical innovations incorporated in the erstwhile enemy craft. Examination and trials of these U-boats were very influential in subsequent US Navy submarine design. He also was involved in the development of the Mark 6 torpedo exploder.
After World War I, Hart commanded USS Mississippi. From 1931–34, Hart was Superintendent of the United States Naval Academy.
An unsuccessful recommendation of Hart's while on the General Board, beginning in 1936, was the building of small submarines. Hart's plan was to replace the aging S-boats, R-boats, and O-boats to provide area defense of submarine bases. This plan resulted in only two experimental submarines, Mackerel and Marlin. During this period, Hart successfully advocated the building of large destroyer leaders, later classified as anti-aircraft light cruisers (CLAAs), which became the Atlanta class and others.
== World War II ==
Hart was appointed commander in chief, U.S. Asiatic Fleet on July 25, 1939, and was promoted to admiral the same day. He held that position at the commencement of hostilities in World War II between Japan and the United States in December 1941. The majority of forces under Hart's command were located in the Philippines, with a small force of destroyers and a light cruiser based in Borneo. His command included the majority of the combat-ready US submarines in the Pacific. Hart initially commanded U.S. naval forces from Manila, but was forced to relocate to Java on January 15, 1942, in light of rapid Japanese advances through the Philippine archipelago. On his relocation to Java, Hart was named Commander, Naval Forces, ABDA Command, a joint British, Dutch, American and Australian military command, formed for purposes of holding the southern portions of the Dutch East Indies against further Japanese advances. While in command of ABDA naval forces, ships under his command fought the Battle of Balikpapan, a tactical victory, but strategic defeat for the allied forces. Hart held the command of the U.S. Navy Asiatic Fleet until February 5, 1942, at which point the command ceased to exist as part of a broader U.S. military command restructuring in the Southwest Pacific. Hart continued to hold the position of commander for ABDA naval forces until relieved of operational responsibilities on February 12, 1942. Hart formally was relieved of this title on February 16, 1942, when he left Java, ostensibly for health reasons (and for political reasons as he was undermined by his British and Dutch subordinate national component commanders). He returned to the US via Batavia to Ceylon on a British passenger vessel, and then onto the United States.
Hart returned to the United States on March 8, 1942. President Roosevelt presented Hart with a Gold Star in lieu of a second Distinguished Service Medal in July 1942 (his first Distinguished Service Medal having been awarded for his service in World War I) for "[h]is conduct of the operations of the Allied naval forces in the Southwest Pacific area during January and February 1942, was characterized by unfailing judgment and sound decision, coupled with marked moral courage, in the face of discouraging surroundings and complex associations." Hart was retired with the rank of admiral in July 1942, but recalled to duty in August 1942 as a member of the U.S. Navy's General Board. Hart retired from active duty a second time in February 1945, on his appointment to the U.S. Senate to fill the seat of Francis T. Maloney, on Maloney's death.
== Personal life ==
Hart married Caroline Robinson Brownson (1884–1982) on March 30, 1910.
Hart's daughter Harriet Taft Hart married Francis B. Sayre, Jr., who was the son of President Woodrow Wilson's daughter Jessie Woodrow Wilson Sayre.
== Death and legacy ==
Upon his death on July 4, 1971, Hart was buried at Arlington National Cemetery.
USS Thomas C. Hart (FF-1092), commissioned in 1973, was named for Hart and was sponsored by Hart's granddaughter, Penny Hart Bragonier.
== Decorations ==
Here is the ribbon bar of Admiral Hart:
== See also ==
List of superintendents of the United States Naval Academy
List of United States senators from Connecticut
== References ==
Friedman, Norman US Submarines through 1945: An Illustrated Design History, Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1995, ISBN 1-55750-263-3.
Friedman, Norman US Cruisers: An Illustrated Design History, Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1995, ISBN 0-87021-718-6.
Alden, John D., Commander, USN (retired). The Fleet Submarine in the U.S. Navy, Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1979, ISBN 0-87021-187-0.
This article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. The entry can be found here.
== Further reading ==
Hart, Thomas (2013). War in the Pacific: The Classified Report of Admiral Thomas C. Hart. Clarion Publishing. ISBN 978-0988714571.
== External links ==
Biographical Directory of the United States Congress: Thomas Charles Hart
ibiblio.org – Proceedings of the Hart Inquiry, on the Pearl Harbor Attack
Proceedings of Pearl Harbor investigations including the Hart Inquiry
Newspaper clippings about Thomas C. Hart in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_Zorrilla | China Zorrilla | China Zorrilla (Spanish: [ˈtʃina soˈriʝa]; born Concepción Matilde Zorrilla de San Martín y Muñoz del Campo; 14 March 1922 – 17 September 2014) was an Uruguayan theater, film, and television actress, also director, producer and writer. An immensely popular star in the Rioplatense area, she is often regarded as a "Grand Dame" of the South American theater stage.
After a long career in the Uruguayan theater, Zorrilla made over fifty appearances in Argentina's film, theater and TV. Her career took off in Uruguay in the 1950 and 1960s, later she settled in Argentina, where she lived for over 35 years and was popular on TV, theater, and cinema. At 90, she retired and returned to Uruguay, where she died in 2014.
In 2008, Zorrilla was invested Chevalier des Arts et des Lettres by the French Government and in 2011, the Correo Uruguayo (the national postal service in Uruguay) released a print run of 500 commemorative postage stamps dedicated to her.
== Early life ==
Born in Montevideo into an aristocratic Uruguayan family, "China" was the second of the five daughters of Guma Muñoz del Campo and sculptor José Luis Zorrilla de San Martín (1891–1975), a disciple of Antoine Bourdelle, responsible for monuments in Uruguay and Argentina. Revered as Uruguay's national poet, her paternal grandfather was Juan Zorrilla de San Martín, author of Tabaré. An artistic family, her older sister, Guma Zorrilla (1919–2001), was a theater costume designer for the Uruguayan stage.
She grew up in Paris with her four sisters. Back in Montevideo, she attended Sagrado Corazón (Sacred Heart) School. In 1946, she earned a British Council scholarship to the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art in London, where she studied under Greek actress Katina Paxinou.
== Uruguay ==
Back in her hometown, Zorrilla made her theater debut in Paul Claudel's The Tidings Brought to Mary in 1948. Immediately after, she joined the ensemble of the National Comedy of Uruguay working for 10 years at the Solís Theatre, where Spanish actress Margarita Xirgu directed her in García Lorca's Blood Wedding, Fernando de Rojas' La Celestina, Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream, Romeo and Juliet, and other classics
During the 1950s and 1960s, Zorrilla appeared in Bertolt Brecht' Mother Courage and Her Children, "Filomena Marturano", Romeo and Juliet, Macbeth, A Midsummer Night's Dream, Tartuffe. The Seagull, Wilder's Our Town, Neil Simon's Plaza Suite, Giraudoux's The Madwoman of Chaillot, and plays by Pirandello, Peter Ustinov, Tirso de Molina, Lope de Vega, Henrik Ibsen, August Strindberg, J.B. Priestley, and Ferenc Molnár. She received critical acclaim for her performances in Thornton Wilder's The Matchmaker and in Hay Fever as Judith Bliss.
After a decade at the Comedia Nacional, Zorrilla went on to found the Teatro de la Ciudad de Montevideo with actor Enrique Guarnero and actor-writer Antonio Larreta. The company toured Buenos Aires, Paris, and Madrid, where they won the Spanish Critics Award for their stagings of Federico García Lorca's La zapatera prodigiosa and Lope de Vega in the summer of 1961.
Between 1964 and 1966, Zorrilla took a sabbatical year and lived in New York, where she worked as a French teacher and Broadway secretary. In New York, she staged Canciones para mirar, a children's musical based on texts by Argentine poet Maria Elena Walsh. During her stay in the U.S., Zorrilla was rumoured to have an affair with comedian Danny Kaye, who often mentioned her in interviews.
As a correspondent for the Uruguayan newspaper El País, she covered events such as the Cannes Film Festival for Homero Alsina Thevenet and other international events (later published in a book Diarios de viaje) and also hosted a talk show for many years.
In opera, she directed Puccini's La bohème, Verdi's Un ballo in maschera at the Solís Theatre and the Montevideo's SODRE and Rossini's Il barbiere di Siviglia at the Teatro Argentino de La Plata in 1977.
2011 – The voice of the narrations of OTRA VIDA by the English composer Clive Nolan and the writer Elizeth Schluk
== Argentina ==
=== Stage ===
Summoned by actor and director Lautaro Murúa to appear as Donna Natividad in the third movie version of Un Guapo del 900, China Zorrilla's film debut came late in 1971 at age 49. The following summer she made replaced actress Ana María Campoy in Butterflies are Free, which was performed in Mar del Plata. She settled in Buenos Aires. Her stay coincided with the civilian-military dictatorship in Uruguay (1973–1985), which forced her to stay abroad. Zorrilla expressed her solidarity by protecting and helping Uruguayans flee the dictatorship. During that period, she was banned by the military regime from performing in Uruguayan theatres. After the country's return to democracy in the 1980s, Zorrilla made a triumphal comeback at the Teatro Solís as Emily Dickinson.
During the mid-1970s and 1980s, Zorrilla toured and performed nationally and internationally, including the Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts.
On stage she has portrayed historical figures such as Emily Dickinson in William Luce's The Belle of Amherst, Monica Ottino's Victoria Ocampo, Mrs. Patrick Campbell in Jerome Kilty's Dear Liar: A Comedy of Letters. Zorrilla performed in plays by Jean Cocteau, Lucille Fletcher, Oscar Viale, and fellow countryman Jacobo Langsner who wrote several plays for her. She reprised one of her theater earlier successes, the part of Judith Bliss in Hay Fever.
In 1995, she appeared in Buenos Aires's main opera house, the Teatro Colón as Persephone in Stravinsky and Gide's Perséphone.
Zorrilla adapted, directed, and produced plays and musicals: Goldoni's Servant of Two Masters, Reginald Rose's 12 Angry Men, Georges Feydeau's A Flea in Her Ear and Neil Simon's Lost in Yonkers.
In the last decade, she won four awards as sculptor Helen Martins in Athol Fugard's The Road to Mecca and as Eve in an adaption of Mark Twain's Eve's Diary.
=== Film and TV ===
After her debut in 1971 as Mother Natividad in Murua's Un guapo del 900, Zorrilla appeared in more than 40 Argentinian movies. In 1973, she became a popular star in Alberto Migré's soap operas. In 1984, she won Best Actress at the La Habana Film Festival for "Darse Cuenta". She performed in Summer of the Colt (a Canadian coproduction), Maria Luisa Bemberg's Nobody's Wife, The Jewish Gauchos, the coproduction The Plague (starring William Hurt and Raúl Juliá), Edgardo Cozarinsky's Guerriers et captives, Manuel Puig's "Pubis Angelical", Adolfo Aristarain's Lasts Days of the Victim, and in the Argentine black comedy Esperando la carroza (Waiting for the Hearse).
Later, Zorrilla earned international recognition for her performances in Conversaciones con mamá in 2005 (2004 Best Actress Award at the 26th Moscow International Film Festival and the Málaga Film Festival) and in Elsa & Fred, which won her several awards, including the Silver Condor for Best Actress.
== Death ==
Zorrilla died on 17 September 2014 from pneumonia in a hospital in Montevideo, Uruguay, aged 92. The government of Argentina and Uruguay declared two days of national mourning
defining her as "a true representative of River Plate culture". She was waked at Montevideo's Congress. Before reaching the cemetery, the procession made a brief stopover at the Teatro Solís.
== Honors ==
Orden de Mayo by the Argentine government
Orden Gabriela Mistral by the Chilean government
Illustrious Citizen of Buenos Aires, Montevideo, and other Argentine cities, and two theaters bear her name
Knight (Chevalier) of the Légion d'honneur by the French Government
Honorary Medal, Domingo Faustino Sarmiento del Senado de la Nación Argentina 2010
Commemorative Postage Stamp, Uruguayan Post
China Zorrilla, the largest electric ferry, scheduled to connect Uruguay and Argentina
== Books ==
Diego Fischer, A mi me aplauden, 2012, Uruguay, ISBN 9789974 701 22 9
China Zorrilla, Diario de viaje, Ediciones La Plaza, 2013, Uruguay, ISBN 9789974482265
Julio Maria Sanguinetti (2015). "Retratos desde la memoria" Montevideo: Debolsillo. ISBN 9789974899179
Miguel Ángel Campodónico, Nuevo Diccionario de la Cultura Uruguaya, Librería Linardi y Risso, 2003, S.361
== Music ==
Otra Vida – Composed by Clive Nolan written by Elizeth Schluk, year 2011 Altagama Producciones.
== Filmography ==
=== Film ===
=== Television ===
== Bibliography ==
Fischer, Diego (2012). A mí me aplauden. Las historias que China no contó. Montevideo: Editorial Sudamericana.
== References ==
== External links ==
China Zorrilla at IMDb
Obituary Buenos Aires Herald
Diego Fischer, A mi me aplauden (Montevideo 2012), Biographical Essay (in Spanish)
Clive Nolan – Elizeth Schluk, Disco Otra Vida
https://www.tvshow.com.uy/personajes/fotogaleria-video-recordar-china-zorrilla-seis-anos-partida.html |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mario_Echandi_Jim%C3%A9nez | Mario Echandi Jiménez | Mario José Echandi Jiménez (17 June 1915 – 30 July 2011) was the 33rd President of Costa Rica, serving from 1958 to 1962.
== As diplomat ==
Mario Echandi was a career diplomat.
Prior to his election, he had served as Costa Rica's ambassador to the United States and as the country's representative to both the United Nations and the Organization of American States (1949–1950).
He also served as the minister of foreign affairs (1950–1952) under President Otilio Ulate and in the Legislative Assembly during President José Figueres's second term in office (1953–1958).
== His presidency ==
President Echandi won the 1958 election by 102.851 votes as candidate of the National Union Party. Francisco J. Orlich was candidate of National Liberation Party with 94.778 and Jorge Rossi had 23.910 votes with the Independent Party. . During his administration some important laws were passed. The "Ley de Aguinaldo" law gave an extra yearly salary to all workers. A law that created the national service for clean water was approved. The law that created a national institute for land reform and colonization. (ITCO law). The first national plan for transit and roads was created, to build a network of highways and roads in the country.
== National reconciliation ==
During his administration some political figures were allowed to return from exile, like the former president Rafael Ángel Calderón Guardia. His followers were allowed to return to the country and organize politically.
== After his presidency ==
He ran for the presidency on two further occasions – 1970 and 1982 – but was defeated on both.
== Death ==
Echandi died on 30 July 2011 at the age of 96 from pneumonia after a heart attack. His wife died in 2001.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazzercise#:~:text=Judi%20Sheppard%20Missett%20created%20Jazzercise%20in%20Evanston%2C%20Illinois%20in%201969 | Jazzercise | Jazzercise is a fitness franchise company founded by Judi Sheppard Missett in 1969 and headquartered in Carlsbad, California, United States. The franchise's name is a portmanteau of "jazz" and "exercise."
Jazzercise combines dancercise, martial arts and strength training with popular music for a full-body workout. The company currently has over 8,300 franchisees worldwide in 32 countries.
== Early history ==
Judi Sheppard Missett created Jazzercise in Evanston, Illinois in 1969 after graduating from Northwestern University. After receiving a degree in theater and dance, she signed up to study with renowned jazz choreographer Gus Giordano at his Evanston studios. She was teaching at a dance studio and noticed her classes had high dropout rates. Realizing students were attending for physical fitness and not for performance, Shepard Missett began to hold "just for fun" classes that began with a jazz warmup. These classes, originally named "Jazz Dance for Fun and Fitness," were eventually renamed "Jazzercise."
== Growth and franchising ==
Sheppard Missett's family moved to Carlsbad, California, where she taught classes in local rec centers. Jazzercise quickly took off in San Diego and Sheppard Missett trained new instructors herself. Many of those first instructors were in military families, so as they moved around the country, and the world, new populations were continually introduced to the program. Initially using VHS videos, Sheppard Missett was able to train franchisees from a distance and began to sell franchise rights for Jazzercise studios across the country. In addition to the franchised classes, Sheppard Missett produced recorded Jazzercise programs for home use, starting with an LP entitled Jazzercise in 1981 which was certified gold in 1982. Jazzercise was also introduced by Jerome somers to Campbell union sd in 1993 as newly incorporated in to school curriculum as physical education. Sheppard Missett produced a second LP in 1982 entitled More Jazzercise and released her first VHS Jazzercise workout called Let's Jazzercise a year later.
== In popular culture ==
On A Bit of Fry & Laurie, Jazzercise is claimed to be a portmanteau of the words "jazz" and "circumcise."
In Ron Howard's live-action movie adaptation of How the Grinch Stole Christmas, the Grinch's schedule has an hour booked for Jazzercise.
In the Taxi episode "Louie Goes Too Far," Latka Gravas (played by Andy Kaufman) suggests to Reverend Jim Ignatowski (played by Christopher Lloyd) that he take up Jazzercise as a way of meeting beautiful women.
On The Golden Girls, Dorothy Zbornak (played by Bea Arthur) admits taking up Jazzercise in the episodes "The Stan Who Came to Dinner" and "The Audit."
In Troop Beverly Hills, the lead character, Phyllis Nefler, mentions that she hasn't been to Jazzercise in three weeks after chasing one of her troop members, who suddenly runs off during a troop meeting.
In the Futurama episode "Parasite Lost," the parasitic worms are seen Jazzercising Fry's muscles.
The Flight of the Conchords season 2 episode "New Zealand Town" features the song "Fashion is Danger," which is a parody of 1980s music and style and contains a reference to Jazzercise.
"Jazzercise Instructor" is featured as a job in The Sims 2.
In the third series of The Mighty Boosh, Howard Moon goes to Jazzercise classes.
In the Glee episode "Bad Reputation," a tape is found of Sue Sylvester Jazzercising to Olivia Newton-John's "Physical." In the following season's episode "Sexy," Holly Holliday is shown teaching a Jazzercise class in which Will Schuester participates.
On The Goldbergs, Beverly Goldberg is frequently portrayed referencing or stepping to Jazzercise.
In the October 9, 2012 episode of The Daily Show, Jon Stewart referenced Jazzercise in his opening monologue.
Jazzercise was featured in both People magazine and Harper's Bazaar in 2018.
Jazzercise was featured at the fictional Starcourt Mall in season 3 of Stranger Things, where Dustin Henderson and Steve Harrington chase a suspicious-looking guy thinking he was from the Soviet Union, who turns out to be a Jazzercise instructor.
Jazzercise was mentioned in the song "Party with Your Body" (from the album All in a Night's Work) by KC and the Sunshine Band.
Jazzercise was mentioned in the Rick and Morty season 6 episode "Juricksic Mort" when the dinosaurs present a list of things humanity has accomplished.
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Friedman, Danielle (2022). Let's Get Physical: How Women Discovered Exercise and Reshaped the World. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. ISBN 9780593188422. Archived from the original on 8 April 2022.
== External links ==
Jazzercise official website
Instagram
Facebook |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yevgeny_Polivanov | Yevgeny Polivanov | Yevgeny Dmitrievich Polivanov (Russian: Евге́ний Дми́триевич Полива́нов; 12 March [O.S. 28 February] 1891 – 25 January 1938) was a Soviet linguist, orientalist, and polyglot who wrote major works on the Chinese, Japanese, Uzbek, and Dungan languages and on theoretical linguistics and poetics.
== Life ==
He participated in the development of writing systems for the peoples of the Soviet Union and also designed a cyrillization system for Japanese language, which was officially accepted in the Soviet Union and is still the standard in modern Russia. He also translated the Kyrgyz national Epic of Manas into Russian. Polivanov is credited as the scholar who initiated the comparative study of Japanese pitch accent across dialects.
During the Russian Revolution of 1917, Polivanov was active first in the Menshevik Party, then he joined the Bolshevik Party. He worked in the Oriental section of the People's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs in 1917–1918 and in the Comintern in 1921.
In 1928–1929 he expressed disagreement with Nicholas Marr's Japhetic theory, which was promoted by the regime at the time. After this he was blackballed from all scholarly institutions in Moscow and Leningrad and until his arrest "was essentially in exile in Central Asia, where he accomplished fruitful work on the local languages."
During the Great Purge, Polivanov was arrested on 16 August 1937 in Bishkek and was charged with spying for Japan. On 1 October, in the Butyrka prison, he requested in writing that the NKVD halt severe interrogation methods against him, arguing that they made him issue false statements that confused the investigation against him. On 25 January 1938, he was tried in a closed session of the Military Collegium of the Supreme Court of the USSR and pleaded not guilty. He was sentenced to death and executed by NKVD near Moscow. He was rehabilitated in 1963. In late October 2018, a memorial containing his name alongside over 6,000 others was erected at Kommunarka.
== See also ==
Polivanov system
Georgy Danilov
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hsien_Chung_Wang | Hsien Chung Wang | Hsien Chung (or Hsien-Chung or Hsien-chung) Wang ( 王宪钟 Wang Xian Zhong; 18 April 1918 in Beijing – 25 June 1978 in New York City) was a Chinese-American mathematician, specializing in differential geometry, Lie groups, and algebraic topology.
== Biography ==
Part of a family, from Shandong Province that had produced distinguished scholars for several generations, Hsien Chung Wang studied in Tianjin at Nankai High School, where he had an outstanding academic record. In 1936 he matriculated at Tsing Hua University in Beijing.
On 7 July 1937 Japanese and Chinese troops clashed near Peking. In late July further fighting broke out and the Japanese quickly captured Peking and Tientsin. Tsing Hua University was moved to Southwest China where it was amalgamated with Nankai and Peking universities. Wang had to journey to the new site of his university and begin his studies again. Perhaps the political events had a positive effect as far as mathematics was concerned since Wang changed his studies to mathematics when he took them up again at the re-established university.
Wang graduated in 1941 and began to study under S S Chern. He was awarded a master's degree in 1944 and began teaching in a school. However, after one year, he was awarded a British Council Scholarship to continue his studies in England. After a while at Sheffield he studied under Newman at Manchester and received a Ph.D. in 1948.
After completing his Ph.D., Wang went to the United States.
His first appointment was to the position of lecturer at Louisiana State University. Despite a heavy teaching load, H.C. remained active and successful in research. His achievement was recognized by a visiting membership of the Institute of Advanced Study at Princeton in 1951-52. He was highly esteemed by the faculty of the institute and was invited back in 1954-55,1961-62, and 1965. His work became widely known and appreciated in the early 1950s. He held positions at the Alabama Polytechnic Institute, the University of Washington, Columbia University, and Northwestern University. In 1966 he accepted a professorship at Cornell and was one of the most respected and distinguished members of the Cornell faculty until his sudden death from leukemia.
Wang was an Invited Speaker at the ICM in 1958 in Edinburgh. He was a Guggenheim Fellow for the academic year 1960–1961. The Wang sequence used in algebraic topology is named in his honor.
Wang married in 1956 and was the father of three daughters. His doctoral students include J. Stephen Halperin.
== Selected publications ==
with S. S. Chern: "Differential geometry in symplectic space." I, Sci. Rep. Nat. Tsing Hua Univ 4 (1947): 453–477.
"Axiom of the plane in a general space of paths." Annals of Mathematics (1948): 731–737. doi:10.2307/1969056
"The homology groups of the fibre-bundles over a sphere." Duke Math. J 16 (1949): 33–38.
"Homogeneous spaces with non-vanishing Euler characteristics." Annals of Mathematics (1949): 925–953. doi:10.2307/1969588
"A problem of PA Smith." Proceedings of the American Mathematical Society 1, no. 1 (1950): 18–19. MR 0033288
"A remark on transformation groups leaving fixed an end point." Proceedings of the American Mathematical Society 3, no. 4 (1952): 548–549. MR 0048803
"One-dimensional cohomology group of locally compact metrically homogeneous space." Duke Mathematical Journal 19, no. 2 (1952): 303–310. MR 0047672
"Complex parallisable manifolds." Proceedings of the American Mathematical Society 5, no. 5 (1954): 771–776. MR 0074064
with Kentaro Yano: "A class of affinely connected spaces." Transactions of the American Mathematical Society 80, no. 1 (1955): 72–92. MR 0073254
"Discrete subgroups of solvable Lie groups I." Annals of Mathematics (1956): 1–19. doi:10.2307/1969948
with William M. Boothby: "On contact manifolds." Annals of Mathematics (1958): 721–734. doi:10.2307/1970165
"Compact transformation groups of Sn with an (n–1)-dimensional orbit." American Journal of Mathematics 82, no. 4 (1960): 698–748. doi:10.2307/2372936
with Samuel Pasiencier: "Commutators in a semi-simple Lie group." Proceedings of the American Mathematical Society 13, no. 6 (1962): 907–913. MR 0169947
"On the deformations of lattice in a Lie group." American Journal of Mathematics 85, no. 2 (1963): 189–212. doi:10.2307/2373209
with W. M. Boothby and Shoshichi Kobayashi: "A note on mappings and automorphisms of almost complex manifolds." Annals of Mathematics (1963): 329–334. doi:10.2307/1970219
"A remark on co-compactness of transformation groups." American Journal of Mathematics 95, no. 4 (1973): 885–903. doi:10.2307/2373700
== References ==
== External links ==
H. C. Wang at the Mathematics Genealogy Project |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mansa_Musa | Mansa Musa | Mansa Musa (reigned c. 1312 – c. 1337) was the ninth Mansa of the Mali Empire, which reached its territorial peak during his reign. Musa's reign is often regarded as the zenith of Mali's power and prestige, although he features less in Mandinka oral traditions than his predecessors.
Musa was exceptionally wealthy, to an extent that contemporaries described him as inconceivably rich; Time magazine reported: "There's really no way to put an accurate number on his wealth." It is known from local manuscripts and travellers' accounts that Mansa Musa's wealth came principally from the Mali Empire's control and taxing of the trade in salt from northern regions and especially from gold panned and mined in Bambuk and Bure to the south. Over a very long period Mali had amassed a large reserve of gold. Mali is also believed to have been involved in the trade in many goods such as ivory, slaves, spices, silks, and ceramics. However, presently little is known about the extent or mechanics of these trades. At the time of Musa's ascension to the throne, Mali consisted largely of the territory of the former Ghana Empire, which had become a vassal of Mali. The Mali Empire comprised land that is now part of Guinea, Senegal, Mauritania, the Gambia, and the modern state of Mali.
Musa went on Hajj to Mecca in 1324, traveling with an enormous entourage and a vast supply of gold. En route he spent time in Cairo, where his lavish gift-giving is said to have noticeably affected the value of gold in Egypt and garnered the attention of the wider Muslim world. Musa expanded the borders of the Mali Empire, in particular incorporating the cities of Gao and Timbuktu into its territory. He sought closer ties with the rest of the Muslim world, particularly the Mamluk and Marinid Sultanates. He recruited scholars from the wider Muslim world to travel to Mali, such as the Andalusian poet Abu Ishaq al-Sahili, and helped establish Timbuktu as a center of Islamic learning. His reign is associated with numerous construction projects, including a portion of Djinguereber Mosque in Timbuktu.
== Name and titles ==
Mansa Musa's personal name was Musa (Arabic: موسى, romanized: Mūsá), the name of Moses in Islam. Mansa, 'ruler' or 'king' in Mandé, was the title of the ruler of the Mali Empire.
In oral tradition and the Timbuktu Chronicles, Musa is further known as Kanku Musa. In Mandé tradition, it was common for one's name to be prefixed by his mother's name, so the name Kanku Musa means "Musa, son of Kanku", although it is unclear whether the genealogy implied is literal. Al-Yafii gave Musa's name as Musa ibn Abi Bakr ibn Abi al-Aswad (Arabic: موسى بن أبي بكر بن أبي الأسود, romanized: Mūsā ibn Abī Bakr ibn Abī al-Aswad), and ibn Hajar gave Musa's name as Musa ibn Abi Bakr Salim al-Takruri (Arabic: موسى بن أبي بكر سالم التكروري, romanized: Mūsā ibn Abī Bakr Salim al-Takruri).
Musa is often given the title Hajji in oral tradition because he made hajj. In the Songhai language, rulers of Mali such as Musa were known as the Mali-koi, koi being a title that conveyed authority over a region: in other words, the "ruler of Mali".
== Historical sources ==
Much of what is known about Musa comes from Arabic sources written after his hajj, especially the writings of Al-Umari and Ibn Khaldun. While in Cairo during his hajj, Musa befriended officials such as Ibn Amir Hajib, who learned about him and his country from him and later passed that knowledge to historians such as Al-Umari. Additional information comes from two 17th-century manuscripts written in Timbuktu, the Tarikh Ibn al-Mukhtar and the Tarikh al-Sudan. Oral tradition, as performed by the jeliw (sg. jeli), also known as griots, includes relatively little information about Musa relative to some other parts of the history of Mali, with his predecessor conquerors receiving more prominence.
== Lineage ==
According to Djibril Tamsir Niane, Musa's father was named Faga Leye and his mother may have been named Kanku. Faga Leye was the son of Abu Bakr, a brother of Sunjata, the first mansa of the Mali Empire. Ibn Khaldun does not mention Faga Leye, referring to Musa as Musa ibn Abu Bakr. This can be interpreted as either "Musa son of Abu Bakr" or "Musa descendant of Abu Bakr." It is implausible that Abu Bakr was Musa's father, due to the amount of time between Sunjata's reign and Musa's.
Ibn Battuta, who visited Mali during the reign of Musa's brother Sulayman, said that Musa's grandfather was named Sariq Jata. Sariq Jata may be another name for Sunjata, who was actually Musa's great-uncle. This, along with Ibn Khaldun's use of the name 'Musa ibn Abu Bakr' prompted historian Francois-Xavier Fauvelle to propose that Musa was in fact the son of Abu Bakr I, a grandson of Sunjata through his daughter. Later attempts to erase this possibly illegitimate succession through the female line led to the confusion in the sources over Musa's parentage. Hostility towards Musa's branch of the Keita dynasty would also explain his relative absence from or scathing treatment by oral histories.
== Early life and accession to power ==
The date of Musa's birth is unknown, but he appears to have been a young man in 1324. The Tarikh al-fattash claims that Musa accidentally killed Kanku at some point prior to his hajj.
Musa ascended to power in the early 1300s under unclear circumstances. According to Musa's own account, his predecessor as Mansa of Mali, presumably Muhammad ibn Qu, launched two expeditions to explore the Atlantic Ocean (200 ships for the first exploratory mission and 2,000 ships for the second). The Mansa led the second expedition himself and appointed Musa as his deputy to rule the empire until he returned. When he did not return, Musa was crowned as mansa himself, marking a transfer of the line of succession from the descendants of Sunjata to the descendants of his brother Abu Bakr. Some modern historians have cast doubt on Musa's version of events, suggesting he may have deposed his predecessor and devised the story about the voyage to explain how he took power. Nonetheless, the possibility of such a voyage has been taken seriously by several historians.
== Early reign ==
Musa was a young man when he became Mansa, possibly in his early twenties. Given the grandeur of his subsequent hajj, it is likely that Musa spent much of his early reign preparing for it. Among these preparations would likely have been raids to capture and enslave people from neighboring lands, as Musa's entourage would include many thousands of slaves; the historian Michael Gomez estimates that Mali may have captured over 6,000 slaves per year for this purpose. Perhaps because of this, Musa's early reign was spent in continuous military conflict with neighboring non-Muslim societies. In 1324, while in Cairo, Musa said that he had conquered 24 cities and their surrounding districts.
== Pilgrimage to Mecca ==
Musa was a Muslim, and his hajj, or pilgrimage to Mecca, made him well known across North Africa and the Middle East. To Musa, Islam was "an entry into the cultured world of the Eastern Mediterranean". He would have spent much time fostering the growth of the religion within his empire. When Musa departed Mali for the Hajj, he left his son Muhammad to rule in his absence.
Musa made his pilgrimage between 1324 and 1325, spanning 2700 miles. His procession reportedly included upwards of 12,000 slaves, all wearing brocade and Yemeni silk and each carrying 1.8 kg (4 lb) of gold bars, with heralds dressed in silks bearing gold staffs organizing horses and handling bags.
Musa provided all necessities for the procession, feeding the entire company of men and animals. Those animals included 80 camels, which each carried 23–136 kg (50–300 lb) of gold dust. Musa gave the gold to the poor he met along his route. Musa not only gave to the cities he passed on the way to Mecca, including Cairo and Medina, but also traded gold for souvenirs. It was reported that he built a mosque every Friday. Shihab al-Din al-'Umari, who visited Cairo shortly after Musa's pilgrimage to Mecca, noted that it was "a lavish display of power, wealth, and unprecedented by its size and pageantry". Musa made a major point of showing off his nation's wealth.
Musa and his entourage arrived at the outskirts of Cairo in July 1324. They camped for three days by the Pyramids of Giza before crossing the Nile into Cairo on 19 July. While in Cairo, Musa met with the Mamluk sultan al-Nasir Muhammad, whose reign had already seen one mansa, Sakura, make the Hajj. Al-Nasir expected Musa to prostrate himself before him, which Musa initially refused to do. When Musa did finally bow he said he was doing so for God alone.
Despite this initial awkwardness, the two rulers got along well and exchanged gifts. Musa and his entourage gave and spent freely while in Cairo. Musa stayed in the Qarafa district of Cairo and befriended its governor, ibn Amir Hajib, who learned much about Mali from him. Musa stayed in Cairo for three months, departing on 18 October with the official caravan to Mecca.
Musa's generosity continued as he traveled onward to Mecca, and he gave gifts to fellow pilgrims and the people of Medina and Mecca. While in Mecca, conflict broke out between a group of Malian pilgrims and a group of Turkic pilgrims in the Masjid al-Haram. Swords were drawn, but before the situation escalated further, Musa persuaded his men to back down.
Musa and his entourage lingered in Mecca after the last day of the Hajj. Traveling separately from the main caravan, their return journey to Cairo was struck by catastrophe. By the time they reached Suez, many of the Malian pilgrims had died of cold, starvation, or bandit raids, and they had lost much of their supplies. Having run out of money, Musa and his entourage were forced to borrow money and resell much of what they had purchased while in Cairo before the Hajj, and Musa went into debt to several merchants such as Siraj al-Din. However, Al-Nasir Muhammad returned Musa's earlier show of generosity with gifts of his own.
On his return journey, Musa met the Andalusi poet Abu Ishaq al-Sahili, whose eloquence and knowledge of jurisprudence impressed him, and whom he convinced to travel with him to Mali. Other scholars Musa brought to Mali included Maliki jurists.
According to the Tarikh al-Sudan, the cities of Gao and Timbuktu submitted to Musa's rule as he traveled through on his return to Mali. It is unlikely, however, that a group of pilgrims, even if armed, would have been able to conquer a wealthy and powerful city. According to one account given by ibn Khaldun, Musa's general Saghmanja conquered Gao. The other account claims that Gao had been conquered during the reign of Mansa Sakura. Mali's control of Gao may have been weak, requiring powerful mansas to reassert their authority periodically, or it might simply be an error on the part of al-Sadi, author of the Tarikh.
== Later reign ==
=== Construction in Mali ===
Musa embarked on a large building program, raising mosques and madrasas in Timbuktu and Gao. Most notably, the ancient center of learning Sankore Madrasah (or University of Sankore) was constructed during his reign.
During this period, there was an advanced level of urban living in the major centers of Mali. Sergio Domian, an Italian scholar of art and architecture, wrote of this period: "Thus was laid the foundation of an urban civilization. At the height of its power, Mali had at least 400 cities, and the interior of the Niger Delta was very densely populated."
=== Economy and education ===
It is recorded that Mansa Musa traveled through the cities of Timbuktu and Gao on his way to Mecca, and made them a part of his empire when he returned around 1325. He brought architects from Andalusia, a region in Spain, and Cairo to build his grand palace in Timbuktu and the great Djinguereber Mosque that still stands.
Timbuktu soon became the center of trade, culture, and Islam; markets brought in merchants from Hausaland, Egypt, and other African kingdoms, a university was founded in the city (as well as in the Malian cities of Djenné and Ségou), and Islam was spread through the markets and university, making Timbuktu a new area for Islamic scholarship. News of the Malian empire's city of wealth even traveled across the Mediterranean to southern Europe, where traders from Venice, Granada, and Genoa soon added Timbuktu to their maps to trade manufactured goods for gold.
The University of Sankore in Timbuktu was restaffed under Musa's reign with jurists, astronomers, and mathematicians. The university became a center of learning and culture, drawing Muslim scholars from around Africa and the Middle East to Timbuktu.
In 1330, the kingdom of Mossi invaded and conquered the city of Timbuktu. Gao had already been captured by Musa's general, and Musa quickly regained Timbuktu, built a rampart and stone fort, and placed a standing army to protect the city from future invaders. While Musa's palace has since vanished, the university and mosque still stand in Timbuktu.
== Death ==
The date of Mansa Musa's death is uncertain. Using the reign lengths reported by Ibn Khaldun to calculate back from the death of Mansa Suleyman in 1360, Musa would have died in 1332. However, Ibn Khaldun also reports that Musa sent an envoy to congratulate Abu al-Hasan Ali for his conquest of Tlemcen, which took place in May 1337, but by the time Abu al-Hasan sent an envoy in response, Musa had died and Suleyman was on the throne, suggesting Musa died in 1337. In contrast, al-Umari, writing twelve years after Musa's hajj, in approximately 1337, claimed that Musa returned to Mali intending to abdicate and return to live in Mecca but died before he could do so, suggesting he died even earlier than 1332. It is possible that it was actually Musa's son Maghan who congratulated Abu al-Hasan, or Maghan who received Abu al-Hasan's envoy after Musa's death. The latter possibility is corroborated by Ibn Khaldun calling Suleyman Musa's son in that passage, suggesting he may have confused Musa's brother Suleyman with Musa's son Maghan. Alternatively, it is possible that the four-year reign Ibn Khaldun credits Maghan with actually referred to his ruling Mali while Musa was away on the hajj, and he only reigned briefly in his own right. Nehemia Levtzion regarded 1337 as the most likely date, which has been accepted by other scholars.
== Legacy ==
Musa's reign is commonly regarded as Mali's golden age, but this perception may be the result of his reign being the best recorded by Arabic sources, rather than him necessarily being the wealthiest and most powerful mansa of Mali. The territory of the Mali Empire was at its height during the reigns of Musa and his brother Sulayman, and covered the Sudan-Sahel region of West Africa.
Musa is less renowned in Mandé oral tradition as performed by the jeliw. He is criticized for being unfaithful to tradition, and some of the jeliw regard Musa as having wasted Mali's wealth. However, some aspects of Musa appear to have been incorporated into a figure in Mandé oral tradition known as Fajigi, which translates as "father of hope". Fajigi is remembered as having traveled to Mecca to retrieve ceremonial objects known as boliw, which feature in Mandé traditional religion. As Fajigi, Musa is sometimes conflated with a figure in oral tradition named Fakoli, who is best known as Sunjata's top general. The figure of Fajigi combines both Islam and traditional beliefs.
The name "Musa" has become virtually synonymous with pilgrimage in Mandé tradition, such that other figures who are remembered as going on a pilgrimage, such as Fakoli, are also called Musa.
=== Wealth ===
Mansa Musa is renowned for his wealth and generosity. While online articles in the 21st century have claimed that Mansa Musa was the richest person of all time, historians such as Hadrien Collet have argued that Musa's wealth is impossible to calculate accurately. Contemporary Arabic sources may have been trying to express that Musa had more gold than they thought possible, rather than trying to give an exact number. Further, it is difficult meaningfully to compare the wealth of historical figures such as Mansa Musa, due both to the difficulty of separating the personal wealth of a monarch from the wealth of the state and to the difficulty of comparing wealth across highly different societies. Musa may have taken as much as 18 tons of gold on his hajj, equal in value to over US$1.397 billion in 2024. Musa himself further promoted the appearance of having vast, inexhaustible wealth by spreading rumors that gold grew like a plant in his kingdom.
According to some Arabic writers, Musa's gift-giving caused a depreciation in the value of gold in Egypt. Al-Umari said that before Musa's arrival a mithqal of gold was worth 25 silver dirhams, but that it dropped to less than 22 dirhams afterward and did not go above that number for at least twelve years. Though this has been described as having "wrecked" Egypt's economy, the historian Warren Schultz has argued that this was well within normal fluctuations in the value of gold in Mamluk Egypt.
The wealth of the Mali Empire did not come from direct control of gold-producing regions, but rather trade and tribute. The gold Musa brought on his pilgrimage probably represented years of accumulated tribute that Musa would have spent much of his early reign gathering. Another source of income for Mali during Musa's reign was taxation of the copper trade.
According to several contemporary authors, such as Ibn Battuta, Ibn al-Dawadari and al-Umari, Mansa Musa ran out of money during his journey to Mecca and had to borrow from Egyptian merchants at a high rate of interest on his return journey. Al-Umari and Ibn Khaldun state that the moneylenders were either never repaid or only partly repaid. Other sources disagree as to whether they were eventually and fully compensated.
=== Character ===
Arabic writers, such as Ibn Battuta and Abdallah ibn Asad al-Yafii, praised Musa's generosity, virtue, and intelligence. Ibn Khaldun said that he "was an upright man and a great king, and tales of his justice are still told."
== Footnotes ==
== References ==
=== Citations ===
=== Primary sources ===
Cuoq, Joseph, ed. (1985). Recueil des sources arabes concernant l'Afrique occidentale du VIIIeme au XVIeme siècle (Bilād Al-Sūdān). Paris: Éditions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique.
Ibn Khaldun, Kitāb al-ʿIbar wa-dīwān al-mubtadaʾ wa-l-khabar fī ayyām al-ʿarab wa-ʾl-ʿajam wa-ʾl-barbar, translated in Levtzion & Hopkins 2000
=== Other sources ===
== Further reading ==
Ibn Battuta; Ibn Juzayy. Tuḥfat an-Nuẓẓār fī Gharāʾib al-Amṣār wa ʿAjāʾib al-Asfār., translated in Levtzion & Hopkins 2000 and Hamdun & King 2009
== External links ==
Mansa Musa I at World History Encyclopedia
Mansa Moussa: Pilgrimage of Gold (archived) at History Channel's History.com
Caravans of Gold, Fragments in Time: Art, Culture, and Exchange across Medieval Saharan Africa at Northwestern University's Block Museum of Art |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billene_Seyoum#:~:text=Billene%20Seyoum%20Woldeyes%20(Amharic%3A%20%E1%89%A2%E1%88%88%E1%8A%94,minister's%20foreign%20spokesperson%20in%20English. | Billene Seyoum | Billene Seyoum Woldeyes (Amharic: ቢለኔ ሥዩም ወልደየስ; born 1982) is an Ethiopian politician, poet and author who is serving as the Foreign Press Secretary for the Office of Prime Minister of Ethiopia since 5 November 2018. Billene speaks as the prime minister's foreign spokesperson in English.
== Early life ==
Billene was born in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. She is the last born among three and has two brothers. She moved to Harare, Zimbabwe at a young age before moving to Canada and then back to Ethiopia.
In her book, Billene writes about this multinational upbringing, "I have spent half of my life outside of my birth country Ethiopia. Nevertheless, some norms of Ethiopiawinet (Ethiopianess) injected in me through socialization have sustained themselves throughout the years."
== Education ==
Upon finishing high school in Harare, Billene completed two years of college in Marketing Management at the Addis Ababa University, College of Commerce. She studied International Relations at the University of British Columbia, Vancouver from 2004 to 2008. Billene went on to obtain an MA in Gender and Peacebuilding from the University for Peace and later another MA in Peace, Security, Development and International Conflict Transformation at the University of Innsbruck, Austria.
== Career ==
Billene moved back to Addis Ababa at the end of 2010 and began her career there.
In 2010, three weeks later, she started her blog EthiopianFeminism. In 2012, she renamed the website to AfricanFeminism. AfricanFeminism is a digital African feminist platform that shares works of feminist African writers while encouraging dialogue. The purpose of the blog: "to understand similar issues on the continent and engage with other African feminists. It was also a response to the lack of Ethiopian voices on continental issues".
In 2011, Billene co-formed a spoken-word poetry collective called Zemneged-Andinet (meaning, "from a place of unity" in Amharic). Billene has stated that it consisted of "both English and Amharic writing poets who believe in words as a medium of artistic expression." The collective performed in venues in Addis Ababa.
From 2011 to 2013, Billene served as the Deputy Training Lead at the Institute of Peace and Security Studies - Africa Peace and Security Program in Addis Ababa.
In 2013, Billene was the president of Ethiopia's Association of Women in Business (AWiB).
In 2014, she published her book, Transformative Spaces: Enabling Authentic Female Leadership Through Self Transformation. The Case of AWiB.
Since 2010, she has published with multiple newsletters, including Pambazuka News, on topics that concern the rights of women and girls.
She has also served as an editor for the Association for Women's Sanctuary and Development (AWSAD)'s newsletter.
Billene has worked as a consultant on the Agricultural Growth Program-Agribusiness and Market Development (AGP-AMDe) project of ACDI-VOCA, where she worked on content development and management. The AGP-AMDe project aims to help enhance the capacity of Ethiopian small scale farmers.
In 2016, Billene was chosen to be an Acumen East African Fellow.
Billene is also the founder of a Social impact company Earuyan Solutions.
== Political career ==
Billene was one of the originators of the 50-50 gender balance concept for Ethiopian government. In an open letter addressed to Prime Minister, Abiy Ahmed, that was published by The Reporter, Billene Seyoum Weldeyes and Sewit Hailesellasie Tadesse pushed the Prime Minister to work towards gender equality and justice by recommending a few ideas that would strengthen the Prime Minister's commitment towards gender equality. Among them was a recommendation to create a 50-50 gender balance in the ministerial cabinet, Prime Minister's gender advisory group, CSO Law, the Women's rights Defenders Forum, and many more. Ahmed responded positively, appointing 10 female ministers when he formed his cabinet on the 16 October 2018.
Billene was then appointed as the Press Secretary for the Office of the Prime Minister of Ethiopia in November 2018, following the end of Government Communication Affairs Office (GCAO).
Multiple platforms have noted Billene's preference for not being addressed with the title Weizero or Weizerit (roughly translated to Mrs. or Miss.).
== Controversy ==
False information that Billene had been fired and replaced by Nigussie Tilahun surfaced around 2 January 2019. However, Billene continued to be the press secretary in charge of the English and digital media. Nigussu Tilahun did join the secretariat as press secretary, but to aid with the Amharic section.
== Works ==
=== Poetry ===
She is an author of multiple poems including Things I Imagine Telling My Daughter, Make It Happen, From Foetus to Woman and others.
Essays and Reflections
"Modern slavery of Ethiopian women | Pambazuka News". www.pambazuka.org. Retrieved 2019-01-13.
"Ethiopia: Violence against women on the rise | Pambazuka News". www.pambazuka.org. Retrieved 2019-01-15.
=== Book ===
Woldeyes, Billene Seyoum (2014.)Transformative spaces : enabling authentic female leadership through self transformation - the case of AWiB. ISBN 3643905025. OCLC 900171333.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minister_of_War_(France) | Minister of War (France) | The Minister of War (French: Ministre de la guerre) was the leader and most senior official of the French Ministry of War. It was a position in the Government of France from 1791 to 1947, replacing the position of Secretary of State for War and later being merged with the offices of Minister of the Navy and Minister of Air to form a new Minister of the Armed Forces.
== History ==
In 1791, during the French Revolution, the Secretary of State for War became titled Minister of War.
For most of its existence and until the beginning of the 20th century, ministers had always been Marshals or Generals. The Third Republic saw the gradual replacement of the military by civilian politicians to the office. It was also subject to the governmental instability of the regime, leading to ministers seating only for few days.
== Powers and functions ==
On 27 April 1791, the National Constituent Assembly issued a decree organizing the six ministries of Justice, Interior, Finances, War, Navy and Foreign Affairs. The decree was signed into law on 25 May 1791 by King Louis XVI. This law determined the responsibilities of the minister, giving him full authority on the French Army and the sole provost duties of the National Gendarmerie. It also resolved that the minister would be responsible for the administration and finances of his department.
== Officeholders ==
=== Kingdom of France ===
=== First Republic ===
=== First Empire ===
=== Restoration ===
=== Hundred Days ===
=== Kingdom of France ===
=== Second Republic ===
=== Second Empire ===
=== Third Republic ===
=== Vichy France ===
=== Free France ===
=== Provisional Government ===
=== Fourth Republic ===
== Notes ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1920_Memorial_Cup | 1920 Memorial Cup | The 1920 Memorial Cup final was the second junior ice hockey championship of the Canadian Amateur Hockey Association. The George Richardson Memorial Trophy champions Toronto Canoe Club Paddlers of the Ontario Hockey Association competed against the Abbott Cup champions Selkirk Fishermen of the Manitoba Junior Hockey League. In a two-game, total goal series, held at the Arena Gardens in Toronto, Ontario, Toronto won their first Memorial Cup, defeating Selkirk 15–5.
== Background ==
The Toronto Canoe Club had played the Stratford Midgets for the Ontario championship, losing the first game 6–5 before winning the second 10–2, taking the series on total goals. They won the eastern Canadian championship by defeating Loyola College 16–4 in a one-game playoff. Selkirk won the western Canadian championship by defeating the Calgary Monarchs in a two-game total-goal series, winning the first game 8–2 and tying the second, 3–3.
== Games ==
The first game was played on March 23. Toronto won 10–1. The second game was on March 25, with Toronto winning 5–4. Toronto's Billy Burch was the scoring champion, with 4 goals and 3 assists in the two games.
After the series the Fort William Beavers issued a challenge to Toronto for the title, which was accepted. One game was played on March 31, which Toronto won 11–1.
== Winning roster ==
Harold Applegath, Billy Burch, Lionel Conacher, Sydney Hueston, Cyril Kelly, Duke McCurry, John Mollenhauer, Frank Moore, Wilfred White, Roy Worters. Coach: Dick Carroll
== References ==
=== Bibliography ===
== External links ==
Memorial Cup Archived June 2, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
Canadian Hockey League |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cl%C3%A9o_Hamon | Cléo Hamon | Cléo Hamon (born 25 November 2001) is a French pair skater. With her former skating partner, Denys Strekalin, she is a two-time French national champion (2020, 2021), 2018 Volvo Open Cup champion, and has competed in the final segment at three World Junior Championships (2017–2019).
== Personal life ==
Cléo Hamon was born on 25 November 2001 in Cormeilles-en-Parisis, France. Her brother, Axel, is a triathlete.
== Career ==
=== Single skating ===
Hamon began learning to skate in 2006. Competing in ladies' singles, she won silver in the advanced novice category at the Rooster Cup in April 2016. She appeared once on the junior level, placing 13th at the Golden Bear of Zagreb in October 2016.
=== Early partnerships ===
In the 2014–2015 season, Hamon competed in partnership with Xavier Vauclin. The two became the French national novice champions in March 2015.
Hamon also skated with Brice Panizzi.
=== Partnership with Strekalin ===
==== Early seasons ====
In August 2016, Hamon teamed up with Ukraine's Denys Strekalin to compete for France in pairs. Coached by Mehdi Bouzzine in Courbevoie, they made their international debut in February 2017, placing seventh in junior pairs at the Bavarian Open. In March, they placed fourteenth at the 2017 World Junior Championships in Taipei, Taiwan.
In September 2017, Hamon/Strekalin debuted on the ISU Junior Grand Prix (JGP) series, placing eighth in Riga, Latvia. In December, appearing on the senior level, they won silver at the French Championships, behind Lola Esbrat / Andrei Novoselov. In March, they finished eleventh at the 2018 World Junior Championships in Sofia, Bulgaria.
Competing in the 2018 JGP series, Hamon/Strekalin placed sixth in Linz, Austria, and fifth in Ostrava, Czech Republic. Making their senior international debut, the pair took gold at the Volvo Open Cup in November 2018. In March 2019, they finished ninth at the 2019 World Junior Championships in Zagreb, Croatia.
==== 2019–20 season ====
After placing eighth at the 2019 JGP United States, Hamon/Streklain debuted on the senior Challenger series with a seventh-place finish at the 2019 CS Finlandia Trophy. They would go on to place tenth at the 2019 CS Warsaw Cup, and ninth at their first European Championships. Hamon/Strekalin also won the French senior national title for the first time, due to the absence of James/Cipres from the competition season. They finished the season at the 2020 World Junior Championships, where they placed fifth. Hamon/Strekalin were scheduled to participate in the 2020 World Championships in Montreal, which would have been their senior World debut, but these were canceled due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
==== 2020–21 season ====
With the pandemic ongoing, Hamon/Strekalin began the new season at the 2020 CS Nebelhorn Trophy, where only pairs training in Europe competed. They were fourth after the short program, and after the top-ranked Hase/Seegert withdrew, they placed third in the free and won the bronze medal.
Hamon/Strekalin were scheduled to make their Grand Prix debut at the 2020 Internationaux de France, but the event was cancelled due to the pandemic.
In February, they won their second straight National title. Later that month, they competed at the International Challenge Cup, placing fifth. On March 1, they were named to the team for the 2021 World Championships. They placed twentieth in their World Championship debut. Hamon/Strekalin finished the season at the 2021 World Team Trophy, where they finished fifth in both segments and Team France finished in fifth place overall.
==== 2021–22 season ====
Hamon/Strekalin began the season at the 2021 Lombardia Trophy, where they finished in fourth place.
They were originally scheduled to compete at the Nebelhorn Trophy, where the final Olympics spots would be decided, but were later replaced by Coline Keriven / Noël-Antoine Pierre. It was later announced that Hamon would be taking a break from figure skating, due to health issues from a burnout, and that had been the reason for them being replaced at the Nebelhorn Trophy. The team later split, and Strekalin began looking for a new partner in October.
== Programs ==
(with Strekalin)
== Competitive highlights ==
GP: Grand Prix; CS: Challenger Series; JGP: Junior Grand Prix
=== Pairs with Strekalin ===
=== Ladies' singles ===
== References ==
== External links ==
Cléo Hamon / Denys Strekalin at the International Skating Union |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdul_Hamid_(field_hockey)#:~:text=Died,%2C%20Punjab%2C%20Pakistan | Abdul Hamid (field hockey) | Abdul Hamid Hamidi (7 January 1927 – 11 July 2019) was a field hockey player from Pakistan. He was born in Bannu. He scored 48 International goals in just 55 appearances for Pakistan. He won silver medal at 1956 Summer Olympics and was captain of the gold medal-winning national team at 1960 Summer Olympics.
After his retirement from professional competition, he managed the national team on several occasions, including during the 1966 and 1970 Asian Games. He also served as the secretary general of the Pakistan Hockey Federation. As of 2017, he lived in Islamabad.
== Death ==
He died on 11 July 2019, in Combined Military Hospital Rawalpindi, at the age of 92.
== Awards and recognition ==
Pride of Performance Award for Sports in 1960 by the President of Pakistan
== See also ==
Abdul Hamid II- another Pakistan hockey player with a similar name
Abdul Rasheed Junior- Abdul Hamid's younger brother. He was also a Pakistan hockey player.
== References ==
== External links ==
Abdul Hamid at Olympedia |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grumman_F4F_Wildcat#Specifications_(F4F-3) | Grumman F4F Wildcat | The Grumman F4F Wildcat is an American carrier-based fighter aircraft that entered service in 1940 with the United States Navy, and the British Royal Navy where it was initially known as the Martlet. First used by the British in the North Atlantic, the Wildcat was the only effective fighter available to the United States Navy and Marine Corps in the Pacific Theater during the early part of the Second World War. The disappointing Brewster Buffalo was withdrawn in favor of the Wildcat and replaced as aircraft became available.
With a top speed of 318 mph (512 km/h), the Wildcat was outperformed by the faster [331 mph (533 km/h)], more maneuverable, and longer-ranged Mitsubishi A6M Zero. US Navy pilots, including John "Jimmy" Thach, a pioneer of fighter tactics to deal with the A6M Zero, were greatly dissatisfied with the Wildcat's inferior performance against the Zero in the battles of the Coral Sea and Midway. Still, the Wildcat has a claimed air combat kill-to-loss ratio of 5.9:1 in 1942 and 6.9:1 for the war.
Lessons learned from the Wildcat were later applied to the faster F6F Hellcat. While the Wildcat had better range and maneuverability at low speed, the Hellcat could rely on superior power and high speed performance to outperform the Zero. Wildcat production continued throughout the remainder of the war, with Wildcats serving on escort carriers, where the larger and much heavier Hellcat could not be used.
From 1942 on, production of the Wildcat (in fact nearly three quarters of its the total production) was subcontracted to a purposely established division of General Motors: the Eastern Aircraft Division.
== Design and development ==
Grumman fighter development began with the two-seat Grumman FF biplane. The FF was the first U.S. naval fighter with a retractable landing gear. The wheels retracted into the fuselage, leaving the tires visibly exposed, flush with the sides of the fuselage. Two single-seat biplane designs followed, the F2F and F3F, which established the general fuselage outlines of what would become the F4F Wildcat. In 1935, while the F3F was still undergoing flight testing, Grumman started work on its next biplane fighter, the G-16. At the time, the U.S. Navy favored a monoplane design, the Brewster F2A-1, ordering production early in 1936. However, an order was also placed for Grumman's G-16 (given the navy designation XF4F-1) as a backup in case the Brewster monoplane proved to be unsatisfactory.
It was clear to Grumman that the XF4F-1 would be inferior to the Brewster monoplane, so Grumman abandoned the XF4F-1, designing instead a new monoplane fighter, the XF4F-2. The XF4F-2 would retain the same, fuselage-mounted, hand-cranked main landing gear as the F3F, with its relatively narrow track. The unusual manually-retractable main landing gear design for all of Grumman's U.S. Navy fighters up to and through the F4F, as well as for the amphibious Grumman J2F utility biplane, was originally created in the 1920s by Leroy Grumman for Grover Loening. Landing accidents caused by failure of the main gear to fully lock into place were distressingly common.
The overall performance of Grumman's new monoplane was felt to be inferior to that of the Brewster Buffalo. The XF4F-2 was marginally faster, but the Buffalo was more maneuverable. The Buffalo was judged superior and was chosen for production. After losing out to Brewster, Grumman completely rebuilt the prototype as the XF4F-3 with new wings and tail and a supercharged version of the Pratt & Whitney R-1830 "Twin Wasp" radial engine. Testing of the new XF4F-3 led to an order for F4F-3 production models, the first of which was completed in February 1940. France also ordered the type, powered by a Wright R-1820 "Cyclone 9" radial engine, but France fell to the Axis powers before they could be delivered and the aircraft went instead to the British Royal Navy, who christened the new fighter the Martlet. The U.S. Navy officially adopted the aircraft type on 1 October 1941 as the Wildcat. The Royal Navy's and U.S. Navy's F4F-3s, armed with four .50 in (12.7 mm) Browning machine guns, joined active units in 1940.
On 16 December 1940, the XF4F-3 prototype, BuNo 0383, c/n 356, modified from XF4F-2, was lost under circumstances that suggested that the pilot may have been confused by the poor layout of fuel valves and flap controls and inadvertently turned the fuel valve to "off" immediately after takeoff rather than selecting flaps "up". This was the first fatality in the type.
== Operational history ==
Even before the Wildcat had been purchased by the U.S. Navy, the French Navy Aeronavale and the Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm (FAA) had ordered the Wildcat, with their own configurations, via the Anglo-French Purchasing Board.
=== Royal Navy ===
The F4F, initially known in British service as the Martlet, was taken on by the FAA as an interim replacement for the Fairey Fulmar. The Fulmar was a two-seat fighter with good range but operated at a performance disadvantage against single-seater fighters. Navalised Supermarine Spitfires were not available because of the greater need of the Royal Air Force. In the European theater, its first combat victory was on Christmas Day 1940, when a land-based Martlet destroyed a Junkers Ju 88 bomber over the Scapa Flow naval base. This was the first combat victory by a US-built fighter in British service in World War II.
The type also pioneered combat operations from the smaller escort carriers. Six Martlets went to sea aboard the converted former German merchant vessel HMS Audacity in September 1941 and shot down several Luftwaffe Fw 200 Condor bombers during highly effective convoy escort operations. These were the first of many Wildcats to engage in aerial combat at sea, including Convoy HG 76 to Gibraltar, in December 1941.
The British received 300 Eastern Aircraft FM-1s giving them the designation Martlet V in 1942–43 and 340 FM-2s, (having changed to using the same name as the US) as the Wildcat VI. Nearly 1,200 Wildcats were flown by the FAA and by January 1944, the Martlet name was dropped and the type was identified as the Wildcat. In March 1945, Wildcats shot down four Messerschmitt Bf 109s over Norway, the FAA's last Wildcat victories. I would still assess the Wildcat as the outstanding naval fighter of the early years of World War II ... I can vouch as a matter of personal experience, this Grumman fighter was one of the finest shipboard aeroplanes ever created.
The last air raid of the war in Europe was carried out by Fleet Air Arm aircraft in Operation Judgement on 5 May 1945. Twenty-eight Wildcat VI aircraft from 846, 853 and 882 Naval Air Squadron, flying from escort carriers, took part in an attack on a U-boat depot near Harstad, Norway. Two ships and a U-boat were sunk with the loss of one Wildcat and one Grumman Avenger torpedo bomber.
=== US Navy and Marine Corps ===
==== Pacific ====
The Wildcat was generally outperformed by the Mitsubishi Zero, its major opponent in the early part of the Pacific Theater but held its own partly because, with relatively heavy armor and self-sealing fuel tanks, the Grumman airframe could survive far more damage than its lightweight, unarmored Japanese rival. Many U.S. Navy fighter pilots were saved by the Wildcat's ZB homing device, which allowed them to find their carriers in poor visibility, provided they could get within the 30 mi (48 km) range of the homing beacon. (However, the Zed Baker was wildly inconsistent in practice, especially during the battle of Midway, when an entire squadron of Wildcats crashed in the sea after failing to locate their carriers).
In the hands of an expert pilot with a tactical advantage, the Wildcat could prove a difficult opponent even against the formidable Zero. After analyzing Fleet Air Tactical Unit Intelligence Bureau reports describing the new carrier fighter, USN Commander "Jimmy" Thach devised a defensive tactic that allowed Wildcat formations to act in a coordinated maneuver to counter a diving attack, called the "Thach Weave". The most widely employed tactic during the Guadalcanal campaign was high-altitude ambush, where hit-and-run maneuvers were executed using altitude advantage. This was possible due to an early warning system composed of coastwatchers and radar. On rare occasions, when Wildcats were unable to gain altitude in time, they would suffer many losses. On 2 October 1942, a Japanese air raid from Rabaul was not detected in time and the Cactus Air Force lost six Wildcats to only one Zero destroyed. On the very first day of the campaign, before the establishment of Henderson Field, Wildcat fighters of TF16 (USS Enterprise) lost 10 fighters and an SBD performing CAP duty to Rabaul-based Tainan Kōkūtai Zero fighters, in exchange for one Zero that was forced to crash-land later. These losses included US Fighter Ace James 'Pug' Southerland who was shot down by IJNAS ace Saburō Sakai (but survived). During the most intense initial phase of the Guadalcanal campaign, between 1 August and 15 November, combat records indicate that US lost 115 Wildcats and Japanese lost 106 Zeros to all causes; the Japanese lost many more pilots compared to the US.
Thach was greatly dissatisfied and a vocal critic of the Wildcat's performance during the war (as were many US carrier pilots), stating in his Midway action report;
It is indeed surprising that any of our pilots returned alive. Any success our fighter pilots may have had against the Japanese Zero fighter is not due to the performance of the airplane we fly but is the result of the comparatively poor marksmanship of the Japanese, stupid mistakes made by a few of their pilots and superior marksmanship and team work of some of our pilots. The F4F airplane is pitifully inferior in climb, maneuverability and speed.
Four U.S. Marine Corps Wildcats played a prominent role in the defense of Wake Island in December 1941. USN and USMC Wildcats formed the fleet's primary air defense during the Battle of Coral Sea and the Battle of Midway and land-based Wildcats played a major role during the Guadalcanal campaign of 1942–43. It was not until 1943 that more advanced naval fighters capable of taking on the Zero on more even terms, the Grumman F6F Hellcat and Vought F4U Corsair, reached the South Pacific theater.
The Japanese ace Saburō Sakai described the Wildcat's capacity to absorb damage:
I had full confidence in my ability to destroy the Grumman and decided to finish off the enemy fighter with only my 7.7 mm machine guns. I turned the 20 mm cannon switch to the "off" position, and closed in. For some strange reason, even after I had poured about five or six hundred rounds of ammunition directly into the Grumman, the airplane did not fall, but kept on flying. I thought this very odd—it had never happened before—and closed the distance between the two airplanes until I could almost reach out and touch the Grumman. To my surprise, the Grumman's rudder and tail were torn to shreds, looking like an old torn piece of rag. With his plane in such condition, no wonder the pilot was unable to continue fighting! A Zero which had taken that many bullets would have been a ball of fire by now.
Grumman's Wildcat production ceased in early 1943 to make way for the newer F6F Hellcat but General Motors continued producing Wildcats for U.S. Navy and Fleet Air Arm use. At first, GM produced the FM-1 (identical to the F4F-4 but with four guns). Production later switched to the improved FM-2 (based on Grumman's XF4F-8 prototype, informally known as the "Wilder Wildcat") optimized for small-carrier operations, with a more powerful engine and a taller tail to cope with the increased torque.
From 1943, Wildcats equipped with bomb racks were primarily assigned to escort carriers for use against submarines and ground targets, though they also continued to score kills against Japanese fighters, bombers, and kamikaze aircraft. Larger fighters such as the Hellcat and the Corsair and dive bombers were needed aboard fleet carriers and the Wildcat's slower landing speed made it more suitable for shorter flight decks.
In the Battle off Samar on 25 October 1944, escort carriers of Task Unit 77.4.3 ("Taffy 3") and their escort of destroyers and destroyer escorts found themselves as the sole force standing between vulnerable troop transport and supply ships engaged in landings on the Philippine island of Leyte and a powerful Japanese surface fleet of battleships and cruisers. In desperation, lightly armed Avengers and FM-2 Wildcats from Taffys 1, 2 and 3 resorted to tactics such as strafing ships, including the bridge of the Japanese battleship Yamato, while the destroyers and destroyer escorts attacked the Japanese surface force. This action contributed to buying enough time for Taffy 3's escort carriers to escape into a rain squall.
==== Atlantic ====
U.S. Navy Wildcats participated in Operation Torch. USN escort carriers in the Atlantic used Wildcats until the end of the war. In October 1943 F4Fs participated in Operation Leader, an anti-shipping strike on Norway.
=== Totals ===
In all, 7,860 Wildcats were built.. Nearly three quarters of this total were built by the Eastern Aircraft Division of General Motors, which took over production in 1942. During the course of the war, Navy and Marine F4Fs and FMs flew 15,553 combat sorties (14,027 of these from aircraft carriers), destroying a claimed figure of 1,327 enemy aircraft at a cost of 178 aerial losses, 24 to ground/shipboard fire, and 49 to operational causes (an overall claimed kill-to-loss ratio of 6.9:1). True to their escort fighter role, Wildcats dropped only 154 tons of bombs during the war.
== Variants ==
=== U.S. Navy Wildcats ===
==== F4F-1/-2 ====
The original Grumman F4F-1 design was a biplane, which proved inferior to rival designs, necessitating a complete redesign as a monoplane named the F4F-2. This design was still not competitive with the Brewster F2A Buffalo which won initial U.S. Navy orders, but when the F4F-3 development was fitted with a more powerful version of the engine, a Pratt & Whitney Twin Wasp R-1830-76, featuring a two-stage supercharger, it showed its true potential.
==== F4F-3 ====
U.S. Navy orders followed as did some (with Wright Cyclone engines) from France; these ended up with the Royal Navy's Fleet Air Arm after the fall of France and entered service on 8 September 1940. These aircraft, designated by Grumman as G-36A, had a different cowling from other earlier F4Fs and fixed wings, and were intended to be fitted with French armament and instruments following delivery. In British service initially, the aircraft were known as the Martlet I, but not all Martlets would be to exactly the same specifications as U.S. Navy aircraft. All Martlet Is featured the four .50 in (12.7 mm) M2 Browning machine guns of the F4F-3 with 450 rpg. The British directly ordered and received a version with the original Twin Wasp, but again with a modified cowling, under the manufacturer designation G-36B. These aircraft were given the designation Martlet II by the British. The first 10 G-36Bs were fitted with non-folding wings and were given the designation Martlet III. These were followed by 30 folding wing aircraft (F4F-3As) which were originally destined for the Hellenic Air Force, which were also designated Martlet IIIs. On paper, the designation changed to Martlet III(A) when the second series of Martlet III was introduced.
Poor design of the armament installation on early F4Fs caused these otherwise reliable machine guns to frequently jam, a problem common to wing-mounted weapons of many U.S. fighters early in the war. An F4F-3 flown by Lieutenant Edward O'Hare shot down, within a few minutes, five Mitsubishi twin-engine bombers attacking Lexington off Bougainville on 20 February 1942. But contrasting with O'Hare's performance, his wingman was unable to participate because his guns would not function.
A shortage of two-stage superchargers led to the development of the F4F-3A, which was basically the F4F-3 but with a 1,200 hp (890 kW) Pratt & Whitney R-1830-90 radial engine with a more primitive single-stage two-speed supercharger. The F4F-3A, which was capable of 312 mph (502 km/h) at 16,000 ft (4,900 m), was used side by side with the F4F-3, but its poorer performance made it unpopular with U.S. Navy fighter pilots. The F4F-3A would enter service as the Martlet III(B).
At the time of Pearl Harbor, only Enterprise had a fully equipped Wildcat squadron, VF-6 with F4F-3As. Enterprise was then transferring a detachment of VMF-211, also equipped with F4F-3s, to Wake. Saratoga was in San Diego, working up for operations of the F4F-3s of VF-3. 11 F4F-3s of VMF-211 were at the Ewa Marine Air Corps Station on Oahu; nine of these were damaged or destroyed during the Japanese attack. The detachment of VMF-211 on Wake lost seven Wildcats to Japanese attacks on 8 December, but the remaining five put up a fierce defense, making the first bomber kill on 9 December. The destroyer Kisaragi was sunk by the Wildcats, and the Japanese invasion force retreated.
In May 1942, the F4F-3s of VF-2 and VF-42, aboard Yorktown and Lexington, participated in the Battle of the Coral Sea. Lexington and Yorktown fought against the fleet carriers Zuikaku and Shōkaku and the light carrier Shōhō in this battle, in an attempt to halt a Japanese invasion of Port Moresby on Papua. During these battles, it became clear that attacks without fighter escort amounted to suicide, but that the fighter component on the carriers was completely insufficient to provide both fighter cover for the carrier and an escort for an attack force. Most U.S. carriers carried fewer than 20 fighters.
==== F4F-3P ====
In June 1942, 17 F4F-3s and one F4F-3A (18 total) were converted into F4F-3P photoreconnaissance planes. The F4F-3Ps were for short-range tactical reconnaissance, as their reserve fuel tanks were removed and replaced with Fairchild F-56 cameras. The F4F-3Ps retained their machine guns and were mainly flown by VMO-251 on air defense missions from Espiritu Santo in the South Pacific, arriving in July 1942. In October 1942, long-ranged and unarmed F4F-7s began replacing the F4F-3Ps, but a detachment of three F4F-3P from VMO-155 operated from the Bogue-class escort carrier USS Nassau (CVE-16) during the amphibious invasion of Attu Island in May 1943. Boston, MA, USA: Little, Brown and Co./Atlantic Monthly Press
==== F4F-3S "Wildcatfish" ====
This floatplane version of the F4F-3 was developed for use at forward island bases in the Pacific, before the construction of airfields. It was inspired by appearance of the A6M2-N "Rufe", a modification of the Mitsubishi A6M2 "Zeke". BuNo 4038 was modified to become the F4F-3S "Wildcatfish". Twin floats, manufactured by Edo Aircraft Corporation, were fitted. To restore the stability, small auxiliary fins were added to the tailplane. Because this was still insufficient, a ventral fin was added later.
The F4F-3S was first flown 28 February 1943. The weight and drag of the floats reduced the maximum speed to 241 mph (388 km/h). As the performance of the basic F4F-3 was already below that of the Zero, the F4F-3S was clearly of limited usefulness. In any case, the construction of the airfields at forward bases by the "Seabees" was surprisingly quick. Only one was converted.
==== F4F-4 ====
A new version, the F4F-4, entered service in 1941 with six machine guns and the Grumman-patented Sto-Wing folding wing system, which allowed more aircraft to be stored on an aircraft carrier, increasing the number of fighters that could be parked on a surface by more than a factor of 2. The F4F-4 was the definitive version that saw the most combat service in the early war years, including the Battle of Midway. Navy F4F-3s were replaced by F4F-4s in June 1942. During the Battle of Midway, only VMF-221 still used F4F-3s. VF-42 of the Yorktown was the last carrier group converted to the F4F-4, and that was done as it left Pearl Harbor on the way to the Battle of Midway as VF-3 flew in new F4F-4s with Commander Thach.
The F4F-4 version was less popular with American pilots because the amount of ammunition was spread over two additional guns, decreasing firing time. With the F4F-3's four .50 in (12.7 mm) guns and 450 rpg, pilots had 34 seconds of firing time; six guns decreased ammunition to 240 rpg, which could be expended in less than 20 seconds. The increase to six guns was attributed to the Royal Navy, who wanted greater firepower to deal with German and Italian foes. Jimmy Thach is quoted as saying, "A pilot who cannot hit with four guns will miss with eight." Extra guns and folding wings meant extra weight and reduced performance: the F4F-4 was capable of only about 318 mph (512 km/h) at 19,400 ft (5,900 m). Rate of climb was noticeably worse in the F4F-4; while Grumman optimistically claimed the F4F-4 could climb at a modest 1,950 ft (590 m) per minute, in combat conditions, pilots found their F4F-4s capable of ascending at only 500 to 1,000 ft (150 to 300 m) per minute. Moreover, the F4F-4's folding wing was intended to allow five F4F-4s to be stowed in the space required by two F4F-3s. In practice, the folding wings allowed an increase of about 50% in the number of Wildcats carried aboard U.S. fleet aircraft carriers. A variant of the F4F-4, designated F4F-4B for contractual purposes, was supplied to the British with a modified cowling and Wright Cyclone engine. These aircraft received the designation of Martlet IV.
==== F4F-5 Wildcat ====
Two F4F-3s (the 3rd and 4th production aircraft, BuNo 1846/1847) were fitted with a Wright R-1820-40 engine and designated XF4F-5.
==== FM-1/-2 Wildcat ====
General Motors' Eastern Aircraft Division produced 5,280 FM variants of the Wildcat. Grumman's Wildcat production ceased in early 1943 to make way for the newer F6F Hellcat, but General Motors continued producing Wildcats for both U.S. Navy and Fleet Air Arm use. Late in the war, the Wildcat was obsolescent as a front line fighter compared to the faster (380 mph/610 km/h) F6F Hellcat or much faster (446 mph/718 km/h) F4U Corsair. However, they were adequate for small escort carriers against submarine and shore threats. These relatively modest ships only carried two types of aircraft, the Wildcats and GM-built TBM Avengers. The Wildcat's lower landing speed and ability to take off without a catapult made it more suitable for shorter flight decks. At first, GM produced the FM-1, identical to the F4F-4, but reduced the number of guns to four, and added wing racks for two 250 lb (110 kg) bombs or six rockets. Production later switched to the improved FM-2 (based on Grumman's XF4F-8 prototype) optimized for small-carrier operations, with a more powerful engine (the 1,350 hp (1,010 kW) Wright R-1820-56), and a taller tail to cope with the torque.
==== F4F-7 ====
The F4F-7 was a photoreconnaissance variant, with armor and armament removed. It had non-folding "wet" wings that carried an additional 555 gal (2,101 L) of fuel for a total of about 700 gal (2,650 L), increasing its range to 3,700 mi (5,955 km). A total of 21 were built.
==== F2M Wildcat ====
The F2M-1 was a planned development of the FM-1 by General Motors / Eastern Aircraft to be powered by the improved XR-1820-70 engine, but the project was canceled before any aircraft were built.
=== Royal Navy Martlets ===
==== Martlet Mk I ====
At the end of 1939, Grumman received a French order for 81 aircraft of model G-36A, to equip their new Joffre-class aircraft carriers Joffre and Painlevé. The main difference from the basic model G-36 was due to the unavailability for export of the two-stage supercharged engine of the F4F-3. The G-36A was powered by the nine-cylinder, single-row Wright R-1820-G205A radial engine, of 1,200 hp (890 kW) and with a single-stage two-speed supercharger.
The G-36A also had French instruments (with metric calibration), radio and gunsight. The throttle was modified to conform to French pre-war practice: the throttle lever was moved towards the pilot (i.e. backward) to increase engine power. The armament which was to be fitted in France was four 7.5 mm (.296 in) Darne machine guns (two in the fuselage and two in the wings). The first G-36A was flown on 11 May 1940. After France's defeat in the Battle of France, all contracts were taken over by Britain. The throttle was modified again, four 0.50 in (12.7 mm) guns were installed in the wings and most traces of the original ownership removed.
The Martlets were modified for British use by Blackburn, which continued to do this for all later marks. British gunsights, catapult spools and other items were installed. After attempts to fit British radio sets, it was decided to use the superior American equipment. The first Martlets entered British service in August 1940, with 804 Naval Air Squadron, stationed at Hatston in the Orkney Islands. The Martlet Mk I did not have a wing folding mechanism and was therefore used primarily from land bases, with the notable exception of six aircraft of 882 Sqn aboard Illustrious from March 1942. In April 1942 Illustrious transferred two Martlet I aircraft to HMS Archer while in port at Freetown. One of her four retained Martlet I aircraft were subsequently fitted with folding wings by ship's staff during passage to Durban. In 1940, Belgium also placed an order for at least 10 G-36A's. These were to be modified with the same changes to the French aircraft, plus the removal of the tailhook as they were to be landbased. Belgium surrendered before any aircraft were delivered and by 10 May 1940, the aircraft order was transferred to the Royal Navy.
==== Martlet Mk II ====
Before the Fleet Air Arm took on charge the Martlet Mk Is, it had already ordered 100 G-36B fighters. The British chose the Pratt & Whitney R-1830-S3C4-G engine to power this aircraft; this too had a single-stage, two-speed supercharger. The FAA decided to accept a delay in delivery to get Martlets fitted out with the Grumman-designed and patented Sto-Wing folding wing system first fitted onto U.S. Navy F4F-4 Wildcats, which were vitally important if the Martlet was to be used from the first 3 Illustrious class carriers which had elevators that were too narrow to accommodate non-folding wing aircraft. Nevertheless, the first 10 received had fixed wings. The first Martlet with folding wings was not delivered until August 1941.
In contrast to the USN F4F-3, the British aircraft were fitted with armor and self-sealing fuel tanks. The Mk II also had a larger tailwheel. For carrier operations, the "sting" tail hook and attachment point for the American single-point catapult launch system were considered important advantages. Nevertheless, the Martlets were modified to have British-style catapult spools. Deliveries of the folding-wing G-36Bs began in August 1941, with 36 shipped to the UK and 54 shipped to the Far East; they were designated "Martlet Mark II". Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment (A&AEE) testing of the Martlet II at a mean weight of approximately 7,350 lb (3,330 kg) showed a maximum speed of 293 mph (472 km/h) at 5,400 ft (1,600 m) and 13,800 ft (4,200 m), a maximum climb rate of 1,940 ft/min (9.9 m/s) at 7,600 ft (2,300 m) at 7,790 lb (3,530 kg) weight, and a time to climb to 20,000 ft (6,100 m) of 12.5 minutes. The service ceiling at 7,790 lb (3,530 kg) was 31,000 ft (9,400 m).
The Martlet was the second single-seat, monoplane fighter to operate from Royal Navy aircraft carriers following the introduction of the Sea Hurricane IB on HMS Furious in July 1941.
The majority of the Martlet Mk IIs were sent to the Far East. The first shipboard operations of the type in British service were in September 1941, aboard HMS Audacity, a very small escort carrier with a carrier deck of 420 ft (130 m) by 59 ft (18 m), no elevators and no hangar deck. The six Wildcats were parked on the deck at all times. On its first voyage, it served as escort carrier for a convoy to Gibraltar. On 20 September, a German Fw 200 was shot down. On the next voyage, four Fw 200 Condors fell to the guns of the Martlets, and of the combined total, two of these five Condors were shot down by Eric "Winkle" Brown during his time aboard. Operations from Audacity also demonstrated that the fighter cover was useful against U-boats. Audacity was sunk by a U-boat on 21 December 1941, and of the pilots only Brown and one other survived, but it had already proved the usefulness of escort carriers.
In May 1942, 881 and 882 squadrons on HMS Illustrious participated in operations against Madagascar. In August 1942, 806 NAS on HMS Indomitable provided fighter cover for a convoy to Malta. Later in that year they participated in the landings in French North Africa.
==== Martlet Mk III ====
The first 30 F4F-3As were released for sale to Greece, after the Italian invasion in November 1940. However, at the defeat of Greece in April 1941 the aircraft had only reached Gibraltar. They were taken over by the FAA as Martlet Mk III(B). As these aircraft did not have folding wings, they were only used from land bases. They served in a shore-based role in the Western Desert.
Ten fixed-wing G-36Bs were used by the FAA as Martlet III(A).
==== Martlet Mk IV ====
The Royal Navy purchased 220 F4F-4s adapted to British requirements. The main difference was the use of a Wright R-1820-40B Cyclone in a distinctly more rounded and compact cowling, with a single double-wide flap on each side of the rear and no lip intake. These machines were named Martlet Mk IV. Boscombe Down testing of the Martlet IV at 7,350 lb (3,330 kg) weight showed a maximum speed of 278 mph (447 km/h) at 3,400 ft (1,000 m) and 298 mph (480 km/h) at 14,600 ft (4,500 m), a maximum climb rate of 1,580 ft/min (8.0 m/s) at 6,200 ft (1,900 m) at 7,740 lb (3,510 kg) weight, and a time to climb to 20,000 ft (6,100 m) of 14.6 minutes. The service ceiling at 7,740 lb (3,510 kg) was 30,100 ft (9,200 m).
==== Martlet Mk V ====
The Fleet Air Arm purchased 312 FM-1s, originally with the designation of Martlet V. In January 1944, a decision was made to retain the American names for US-supplied aircraft, redesignating the batch as the Wildcat V.
==== Wildcat Mk VI ====
The Wildcat VI was the Air Ministry name for the FM-2 Wildcat in FAA service.
== Operators ==
Belgium
Belgian Air Force: at least 10 G-36A's ordered, never delivered, transferred to France (who then transferred them to the Royal Navy) after surrender.
France
Aeronavale: 81 aircraft ordered, never delivered, transferred to Royal Navy after French defeat.
Greece
Hellenic Air Force: 30 Martlet Mk III's ordered, delivered to Gibraltar, transferred to Royal Navy after defeat.
Canada
Royal Canadian Navy: RCN personnel assigned to the Royal Navy HMS Puncher, were to provide the RCN with experience in aircraft carrier operations. The RCN flew 14 Martlets as part of 881 (RN) Squadron from February–July 1945.
United Kingdom
Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm
United States
United States Navy
United States Marine Corps
== Surviving aircraft ==
== Specifications (F4F-3) ==
Data from The American Fighter General characteristics
Crew: 1
Length: 28 ft 9 in (8.76 m)
Wingspan: 38 ft 0 in (11.58 m)
Height: 11 ft 10 in (3.61 m)
Wing area: 260 sq ft (24 m2)
Airfoil: root: NACA 23015; tip: NACA 23009
Empty weight: 4,907 lb (2,226 kg)
Gross weight: 7,423 lb (3,367 kg)
Powerplant: 1 × Pratt & Whitney R-1830-76 14-cylinder air-cooled radial piston engine, 1,200 hp (890 kW)
Propellers: 3-bladed constant-speed propeller
Performance
Maximum speed: 331 mph (533 km/h, 288 kn)
Range: 845 mi (1,360 km, 734 nmi)
Service ceiling: 39,500 ft (12,000 m)
Rate of climb: 2,303 ft/min (11.70 m/s)
Wing loading: 28.5 lb/sq ft (139 kg/m2)
Power/mass: 0.282 kW/kg (0.172 hp/lb)
Armament
Guns: 4 × 0.50 in (12.7 mm) AN/M2 Browning machine guns with 450 rounds per gun
Bombs: 2 × 100 lb (45.4 kg) bombs and/or 2 × 58 US gal (48 imp gal; 220 L) drop tanks
== See also ==
Joe Foss, the top scoring Wildcat ace with 26 victories, flying with VMF-121 during World War II and a recipient of the Medal of Honor.
John Lucian Smith, second scoring Wildcat ace with 19 victories while flying with VMF-223 and also a recipient of the Medal of Honor.
Marion Eugene Carl, the third scoring Wildcat ace with 16.5 victories while flying Wildcats, plus an additional two flying Vought F4U Corsairs while in service with VMF-221 and VMF-223.
Related development
Grumman F3F
Grumman F6F Hellcat
Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era
Brewster F2A Buffalo
Hawker Sea Hurricane
Mitsubishi A6M Zero
Nakajima Ki-43
Supermarine Seafire
Related lists
List of aircraft of the Fleet Air Arm
List of fighter aircraft
List of United States Navy aircraft designations (pre-1962)
List of aircraft of the United States during World War II
List of aircraft of World War II
== References ==
=== Notes ===
=== Citations ===
=== Bibliography ===
Angelucci, Enzo. The American Fighter. Sparkford, Somerset, UK: Haynes Publishing Group, 1987. ISBN 0-85429-635-2.
Barber, S.B. Naval Aviation Combat Statistics— World War II (OPNAV-P-23V No. A129). Washington, D.C.: Air Branch, Office of Naval Intelligence, 1946.
Brown, Eric, CBE, DCS, AFC, RN.; William Green and Gordon Swanborough. "Grumman Wildcat". Wings of the Navy, Flying Allied Carrier Aircraft of World War Two. London: Jane's Publishing Company, 1980, pp. 40–52. ISBN 0-7106-0002-X.
Buttler, Tony. British Secret Projects 3: Fighters and Bombers 1935–1950. Hersham, Surrey, UK: Midland Publishing, 2004. ISBN 978-1-85780-179-8.
Dann, Richard S. F4F Wildcat in action, Aircraft Number 191. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, Inc., 2004. ISBN 0-89747-469-4.
Dann, Richard S. F4F Wildcat Walkaround. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, Inc., 1995. ISBN 0-89747-347-7.
Donald, David, ed. American Warplanes of World War II. London: Aerospace Publishing, 1995. ISBN 1-874023-72-7.
Drendel, Lou. U.S. Navy Carrier Fighters of World War II. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications Inc., 1987. ISBN 0-89747-194-6.
Ehrman, Vlastimil. Grumman Wildcat (in Czech). Prague, Czech Republic: Modelpres, 1995. ISBN 978-8-0901-3287-0.
Ewing, Steve. Thach Weave: The Life of Jimmie Thach. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 2004. ISBN 1-59114-248-2.
Ewing, Steve. Reaper Leader: The Life of Jimmy Flatley. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 2002. ISBN 1-55750-205-6.
"F4F-3 Airplane Characteristics & Performance, 1942." Archived 2011-07-07 at the Wayback Machine Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Ordnance, Navy Department, 1942.
"F4F-4 Airplane Characteristics & Performance, 1943." Archived 2011-07-07 at the Wayback Machine Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Ordnance, Navy Department, 1943.
Green, William. Warplanes of the Second World War, Volume Four: Fighters. London: Macdonald & Co.(Publishers) Ltd., 1961 (6th impression 1969). ISBN 0-356-01448-7.
Green, William. War Planes of the Second World War, Volume Six: Floatplanes. London: Macdonald, 1962.
Green, William and Gordon Swanborough. WW2 Fact Files: US Navy and Marine Corps Fighters. London: Macdonald and Jane's Publishers Ltd., 1976. ISBN 0-356-08222-9.
Green, William, Gordon Swanborough and Eric Brown. "Grumman's Willing Wildcat". Air Enthusiast Quarterly, Number Three, 1977, pp. 49–69. ISSN 0143-5450
Greene, Frank L. The Grumman F4F-3 Wildcat. Windsor, Berkshire, UK: Profile Publications, 1972 (reprint from 1966).
Jackson, A.J. Blackburn Aircraft since 1909. London: Putnam, 1968. ISBN 0-370-00053-6.
Jones Ben, (ed). The Fleet Air Arm in the Second World War volume II, 1942–1943, the Fleet Air Arm in Transition: the Mediterranean, Battle of the Atlantic and the Indian Ocean. London: Routledge, 2018. ISBN 978-0-8153-5507-6.
Jarski, Adam. F4F Wildcat, Monografie Lotnicze 20 (in Polish). Gdańsk, Poland: AJ-Press, 1995. ISBN 83-86208-29-5.
Kinzey, Bert. F4F Wildcat in detail. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, Inc., 2000. ISBN 1-888974-18-4.
Kinzey, Bert. F4F Wildcat in detail & scale. Blue Ridge Summit, Pennsylvania: TAB Books Inc., 1988. ISBN 0-8306-8040-3.
Kit, Mister and Jean-Pierre de Cock. Grumman F4F Wildcat (in French). Paris: Éditions Atlas s.a., 1981. no ISBN.
Lawrence, Joseph (1945). The Observer's Book Of Airplanes. London and New York: Frederick Warne & Co.
Linn, Don. F4F Wildcat in action, Aircraft Number 84. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, Inc., 1988. ISBN 0-89747-200-4.
Lundstrom, John B. The First Team and the Guadalcanal Campaign. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1994. ISBN 1-55750-526-8.
Lundstrom, John B. The First Team: Pacific Naval Air Combat from Pearl Harbor to Midway. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1984. ISBN 0-87021-189-7.
March, Daniel J. (ed). British Warplanes of World War II. London: Aerospace Publishing. 1998. ISBN 1-874023-92-1.
Mason, Tim. The Secret Years: Flight Testing at Boscombe Down 1939–1945. Manchester, UK: Hikoki, 1998. ISBN 0-9519899-9-5.
Mendenhall, Charles A. Wildcats & Hellcats: Gallant Grummans in World War II. St. Paul, Minnesota: Motorbooks International, 1984. ISBN 0-87938-177-9.
O'Leary, Michael. Grumman Cats. London: Osprey Publishing Ltd., 1992. ISBN 1-85532-247-1.
O'Leary, Michael. United States Naval Fighters of World War II in Action. Poole, Dorset, UK: Blandford Press, 1980. ISBN 0-7137-0956-1.
Philips, Glen. Grumman F4F Wildcat, including Grumman Martlet Mks. I-VI, Warpaint series no.9. Church End Farm, Bedfordshire, UK: Hall Park Books, 1997. No ISBN.
Polmar, Norman. Historic Naval Aircraft. Dulles, Virginia: Potomac Books, 2004. ISBN 978-1-57488-572-9.
Stille, Mark. Guadalcanal 1942–43: Japan's bid to knock out Henderson Field and the Cactus Air Force (Air Campaign). Osprey Publishing, 2019. ISBN 1472835514.
Swanborough, Gordon and Peter M. Bowers. United States Navy Aircraft since 1912. London: Putnam, Second edition, 1976. ISBN 0-370-10054-9.
Thetford, Owen. British Naval Aircraft Since 1912, Fourth Edition. London: Putnam, 1978. ISBN 0-85177-861-5.
Thruelsen, Richard. The Grumman Story. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Press, 1976. ISBN 0-275-54260-2.
Tillman, Barrett. Hellcat, The F6F in World War II. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1979. ISBN 1-55750-991-3.
Tillman, Barrett. Wildcat Aces of World War 2. Botley, Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 1995. ISBN 1-85532-486-5.
Tillman, Barrett. Wildcat: The F4F in World War II. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval & Aviation Publishing, 1990, First edition 1983. ISBN 1-55750-819-4.
Winchester, Jim. Fighter - The World's Finest Combat Aircraft - 1913 to the Present Day. Bath, UK: Parragon Publishing, 2004. ISBN 1-4054-3843-6.
Wixey, Ken. "Corpulent Feline: Grumman's F4F Wildcat: Part One". Air Enthusiast, No. 68, March–April 1997, pp. 16–24. ISSN 0143-5450.
Wixey, Ken. "Corpulent Feline: Grumman's F4F Wildcat: Part Two". Air Enthusiast, No. 70, July–August 1997, pp. 51–59. ISSN 0143-5450.
Wixey, Ken (March–April 1997). "'Wild Catfish': The 'Sea-booted' F4F-3S Wildcat". Air Enthusiast. No. 68. p. 25. ISSN 0143-5450.
Young, Edward M. "F4F Wildcat vs A6M Zero-Sen - Pacific Theater 1942 (Osprey Duel; 54)". Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2013. ISBN 978-1-78096-322-8
Zbiegniewski, Andre R. and Krzysztof Janowicz. Grumman F4F Wildcat (Bilingual Polish/English). Lublin, Poland: Kagero, 2004. ISBN 83-89088-53-3.
== External links ==
(1945) AN 01-190FB-1 Pilots Handbook of Flight Operating Instructions Navy Model FM-2 British Model Wildcat VI Airplanes
Naval History and Heritage Command Wildcat
Naval History and Heritage Command - F4F
VectorSite Wildcat Entry
How Leroy Grumman and Jake Swirbul built a high-flying company from the ground up
Grumman Wildcat Retrieved From Lake Michigan
Newsreel footage of FAA pilots being introduced to the Grumman Martlet
Popular Science, February 1941 color cover of early F4F model
Pictures from the Grumman Archive
The Grumman Wildcat in FAA Service by Bruce Archer
Aviation-History.com's XF4F-1 3-view drawing |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiyoshi_Oka#:~:text=He%20was%20a%20professor%20at,received%20many%20honours%20in%20Japan. | Kiyoshi Oka | Kiyoshi Oka (岡 潔, Oka Kiyoshi; April 19, 1901 – March 1, 1978) was a Japanese mathematician who did fundamental work in the theory of several complex variables.
== Biography ==
Oka was born in Osaka. He went to Kyoto Imperial University in 1919, turning to mathematics in 1923 and graduating in 1924.
He was in Paris for three years from 1929, returning to Hiroshima University. He published solutions to the first and second Cousin problems, and work on domains of holomorphy, in the period 1936–1940. He received his Doctor of Science degree from Kyoto Imperial University in 1940. These were later taken up by Henri Cartan and his school, playing a basic role in the development of sheaf theory.
The Oka–Weil theorem is due to a work of André Weil in 1935 and Oka's work in 1937.
Oka continued to work in the field, and proved Oka's coherence theorem in 1950. Oka's lemma is also named after him.
He was a professor at Nara Women's University from 1949 to retirement at 1964. He received many honours in Japan.
== Honors ==
1951 Japan Academy Prize
1954 Asahi Prize
1960 Order of Culture
1973 Order of the Sacred Treasure, 1st class
== Bibliography ==
KIYOSHI OKA COLLECTED PAPERS
Oka, Kiyoshi (1961). Sur les fonctions analytiques de plusieurs variables (in French). Tokyo, Japan: Iwanami Shoten. p. 234. - Includes bibliographical references.
Oka, Kiyoshi (1983). Sur les fonctions analytiques de plusieurs variables (in French) (Nouv. ed. augmentee. ed.). Tokyo, Japan: Iwanami. p. 246.
Oka, Kiyoshi (1984). Reinhold Remmert (ed.). Kiyoshi Oka Collected Papers. Translated by Raghavan Narasimhan. Commentary: Henri Cartan. Springer-Verlag. p. 223. ISBN 0-387-13240-6.
=== Selected papers (Sur les fonctions analytiques de plusieurs variables) ===
Oka, Kiyoshi (1936). "Domaines convexes par rapport aux fonctions rationnelles". Journal of Science of the Hiroshima University. 6: 245–255. doi:10.32917/hmj/1558749869. PDF TeX
Oka, Kiyoshi (1937). "Domaines d'holomorphie". Journal of Science of the Hiroshima University. 7: 115–130. doi:10.32917/hmj/1558576819. PDF TeX.
Oka, Kiyoshi (1939). "Deuxième problème de Cousin". Journal of Science of the Hiroshima University. 9: 7–19. doi:10.32917/hmj/1558490525. PDF TeX.
Oka, Kiyoshi (1941). "Domaines d'holomorphie et domaines rationnellement convexes". Japanese Journal of Mathematics. 17: 517–521. doi:10.4099/jjm1924.17.0_517. PDF TeX.
Oka, Kiyoshi (1941). "L'intégrale de Cauchy". Japanese Journal of Mathematics. 17: 523–531. PDF TeX.
Oka, Kiyoshi (1942). "Domaines pseudoconvexes". Tôhoku Mathematical Journal. 49: 15–52. PDF TeX.
Oka, Kiyoshi (1950). "Sur quelques notions arithmétiques". Bulletin de la Société Mathématique de France. 78: 1–27. doi:10.24033/bsmf.1408. PDF TeX.
Oka, Kiyoshi (1951). "Sur les Fonctions Analytiques de Plusieurs Variables, VIII--Lemme Fondamental". Journal of the Mathematical Society of Japan. 3: 204–214, pp. 259–278. doi:10.2969/jmsj/00310204. PDF TeX.
Oka, Kiyoshi (1953). "Domaines finis sans point critique intérieur". Japanese Journal of Mathematics. 27: 97–155. doi:10.4099/jjm1924.23.0_97. PDF TeX.
Oka, Kiyoshi (1962). "Une mode nouvelle engendrant les domaines pseudoconvexes". Japanese Journal of Mathematics. 32: 1–12. doi:10.4099/jjm1924.32.0_1. PDF TeX.
Oka, Kiyoshi (1934). "Note sur les familles de fonctions analytiques multiformes etc". Journal of Science of the Hiroshima University. Ser.A 4: 93–98. doi:10.32917/hmj/1558749763. PDF TeX.
Oka, Kiyoshi (1941). "Sur les domaines pseudoconvexes". Proc. Imp. Acad. Tokyo. 17 (1): 7–10. doi:10.3792/pia/1195578912. PDF TeX.
Oka, Kiyoshi (1949). "Note sur les fonctions analytiques de plusieurs variables". Kodai Math. Sem. Rep. 1 (5–6): 15–18. doi:10.2996/kmj/1138833536. PDF TeX.
== References ==
== External links ==
O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Kiyoshi Oka", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews
Oka library at NWU
Photos of Prof. Kiyoshi Oka
Related to Works of Dr. Kiyoshi OKA
Oka Mathematical Institute |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dora_Altbir#:~:text=Dora%20Altbir%20(born%2021%20February,the%20University%20of%20Santiago%2C%20Chile. | Dora Altbir | Dora Altbir (born 21 February 1961) is a Chilean physicist in the field of nanoscience and nanotechnology. She was awarded the National Prize for Exact Sciences (Chile) in 2019 for her work in the theoretical study of magnetic nanostructures. She is currently a professor at the University of Santiago, Chile.
Altbir is director of the Center for the Development of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (CEDENNA) and director of the Dirección de Investigación Científica y Tecnológica (DICYT) at University of Santiago, Chile. She is a corresponding member of the Chilean Academy of Sciences.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alma_S._Woolley#:~:text=In%201980%2C%20she%20was%20awarded,University%20and%20the%20Caroline%20F. | Alma S. Woolley | Alma S. Woolley (October 3, 1931, New York City – December 17, 2005, Baltimore) was an American nurse, nurse educator, nursing historian, and author. She led several schools of nursing, and authored a number of books and articles on nursing education, the history of nursing education, and nurses.
== Early years and education ==
Woolley grew up a child of the depression in the Bronx, New York City: Her father, hit by a truck, died on his way to a public hospital; her maternal grandmother who had worked in a sweatshop made all her clothes; her widowed mother worked as a stenographer for GM; but Woolley, who said "as a twelve year old, I admired the smart gray uniforms with the red trimming" of the Cadet Nurse Corps (during World War II), was selected to go to the elite all-girls Hunter College High School to which she commuted by public transport one hour each way. At Hunter, she won the all-city Latin Poetry Contest in 1949 and graduated second in her class, subsequently attending Queens College and then Cornell University's School of Nursing, which granted her a bachelor's degree in 1954. She subsequently joined the Visiting Nurse Service of New York, married, and worked at a number of hospitals including Mary Immaculate Hospital in Jamaica, Queens and, moving to Philadelphia with her husband, Arthur E. Woolley, at Philadelphia General Hospital, and Jefferson Medical College. She later became a nursing instructor at the University of Pennsylvania, enrolled in their graduate program and was granted an M.S. in medical-surgical nursing in 1965, an accomplishment which led to one of her early articles in The American Journal of Nursing, "My Lamp Is Refueled," explaining how and why she kept up with her field while rearing four small children.
== Career ==
Having moved to New Jersey with her husband and children in 1969, Woolley became an instructor at Atlantic Community College, but was soon offered the task of creating a B.S. degree program in nursing for The Richard Stockton College of New Jersey which had opened its doors in 1971. The original program she designed was for registered nurses, R.N.'s, without a university degree, to complete a Bachelor of Science in nursing. The transition of nursing education from that of R.N.'s trained in non-university programs, to 4-year B.S.N. programs or their equivalent was a matter of advocacy for Woolley as well as profession, and she subsequently published a number of pieces demonstrating the benefits of university-based nursing programs.
In 1980, she was awarded a doctorate in nursing education by the University of Pennsylvania. In 1981, she was appointed Director of the School of Nursing at Illinois Wesleyan University and the Caroline F. Rupert Professor of Nursing, and in 1986 left Wesleyan to become Dean of Georgetown University School of Nursing and Health Studies. In 1989 she received the Distinguished Alumnus Award from the Cornell School of Nursing Alumni Association. She stepped down as dean of Georgetown's School of Nursing in 1992 and returned to teaching and writing, retiring as professor emeritus of nursing in 1996, and becoming visiting professor at both the University of Maryland School of Nursing in Baltimore, Md, and the Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences.
She wrote or contributed to biographies of nurses including Maude Francis Essig who served with American combat troops in World War I, and Virginia Matthews Dunbar, an early advocate of university curricula for nurses.
Reflecting her view that "the history of nursing education is an important lacuna in general histories of nursing" and that "as part of public history in the United States, nursing education can cite many accomplishments in the realm of health care policy," Woolley also published histories of nursing schools, including "Nuns and Guns" and Learning, Faith and Caring. But before her death in 2005, she was working on oral histories of women who, like her, had been recently admitted as members to the once all-male Cosmos Club of Washington, D.C.
== References ==
== External links ==
Barbara Bates Center for the Study of the History of Nursing
Learning, Faith, and Caring.
Georgetown University School of Nursing and Health Studies |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_de_Malherbe | François de Malherbe | François de Malherbe (French pronunciation: [fʁɑ̃swa də malɛʁb], 1555 – 16 October 1628) was a French poet, critic, and translator.
== Life ==
He was born in Le Locheur (near Caen, Normandie), to a family of standing, although the family's pedigree did not satisfy the heralds in terms of its claims to nobility pre-16th century. Francois the poet was the eldest son of another François de Malherbe, conseiller du roi in the magistracy of Caen. He himself was elaborately educated at Caen, at Paris, at Heidelberg and at Basel. At the age of twenty-one, preferring arms to the gown, he entered the household of Henri d'Angoulême, the illegitimate son of Henry II, governor of Provence. He served this prince as secretary in Provence, and married there in 1581. It seems that he wrote verses at this period, but, to judge from a quotation of Tallemant des Réaux, they must have been very bad ones. His patron died when Malherbe was on a visit in his native province, and for a time he had no particular employment, though by some servile verses he obtained a considerable gift of money from Henry III, whom he afterwards libelled. He lived partly in Provence and partly in Normandy for many years after this event; but very little is known of his life during this period. His Larmes de Saint Pierre, imitated from Luigi Tansillo, appeared in 1587.
It was in 1600 that he presented to Maria de' Medici an ode of welcome, the first of his remarkable poems. But four or five years more passed before his fortune, which had hitherto been indifferent, turned. He was presented by his countryman, the Cardinal Du Perron, to Henry IV; and, though that economical prince did not at first show any great eagerness to entertain the poet, he was at last summoned to court and endowed after one fashion or another. It is said that the pension promised him was not paid till the next reign. His father died in 1606, and he came into his inheritance.
From this time forward he lived at court, corresponding affectionately with his wife, but seeing her only twice in some twenty years. His old age was saddened by a great misfortune. His son, Marc Antoine, a young man of promise, died in a duel against Paul de Fortia de Piles. Malherbe suspected foul play and used his utmost influence to have the de Fortia and Jean Baptiste de Covet (de Fortia's second in the duel) brought to justice. Malherbe died before the suit was decided; it is said in consequence of disease caught at the siege of La Rochelle, where he had gone to petition the king. Malherbe died in Paris, on 16 October 1628, at the age of seventy-three, only 15 months after his son.
The football team from Caen, France, Stade Malherbe de Caen, is named after him.
== Works ==
Malherbe exercised, or at least indicated the exercise of, a great and enduring effect upon French literature, though not exactly a wholly beneficial one. From the time of Malherbe dates the gradual development of the poetic rules of "Classicism" that would dominate for nearly two centuries until the Romantics. The critical and restraining tendency of Malherbe who preached greater technical perfection, and especially greater simplicity and purity in vocabulary and versification, was a sober correction to the luxuriant importation and innovation of Pierre de Ronsard and La Pléiade, but the lines of praise by Nicolas Boileau-Despréaux beginning Enfin Malherbe vint ("Finally Malherbe arrived") are rendered only partially applicable by Boileau's ignorance of older French poetry.
The personal character of Malherbe, whose writings demonstrate a bludgeon-like wit, was far from amiable; the good as well as bad side of Malherbe's theory and practice is excellently described by his contemporary and rival Mathurin Régnier, who was animated against Malherbe, not merely by reason of his own devotion to Ronsard but because of Malherbe's discourtesy towards Régnier's uncle Philippe Desportes, whom the Norman poet had at first distinctly plagiarised.
Malherbe's reforms helped to elaborate the kind of verse necessary for the classical tragedy, but his own poetical work is scanty in amount, and for the most part frigid and lacking inspiration. The beautiful Consolation a Duperier, in which occurs the famous line – Et, rose, elle a vécu ce que vivent les roses – the odes to Marie de' Medici and to Louis XIII, are the best-remembered of his works.
His prose work is much more abundant, not less remarkable for care as to style and expression, and of greater positive value. It consists of some translations of Livy and Seneca, and of a very large number of interesting and admirably written letters, many of which are addressed to Peiresc, the man of science of whom Gassendi has left a delightful Latin life. It also contains a most curious commentary on Desportes, in which Malherbe's minute and carping style of verbal criticism is displayed on the great scale.
Malherbe's two most important disciples were François Maynard and Racan; Claude Favre de Vaugelas is credited with having purified French diction at about the same time.
Two of his poems were set to music by Maurice Jaubert.
== In popular culture ==
The Caen-based association football club Stade Malherbe Caen, founded in 1913, takes its name from the poet.
== Bibliography ==
The chief authorities for the biography of Malherbe are the Vie de Malherbe by his friend and pupil Racan, and the long Historiette which Tallemant des Réaux has devoted to him. The standard edition is Oeuvres poétiques, edited by René Fromilhague and Raymond Lebègue, 1968 (in French). Antoine Adam's popular collection of Malherbe's Poésies, is based on his Pléiade edition, (1982)(in French). Secondary sources: La Doctrine de Malherbe, by G Brunot (1891), is a classic (in French). René Fromilhague, Malherbe: Technique et création poétique (1954)(in French). Close readings of major poems appear in David Lee Rubin, High Hidden Order: Design and Meaning in the Odes of Malherbe (1972), revisited in the appendix to the same author's The Knot of Artifice: A Poetic of the French Lyric in the Early 17th Century (1981); also see Chapter 1. Claude K. Abraham's Enfin Malherbe (1971) which focuses on the influence of Malherbe's prosody.
== References ==
== External links ==
Works by or about François de Malherbe at the Internet Archive
Works by François de Malherbe at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bujar_Nishani | Bujar Nishani | Bujar Faik Nishani (Albanian pronunciation: [bujaɾ ni'ʃani]; 29 September 1966 – 28 May 2022) was an Albanian politician. He served as the president of Albania from 24 July 2012 to 24 July 2017.
Nishani was the youngest person to have been chosen as president of Albania, taking office at the age of 47. Before his election as president, Nishani held a number of governmental and diplomatic positions. Namely, he served as Minister of Internal Affairs from 2007 to 2009, and again between 2011 and 2012, as well as Minister of Justice from 2009 to 2011.
== Early life ==
Nishani was born in Durrës, Albania on 29 September 1966 to a couple of teachers with roots from Gjirokastër. He was a distant relative of Omer Nishani, Chairman of the People's Socialist Republic of Albania's Presidium, but during communism Bujar changed his surname to Mehmeti.
He graduated at the Skanderbeg Military University in 1988, and followed up in 1996 with master's studies on "defense resources management" in the United States at the Naval Postgraduate School. In 2004, he graduated from the Law Faculty of University of Tirana, where he also studied jurisprudence. He completed his master's degree in European studies in 2005.
== Political career ==
After the fall of communism in Albania in 1991, Nishani joined the Democratic Party of Albania (DP). With the appointment of Safet Zhulali as Minister of Defense in 1992, he was hired as the ministry's expert and Director of Foreign Relations. Two years later, in 1994, he changed to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs coordinating the NATO Relations Office. In 1996 he returned to work as Chief of Staff to Safet Zhulali, then Minister of Defence, a position he held until the Democratic Party lost the 1997 parliamentary election.
In 2001, Nishani was elected as general secretary of the DP's branch in Tirana and in the 2003 local election obtained a seat in the Tirana Municipal Council. Following his electoral success Nishani became a member of the DP's National Council two years later and subsequently became a member of the party's central presidency.
Nishani won a seat for Tirana's 34th constituency in the 2005 parliamentary election beating then Minister of Interior Igli Toska. He was re-elected in 2009.
He became Minister of Interior on 20 March 2007, a post he held until 17 September 2009.
Following the 2009 parliamentary election Nishani was appointed as Minister of Justice, an office he held between 17 September 2009 and 25 April 2011.
Following the resignation of Lulzim Basha as Minister of Interior to run for Mayor of Tirana, Nishani was appointed again as Minister of Interior until June 2012.
=== President of Albania ===
On 10 June 2012, the day before the fourth round of presidential election in Parliament, the governing coalition met to discuss new candidates for the country's Presidency, as the previous three rounds of voting had failed to elect a candidate. The proposed list of candidates from this meeting included the name of Bujar Nishani, then Minister of the Interior, but it was agreed that the ruling party's candidate would be Artan Hoxha. The following day, Hoxha, withdrew his candidacy due to fierce criticism from the opposition. After the vote was postponed for the afternoon, the governing coalition finally proposed Nishani. In the parliamentary session, Nishani won the vote with 73 votes, being voted only by the governing coalition. Deputies of the then in opposition, Socialist Party, did not participate in the voting despite being present. Bujar Nishani was sworn in on 24 July 2012, becoming the country's youngest president ever; in his inaugural speech, he announced that his priority was to reform the judicial system, as well as Albania's integration into the European Union.
His first state visit abroad was in Kosovo in August 2012 setting a precedent for future Albanian Heads of State. After meeting with President Atifete Jahjaga, Nishani expressed Albania's support for Kosovo's independence, stating that it was irreversible and that dialogue was necessary to resolve any problems with Serbia. The Kosovar issue was high on his diplomatic agenda. In 2013, he did not attend the summit of ministers of the South-East European Cooperation Process, which was held on 31 May in Macedonia, because, due to objections from Serbia, the president of Kosovo was not invited. In 2016, he called on the United Nations to recognize Kosovo's independence.
On 16 November 2012, Nishani received the body of the King Zog I, who had died in exile more than 50 years earlier.
In July 2013, he called a referendum on 22 December for citizens to decide on trash imports to the country. In August 2013 he ignored opposition from the head of the Albanian Armed Forces, Xhemal Gjunkshi, and transferred ownership of a large building in Tirana from the Army to the Democratic Party of Albania for the party's new headquarters. After the September parliamentary election, he named Edi Rama as the new Prime Minister.
Nishani demanded to the President of Greece Karolos Papoulias, in November 2013, that the Greek parliament abolish the war against Albania, declared in 1940, in an attempt to resolve above all the Cham issue. He added that Albania was ready to resolve the maritime border delimitation dispute with Greece in accordance with international law.
In 2014, he criticized the lack of transparency in the process of approval of the package of laws on the armed forces and the Defense Intelligence and Security Agency, and rejected the reform of the Albanian judicial system, as he considered that it should be carried out by judges and not politicians.
Due to the protests in Macedonia in May 2015 in which several protesters died, he called to "investigate as soon as possible and shed light quickly and completely on this dark and unclear incident that has shaken not only Kumanovo, but also the international community".
The parliament, on 17 December 2015, passed the law prohibiting those with a criminal record for certain serious crimes from holding public office. In an unusual gesture, Nishani presented a decree for the law to take effect the same moment of parliamentary approval.
In April 2016, he opposed the law presented by the government equating citizenship with arms, considering it "inadequate" and "not positive" The election of nine new Supreme Court judges on 26 June 2016 caused much controversy at the top of the judiciary, as five of them accused Nishani and president of the Supreme Court of acting without complying with the legally prescribed form.
During his final address to the United Nations, at the 71st Session of the UN General Assembly in September 2016, he stated that Albania would address global challenges in close cooperation with others, and that Albania's actions would include increasing humanitarian aid, ratifying the Paris Agreement on climate change and implementing all commitments in the security realm.
During most state visits abroad, Nishani's policy was maximally oriented towards strengthening good-neighborly relations, citing its support for Kosovo's participation in all multilateral regional and international activities.
Nishani's term ended on 24 July 2017 and was succeeded by Ilir Meta, who took office after winning the 2017 Albanian presidential election.
== Personal life and death ==
Nishani was married to Odeta Nishani with whom he had two children, a son Ersi and a daughter Fiona. He was fluent in English. He was a Muslim and on 21 April 2017, he became the first Albanian president to make a pilgrimage to Mecca.
In 2008, he underwent surgery for a cerebral cavernoma; and retook his duties as Minister of Interior only two weeks after.
Nishani was admitted to hospital for complications of pneumonia caused by post-COVID-19 fibrosis left in his lungs. On 23 April 2022, he was transferred to Germany for specialized treatment. He died in Berlin, Germany at 7 a.m. (06 UTC) of 28 May 2022, at the age of 55. In the afternoon of 31 May, his body arrived in the country from Germany with a hearse crossing the Kosovo-Albania border Morina. After the arrival, his body was lay in state in the Presidential Palace. The government declared a day of national mourning for 2 June. The state funeral took place on that day, from 10:00 to 12:00 and Nishani was buried in the Sharra public cemetery in Tirana.
== Honours ==
Honorary Citizen of Libohova, Albania (2013)
Honorary Citizen of Shkodër, Albania (2016)
Honorary Citizen of Prizren, Kosovo (2017)
Honorary Citizen of Glogovac, Kosovo (2017)
=== Foreign honours ===
Knight Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic (2014)
Raoul Wallenberg Award (United States, 2015)
First class Order of the Balkan Mountains (Bulgaria, 2016)
Collar of the Order pro Merito Melitensi (Order of Malta, 2016)
Order of Freedom (Kosovo, 2017)
== See also ==
List of state visits made by Bujar Nishani
Politics of Albania
== References ==
== External links ==
MP page at the Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloe_Eudaly | Chloe Eudaly | Clover "Chloe" Delight Esther Eudaly (1969/1970) is an American politician from Oregon who served as Portland's City Commissioner from 2017 to 2021. Eudaly lost her November 2020 re-election bid to Mingus Mapps.
== Portland City Commissioner ==
Eudaly won her position in 2016 by promising to focus on the needs of renters, people with disabilities, and people with lower incomes. Eudaly was elected to Position 4 on the Portland City Commission in November 2016. She had run as a tenants' rights advocate, pledging to encourage construction of lower cost housing. Portland is the last large American city that elects commissioners who oversee city departments. Along with a separately elected mayor, they form the city council. Eudaly voted to defund the Portland police department and the proposal was defeated 2-3. Eudaly lost the election in November 2020 to Mingus Mapps.
=== Community and civic life ===
Eudaly was in charge of the Office of Community & Civic Life. Eudaly has a strong disdain for neighborhood associations and posit that they "tend to be dominated by older, white homeowners and push their interests rather than the needs of a diverse, growing city." When Eudaly took office, she inherited the Office of Neighborhood Involvement and she renamed it Office of Community & Civic Life (OCCL).
On September 18, 2019, Willamette Week reported that Eudaly had sent an angry email to her colleagues on City Council threatening them with political consequences if they don't support her position on neighborhood associations function and their relationship with the City.
=== Housing ===
==== Relocation ordinance ====
The ordinance was passed on a 4–1 vote, with Mayor Ted Wheeler and Commissioners Nick Fish and Dan Saltzman voting in favor with Eudaly, while Commissioner Amanda Fritz voted against it. Initially, the ordinance was passed as a temporary measure that was set to expire with Portland’s housing emergency declaration in October 2017. However, the ordinance became permanent by a unanimous vote on Portland City Council in 2018.
The fees are based on the size of the residential unit. For a studio or single room occupancy, a tenant is entitled to $2,900; for a one-bedroom: $3,300; for a two-bedroom: $4,200; and for a three-bedroom or larger: $4,500.
==== Fair Access In Renting (FAIR) ====
On June 19, 2019, Eudaly introduced and successfully passed the Fair Access In Renting (FAIR) ordinance into law. FAIR, which Eudaly worked on for two years, changes the way rental applications are screened in Portland. FAIR requires landlords to take a holistic approach to examining rental applications, requiring rental applications to be addressed on a first-come-first-serve basis. FAIR prioritizes accessible units for people with disabilities, limits landlords from requiring tenant incomes to be 2 to 2.5 times higher than rent and includes limits on using credit and criminal histories as criteria for denying a person’s rental application.
While voting in favor of FAIR, Eudaly testified that “It is no secret that Portland has a long history of overtly racist housing laws. What we fail to acknowledge more readily is that many of our current laws continue to uphold discriminatory practices. While the language may be less explicit now, the effect is just as clear: We continue to see communities of color, and especially Black residents, pushed to the margins of our city and beyond at an alarming rate.”
FAIR passed on a 3-1 vote, with Mayor Ted Wheeler and Commissioner Nick Fish voting in favor with Eudaly. Commissioner Amanda Fritz was the sole no vote, while Commissioner Jo Ann Hardesty was absent for the vote.
=== Transportation ===
In 2018, Eudaly became the head of the Portland Bureau of Transportation (PBOT). As transportation commissioner, Eudaly spearheaded the Rose Lane Project. Announced in June 2019, the Rose Lane Project was designed in response to the Enhanced Transit Corridors Plan (ETC), which was adopted by City Council on June 20, 2018. The Rose Lane Project will dedicate bus-only lanes throughout the city and will adjust traffic lights to give buses a head start at intersections.
In trial runs for the Rose Lane Project, PBOT installed a bus and bike-only lane on Southwest Madison Street, a bus-only lane on Northwest Everett Street, and a bus-only lane on the Burnside Bridge. TriMet lines on these routes saw decreases in delays of up to 76%, with buses crossing the Burnside Bridge nearly two minutes faster. On February 13, 2020, the Rose Lane Project was unanimously approved by Portland City Council.
== Personal life ==
Eudaly grew up near Forest Grove, Oregon, moving to the Portland suburbs at age nine. Eudaly attended Tigard High School, but dropped out and moved to Portland in 1988. She opened her bookstore, Reading Frenzy, in 1994. She is a founder of "maker's space for independent publishers" called Independent Publishing Resource Center. Eudaly resides in the Woodlawn neighborhood, and has a son, Henry. Eudaly self-identifies as queer.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicle_registration_plates_of_Japan | Vehicle registration plates of Japan | In Japan, the national government issues vehicle registration plates for motor vehicles through the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism Land Transportation Offices nationwide. However, the local municipality rather than the national government registers certain vehicles with small engine displacements.
The number on the top line is a vehicle class code which begins with a 0 through 9 to indicate specific vehicle classification. This is signified by the length, width and height of the vehicle as well as engine displacement. Broadly speaking, passenger automobiles with engine displacements at or smaller than 2000 cc receive 5-series plates, while passenger automobiles with engine displacements larger than 2,000 cc (120 cu in) or more receive 3-series license plates.
Official vehicles of the Imperial household are exempt from the requirement to display such plates. Official vehicles of the Self-Defense Forces and foreign diplomats are required to display other plates.
The plates are installed on both the front and rear of the vehicle, with the rear plate permanently attached to the vehicle with a prefecture seal completely covering one of the attaching plate bolts. The plate is only removed when the vehicle is sold secondhand to someone from a different prefecture, has reached the end of service and has been sold for scrap, or exported. New vehicles are not delivered to the purchaser until the plates have been attached at the dealership.
Since November 1, 1970, a "jikō-shiki" (字光式) plate has been offered for private vehicles at the owner's request. The green characters on this type of plate are replaced with molded green plastic that can be illuminated from behind the plate. From May 19, 1998, specific numbers can also be requested if the numbers are not already in use. From 2010, these are also available in blue version of vehicle registration plates started in 1973.
The international vehicle registration code for Japan is J.
== Appearance ==
Ordinary private vehicles have white plates with green text, while commercial vehicles have green plates with white text.
Lightweight private vehicles (kei cars) have yellow plates with black text, while lightweight commercial vehicles have black plates with yellow text.
Private, two-wheeled vehicles with engine displacements exceeding 250 cc have white plates with green text;
commercial two-wheeled vehicles with engine displacements exceeding 2000 cc have green plates with white text.
Private, lightweight two-wheeled vehicles with engine displacements of 250 cc or less have white plates with green text;
commercial, lightweight two-wheeled vehicles with engine displacements of 250 cc or less have green plates with white text.
Large
44 cm × 22 cm (17.3 in × 8.7 in)
(for over 8 tons vehicle, or capacity of 30 people or more)
Medium
33 cm × 16.5 cm (13.0 in × 6.5 in)
Small
23 cm × 12.5 cm (9.1 in × 4.9 in)
Extra small
about 20 cm × 10 cm (7.9 in × 3.9 in)
(differs according to each municipality)
Until 31 December 1974, kei cars had small green and white license plates. After this date, they received medium plates, now in black and yellow to distinguish them from regular cars.
The illustration shows what a plate might look like. The top line contains the name of the issuing office (Tama, shown, is in Tokyo) and a vehicle class code. The bottom line contains a hiragana character and a four-digit serial number divided into two groups of two digits separated by a hyphen. Any leading zeroes are replaced by centered dots.
White plates can have the following hiragana (bold indicates rental vehicle characters):
さすせそたちつてとなにぬねのはひふほまみむめもやゆよらりるろれわ
Green plates can have the following hiragana:
あいうえかきくけこを
Some characters, including ones with a dakuten or a handakuten, cannot be used on any plates, including the yellow and black ones:
おばだがぱざびぢぎぴしじぶづぐぷずへべでげペぜぼどごぽぞゑゐん
A license plate in Japan thus follows this format: KK?*H##-## (e.g., 足立500き21-41), where KK is the name of the issuing office in kanji, H is a hiragana, ? is a 5 for vehicles less than 2000 cc and a 3 for vehicles greater than 2000 cc (other numbers are less common—1 for large trucks, 2 for buses, etc.), * is a number from 0 to 99 (pre-1971 license plates will omit this), and # is a number from 0* to 9 (*leading zeroes are replaced by centered dots).
=== Special use plates ===
Vehicles owned by personnel with the United States military in Japan under the Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA) have a "Y" on white plates, or an "A" on yellow plates, where the hiragana character is normally displayed. Earlier versions of the SOFA license plate displayed the letters "K", "M", "G", "H" and "E". These letters indicated the car was imported into Japan under SOFA and was left-hand drive. Today, cars with an "E" indicate that Japanese sales tax has not been paid and the vehicle will not remain in Japan when the military member departs. Since the 1980s, military commands have discouraged servicemembers assigned to Japan from shipping their vehicles from the U.S. into the country, so this is rarely seen. Military members who retire in Japan use the hiragana "よ". Many opt to purchase second-hand domestic vehicles through used car dealers off-base, and from other servicemembers departing Japan at on-base "lemon lots".
The official imperial cars have a special number plate with the kanji 皇 and a one-digit number below.
=== Out of country plates ===
Because the Japanese writing system, particularly the kana, is unique to Japan, standard-issue Japanese license plates are considered unacceptable for international travel. If motorists wish to take their vehicles abroad with them, the Ministry of Transport will issue them with plates with the hiragana and kanji scripts replaced by Roman letters. The hiragana prefix is replaced by a Kunrei-shiki romanization of that character. The kanji prefecture/office code is replaced by a two- or three-letter abbreviation, the first two letters representing the prefecture, the third (if present) representing the office within the prefecture. All the numerical portions of the plate remain the same.
Using the example given above, the plate (足立50Kき21-41) would then read TKA 50K KI 21-41 (TKA for Tokyo Adachi).
== Vehicle class code system ==
In addition to plate size and color, Japanese plates since 1962 have identified the vehicle type (signified by length, width and height as well as engine displacement) by use of a vehicle class code signified by a number on the top line of the plate for all vehicles with three or more wheels.
The vehicle class code system is not widely understood outside of Japan, and as a result, Japanese vehicles displaying "vanity" Japanese license plates at overseas shows and events are often unwittingly misrepresented.
Motorbikes and other two wheeled vehicles do not use this system.
In 1967, double digit vehicle codes were introduced for the first time, once all previous possible combinations were used. For example, 3 would become 33, and then 34, 35, etc. This began in October 1967 in the more populous prefectures initially for the most common vehicle classes such as 3 and 5. In April 1971 all vehicle codes become double digit across the country. Double digit codes finally stopped being issued in 1999.
By the early 1970s, three-wheeled passenger cars were no longer in production and some prefectures began to issue the double digit codes 77, 78 and 79 as an 'overflow series' for passenger cars 2000cc and under. This practice stopped in 1999.
By May 1998, some prefectures were beginning to run out of all possible combinations of double digit vehicle codes for the most common classes (notably 599 and 799) and began issuing triple digit vehicle codes.
== Transportation offices and markings ==
In 2006, several new location names, known as Gotōchi (ご当地; local place) numbers, were approved by the MLIT for places that wanted to increase their recognition for purposes such as tourism. Criteria included the need for 100,000 vehicles in the area and the avoidance of an imbalance in the prefecture. The new locations began appearing in 2006 on plates for vehicles registered in certain specific cities, towns and villages in or near the places marked below in green.
== See also ==
Keicar
Motor-vehicle inspection (Japan)
== References ==
"Internet Wayback Machine Archive of "How to Purchase and Register a Vehicle" from the USS Fitzgerald website". 2008-07-15. Archived from the original on July 15, 2008. Retrieved 2012-01-14.
== External links ==
Japanese Government Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport (English page) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K.K._Birla_Garden | K.K. Birla Garden | K.K. Birla Garden, is a botanical garden in Kathua, Jammu and Kashmir, India and spread over 19 kanals. The garden is named after prominent India industrialist K. K. Birla. Garden has many distinctive features including a pond and several species of flora and fauna.
Earlier, the site was home to an ancient pond. Later on, it was developed into a garden. The garden is owned and operated by Sutlej Ind. Ltd, KK Birla Group.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlotte_Lee,_Lady_Baltimore | Charlotte Lee, Lady Baltimore | Charlotte Lee, Lady Baltimore (23 March 1678, (13 March 1678 OS) – 1 February 1721, (22 January 1721 OS), was an English noblewoman, and granddaughter of King Charles II of England and his mistress Barbara Villiers. She married in 1699, Benedict Leonard Calvert, 4th Baron Baltimore, from whom she separated in 1705; she later married Christopher Crowe. She was the mother of Charles Calvert, 5th Baron Baltimore, and of Benedict Leonard Calvert, who was Governor of Maryland from 1727 to 1731.
== Early life ==
Lady Charlotte Lee was born on 13 March 1678 at St. James's Park, St. James, London. She was the eldest of at least fourteen children of Edward Henry Lee, 1st Earl of Lichfield (4 February 1663 – 14 July 1716) and Lady Charlotte Fitzroy (5 September 1664 – 17 February 1718), illegitimate daughter of King Charles II by his mistress Barbara Villiers, Countess of Castlemaine, Duchess of Cleveland.
Lady Charlotte's mother was thirteen years old at the time of her birth, having married the Earl of Lichfield at the age of twelve. Her father was also only fifteen at the time of her birth.
Her paternal grandparents were Sir Francis Henry Lee of Ditchley, 4th Baronet of Quarendon and Elizabeth Pope, daughter of Thomas Pope, 2nd Earl of Downe.
== Marriage to Lord Baltimore ==
On 2 January 1699, at the age of twenty, she married her first husband Benedict Calvert, son of Charles Calvert, 3rd Baron Baltimore and Jane Lowe.
Charlotte assumed the title of Lady Baltimore in February 1715, when her husband succeeded to the title of 4th Baron Baltimore upon the death of his father, the third Baron Baltimore. The title of Proprietary Governor of the Province of Maryland had been lost to the third Baron during the Glorious Revolution and would be restored to Charles Calvert, the son of Charlotte and Benedict, upon the latter's death on 16 April 1715.
Charlotte and Lord Baltimore had six children:
Charles Calvert, 5th Baron Baltimore, 18th Proprietor Governor of Maryland, FRS (29 September 1699 – 24 April 1751), married Mary Janssen, daughter of Sir Theodore Janssen, 1st Baronet Janssen and Williamsa Henley, by whom he had three children, including Frederick Calvert, 6th Baron Baltimore, Louisa Calvert, and Caroline Calvert. He also had an illegitimate son, by the name of Benedict Swingate Calvert, who settled in Maryland, and married his cousin Elizabeth Calvert.
Hon. Benedict Leonard Calvert, Governor of Maryland, (1700–1731). He died 1 June 1732 on his passage home to England
Hon. Edward Henry Calvert (born ca. 1700), held the office of Commissary General and President of the council of Maryland.
Hon. Charlotte Calvert (died December 1744), married Thomas Breerwood, by whom she had a son, Francis Breerwood
Hon. Jane Calvert (died July 1778), married John Hyde, with whom she had three children.
Hon. Cecil Calvert (born 1702)
Charlotte and Lord Baltimore were separated in 1705. In 1706 Charlotte had an affair with Colonel Robert Fielding, then the bigamous husband of her grandmother the Duchess of Cleveland, and was rumoured to have borne a child by him, born on 23 April 1707.
In 1711, Lord Baltimore brought a Bill before the House of Lords (which adjudicated on matters of inheritance of titles and estates) to confirm his divorce from Lady Charlotte, their financial settlement, and that any subsequent children she bore would be declared illegitimate.
== Marriage to Christopher Crowe ==
Lady Baltimore married her second husband Christopher Crowe (c.1681 – 9 November 1749), Consul at Leghorn, sometime before 10 December 1719. Charlotte was three years older than her husband. This marriage produced five more children:
James Crowe (1715-1801), married Rebecca Sarah Crowberry (1717-1761)
Christopher Crowe (1716–1776), married Barbara Duncombe
Catherine Crowe (1717 – 1782), married Roger Henry Gale
Charlotte Crowe (1718–1742)
George Crowe (25 November 1719 – 10 October 1782), married Anne Swift, by whom he had a son, Robert.
== Death and legacy ==
Charlotte Lee died of rheumatism on 22 January 1721 at Woodford Hall, Woodford, Essex. She was buried at Woodford on 29 January 1721. She died intestate and her estate was administered on 4 March 1721 at Woodford Hall.
== In fiction ==
Charlotte Lee appears as a minor character in Anya Seton's historical romance Devil Water.
== Ancestry ==
== References ==
== Sources ==
G.E. Cokayne, The Complete Peerage of England, Scotland, Ireland, Great Britain and the United Kingdom, Extanct, Extinct or Dormant, new ed., 13 volumes in 14 (1910–1959)
Antonia Fraser, King Charles II, Weidenfeld and Nicolson Ltd., London, 1979
www.ThePeerage.com.pp. 7641,#76403
Antonia Fraser, King Charles II,p. 414 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Institute_Awards | Franklin Institute Awards | The Franklin Institute Awards (or Benjamin Franklin Medal) is an American science and engineering award presented by the Franklin Institute, a science museum in Philadelphia. The Franklin Institute awards comprises the Benjamin Franklin Medals in seven areas of science and engineering, the Bower Awards and Prize for Achievement in Science, and the Bower Award for Business Leadership. Since 1824, the institute has recognized "world-changing scientists, engineers, inventors, and industrialists—all of whom reflect Benjamin Franklin's spirit of curiosity, ingenuity, and innovation". Some of the noted past laureates include Nikola Tesla, Thomas Edison, Marie Curie, Max Planck, Albert Einstein, Stephen Hawking. Some of the 21st century laureates of the institute awards are Bill Gates, James P. Allison, Indra Nooyi, Jane Goodall, Elizabeth Blackburn, George Church, Robert S. Langer, and Alex Gorsky.
== Benjamin Franklin Medals ==
In 1998, the Benjamin Franklin Medals were created by reorganizing all of the endowed medals presented by The Franklin Institute at that time into a group of medals recognizing seven areas of study: Chemistry, Computer and Cognitive Science, Earth and Environmental Science, Electrical Engineering, Life Science, Mechanical Engineering, and Physics. The first Benjamin Franklin Medals were presented in 1998.
Medalists are selected by a Committee on Science and the Arts (CS&A), composed of local academics and professionals from the Philadelphia area.
== Bower Awards ==
The Bower Award and Prize for Achievement in Science and the Bower Award for Business Leadership are the newest awards, established by a $7.5 million bequest from Henry Bower in 1988. The annual Bower Prizes are US$250,000 each.
== Benjamin Franklin NextGen Award ==
The Benjamin Franklin NextGen Award is presented to an early-career investigator for a transformative discovery, development, innovation, or invention in science or engineering. The focus annually rotates through seven disciplines: chemistry, civil and mechanical engineering, computer and cognitive science, earth and environmental science, electrical engineering, life science, and physics. Recipients are presented with a crystal award a cash honorarium.
== Former awards ==
Elliott Cresson Medal
Frank P. Brown Medal
Franklin Medal
George R. Henderson Medal
Howard N. Potts Medal
John Price Wetherill Medal
John Scott Medal
Stuart Ballantine Medal
== List of laureates ==
The following table lists laureates of the Benjamin Franklin Medal (including the Bower Prizewinners), from 1998 onwards.
== See also ==
List of general science and technology awards
== References ==
== External links ==
The Franklin Institute. Winners. Benjamin Franklin Medal winners.
YouTube playlist of all Franklin Institute Award Winners |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Band_of_Joy | Band of Joy | Band of Joy (sometimes known as Robert Plant and the Band of Joy) were an English rock band formed in 1966. Various line-ups of the group performed from 1966 to 1968 and from 1977 to 1983. Frontman Robert Plant revived the band's name in 2010 for a concert tour of North America and Europe.
The band is notable for including two musicians, Robert Plant and John Bonham, who went on to join Led Zeppelin, as well as Dave Pegg, who would become a member of both Fairport Convention and Jethro Tull; and, to a lesser degree, because the band's one-time roadie was Noddy Holder, who later went on to front the band Slade.
== 1966–1968 ==
Band of Joy was originally formed in 1966 in West Bromwich, a town near Birmingham, England, by Chris Brown (keyboards), Vernon Pereira (guitar), and singer Robert Plant. A third incarnation of the band, including Plant's friend John Bonham lasted from 1967 to mid-1968. This line-up included Kevyn Gammond's guitar and Paul Lockey on bass. Their brand of soul and blues was popular with Birmingham mods. This line-up recorded a number of demo recordings in early 1968, but broke up in May 1968 when a recording contract failed to materialise.
Lead guitar duties were briefly served by Dave Pegg, who later played the bass guitar with Fairport Convention and Jethro Tull. Pegg rehearsed with Band of Joy but did not tour with them.
For a 1968 tour of Scotland, Plant and Bonham used bassist John Hill (ex–Uncle Joseph) and guitarist Mick Strode to fill in a temporary line-up.
== 1977–1983 ==
In 1977 Gammond and Paul Lockey revived Band of Joy, rounding out the line-up with John Pasternak, Peter Robinson, and keyboardist Michael Chetwood. Gammond, Lockey, Pasternak and Robinson had previously played in Bronco. The two albums recorded under this line-up went on to define the trademark sound of the band, with progressive melodies, blues hooks and experimentation with new sounds blending the sounds of the punk movement with classic genres of rock, blues and progressive influences. The group released a second album in 1983 before breaking up.
Gammond later worked with Plant in his group Priory of Brion.
== 2010–2011 ==
In 2010 it was announced that Plant would form a new band, record an album and tour as Robert Plant & the Band of Joy. The album Band of Joy was number 8 on Rolling Stone's list of the 30 Best Albums of 2010.
In October 2010 the band appeared, alongside the London Oriana Choir at the Roundhouse, London for a special performance at the BBC Radio 2 Electric Proms.
== Personnel ==
=== Members ===
=== Lineups ===
== Discography ==
Band of Joy (1978)
24k (1983)
Sixty Six to Timbuktu (2003) – Robert Plant retrospective album; includes some Band of Joy recordings, more specifically the covers "Hey Joe" by The Jimi Hendrix Experience and "For What It's Worth" by Buffalo Springfield.
Band of Joy (2010)
== See also ==
British rock
Music of the United Kingdom
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Hornby, Laurie. Brum Rocked On! (Solihull: TGM Limited, 2003) ISBN 0-9536951-5-8
Band of Joy interview – Achilles Last Stand (1992). (Retrieved 18 August 2005.)
Yorke, Ritchie. Led Zeppelin: The Definitive Biography (London: Virgin, 1993) ISBN 0-86369-648-1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giulio_Carlo_Argan#:~:text=In%201938%20he%20published%20a,%2C%20from%201959%2C%20in%20Rome. | Giulio Carlo Argan | Giulio Carlo Argan (17 May 1909 – 12 November 1992) was an Italian art historian, critic and politician.
== Biography ==
Argan was born in Turin and studied in the University of Turin, graduating in 1931. In 1928 he entered the National Fascist Party. In the 1930 he worked for the National Antiquity and Arts Directorate, first in Turin and then in Modena and Rome, where he collaborated to the creation of the Istituto Superiore per la Conservazione ed il Restauro and directed the magazine Le Arti. His career was boosted by his friendship with the Fascist leader Cesare Maria De Vecchi, then national Minister of Education.
In 1938 he published a manual of art for high schools, while in the 1940s he collaborated to the magazine Primato, founded and directed by Giuseppe Bottai, another Fascist gerarca. After World War II, he taught in universities Palermo and, from 1959, in Rome. Argan co-founded the publishing house Il Saggiatore and he was a member of the Superior Council of Antiquities and Fine Arts (predecessor of the Ministry of Culture), in which he remained until 1974. In 1968 he published his most famous work, Storia dell'Arte Italiana (History of Italian Art). In 1973 he founded the Rome ISIA, Italy's oldest institution in the field of industrial design.
He was the first Communist mayor of Rome, between 1976 and 1979. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1992. He died in Rome.
== Selected works ==
Fra Angelico: Biographical and Critical Study, The Taste of Our Time Vol. 10 (1955) Editions d'Art Albert Skira, Geneva, 127 pp.
Studi e note (1955)
Botticelli: Biographical and Critical Study, The Taste of Our Time Vol. 19 (1957) Editions d'Art Albert Skira, Geneva, 147 pp.
Salvezza e caduta nell’arte moderna (1964)
Europe of the Capitals 1600-1700., Art, Ideas, History (1964) Editions d'Art Albert Skira, Geneva, 236 pp.
Progetto e destino (1965)
Storia dell'arte italiana (1968)
Storia dell’arte come storia della città (1983)
Da Hogarth a Picasso (1983)
Forma Naturae (Archetipi & C.) for Antonio Papasso (1983)
Classico Anticlassico (1984)
Immagine e persuasione (1986)
Progetto e oggetto (2003)
== References ==
== External links ==
Italian site about the life and works of Giulio Carlo Argan |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ChromeOS#:~:text=In%20June%202010%2C%20Google's%20software,resemble%20Microsoft's%20Remote%20Desktop%20Connection. | ChromeOS | ChromeOS (sometimes styled as chromeOS and formerly styled as Chrome OS) is an operating system designed and developed by Google. It is derived from the open-source ChromiumOS operating system (which itself is derived from Gentoo Linux), and uses the Google Chrome web browser as its principal user interface.
Google announced the project in July 2009, initially describing it as an operating system where applications and user data would reside in the cloud. ChromeOS was used primarily to run web applications. The operating system first shipped with Chromebooks in 2011. It is also offered since 2020 as an installable Linux distribution as ChromeOS Flex.
ChromeOS supports progressive web applications, Android apps from Google Play and Linux applications.
In 2025, Google confirmed that ChromeOS will switch from the Linux kernel to the Android kernel. The reworked operating system will result in ChromeOS's development merging with that of Android.
== History ==
In 2006, Jeff Nelson, a Google employee, created the concept of what would become ChromeOS, initially codenamed "Google OS" as a Linux distribution focused on speed. Early versions of the Google operating system used Firefox as Chrome had not been released, though it switched to Chrome sometime in 2007 due to internal betas being passed around Google.
To ascertain marketing requirements, developers relied on informal metrics, including monitoring the usage patterns of 200 machines used by Google employees. Developers also noted their own usage patterns.
Google requested that its hardware partners use solid-state drives "for performance and reliability reasons" as well as the lower capacity requirements inherent in an operating system that accesses applications and most user data on remote servers. In November 2009, Matthew Papakipos, engineering director for the ChromeOS, announced that ChromeOS would only support solid-state storage (i.e. not mechanical hard-disks), and noted that ChromeOS only required one-sixtieth as much drive space as Windows 7. Ten years later, in 2019, the recovery images Google provided for ChromeOS were still only between 1 and 3 GB in size.
On November 19, 2009, Google released ChromeOS's source code as the ChromiumOS project. At a November 19, 2009 news conference, Sundar Pichai–at the time Google's vice president overseeing Chrome–demonstrated an early version of the operating system. He previewed a desktop which looked very similar to the desktop Chrome browser, and in addition to the regular browser tabs also had application tabs, which take less space and can be pinned for easier access. At the conference, the operating system booted up in seven seconds, a time Google said it would work to reduce. Additionally, Chris Kenyon, vice president of OEM services at Canonical Ltd, announced that Canonical was under contract to contribute engineering resources to the project with the intent to build on existing open-source components and tools where feasible.
Canonical was an early engineering partner on the project, and initially ChromiumOS could only be built on an Ubuntu system. In February 2010, the ChromiumOS development team switched to Gentoo Linux because Gentoo's package management system Portage was more flexible. The ChromiumOS build environment is no longer restricted to any particular distribution, but installation and quick-start guides use Debian's (and thus also Ubuntu's) apt syntax.
=== Early Chromebooks (2010) ===
In 2010, Google released the unbranded Cr-48 Chromebook in a pilot program. The launch date for retail hardware featuring ChromeOS was delayed from late 2010 until the next year.
On May 11, 2011, Google announced two Chromebooks from Acer and Samsung at Google I/O. The Samsung model was released on June 15, 2011, and the Acer model in mid-July. In August 2011, Netflix announced official support for ChromeOS through its streaming service, allowing Chromebooks to watch streaming movies and TV shows via Netflix. At the time, other devices had to use Microsoft Silverlight to play videos from Netflix. Later in that same month, Citrix released a client application for ChromeOS, allowing Chromebooks to access Windows applications and desktops remotely. Dublin City University became the first educational institution in Europe to provide Chromebooks for its students when it announced an agreement with Google in September 2011.
=== Expansion (2012) ===
By 2012, demand for Chromebooks had begun to grow, and Google announced a new range of devices, designed and manufactured by Samsung. In so doing, they also released the first Chromebox, the Samsung Series 3, which was ChromeOS' entrance into the world of desktop computers. Although they were faster than the previous range of devices, they were still underpowered compared to other desktops and laptops of the time, fitting in more closely with the Netbook market. Only months later, in October, Samsung and Google released a new Chromebook at a significantly lower price point ($250, compared to the previous Series 5 Chromebooks' $450). It was the first Chromebook to use an ARM processor, one from Samsung's Exynos line. To reduce the price, Google and Samsung also reduced the memory and screen resolution of the device. An advantage of using the ARM processor, however, was that the Chromebook did not require a fan. Acer followed quickly after with the C7 Chromebook, priced even lower ($199), but containing an Intel Celeron processor. One notable way Acer reduced the cost of the C7 was to use a laptop hard disk rather than a solid-state drive.
In April 2012, Google made the first update to ChromeOS's user interface since the operating system had launched, introducing a hardware-accelerated window manager called "Aura" along with a conventional taskbar. The additions marked a departure from the operating system's original concept of a single browser with tabs and gave ChromeOS the look and feel of a more conventional desktop operating system. "In a way, this almost feels as if Google is admitting defeat here", wrote Frederic Lardinois on TechCrunch. He argued that Google had traded its original version of simplicity for greater functionality. "That's not necessarily a bad thing, though, and may just help ChromeOS gain more mainstream acceptance as new users will surely find it to be a more familiar experience." Lenovo and HP followed Samsung and Acer in manufacturing Chromebooks in early 2013 with their own models. Lenovo specifically targeted their Chromebook at students, headlining their press release with "Lenovo Introduces Rugged ThinkPad Chromebook for Schools".
When Google released Google Drive, they also included Drive integration in ChromeOS version 20, released in July 2012. While ChromeOS had supported Adobe Flash since 2010, by the end of 2012 it had been fully sandboxed, preventing issues with Flash from affecting other parts of ChromeOS. This affected all versions of Chrome including ChromeOS.
=== Chromebook Pixel (2013) ===
Prior to 2013, Google had never made their own ChromeOS device. ChromeOS devices were designed, manufactured, and marketed by third-party manufacturers, with Google controlling the software side. This changed in February 2013 when Google released the Chromebook Pixel. The Chromebook Pixel was entirely Google-branded, and contained an Intel Core i5 processor, a high-resolution (2,560 × 1,700) touchscreen display, and a price competitive with business laptops.
=== 2013–2025 ===
By the end of 2013, analysts were undecided on the future of ChromeOS. Although there had been articles predicting the demise of ChromeOS since 2009, ChromeOS device sales continued to increase substantially year-over-year. In mid-2014, Time magazine published an article titled "Depending on Who's Counting, Chromebooks are Either an Enormous Hit or Totally Irrelevant", which detailed the differences in opinion. This uncertainty was further spurred by Intel's announcement of Intel-based Chromebooks, Chromeboxes, and an all-in-one offering from LG called the Chromebase.
Seizing the opportunity created by the end of life for Windows XP, Google pushed hard to sell Chromebooks to businesses, offering significant discounts in early 2014.
ChromeOS devices outsold Apple Macs worldwide for the year 2020.
Since July 2021, ChromeOS's embedded controller was changed to be based on a Google maintained fork of Zephyr, a real time operating system.
=== Pwnium competition ===
In March 2014, Google hosted a hacking contest aimed at computer security experts called "Pwnium". Similar to the Pwn2Own contest, they invited hackers from around the world to find exploits in ChromeOS, with prizes available for attacks. Two exploits were demonstrated there, and a third was demonstrated at that year's Pwn2Own competition. Google patched all of the issues within a week.
=== Material Design and app runtime for Chrome ===
Although the Google Native Client has been available on ChromeOS since 2010, there originally were few Native Client apps available, and most ChromeOS apps were still web apps. However, in June 2014, Google announced at Google I/O that ChromeOS would both synchronise with Android phones to share notifications and begin to run Android apps, installed directly from Google Play. This, along with the broadening selection of Chromebooks, laid the groundwork for future ChromeOS development.
At the same time, Google was also moving towards the then-new Material Design design language for its products, which it would bring to its web products as well as Android Lollipop. One of the first Material Design items to come to ChromeOS was a new default wallpaper. Google's Material Design experiment for ChromeOS were added to the stable version with Chrome 117.
=== Merger with Android ===
After some rumors, Google confirmed in July 2025 that ChromeOS will "merge" with Android under one unified platform. It was formally announced at the Snapdragon Summit in September 2025. Internally, it is known as codename Aluminium OS.
The existing Linux-based ChromeOS will be replaced by a desktop-optimized Android-based operating system. The same Android software would run on desktop and mobile and be adapted for the different display sizes. Like ChromeOS, the desktop version of Aluminium will work on both ARM and x86 processors. The latter port is expected be the first mainline maintained x86 architecture version of Android.
== Features ==
=== Functionality for small and medium businesses and Enterprise ===
==== Chrome Enterprise ====
Chrome Enterprise, launched in 2017, includes ChromeOS, Chrome Browser, Chrome devices and their management capabilities intended for business use. Businesses can access the standard ChromeOS features and unlock advanced features for business with the Chrome Enterprise Upgrade. Standard features include the ability to sync bookmarks and browser extensions across devices, cloud or native printing, multi-layered security, remote desktop, and automatic updates. Advanced features include Active Directory integration, unified endpoint management, advanced security protection, access to device policies and Google Admin console, guest access, kiosk mode, and whitelisting or blacklisting third-party apps managed on Google Play.
The education sector was an early adopter of Chromebooks, ChromeOS, and cloud-based computing. Chromebooks are widely used in classrooms and the advantages of cloud-based systems have been gaining an increased share of the market in other sectors as well, including financial services, healthcare, and retail. "The popularity of cloud computing and cloud-based services highlights the degree to which companies and business processes have become both internet-enabled and dependent." ICT managers cite a number of advantages of the cloud that have motivated the move. Among them are advanced security, because data is not physically on a single machine that can be lost or stolen. Deploying and managing cloud-native devices is easier because no hardware and software upgrades or virus definition updates are needed, and patching of OS and software updates are simpler. Simplified and centralized management decreases operational costs.
Employees can securely access files and work on any machine, increasing the shareability of Chrome devices. Google's Grab and Go program with Chrome Enterprise allows businesses deploying Chromebooks to provide employees access to a bank of fully charged computers that can be checked out and returned after some time.
==== From Chromebooks to Chromebox and Chromebase ====
In an early attempt to expand its enterprise offerings, Google released Chromebox for Meetings in February 2014. Chromebox for Meetings is a kit for conference rooms containing a Chromebox, a camera, a unit containing both a noise-cancelling microphone and speakers, and a remote control. It supports Google Hangouts meetings, Vidyo video conferences, and conference calls from UberConference.
Several partners announced Chromebox for Meetings models with Google, and in 2016 Google announced an all-in-one Chromebase for Meetings for smaller meeting rooms. Google targeted the consumer hardware market with the release of the Chromebook in 2011 and Chromebook Pixel in 2013, and sought access to the enterprise market with the 2017 release of the Pixelbook. The second-generation Pixelbook was released in 2019. In 2021 there are several vendors selling all-in-one Chromebase devices.
==== Enterprise response to Chrome devices ====
Google has partnered on Chrome devices with several leading OEMs, including Acer, ASUS, Dell, HP, Lenovo, and Samsung. In August 2019, Dell announced that two of its popular business-focused laptops would run ChromeOS and come with Chrome Enterprise Upgrade. The Latitude 5300 2-in-1 Chromebook Enterprise and Latitude 5400 Chromebook Enterprise were the result of a two-year partnership between Dell and Google. The machines come with a bundle of Dell's cloud-based support services that would enable enterprise ICT managers to deploy them in environments that also rely on Windows. The new laptop line "delivers the search giant's ChromeOS operating system in a form tailored for security-conscious organizations." Other OEMs that have launched devices with Chrome Enterprise Upgrade include Acer and HP.
With a broader range of hardware available, ChromeOS became an option for enterprises wishing to avoid a migration to Windows 10 before Windows 7 support was discontinued by Microsoft.
== Hardware ==
Laptops running ChromeOS are known collectively as "Chromebooks". The first was the CR-48, a reference hardware design that Google gave to testers and reviewers beginning in December 2010. Retail machines followed in May 2011. A year later, in May 2012, a desktop design marketed as a "Chromebox" was released by Samsung. In March 2015 a partnership with AOPEN was announced and the first commercial Chromebox was developed.
In early 2014, LG Electronics introduced the first device belonging to the new all-in-one form factor called "Chromebase". Chromebase devices are essentially Chromebox hardware inside a monitor with a built-in camera, microphone and speakers.
The Chromebit is an HDMI dongle running ChromeOS. When placed in an HDMI slot on a television set or computer monitor, the device turns that display into a personal computer. The first device, announced in March 2015 was an Asus unit that shipped that November and which reached end of life in November 2020.
Chromebook tablets were introduced in March 2018 by Acer with their Chromebook Tab 10. Designed to rival the Apple iPad, it had an identical screen size and resolution and other similar specifications, a notable addition was a Wacom-branded stylus that does not require a battery or charging.
ChromeOS supports multi-monitor setups on devices with a video-out port, USB 3.0 Standard-A or USB-C, the latter being preferable.
On February 16, 2022, Google announced a development version of ChromeOS Flex—a distribution of ChromeOS that can be installed on conventional PC hardware to replace other operating systems such as Windows and macOS. It is similar to CloudReady, a distribution of ChromiumOS whose developers were acquired by Google in 2020.
== Software ==
ChromeOS automatic updates are available for 10 years for all Chromebook models manufactured in 2019 and onwards, these updates are for the operating system, browser and hardware. Google maintains a web page with their Auto Update policy and the end date for all ChromeOS devices manufactured.
Previously the automatic update period was 8 years, and shorter prior to that although the earlier models had continued to receive updates for longer.
== Applications ==
Initially, ChromeOS was a pure thin client operating system that relied primarily on servers to host web applications and related data storage. Google gradually began encouraging developers to create "packaged applications", and later, Chrome Apps by employing HTML5, CSS, Adobe Shockwave, and JavaScript to provide a user experience closer to a native application.
In September 2014, Google launched App Runtime for Chrome (ARC), which allowed certain ported Android applications to run on ChromeOS. Runtime was launched with four Android applications: Duolingo, Evernote, Sight Words, and Vine. In 2016, the second version, ARC++, was introduced, using Linux kernel features cgroups and namespaces to make containers that can run Android apps in an isolated environment. As ARC++ removed the need to recompile apps, Google made Google Play available for ChromeOS, making most Android apps available for supported ChromeOS devices. ARC++ was introduced with Android Marshmallow and upgraded to Android Nougat and Android Pie. ARCVM launched in 2021 with Android 11 and runs on Android 13 starting with ChromeOS 117. ARCVM uses virtual machines to enhance the isolation of the Android environment in order to improve security and maintainability.
In 2018, Google announced plans for Linux on ChromeOS, also known as Crostini, allowing for desktop Linux applications. This capability was released to the stable channel (as an option for most machines) with Chrome 69 in October 2018, but was still marked as beta. This feature was officially released with Chrome 91.
In 2023, with version 119, Google released Valve Corporation's Steam for Chromebook (Beta) for playing video games on Chromebooks meeting minimum hardware requirements. Steam for Chromebook was developed under the codename Borealis, building off work for SteamOS for the Steam Deck, similarly built using a modified version of Arch Linux, running as a virtual machine. In August 2025, Google announced that they will end Steam for Chromebook support in January 2026.
=== Chrome Apps ===
From 2013 until January 2020, Google encouraged developers to build not just conventional Web applications for ChromeOS, but Chrome Apps (formerly known as Packaged Apps). In January 2020, Google's Chrome team announced its intent to phase out support for Chrome Apps in favor of "progressive web applications" (PWA) and Chrome extensions instead. In March 2020, Google stopped accepting new public Chrome Apps for the web store. According to Google, general support for Chrome Apps on ChromeOS will remain enabled, without requiring any policy setting, through June 2022.
From a user's perspective, Chrome Apps resemble conventional native applications: they can be launched outside of the Chrome browser, are offline by default, can manage multiple windows, and interact with other applications.
==== Integrated media player, file manager ====
Google integrated a media player into both ChromeOS and the Chrome browser, enabling users to play back MP3s, view JPEGs, and handle other multimedia files without connectivity. The integration also supports DRM videos.
ChromeOS also includes an integrated file manager, resembling those found on other operating systems, with the ability to display directories and the files they contain from both Google Drive and local storage, as well as to preview and manage file contents using a variety of Web applications, including Google Docs and Box. Since January 2015, ChromeOS can also integrate additional storage sources into the file manager, relying on installed extensions that use the File System Provider API.
==== Remote application access and virtual desktop access ====
In June 2010, Google's software engineer Gary Kačmarčík wrote that ChromeOS would access remote applications through a technology unofficially called "Chromoting", which would resemble Microsoft's Remote Desktop Connection. The name has since been changed to "Chrome Remote Desktop", and is like "running an application via Remote Desktop Services or by first connecting to a host machine by using RDP or VNC". Initial roll-outs of ChromeOS laptops (Chromebooks) indicate an interest in enabling users to access virtual desktops.
=== Android applications ===
At Google I/O 2014, a proof of concept showing Android applications, including Flipboard, running on ChromeOS was presented. In September 2014, Google introduced a beta version of the App Runtime for Chrome (ARC), which allows selected Android applications to be used on ChromeOS, using a Native Client-based environment that provides the platforms necessary to run Android software. Android applications do not require any modifications to run on ChromeOS, but may be modified to better support a mouse and keyboard environment. At its introduction, ChromeOS support was only available for selected Android applications.
In 2016, Google introduced the ability to run Android apps on supported ChromeOS devices, with access to Google Play in its entirety. The previous Native Client-based solution was dropped in favor of a container containing Android's frameworks and dependencies (initially based on Android Marshmallow), which allows Android apps to have direct access to the ChromeOS platform, and allow the OS to interact with Android contracts such as sharing. Engineering director Zelidrag Hornung explained that ARC had been scrapped due to its limitations, including its incompatibility with the Android Native Development Toolkit (NDK), and that it was unable to pass Google's own compatibility test suite.
=== Linux apps ===
All Chromebooks made since 2018, and some earlier models, can run Linux apps. As with Android apps, these apps can be installed and launched alongside other apps. Google maintains a list of devices that were launched before 2019 which support Linux apps.
Since 2013, it has been possible to run Linux applications in ChromeOS through the use of Crouton, a third-party set of scripts that allows access to a Linux distribution such as Ubuntu. However, in 2018 Google announced that desktop Linux apps were officially coming to ChromeOS. The main benefit claimed by Google of their official Linux application support is that it can run without enabling developer mode, keeping many of the security features of ChromeOS. It was noticed in the ChromiumOS source code in early 2018. Early parts of Crostini were made available for the Google Pixelbook via the dev channel in February 2018 as part of ChromeOS version 66, and it was enabled by default via the beta channel for testing on a variety of Chromebooks in August 2018 with version 69.
==== Architecture ====
Google's project for supporting Linux applications in ChromeOS is called Crostini, named for the Italian bread-based starter, and as a pun on Crouton. Crostini runs a virtual machine through a virtual machine monitor called crosvm, which uses Linux's built-in KVM virtualization tool. Although crosvm supports multiple virtual machines, the one used for running Linux apps, Termina, contains a basic ChromeOS kernel based on Gentoo, in which it runs containers based on LXD. In the interest of stability and recovery, no Linux apps run on the virtual machine itself; any installed Linux userland ecosystem runs in an isolated container, all of which are deployed and managed by the virtual machine. A Debian container with host system integration is provided by default. Users can install programs to this installation by using tools like APT within the container, or may grant access to .deb files stored on ChromeOS itself, which are copied and installed to the container. Users may also individually grant access to individual files or USB devices. Other distributions can be added using LXD, although not by default integrated with the Host System.
== Architecture ==
ChromeOS is built on top of the Linux kernel. Originally based on Ubuntu, its base was changed to Gentoo Linux in February 2010. For Project Crostini, as of ChromeOS 121, Debian 12 (Bookworm) is the default container base image. In preliminary design documents for the ChromiumOS open-source project, Google described a three-tier architecture: firmware, browser and window manager, and system-level software and userland services.
The firmware contributes to fast boot time by not probing for hardware, such as floppy disk drives, that are no longer common on computers, especially netbooks. The firmware also contributes to security by verifying each step in the boot process and incorporating system recovery.
System-level software includes the Linux kernel that has been patched to improve boot performance. Userland software has been trimmed to essentials, with management by Upstart, which can launch services in parallel, re-spawn crashed jobs, and defer services in the interest of faster booting.
The window manager handles user interaction with multiple client windows (much like other X window managers).
=== Shell access ===
ChromeOS includes the Chromium Shell, or "crosh", which documents minimal functionality such as ping at crosh start-up.
In developer mode, a full-featured bash shell (which is supposed to be used for development purposes) can be opened via VT-2, and is also accessible using the crosh command shell. It is also accessible via the key shortcut crtl+alt+t. To access full privileges in shell (e.g. sudo) a root password is requested. For some time the default was "chronos" in ChromeOS and "facepunch" in ChromeOS Vanilla and later the default was empty, and instructions on updating it were displayed at each login.
=== Open source ===
ChromeOS is partially developed under the open-source ChromiumOS project. As with other open-source projects, developers can modify the code from ChromiumOS and build their own versions, whereas ChromeOS code is only supported by Google and its partners and only runs on hardware designed for the purpose. Unlike ChromiumOS, ChromeOS is automatically updated to the latest version.
=== ChromeOS on Windows ===
On Windows 8, exceptions allow the default desktop web browser to offer a variant that can run inside its full-screen "Metro" shell and access features such as the Share charm, without necessarily needing to be written with Windows Runtime. Chrome's "Windows 8 mode" was previously a tablet-optimized version of the standard Chrome interface. In October 2013, the mode was changed on Developer channel to offer a variant of the ChromeOS desktop.
== Design ==
Early in the project, Google provided publicly many details of ChromeOS' design goals and direction, although the company has not followed up with a technical description of the completed operating system.
=== User interface ===
Design goals for ChromeOS' user interface included using minimal screen space by combining applications and standard Web pages into a single tab strip, rather than separating the two. Designers considered a reduced window management scheme that would operate only in full-screen mode. Secondary tasks would be handled with "panels": floating windows that dock to the bottom of the screen for tasks like chat and music players. Split screens were also under consideration for viewing two pieces of content side by side. ChromeOS would follow the Chrome browser's practice of leveraging HTML5's offline modes, background processing, and notifications. Designers proposed using search and pinned tabs as a way to quickly locate and access applications.
==== Version 19 window manager and graphics engine ====
On April 10, 2012, a new build of ChromeOS offered a choice between the original full-screen window interface and overlapping, resizable windows, such as found on Microsoft Windows and Apple's macOS. The feature was implemented through the Ash window manager, which runs atop the Aura hardware-accelerated graphics engine. The April 2012 upgrade also included the ability to display smaller, overlapping browser windows, each with its own translucent tabs, browser tabs that can be "torn" and dragged to new positions or merged with another tab strip, and a mouse-enabled shortcut list across the bottom of the screen. One icon on the task bar shows a list of installed applications and bookmarks. Writing in CNET, Stephen Shankland argued that with overlapping windows, "Google is anchoring itself into the past" as both iOS and Microsoft's Metro interface are largely or entirely full-screen. Even so, "ChromeOS already is different enough that it's best to preserve any familiarity that can be preserved".
=== Printing ===
In 2016, Google included "Native CUPS Support" in ChromeOS as an experimental feature that became stable in 2020. With CUPS support turned on, it becomes possible to use most printers even if they do not support Google Cloud Print.
Google Cloud Print was a Google service that helps any application on any device to print on supported printers. While the cloud provides virtually any connected device with information access, the task of "developing and maintaining print subsystems for every combination of hardware and operating system—from desktops to netbooks to mobile devices—simply isn't feasible." The cloud service required the installation of a piece of software called proxy, as part of the ChromeOS. The proxy registered the printer with the service, managed the print jobs, provided the printer driver functionality, and gave status alerts for each job.
Google announced that Google Cloud Print would no longer be supported after December 31, 2020, and that the online service would not be available as of January 1, 2021.
=== Link handling ===
ChromeOS was designed to store user documents and files on remote servers. Both ChromeOS and the Chrome browser may introduce difficulties to end-users when handling specific file types offline; for example, when opening an image or document residing on a local storage device, it may be unclear whether and which specific Web application should be automatically opened for viewing, or the handling should be performed by a traditional application acting as a preview utility. Matthew Papakipos, ChromeOS engineering director, noted in 2010 that Windows developers have faced the same fundamental problem: "Quicktime is fighting with Windows Media Player, which is fighting with Chrome."
=== Release channels and updates ===
ChromeOS uses the same release system as Google Chrome: there are three distinct channels: Stable, Beta, and Developer preview (called the "Dev" channel). The stable channel is updated with features and fixes that have been thoroughly tested in the Beta channel, and the Beta channel is updated approximately once a month with stable and complete features from the Developer channel. New ideas get tested in the Developer channel, which can be very unstable at times. A fourth canary channel was confirmed to exist by Google Developer Francois Beaufort and hacker Kenny Strawn, by entering the ChromeOS shell in developer mode, typing the command shell to access the bash shell, and finally entering the command update_engine_client -channel canary-channel -update. It is possible to return to the verified boot mode after entering the canary channel, but the channel updater disappears and the only way to return to another channel is using the "powerwash" factory reset. In 2022 2 New channels were added called LTC (Long-term support candidate) and LTS (Long-term support) Only available for Enterprise admins .LTC is for 3 months of support and then switched to LTS automatically
== Security ==
In March 2010, Google software security engineer Will Drewry discussed ChromeOS security. Drewry described ChromeOS as a "hardened" operating system featuring auto-updating and sandbox features that would reduce malware exposure. He said that ChromeOS netbooks would be shipped with Trusted Platform Module (TPM), and include both a "trusted boot path" and a physical switch under the battery compartment that activates a "developer mode". That mode drops some specialized security functions but increases developer flexibility. This switch is also reversible. Drewry also emphasized that the open-source nature of the operating system would contribute greatly to its security by allowing constant developer feedback.
At a December 2010 press conference, Google declared that ChromeOS would be the most secure consumer operating system due in part to a verified boot ability, in which the initial boot code, stored in read-only memory, checks for system compromises.
ChromeOS devices ship with full disk encryption by default, which cannot be disabled. The decryption password is stored in the device's TPM. Google allows the TPM to be updated manually via the settings. Updating the TPM will reset the device to factory defaults.
=== Login ===
ChromeOS devices utilize a user's Google Account password as the default sign-in method. To enhance security, users can implement additional authentication measures such as PINs, passwords, fingerprint recognition, facial recognition, or smart unlock (via a paired phone). These supplementary measures mitigate the risk of unauthorized access to the user's Google account via shoulder surfing, even if an attacker possesses the user's Google email address.
If multi-factor authentication (MFA) is enabled on the associated Google Account, the user may be prompted to use it during the initial setup of their ChromeOS device. By default, the device will be designated as "trusted," exempting it from MFA requirements for subsequent logins. For enhanced security, MFA can be mandated for each sign-in by utilizing hardware tokens (such as YubiKeys) linked to the Google Account.
== Reception ==
At its debut, ChromeOS was viewed as a competitor to Microsoft, both directly to Microsoft Windows and indirectly the company's word processing and spreadsheet applications—the latter through ChromeOS' reliance on cloud computing. But ChromeOS engineering director Matthew Papakipos argued that the two operating systems would not fully overlap in functionality because ChromeOS is intended for netbooks, which lack the computational power to run a resource-intensive program like Adobe Photoshop.
Some observers claimed that other operating systems already filled the niche that ChromeOS was aiming for, with the added advantage of supporting native applications in addition to a browser. Tony Bradley of PC World wrote in November 2009: We can already do most, if not all, of what ChromeOS promises to deliver. Using a Windows 7 or Linux-based netbook, users can simply not install anything but a web browser and connect to the vast array of Google products and other web-based services and applications. Netbooks have been successful at capturing the low-end PC market, and they provide a web-centric computing experience today. I am not sure why we should get excited that a year from now we'll be able to do the same thing, but locked into doing it from the fourth-place web browser.
In 2016, Chromebooks were the most popular computer in the US K–12 education market.
In 2020, Chromebooks became the second most-popular end-user oriented OS (growing from 6.4% in 2019 to 10.8% in 2020). The majority of growth came at Windows' expense (which fell from 85.4% in 2019 to 80.5% in 2021).
=== Relationship to Android ===
Google's offer of several open-source operating systems, of which Android and ChromeOS are the best known, has attracted some criticism, despite the similarity between this situation and that of Apple Inc.'s two operating systems, macOS and iOS. Steve Ballmer, Microsoft CEO at the time, accused Google of not being able to make up its mind. Steven Levy wrote that "the dissonance between the two systems was apparent" at Google I/O 2011. The event featured a daily press conference in which each team leader, Android's Andy Rubin and Chrome's Sundar Pichai, "unconvincingly tried to explain why the systems weren't competitive". Google co-founder Sergey Brin addressed the question by saying that owning two promising operating systems was "a problem that most companies would love to face". Brin suggested that the two operating systems "will likely converge over time". The speculation over convergence increased in March 2013 when ChromeOS chief Pichai replaced Rubin as the senior vice president in charge of Android, thereby putting Pichai in charge of both.
The relationship between Android and ChromeOS became closer at Google I/O 2014, where developers demonstrated native Android software running on ChromeOS through a Native Client-based runtime. In September 2014, Google introduced a beta version of the App Runtime for Chrome (ARC), which allows selected Android applications to be used on ChromeOS, using a Native Client-based environment that provides the platforms necessary to run Android software. Android applications do not require any modifications to run on ChromeOS, but may be modified to better support a mouse and keyboard environment. At its introduction, ChromeOS support was only available for selected Android applications. In October 2015, The Wall Street Journal reported that ChromeOS would be folded into Android so that a single OS would result by 2017. The resulting OS would be Android, but it would be expanded to run on laptops. Google responded that while the company has "been working on ways to bring together the best of both operating systems, there's no plan to phase out ChromeOS".
In 2016, Google introduced the ability to run Android apps on supported ChromeOS devices, with access to Google Play in its entirety. The previous Native Client-based solution was dropped in favor of a container containing Android's frameworks and dependencies (initially based on Android Marshmallow), which allows Android apps to have direct access to the ChromeOS platform, and allows the OS to interact with Android contracts such as sharing. Engineering director Zelidrag Hornung explained that ARC had been scrapped due to its limitations, including its incompatibility with the Android Native Development Toolkit (NDK), and that it was unable to pass Google's own compatibility test suite.
On November 18, 2024, Android Authority reported that Google is planning to completely merge ChromeOS into Android.
== See also ==
Comparison of operating systems
Fuchsia (operating system)
Light-weight Linux distribution
List of operating systems
QWERTY § ChromeOS for information on typing diacritics (accents) and special symbols
Timeline of operating systems
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Official blog
Release blog
ChromiumOS project page
Official announcement
Google Chrome OS Live Webcast; November 19, 2009
ChromeOS Flex |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyholm_Prize_for_Education | Nyholm Prize for Education | The Nyholm Prize for Education commemorates the life and work of Australian-born chemist Sir Ronald Nyholm, who – alongside his research in coordination chemistry – passionately campaigned for the improvement of science education. He acted as president of the Royal Society of Chemistry from 1968 to 1970.
The prize, which was first awarded in 1973, is awarded biennially by the Royal Society of Chemistry. It recognises outstanding achievements by those working in chemical science education, specifically major contributions to national or international research or innovation.
Before 2008, the prize was known as the Sir Ronald Nyholm Lectureship (Education Division). The recipient receives £5,000, a medal and a certificate.
== Recipients ==
The recipients are:
1973/74 – H F Halliwell
1975/76 – Douglas James Millen
1977/78 – A K Holliday
1979/80 – A H Johnstone
1981/82 – M J Frazer
1982/83 – Peter J Fensham
1984/85 – Professor David J Waddington
1986/87 – M H Gardner
1988/89 – No award
1990/91 – R F Kempa
1992/93 – M Gomel
1994/95 – David Phillips
1996/97 – C. John Garratt
1998/99 – Peter Atkins
2000/01 – Patrick D Bailey
2002/03 – George M Bodner
2004/05 – Zafra M. Lerman
2006/07 – Norman Reid
2008/09 – David D Kumar
2009 – Tina Overton
2011 – Martyn Poliakoff
2013 – Peter Wothers
2015 – Nick Greeves
2017 – Dudley Shallcross, University of Bristol
2019 – Marcy Towns, Purdue University
2021 – Michael Seery, The Open University
2023 – Savita Ladage, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research
2025 – Vicente Talanquer, University of Arizona
== See also ==
List of chemistry awards
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hands_Across_Hawthorne | Hands Across Hawthorne | Hands Across Hawthorne was a rally held at the Hawthorne Bridge in the American West Coast city of Portland, Oregon, on May 29, 2011. The demonstration was in response to an attack, one week earlier, on Brad Forkner and Christopher Rosevear, a gay male couple who had been holding hands while walking across the bridge. According to the couple and the Portland Police Bureau, a group of five men followed Forkner and Rosevear along the bridge before physically assaulting them. The assault was condemned by Portland's mayor, Sam Adams, and its police chief, Mike Reese, and news of the attack spread throughout the Pacific Northwest and the United States. The attack prompted volunteers from the Q Center, a nonprofit organization that supports the LGBTQ community, to form street patrols as a means of monitoring Portland's downtown area.
Several LGBTQ and human rights organizations sponsored Hands Across Hawthorne in response to the attack, with the purpose of linking hands across the entire span of the Hawthorne Bridge to show solidarity. More than 4,000 people attended the rally, which had been publicized on a single Facebook page 72 hours previously. Forkner, Rosevear, Mayor Adams, and other community leaders spoke at the rally. The event received attention throughout the United States. On June 5, residents of Spokane, Washington, held a similar hand-holding rally called "Hands Across Monroe", crossing the Monroe Street Bridge in Riverfront Park.
== Background ==
=== Hate crimes in Portland ===
Portland Police Bureau statistics showed a decrease in the number of "bias crime assaults", or "hate crimes", from 26 incidents in 2007 to 15 in 2009. In 2010, of just over 50 hate crime incidents reported in Portland, 20 involved gender or sexual orientation, far outnumbering racial hate crimes. In May 2010, a group of men in drag were harassed and assaulted by a group of five men. The filing of a police report resulted in a community forum at Portland's Q Center (a nonprofit organization supporting the LGBTQ community), which was attended by Portland Police Chief Mike Reese, Mayor Sam Adams, and Deputy District Attorney Rod Underhill, together with more than 100 city residents. The attacks led to the formation of the Queer Patrol (or Q Patrols) in July 2010, which consisted of foot patrols specifically designed to protect the LGBTQ community in downtown Portland.
Sarah Mirk of The Portland Mercury attributed the rise in the recorded number of crimes related to gender or sexual identity in 2010 to the increased number of filed police reports, this due in part to the work of the Q Patrols. Hate crimes continued in the city; in November 2010, a man perceived to be gay was severely beaten and left unconscious while walking home in southeast Portland. According to Portland Police, eight bias crimes were reported between January 1 and April 30, 2011, half the number reported during the same period in 2010.
=== Assault ===
Brad Forkner and Christopher Rosevear (aged 23 and 24, respectively) were attacked on the Eastbank Esplanade on May 22, 2011, after holding hands while walking across the Hawthorne Bridge in Portland, Oregon. Details of the attack were released by Portland Police on May 24. Forkner and Rosevear said a group of five men followed them from Tom McCall Waterfront Park across the bridge, then beat them as they came down a ramp along the Esplanade.
According to the description released by Portland Police, "as [the couple] walked they knew several men were behind them talking, laughing and pointing but they were not sure it was directed at them." Three of the five men attacked the couple from behind. Forkner was pushed into a railing and punched multiple times before breaking away to call 9-1-1. The attackers reportedly continued hitting Rosevear on the head, face, back and ribs until Forkner was able to call for police help. Forkner later recalled that he did not hear specific homophobic remarks, but believed the attackers may have been yelling in a foreign language. Forkner had swelling on his face, and Rosevear required stitches in his lip. The victims said that several witnesses were nearby, but did not offer help in any form. Police investigated the case as a "bias crime", noting the lack of provocation. As of December 2012 the five men who attacked Forkner and Rosevear remained unidentified.
The attack was reported by newspapers in the Pacific Northwest and by gay-oriented media outlets nationwide. Sam Adams, Portland's gay mayor, and Police Chief Mike Reese both spoke out against the attack. Adams said, "We seek to be the city of the most equal opportunity, and we can only be that city if all people are safe and have a sense of safety on our streets and in our parks." The Cascade AIDS Project, where Forkner was the Pivot Center Coordinator at the time, launched a Facebook campaign following the attack called "Holding Hands, In Solidarity", encouraging people to post pictures of hand-holding. The Q Center also condemned the attack. The assault once again prompted Q Center volunteers to form Q Patrols as a means of monitoring the streets and reporting hate crimes to police. Plans were made to have Q Patrols available between 11 pm and 3 am until the weekend of Halloween.
== Rally ==
Following the attack, Basic Rights Oregon (BRO), Cascade AIDS Project, Pride Northwest, the Q Center, and local churches organized a rally to link hands spanning the length of the Hawthorne Bridge to show solidarity. The event was publicized by a single Facebook page, created only 72 hours previously from Cascade AIDS Project's hand-holding photo gallery. Stephen Cassell, event organizer and Q Center board member, reportedly "thought of the action plan in the middle of the night and quickly posted the idea on Facebook." The organization Progressive Oregon, which advocates for progressivism within that state, also advertised the event.
More than 4,000 people attended the event, which began at 7:30 pm. Members of the Community of Welcoming Congregations, a coalition of more than 100 congregations in Oregon that welcome members of the gay community, and the Portland chapter of the Human Rights Campaign, also attended the rally. As demonstrators gathered at the west side of the bridge, the rally began with speeches by Forkner and Rosevear. Forkner said that this was not the first time he had feared for his safety, nor did he expect it to be the last:
Thousands of people walk the streets of America and yes, even Portland, feeling like they are less than human, that their life is not as valued by society as their other, supposedly more "normal", peers. The effects of this internalized hatred are endless. They contribute to gang violence, to depression, to self-medicating via alcohol and drug abuse, to sexuality that people feel must be kept secret, explored in dark alleys and bathhouses rather than openly and safely. How can we talk about keeping ourselves safe, about being healthy, about being loved, if we are doing so in secret, if we are hurting in silence?
Following Forkner's speech, Basic Rights Oregon executive director Jeana Frazzini thanked the couple, spoke of the symbolism of the hand-holding rally, and encouraged supporters to volunteer for the Q Patrol. During the rally, the crowd sang the Beatles' "I Want to Hold Your Hand".
According to Cassell, Hands Across Hawthorne marked one of the first instances where Portland's major LGBTQ rights organizations worked together on an event other than the Portland Pride Festival. Details of the rally were reported by various publications. The Huffington Post contributor Chuck Currie, a United Church of Christ minister from Portland, used the attack and rally to question the impact of conservative evangelical religion and other anti-gay-rights organizations. Progressive Oregon and Just Out (an LGBTQ newspaper in Portland) noted the failure of the city's largest newspaper, The Oregonian, to cover the rally; the former sent a letter and petition to the paper's publisher N. Christian Anderson III, requesting "fair and balanced" coverage. Peter Bhatia, editor for The Oregonian, responded to the criticism and petition signed by more than 1,400 people by saying the paper's lack of coverage was a "mistake" caused by "human error".
One week after the rally, Mayor Sam Adams and his staff linked hands at Portland City Hall in solidarity. On June 5, residents of Spokane, Washington, held a similar hand-holding rally in solidarity with the Portland community called "Hands Across Monroe", crossing the Monroe Street Bridge in Riverfront Park. That event was sponsored by The LGBT Center.
== See also ==
Hands Across America
Hate crime laws in the United States
History of violence against LGBTQ people in the United States
== References ==
== External links ==
Brad Forkner speaks at Hands Across Hawthorne event on YouTube
BRO Director Jeana Frazzini speaks at Hands Across Hawthorne on YouTube
Mayor Sam Adams speaks at Hands Across Hawthorne event on YouTube
Press releases and updates from Amanda Schurr of Just Out
Press release – Portland Police Bureau, "Bias Crime Detectives Investigate Assault" (May 24, 2011)
Progressive Oregon: Oregon Right Wing Watch: Which Rally Did The Oregonian Cover? on YouTube |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fencing_at_the_2020_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_team_%C3%A9p%C3%A9e | Fencing at the 2020 Summer Olympics – Women's team épée | The women's team épée event at the 2020 Summer Olympics took place on 27 July 2021 at the Makuhari Messe. 24 fencers (8 teams of 3) from 8 nations competed.
== Background ==
This was the 6th appearance of the event, which has been held at every Summer Olympics since 1996 except 2008 (during the time when team events were rotated off the schedule, with only two of the three weapons for each of the men's and women's categories).
The reigning Olympic champion is Romania (Loredana Dinu, Simona Gherman, Simona Pop, and Ana Maria Popescu). The reigning World Champion is China (Lin Sheng, Sun Yiwen, Xu Anqi, and Zhu Mingye).
== Qualification ==
A National Olympic Committee (NOC) could enter a team of 3 fencers in the women's team épée. These fencers also automatically qualified for the individual event.
There are 8 dedicated quota spots for women's team épée. They are allocated as through the world team ranking list of 5 April 2021. The top 4 spots, regardless of geographic zone, qualify (China, Poland, ROC, and South Korea). The next four spots are allocated to separate geographic zones, as long as an NOC from that zone is in the top 16. These places went to Hong Kong (Asia/Oceania), the United States (Americas), and Italy (Europe); no team from Africa was in the top 16, so the place was reallocated to the next-best team regardless of zone: Estonia.
Additionally, there are 8 host/invitational spots that can be spread throughout the various fencing events. Japan qualified one women's épée fencer through normal individual qualification, but did not use host quota places to complete a women's épée team.
The COVID-19 pandemic delayed many of the events for qualifying for fencing, moving the close of the rankings period back to April 5, 2021 rather than the original April 4, 2020.
== Competition format ==
The 2020 tournament is a single-elimination tournament, with classification matches for all places. Each match features the three fencers on each team competing in a round-robin, with 9 three-minute bouts to 5 points; the winning team is the one that reaches 45 total points first or is leading after the end of the nine bouts. Standard épée rules regarding target area, striking, and priority are used.
== Schedule ==
The competition is held over a single day, Tuesday, 27 July. The first session runs from 11:25 a.m. to approximately 3:20 p.m. (when all matches except the bronze and gold medal finals are expected to conclude), after which there is a break until 6:30 p.m. before the medal bouts are held.
All times are Japan Standard Time (UTC+9)
== Results ==
5–8th place classification
== Final classification ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Draw Archived 1 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolly_(sheep)#Life | Dolly (sheep) | Dolly (5 July 1996 – 14 February 2003) was a female Finn-Dorset sheep and the first mammal that was cloned from an adult somatic cell. She was cloned by associates of the Roslin Institute in Scotland, using the process of nuclear transfer from a cell taken from a mammary gland. Her cloning proved that a cloned organism could be produced from a mature cell from a specific body part. Contrary to popular belief, she was not the first animal to be cloned.
The employment of adult somatic cells in lieu of embryonic stem cells for cloning emerged from the foundational work of John Gurdon, who cloned African clawed frogs in 1958 with this approach. The successful cloning of Dolly led to widespread advancements within stem cell research, including the discovery of induced pluripotent stem cells.
Dolly lived at the Roslin Institute throughout her life and produced several lambs. She was euthanized at the age of six years due to a progressive lung disease. No cause which linked the disease to her cloning was found.
Dolly's body was preserved and donated by the Roslin Institute in Scotland to the National Museum of Scotland, where it has been regularly exhibited since 2003.
== Genesis ==
Dolly was cloned by Keith Campbell, Ian Wilmut and colleagues at the Roslin Institute, part of the University of Edinburgh, Scotland, and the biotechnology company PPL Therapeutics, based near Edinburgh. The funding for Dolly's cloning was provided by PPL Therapeutics and the Ministry of Agriculture. She was born on 5 July 1996. She has been called "the world's most famous sheep" by sources including BBC News and Scientific American.
The cell used as the donor for the cloning of Dolly was taken from a mammary gland, and the production of a healthy clone, therefore, proved that a cell taken from a specific part of the body could recreate a whole individual. On Dolly's name, Wilmut stated "Dolly is derived from a mammary gland cell and we couldn't think of a more impressive pair of glands than Dolly Parton's."
== Birth ==
Dolly was born on 5 July 1996 and had three mothers: one provided the egg, another the DNA, and a third carried the cloned embryo to term. She was created using the technique of somatic cell nuclear transfer, where the cell nucleus from an adult cell is transferred into an unfertilized oocyte (developing egg cell) that has had its cell nucleus removed. The hybrid cell is then stimulated to divide by an electric shock, and when it develops into a blastocyst it is implanted in a surrogate mother. Dolly was the first clone produced from a cell taken from an adult mammal. The production of Dolly showed that genes in the nucleus of such a mature differentiated somatic cell are still capable of reverting to an embryonic totipotent state, creating a cell that can then go on to develop into any part of an animal.
Dolly's existence was announced to the public on 22 February 1997. It gained much attention in the media. A commercial with Scottish scientists playing with sheep was aired on TV, and a special report in Time magazine featured Dolly. Science featured Dolly as the breakthrough of the year. Even though Dolly was not the first animal cloned, she received media attention because she was the first cloned from an adult cell.
== Life ==
Dolly lived her entire life at the Roslin Institute in Midlothian. There she was bred with a Welsh Mountain ram and produced six lambs in total. Her first lamb, named Bonnie, was born in April 1998. The next year, Dolly produced twin lambs Sally and Rosie; further, she gave birth to triplets Lucy, Darcy and Cotton in 2000. In late 2001, at the age of four, Dolly developed arthritis and started to have difficulty walking. This was treated with anti-inflammatory drugs.
== Death ==
On 14 February 2003, Dolly was euthanised because she had a progressive lung disease and severe arthritis. A Finn Dorset such as Dolly has a life expectancy of around 11 to 12 years, but Dolly lived 6.5 years. A post-mortem examination showed she had a form of lung cancer called ovine pulmonary adenocarcinoma, also known as Jaagsiekte, which is a fairly common disease of sheep and is caused by the retrovirus JSRV. Roslin scientists stated that they did not think there was a connection with Dolly being a clone, and that other sheep in the same flock had died of the same disease. Such lung diseases are a particular danger for sheep kept indoors, and Dolly had to sleep inside for security reasons.
Some in the press speculated that a contributing factor to Dolly's death was that she could have been born with a genetic age of six years, the same age as the sheep from which she was cloned. One basis for this idea was the finding that Dolly's telomeres were short, which is typically a result of the aging process. The Roslin Institute stated that intensive health screening did not reveal any abnormalities in Dolly that could have come from advanced aging.
In 2016, scientists reported no defects in thirteen cloned sheep, including four from the same cell line as Dolly. The first study to review the long-term health outcomes of cloning, the authors found no evidence of late-onset, non-communicable diseases other than some minor examples of osteoarthritis and concluded "We could find no evidence, therefore, of a detrimental long-term effect of cloning by SCNT on the health of aged offspring among our cohort."
After her death Dolly's body was preserved via taxidermy and is currently on display at the National Museum of Scotland in Edinburgh.
== Legacy ==
After cloning was successfully demonstrated through the production of Dolly, many other large mammals were cloned, including pigs, deer, horses and bulls. The attempt to clone argali (mountain sheep) did not produce viable embryos. The attempt to clone a banteng bull was more successful, as were the attempts to clone mouflon (a form of wild sheep), both resulting in viable offspring. The reprogramming process that cells need to go through during cloning is not perfect and embryos produced by nuclear transfer often show abnormal development. Making cloned mammals was highly inefficient back then – in 1996, Dolly was the only lamb that survived to adulthood from 277 attempts. Wilmut, who led the team that created Dolly, announced in 2007 that the nuclear transfer technique may never be sufficiently efficient for use in humans. But by 2014, Chinese scientists were reported to have 70–80% success rates cloning pigs, and in 2016, Sooam Biotech was producing 500 cloned embryos a day. Another Korean commercial pet cloning company, Viagen, the firm charges $50,000 (£38,000) to clone a dog, $30,000 for a cat, and $85,000 for a horse, showing cloning economy is getting more popular despite the cost.
Cloning may have uses in preserving endangered species, and may become a viable tool for reviving extinct species. In January 2009, scientists from the Centre of Food Technology and Research of Aragon in northern Spain announced the cloning of the Pyrenean ibex, a form of wild mountain goat, which was officially declared extinct in 2000. Although the newborn ibex died shortly after birth due to physical defects in its lungs, it is the first time an extinct animal has been cloned, and may open doors for saving endangered and newly extinct species by resurrecting them from frozen tissue.
In July 2016, four identical clones of Dolly (Daisy, Debbie, Dianna, and Denise) were alive and healthy at nine years old. The Nottingham Dollies, were humanely euthanised following research published in 2017, natural life expectancy of sheep rarely extends beyond nine to 10 years, after re-examine Dolly's case, showing they were all aging normally.
Scientific American concluded in 2016 that the main legacy of Dolly has not been cloning of animals but in advances into stem cell research. Gene targeting was added in 2000, when researchers cloned female lamb Diana from sheep DNA altered to contain the human gene for alpha 1-antitrypsin. The human gene was specifically activated in the ewe’s mammary gland, so Diana produced milk containing human alpha 1-antitrypsin. After Dolly, researchers realised that ordinary cells could be reprogrammed to induced pluripotent stem cells, which can be grown into any tissue.
The first successful cloning of a primate species was reported in January 2018, using the same method which produced Dolly. Two identical clones of a macaque monkey, Zhong Zhong and Hua Hua, were created by researchers in China and were born in late 2017.
In January 2019, scientists in China reported the creation of five identical cloned gene-edited monkeys, again using this method, and the gene-editing CRISPR-Cas9 technique allegedly used by He Jiankui in creating the first ever gene-modified human babies Lulu and Nana. The monkey clones were made in order to study several medical diseases.
== In popular culture ==
In 2003, Belgian artist Dominique Goblet published a short comic strip about Dolly the cloned sheep with the title: “2004 Apparition de Dolly dans la campagne anglaise”
== See also ==
In re Roslin Institute (Edinburgh) – US court decision that determined that Dolly could not be patented
List of cloned animals
== References ==
== External links ==
Dolly the Sheep at the National Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh
Cloning Dolly the Sheep Dolly the Sheep and the importance of animal research
Animal cloning and Dolly
Antiques Roadshow, Series 45, Brodie Castle 3, Dolly the Sheep. BBC (3' video clip). 6 April 2023. Episode where several items appertaining to Dolly, including wool from a shearing and scientific instruments, were appraised. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%BCic%C3%A1n#:~:text=The%20municipality%20was%20founded%20by,Blasco%20on%20February%2026%2C%201756. | Güicán | Güicán de la Sierra, also known as Nuestra Señora de la Candelaria de Güicán, is a town and municipality in the Colombian Department of Boyacá. It is close to the national natural park El Cocuy National Park. As of the year 2020, it has a total population of 6,426.
== Etymology ==
The municipality was named after Güicán tribe, an indigenous people who inhabited this region and is related to the U'wa people. The name Güicán means "in the fence of the wife" in the indigenous language.
== History ==
The conquistador of this territory was Hernán Pérez de Quesada, who arrived with his troops in search of gold. The aborigines withdrew behind the Sierra Nevada to escape from the Spanish. The municipality was founded by a Jesuit friar Miguel Blasco on February 26, 1756.
== Geography ==
The municipality borders Chiscas and Cubará on the north, Fortul and Saravena on the east, Tame and El Cocuy on the south, as well as Panqueba and El Espino on the west. Its average elevation is at 3,492 meters above the sea level.
== Climate ==
Güicán has a Tundra Climate (ET). It receives the most amount of rainfall in April, with 244 mm of average precipitation; and the least in January, with 83 mm of average precipitation.
== Galleries ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_Circle_(House) | Family Circle (House) | Family Circle is a public artwork by the American artist Herbert House, located at the intersection of 18th and Harvard Streets NW in the Adams Morgan neighborhood of Washington, D.C., United States. Family Circle was dedicated in 1991. It was surveyed as part of the Smithsonian's Save Outdoor Sculpture! survey in 1994.
== Description ==
Four nude figures of a male, female and two children dance in a circle. The figures are highly polished steel and have no facial features, feet or hands. House created the sculpture out of car bumpers that he cut and welded. The dancing figures are on top of a red circular tilted platform.
== Herbert House ==
Herbert House grew up in Washington, D.C. He graduated from Illinois State University and has been credited with creating over 500 works. House resides in Chicago, Illinois. His work is seen in the collections of Illinois State and numerous private collections.
== Condition ==
This sculpture was surveyed in 1994 for its condition, and it was described as "well maintained." In 2017, the sculpture was vandalized when two of the figures were torn off the platform. In 2018, the city hired House to repair the piece, and it went back on display.
== References ==
== External links ==
"Who made the shiny car-bumper sculpture in an Adams" from The Washington Post
The Dr. Robert H. Derden Collection: A Black Collector's Odyssey in Contemporary Art Archived 2010-12-29 at the Wayback Machine
"Abstract" by House |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_of_Walker | World of Walker | World of Walker is the second studio album by Norwegian DJ and record producer Alan Walker. It was released on 25 November 2021 through MER Musikk and Sony Music Entertainment and includes his successful 2019 single "On My Way".
== Background ==
The elaborate official artwork for World of Walker consists of thousands of selfies submitted by fans around the world as part of a collaborative production campaign.
Walker said of the album, "It's been three years since the release of my debut album Different World, and since then I've spent a lot of time working on new music and further developing Walker's cinematic universe. I am very excited to finally be able to release my new album, World of Walker. What is really special to me is that the official artwork consists of thousands of selfies of walkers from around the world. The time has finally come to unveil the community we have built together, the World of Walker."
== Singles ==
The album's first single, "On My Way", featuring Sabrina Carpenter and Farruko and was released on 21 March 2019. The single was released to celebrate the first anniversary of the American battle royale game PUBG Mobile and reached number 3 on the Norwegian VG-lista chart.
The second single, "Alone, Pt. II", featuring American singer Ava Max, was released on December 27, 2019. The song reached the top 10 in the charts in Belgium, Norway, Poland and Romania.
"Heading Home", featuring Norwegian singer Ruben, was released as the third single on April 1, 2020. The music video for this song is on the selection list for the 2021 Silver Screening of the Berlin Music Video Awards.
"Time (Alan Walker Remix)", a song with German film composer Hans Zimmer, was released as the fourth single from the album on May 15, 2020. The song is a remix of the song "Time" from Christopher Nolan's 2010 film Inception.
"Sorry", a song featuring Norwegian band Isák, was released as the fifth single on 12 February 2021. The song reached number 8 on the Norwegian VG-lista charts.
The single "Fake a Smile", featuring American singer-songwriter Salem Ilese, was released as the sixth single on February 19, 2021. Two remixes have been officially released, one by norwegian producer K-391 and one by Dutch procuer and DJ R3hab. The song charted in Norway, the Netherlands and Sweden.
The song "Paradise", featuring Norwegian producer K-391 and Swedish singer-songwriter Boy in Space, was released as the seventh single on September 23, 2021. The song was released in collaboration with the mobile game PUBG Mobile (PlayerUnknown's Battlegrounds). The song reached number 37 in the Norwegian charts.
The song "World We Used to Know", featuring Winona Oak, was released as the eighth single on November 12, 2021.
The song "Man on the Moon", featuring Swedish singer Benjamin Ingrosso, was released as the ninth single on November 25, 2021.
== Critical reception ==
Matthew Lambert of We Rave You said, "It also includes short storytelling video snippets that take the listener on a journey through the songs and blend them with what Walker had envisioned. Through the music videos, Walker offers a glimpse into the enhanced album's reveals, telling an epic tale of a faraway, advanced civilisation, the ancient Walkers' discovery and its connection to modern-day humanity." Viljar Sæbbe of the Norwegian edition of Gaffa said: "World of Walker ages between the highlights. At the same time, it's easy to imagine shirt collars in record company offices giving big, juicy thumbs up." Norwegian newspaper Verdens Gang described the album as "a long string of banal, indifferent melodies and shallow lyrics" and "lacking any semblance of originality."
== Track listing ==
== Charts ==
== Certifications ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_Medical_College,_Srinagar | Government Medical College, Srinagar | The Government Medical College, Srinagar (also known as GMC Srinagar) is a government medical college and hospital located in Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, India. It was established in 1959. It is the oldest medical college in Kashmir. The college and hospital are affiliated with the University of Kashmir and recognised by the Medical Council of India (currently National Medical Commission). The college is located in the Karan Nagar area of Srinagar, about 1.5 km (0.93 mi) from Lal Chowk. The girls' hostel is located within the campus but the boys' hostel is one km (0.62 mi) away. It has well-equipped labs. The selection to the college is done on the basis of merit through National Eligibility and Entrance Test.
== History ==
In the 1950s, the government of Jammu and Kashmir realised the need for a medical college in the state. The then Prime Minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru, laid the foundation stone of the college on 13 June 1957. The college was established under the name of Jammu and Kashmir Medical College in 1959, and its first batch of students was admitted the same year. The college was initially located at the Shri Maharaja Hari Singh Hospital in the city of Srinagar.
In 1962, the college was shifted to its present location at Karan Nagar in Srinagar, where it covers an area of around 100 acres. The college was renamed as Government Medical College Srinagar in 1970. In the same year, the college was affiliated with the University of Kashmir.
In 1982, the first batch of postgraduate students was admitted to the college. In 1998, the college was granted recognition by the Medical Council of India (MCI) for undergraduate and postgraduate medical courses.
== Campus ==
The Government Medical College (GMC) Srinagar is located in the city of Srinagar in the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir. The college covers an area of around 100 acres and is situated in the Karan Nagar area of the city.
Academic Blocks: The college has several academic blocks that house classrooms, laboratories, and libraries.
Auditorium: The college has an auditorium that can accommodate around 500 people. The auditorium is used for various academic and cultural events.
Sports Facilities: The college has a playground and facilities for outdoor sports such as basketball, while as cricket and football ground in the boys hostel campus.
== Associated hospitals ==
Currently there are eight associated hospitals of Government Medical College, Srinagar:
Shri Maharaja Hari Singh Hospital (SMHS Hospital), also Known as Sadar Haspataal or Headwun
G. B. Pant, Children Hospital, Bemina Srinagar (Bache Haspataal)
Lal Ded Maternity Hospital, Hazuri Bag Srinagar (LD Haspatal)
Psychiatric Diseases Hospital, Srinagar (Mental Haspatal)
Chest Diseases Hospital Dalgate, Srinagar (Durgjan Haspatal)
Bone and Joint Hospital Barzulla, Srinagar
Chitranjan Mobile Hospital
Superspeciality Hospital, Shireen Bagh
== Alumni and faculty ==
Rafiq Ahmad Pampori (former principal)
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/María_Teresa_Castillo | María Teresa Castillo | María Teresa Castillo (October 15, 1908 – June 22, 2012) was a Venezuelan journalist, politician, political activist, human rights activist, and cultural entrepreneur. She was the founder of the Caracas Athenaeum, a leading cultural institution which promotes the arts of Caracas. She also served as the president of Caracas Athenaeum from 1958 until her death in 2012. Castillo, a proponent of human rights, also played a major role in the formation of Amnesty International's Venezuelan chapter in 1978.
== Biography ==
María Teresa Castillo was born on October 15, 1908, in a hacienda, called "Bagre," in Cúa, Miranda State, Venezuela. She graduated from the School of Social Communications at the Central University of Venezuela.
In 1934, Castillo emigrated to New York, United States, where he worked in a factory as a seamstress. After she tried to stay in this country but their efforts are futile because she was syndicated as a revolutionary.
In 1989, she was elected to the Venezuelan Chamber of Deputies, the former lower house of the national legislature. As deputy, Castillo served as the first President of the Chamber's Permanent Commission on Culture. She was also a member of the Chamber's Committee on Regional Development during her tenure.
Castillo married Venezuelan journalist, Miguel Otero Silva, in 1946. They had two children, Miguel Henrique Otero, the current editor of El Nacional newspaper, and Mariana.
== Death and legacy ==
María Teresa Castillo died in Caracas on June 22, 2012, at the age of 103.
In Salou, Catalan province of Tarragona, there is a street named after Maria Castillo. The street is called Carrer de Maria Castillo.
== See also ==
Politics of Venezuela
Los Notables
== References ==
== External links ==
María Teresa Castillo.
Interview with María Teresa Castillo.
Interview with Maria Teresa Castillo by César Cortez in www.docuven.org.ve. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruth_Wilson_Gilmore#Awards_and_recognition | Ruth Wilson Gilmore | Ruth Wilson Gilmore (born April 2, 1950) is a prison abolitionist and prison scholar. She is the Director of the Center for Place, Culture, and Politics and professor of geography in Earth and Environmental Sciences at the Graduate Center of the City University of New York. She has made important contributions to carceral geography, the "study of the interrelationships across space, institutions and political economy that shape and define modern incarceration". She received the 2020 Lifetime Achievement Award from the American Association of Geographers.
== Early life and education ==
Ruth Wilson was born on April 2, 1950 in New Haven, Connecticut. Wilson's grandfather organised the first blue collar workers' union at Yale University. Her father, Courtland Seymour Wilson, was a tool-and-die maker for Winchester Repeating Arms Company. He was active in the machinists' union. He later was assistant dean of student affairs at Yale Medical School, then went to Yale-New Haven Hospital in the Office of Government and Community Relations.
In 1960, Wilson attended a private school in New Haven as one of its few working-class students and the first, and mostly only, African American student.
In 1968, she enrolled at Swarthmore College in Pennsylvania, where she became involved in campus activism. In 1969, Gilmore, Fania Davis (the younger sister of radical activist Angela Davis), and other students occupied the school's admissions office hoping to persuade the administration to admit more black students. Following the sudden death of the university president, white students spread false rumors that the occupying students were to blame. The next morning, Gilmore learned that her cousin, John Huggins, along with another Black Panther, Bunchy Carter, had been murdered at University of California, Los Angeles.
In the wake of those events, Gilmore left Swarthmore and returned home to New Haven. She then enrolled at Yale, where she obtained a bachelor's degree in drama.
== Career ==
Gilmore earned her Ph.D. from Rutgers University in 1998 in economic geography and social theory, inspired by the work of Neil Smith. After finishing her Ph.D. she was hired as an assistant professor at University of California, Berkeley and began working on her concept of carceral geography. Carceral geography examines the relationships between landscape, natural resources, political economy, infrastructure and the policing, jailing, caging and controlling of populations. The community of academic scholars in this area is associated with the Carceral Geography Working Group (CGWG) of the Royal Geographical Society with the Institute of British Geographers. Gilmore gave a keynote address at the 2nd International Conference for Carceral Geography at the University of Birmingham, UK, on 12 December 2017.
She is a cofounder of many social justice organizations, including California Prison Moratorium Project. In 1998, she was one of the cofounders of Critical Resistance along with Angela Davis. In 2003, she cofounded Californians United for a Responsible Budget (CURB) to fight jail and prison construction and currently serves on its board.
Gilmore has been a leading scholar and speaker on topics including prisons, decarceration, racial capitalism, oppositional movements, state-making, and more. She is the author of the book Golden Gulag which was awarded the Lora Romero First Book Publication Prize for the best book in American Studies by the American Studies Association in 2008. She has also published work in venues such as Race & Class, The Professional Geographer, Social Justice, Global Lockdown: Race, Gender, and the Prison Industrial Complex, and the critical anthology The Revolution Will Not Be Funded: Beyond the Non-Profit Industrial Complex, which was edited by the Incite! collective.
== Awards and recognition ==
In 2011, Gilmore was the keynote speaker at the National Women's Studies Association annual conference in Atlanta, Georgia.
In 2012, the American Studies Association awarded her its first Angela Y. Davis prize for Public Scholarship that "recognizes scholars who have applied or used their scholarship for the "public good." This includes work that explicitly aims to educate the public, influence policies, or in other ways seeks to address inequalities in imaginative, practical, and applicable forms."
In 2014, Gilmore received the Harold M. Rose Award for Anti-Racism Research and Practice from the Association of American Geographers.
In 2017, Gilmore earned the American Studies Association Richard A. Yarborough Award. This honors scholars who demonstrate an excellence in teaching and mentoring.
In 2020, Gilmore was listed by Prospect as the seventh-greatest thinker for the COVID-19 era, with the magazine writing, "Gilmore has spent the best part of 30 years developing the field of carceral geography [...] She's helped shift the conversation about responses to crime from one of punishment to rehabilitation. As the failings of the US justice system come once again to the fore, Gilmore's radical ideas have never felt more relevant."
An Antipode (journal) documentary film featured Gilmore and key ideas of her work: geography, racial capitalism, the prison industrial complex, and abolition geographies.
In 2021, Gilmore was elected as a Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
In 2023, Gilmore was honored with a mural painted by artist and filmmaker, Jess X. Snow and local community members on the outside of the Possible Futures bookstore in New Haven, Connecticut.
== Bibliography ==
Gilmore, Ruth Wilson, "Abolition Geography: Essays Towards Liberation". London: Verso Books, 2022. ISBN 9781839761706
Gilmore, Ruth Wilson (2007). Golden Gulag: Prisons, Surplus, Crisis, and Opposition in Globalizing California. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-22256-4.
Clyde Adrian Woods; Ruth Wilson Gilmore, Development Arrested: The Blues and Plantation Power in the Mississippi Delta London; New York: Verso, 1998. ISBN 9781844675616
== References ==
== External links ==
Film on Ruth Wilson Gilmore and 'Geographies of Racial Capitalism' via , Antipode (journal) Foundation, July 1, 2020
Podcast with analysis and discussion of prison abolition and police funding, Intercepted, June 10, 2020 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Spencer,_Baroness_Hunsdon | Elizabeth Spencer, Baroness Hunsdon | Elizabeth Spencer, Baroness Hunsdon (29 June 1552 – 25 February 1618) was an English noblewoman, scholar, and patron of the arts. She was the inspiration for Edmund Spenser's Muiopotmos, was commemorated in one of the poet's dedicatory sonnets to The Faerie Queene, and was represented as "Phyllis" in the latter's pastoral poem Colin Clouts Come Home Againe. She herself translated Petrarch. Her first husband was George Carey, 2nd Baron Hunsdon, grandson of Mary Boleyn, elder sister of Anne Boleyn, mother of Queen Elizabeth I.
== Family ==
Elizabeth Spencer was born 29 June 1552 at Althorp, Northamptonshire, the second eldest daughter of Sir John Spencer of Althorp and his wife Katherine Kitson, the daughter of Sir Thomas Kitson of Hengrave, Suffolk. She had three brothers, Sir John Spencer, Sir William Spencer, and Sir Richard Spencer; and three sisters, Anne Spencer, Baroness Mounteagle, Katherine Spencer, and Alice Spencer. In the year of her birth, Elizabeth's father held the office of High Sheriff of Northamptonshire, and the following year was Member of Parliament for Northamptonshire.
== Marriages ==
On 29 December 1574, by licence from Matthew Parker, Archbishop of Canterbury, Elizabeth married her first husband, George Carey, the eldest son of Henry Carey, 1st Baron Hunsdon and Anne Morgan. As a grandson of Mary Boleyn, sister of Queen Anne Boleyn, George Carey was closely related to Queen Elizabeth I who held the Hunsdons in high favour. From 23 July 1596, when her husband succeeded to the title, Elizabeth was styled Baroness Hunsdon.
George Carey and Elizabeth Spencer had an only daughter, Elizabeth Carey (24 May 1576 – 23 April 1663), who married firstly, Sir Thomas Berkeley, son and heir apparent of Henry Berkeley, 7th Baron Berkeley, by whom she had issue. She married secondly, Sir Thomas Chamberlain. Like her mother, Lady Berkeley had scholarly interests and became a patron of the arts.
Elizabeth's husband, Baron Hunsdon died in 1603. Shortly before January 1613, she married her second husband, Ralph Eure, 3rd Baron Eure.
== Patron of the arts ==
Elizabeth was a noted patron of the arts and a scholar. She translated Petrarch's works, She was the inspiration for Edmund Spenser's Muiopotmos in 1590, and she was represented as "Phyllis" in his pastoral poem Colin Clouts Come Home Againe, with her sisters Anne and Alice representing "Charyllis" and "Amaryllis". Elizabeth was also commemorated in one of Spenser's dedicatory sonnets to ‘’The Faerie Queen’’ :
"Ne may I, without
blot of endless blame,
You, fairest Lady leave out of this place,
Remembrance of your gracious nameWherewith that courtly garlond most ye graceAnd deck the world."
Besides Edmund Spenser, to whom she was distantly related, she was a patron of Thomas Nashe and the composer John Dowland, who mentions her in his First Book of Songs (1597).
Elizabeth's miniature portrait was painted by Nicholas Hilliard on an unknown date.
== Death ==
Elizabeth died on 25 February 1618, and was buried on 2 March in Westminster Abbey, London.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Buckle | Samuel Buckle | Samuel Buckle (14 September 1808 – 1860) was an early English photographer.
== Biography ==
Samuel Buckle was born in Orton Longueville in 1808 as the son of the jockey Francis Buckle. Samuel Buckle was the manager of a brewery in Peterborough between 1841 and 1853, when it was sold. In 1845 he married Anne Ball. They lived in Royal Leamington Spa from about 1853 until he died in 1860. He was seriously ill for the last years of his life.
== Photography ==
Buckle started experimenting with photography at least as early as 1851, and exhibited at The Great Exhibition of 1851, where he got a Council Medal (one of only two British photographers to receive this highest accolade), at the 1852 Exhibition of Recent Specimens of Photography, and other exhibitions until at least 1857. He had contacts with many other early English photographers, including Henry Fox Talbot. Most of his surviving work was made with the calotype process, but by 1858 he was working with the newer collodion process. He had his large laboratory and studio at the back of his house, where he had worked mostly for pleasure. Commercial photographs by Buckle are not known to exist, but he sold cameras and gave lessons in photography, a.o. to Thomas Hesketh Biggs and to Arthur Schomberg Kerr. He made no portraits but stuck to landscapes. In 1853, an album with 30 of his prints was produced. 9 Prints of his work were bought by Prince Albert in 1854. He was also the inventor of the "Buckle Brush", an easy tool made from a glass tube and some cotton wool, to coat calotype paper.
== Notes == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Harry_Dunning | John Harry Dunning | John Harry Dunning (26 June 1927 – 29 January 2009) was a British economist and is widely recognised as the father of the field of international business. He researched the economics of international direct investment and the multinational enterprise from the 1950s until his death. In the 1980s, he published the eclectic paradigm or OLI-Model/Framework as further development on Internalization theory. OLI remains the predominant theoretical perspective to study international business activities, notably foreign direct investment and multinational enterprises. His first book, American Investment in British Manufacturing Industry (1958), is the first seminal work in the international business field.
== Biography ==
John Dunning was born in Sandy, Bedfordshire on 26 June 1927. At the age of 15 he took a junior clerical position with S.E. Higgins & Co., a London insurance brokerage. Shortly thereafter he took a position in London with Banco de Bilbao and began taking classes in English, Elements of Banking and Accounting, and Foreign Exchange.
As World War II drew to a close, Dunning joined the Royal Navy and was posted to Sri Lanka (then called Ceylon) in 1945. Upon completing his naval tour, he earned his BSc in Economics from the University College London. He joined the Department of Economics at the University of Southampton in 1952 as an assistant lecturer and earned the position of senior lecturer in 1962. In 1953 Dunning began research on the FDI of American firms into the UK and its effect on UK economic performance, which resulted in the seminal 1958 book, American Investment in British Manufacturing Industry.
In 1964 Dunning was appointed Foundation Chair of Economics at the University of Reading. During his tenure as head of the economics department at Reading, he published much of his influential work on the eclectic paradigm. He and other Reading colleagues published work on the theory of the multinational enterprise that influenced the academic field of international business to such a degree that the stream of MNE research based on the eclectic paradigm is considered the Reading School of International Business.
There are two institutions greatly influenced by John Dunning, one of which he created and one which he presided over and took to new heights. The first of these is the University of Reading, where he created a rich intellectual environment, starting in the 1970s, in which deep theoretical analysis and rich empirical work was fostered to explain the activities of multinational enterprise. He recruited scholars to the University who included Mark Casson, Peter Buckley, John Cantwell, Bob Pierce, Rajneesh Narula, Klaus Meyer, Sarianna Lundan, and many others who have made significant scholarly contributions. Dunning supervised several dozen doctoral students at Reading including Professor James H Landi, prominent among them being Jeremy Clegg. Dunning subsequently started a doctoral program in international business at Rutgers University in New Jersey, United States.
The second institution fostered by Dunning is the Academy of International Business, of which he served as President and also as Dean of the Fellows of AIB. Dunning regularly presented new papers and inspired new areas of research, such as his recent work on corporate governance and the ethics of multinationals. Dunning was also a founder of the European International Business Academy.
Since August 2008 the triple-accredited Henley Business School at the University of Reading has been home to the John H. Dunning Centre for International Business, formerly the Centre for International Business and Strategy (CIBS). The Centre was renamed in 2008, in honour of the late professor Dunning, and stands as one of the world's premier research centres in the field. Internationally renowned members of the Centre include professors Alan Rugman, Mark Casson and Rajneesh Narula (one of Dunning's notable doctoral students, and the founding director of Dunning Centre).
Dunning died on 29 January 2009, a year after being diagnosed with cancer. In the same year, Journal of International Business Studies, the most prestigious academic journal in international business, commented, "John Dunning is widely recognized as the father of the field of international business" and "Today, John's influence is demonstrated by a citation count on Google Scholar of over 30,000, many times that of any other scholar in the field of international business."
== Publications ==
American Investment in British Manufacturing Industry (1958)
Globalization of Firms and the Competitiveness of Nations (1990)
Multinational Enterprises and the Global Economy (1992) Addison-Wesley Publishers Ltd.
Alliance Capitalism and Global Business (1997)
Making Globalization Good: the Moral Challenges of Global Capitalism (2005) ISBN 978-0199275229
Seasons of a Scholar: Some Personal Reflections of an International Business Economist (2008)
== Honorary doctorates ==
Source:
Uppsala University (Sweden, 1975)
Autonomous University of Madrid (Spain, 1990)
University of Antwerp (Belgium, 1997)
Chinese Culture University (Taiwan, 2007)
Lund University (Sweden, 2007)
University of Reading (UK, 2008)
== See also ==
Alliance capitalism
== References ==
== External links ==
Obituary: John H. Dunning – The Times of London
Obituary – The Guardian |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheatland,_Iowa | Wheatland, Iowa | Wheatland is a city in Clinton County, Iowa, United States. The population was 775 at the time of the 2020 census.
== History ==
Wheatland was platted in 1858 under the leadership of John Bennett. The town was named for President James Buchanan's estate Wheatland in Lancaster, Pennsylvania. The entire township (Spring Rock) had a white population of only 101 in 1850, but that number rose to 756 in 1860. A significant body of early settlers all came from the village of Wunderthausen in central Germany. The Germans founded the first church in town in 1857 with a Presbyterian affiliation. This relationship was dissolved in 1861 with the incorporation of St. Paul's German Reformed Church (now St. Paul's United Church of Christ). The First Presbyterian Church was organized in 1858, though no longer functions. Wheatland was legally incorporated on July 13, 1869.
== Geography ==
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 0.61 square miles (1.58 km2), all land.
== Demographics ==
=== 2020 census ===
As of the census of 2020, there were 775 people, 317 households, and 184 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,351.0 inhabitants per square mile (521.6/km2). There were 339 housing units at an average density of 591.0 per square mile (228.2/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 95.7% White, 0.0% Black or African American, 0.3% Native American, 0.1% Asian, 0.0% Pacific Islander, 0.6% from other races and 3.2% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino persons of any race comprised 1.3% of the population.
Of the 317 households, 32.8% of which had children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.8% were married couples living together, 11.0% were cohabitating couples, 27.4% had a female householder with no spouse or partner present and 22.7% had a male householder with no spouse or partner present. 42.0% of all households were non-families. 34.4% of all households were made up of individuals, 19.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years old or older.
The median age in the city was 35.9 years. 28.8% of the residents were under the age of 20; 5.3% were between the ages of 20 and 24; 25.5% were from 25 and 44; 19.4% were from 45 and 64; and 21.0% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47.4% male and 52.6% female.
=== 2010 census ===
As of the census of 2010, there were 764 people, 294 households, and 197 families living in the city. The population density was 1,252.5 inhabitants per square mile (483.6/km2). There were 317 housing units at an average density of 519.7 per square mile (200.7/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 98.7% White, 0.3% African American, 0.7% Native American, 0.1% Asian, and 0.3% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.7% of the population.
There were 294 households, of which 34.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.0% were married couples living together, 12.2% had a female householder with no husband present, 6.8% had a male householder with no wife present, and 33.0% were non-families. 27.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.47 and the average family size was 2.98.
The median age in the city was 40.6 years. 26.8% of residents were under the age of 18; 6.2% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 23.4% were from 25 to 44; 23.6% were from 45 to 64; and 20% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 46.9% male and 53.1% female.
=== 2000 census ===
As of the census of 2000, there were 772 people, 300 households, and 207 families living in the city. The population density was 1,389.8 inhabitants per square mile (536.6/km2). There were 316 housing units at an average density of 568.9 per square mile (219.7/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 98.58% White, 0.26% African American, 0.13% Asian, and 1.04% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.52% of the population.
There were 300 households, out of which 31.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 54.3% were married couples living together, 12.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31.0% were non-families. 28.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 18.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.42 and the average family size was 2.99.
27.2% are under the age of 18, 6.2% from 18 to 24, 23.2% from 25 to 44, 20.6% from 45 to 64, and 22.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 80.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 75.1 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $30,875, and the median income for a family was $36,528. Males had a median income of $32,292 versus $20,972 for females. The per capita income for the city was $13,824. About 8.7% of families and 13.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 20.7% of those under age 18 and 14.1% of those age 65 or over.
== Education ==
The Calamus–Wheatland Community School District operates public schools serving the community. The district was established on July 1, 1985, by the merger of the Calamus and Wheatland school districts. Calamus–Wheatland High School in Wheatland is a comprehensive four year high school.
== Notable person ==
Elmer George Homrighausen (1900–1982), Dean of Princeton Theological Seminary from 1954 to 1970.
== References ==
== External links ==
City-Data Comprehensive Statistical Data and more about Wheatland |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mountains_in_India | List of mountains in India |
== Highest major summits in India ==
== Other significant mountains ==
=== Mountain ranges ===
Himalayas
Karakoram
Barail Range
Purvanchal Range
Arakan Yoma
Western Ghats
Eastern Ghats
Vindhyas
Aravali
Satpura
== Lists by state or region ==
Lists of mountains by state or region of India:
List of peaks in Himachal Pradesh
List of mountains in Kerala
List of mountain peaks of Ladakh
List of mountain peaks of Maharashtra
List of mountains in Nagaland
List of Himalayan peaks of Uttarakhand
List of mountains and hills of the West Bengal
List of peaks in the Western Ghats
== See also ==
Geography of India
List of mountain passes of India
List of Indian states and territories by highest point
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Bisht, Ramesh Chandra (2008), International Encyclopaedia Of Himalayas (5 Vols. Set), Mittal Publications, ISBN 978-81-8324-265-3
Hartemann, Frederic; Hauptman, Robert (2005), The Mountain Encyclopedia: An A to Z Compendium of Over 2,250 Terms, Concepts, Ideas, and People, Taylor Trade Publishing, ISBN 978-1-4617-0331-0
Kapadia, Harish (2010), Siachen Glacier: The Battle of Roses, Rupa & Company, ISBN 978-81-291-1687-1
Kapadia, Harish (1999), Across Peaks & Passes in Garhwal Himalaya, Indus Publishing, ISBN 978-81-7387-097-2
Kapadia, Harish (1999), Across Peaks & Passes in Ladakh, Zanskar & East Karakoram, Indus Publishing, ISBN 978-81-7387-100-9
Kapadia, Harish (1999), Across Peaks & Passes in Kumaun Himalaya, Indus Publishing, ISBN 978-81-7387-096-5
Kapadia, Harish (2001), Across Peaks & Passes in Darjeeling & Sikkim, Indus Publishing, ISBN 978-81-7387-126-9
World 7200-meter Peaks, peakbagger.com, retrieved 15 February 2015
Weare, Gary (2009), Trekking in the Indian Himalaya, Lonely Planet, ISBN 978-1-74059-768-5, archived from the original on 2015-08-17, retrieved 2015-02-14 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drag_Race_terminology | Drag Race terminology | A number of slang terms have been used on Drag Race. Some terms in the list already existed within drag culture, but were more widely popularized by their use on various iterations of the show, while others originated within the franchise itself. During his 2018 appearance on The Late Show with Stephen Colbert, RuPaul described some of the show's terminology to host Stephen Colbert.
== List of terms and definitions ==
Slang terms used on the series have included:
== See also ==
LGBT slang
List of LGBT slang terms
== References ==
== External links ==
"The 2010s: Slang That Stuck". NPR. December 29, 2019 – via Oregon Public Broadcasting. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Londa_Schiebinger | Londa Schiebinger | Londa Schiebinger ( SHEE-bing-ər; born May 13, 1952) is the John L. Hinds Professor of History of Science, Department of History, and by courtesy the d-school, Stanford University. She received her Ph.D. from Harvard University in 1984. An international authority on the theory, practice, and history of gender and intersectionality in science, technology, and medicine, she is the founding Director of Gendered Innovations in Science, Medicine, Engineering, and Environment. She is an elected member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Schiebinger received honorary doctorates from the Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium (2013), from the Faculty of Science, Lund University, Sweden (2017), and from Universitat de València, Spain (2018). She was the first woman in the field of History to win the prestigious Alexander von Humboldt Research Prize in 1999.
Over the past thirty years, Schiebinger has analyzed what she calls the three “fixes”:
"Fix the Numbers of Women" focuses on increasing the underrepresented groups participating in science and engineering; "Fix the Institutions" promotes equity in careers through structural change in research organizations; and "Fix the Knowledge" or "gendered innovations" stimulates excellence in science and technology by integrating sex, gender, and intersectional analysis into research design. As a result of this work, she was recruited in a national search to direct Stanford University's Clayman Institute for Gender Research, a post she held from 2004 to 2010. Her job was to promote and support research on women and gender across Stanford University—from engineering, to philosophy, to medicine and business. In 2010 and 2014, she presented the keynote address and wrote the conceptual background paper for the United Nations' Expert Group Meeting on Gender, Science, and Technology. The UN Resolutions of March 2011 call for “gender-based analysis ... in science and technology” and for the integrations of a “gender perspective in science and technology curricula.” Again in 2022, she prepared the background paper for the United Nations 67th session of the Commission on the Status of Women’s priority theme, Innovation and Technological Change, and Education in the Digital Age for Achieving Gender Equality and The Empowerment of all Women and Girls.
In 2013 she presented the Gendered Innovations project at the European Parliament. Gendered Innovations was also presented to the South Korean National Assembly in 2014. In 2015, Schiebinger addressed 600 participants from 40 countries on Gendered Innovations at the Gender Summit 6—Asia Pacific, a meeting devoted to gendered innovations in research. She speaks globally on gendered innovations—from Brazil to Japan, and her work was recently presented in a Palace Symposium for the King and Queen of the Netherlands at the Royal Palace in Amsterdam. In 2018-2020, she led a European Commission Expert Group to produce Gendered Innovations 2: How Inclusive Analysis Contributes to Research and Innovation.
Schiebinger's work is highly interdisciplinary. In recognition of her creative work across academic fields of research, she was awarded the Interdisciplinary Leadership Award in the Stanford Medical School in 2010, the Linda Pollin Women's Heart Health Leadership Award from the Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles in 2015, the Impact of Gender/Sex on Innovation and Novel Technologies Pioneer Award in 2016, and the American Medical Women's Association President's Recognition Award in 2017. She has held prestigious Fellowships at the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science in Berlin (1999–2000) and at the Stanford Humanities Center (2010/2011, 2017/2018, 2022/2023). She served as an advisor to the Berlin University Alliance, 2022/23.
== Major works ==
=== Gendered Innovations in Science, Health & Medicine, Engineering, and Environment (2009-) ===
Schiebinger coined the term “gendered innovations” in 2005. In 2009, she launched Gendered Innovations in Science, Health & Medicine, Engineering, and Environment, a field of research and methodology, at Stanford University. The project was joined by the European Commission in 2011, by the U.S. National Science Foundation in 2012. Gendered Innovations received funding from the European Commission again in 2018/20 and from the U.S. National Science Foundation (2020/22 to expand methodologies and case studies. This project has brought together over 220 natural scientists, engineers, and gender experts in a series of collaborative workshop that drew talent from across the US, Europe, Canada, Asia, and, more recently, South Africa and Latin America. The project served as the intellectual foundations for the “gender dimension in research” requirements in the European Commission's Horizon 2020 funding framework. A Center for Gendered Innovations in Science and Technology Research was founded in Seoul, Republic of Korea, 2016; and the Institute for Gendered Innovation was created at Ochanomizu University, Tokyo, Japan, 2022.
Gendered Innovations has developed practical methods of sex, gender, and intersectional analysis for STEM, and provided case studies as examples of how this type of analysis leads to discovery and innovations. The project highlights case studies, ranging from stem cell research, to osteoporosis research in men, to inclusive crash test dummies, social robots, machine learning, menstrual cups, nutrigenomics, marine science, medical technologies, and assistive technology for the elderly.
Of special note is the case study of Google Translate. In 2012, the gendered innovations team discovered that Google Translate defaults to the masculine pronoun because “he said” is more commonly found on the web than “she said.” Although this bias is unconscious, it has serious consequences. Unconscious gender bias from the past amplifies gender inequality in the future. When trained on historical data (as Google Translate is), the system inherits bias (including gender bias). In other words, past bias is perpetuated into the future, even when governments, universities, and companies, such as Google, themselves have implemented policies to foster equality. The goal of Gendered Innovations is to provide methods of analysis to help scientists and engineers can get the research right from the beginning.
Schiebinger has also worked to create infrastructure for gender-responsible science across the three pillars of academic infrastructure: funding agencies, peer-reviewed journals, and universities. She advises funding agencies, including the German Science Foundation and the U.S. National Science Foundation, on policies for integrating sex, gender, and diversity analysis into research. She and colleagues published guidelines for editors of medical journals to evaluate sex and gender analysis in manuscripts submitted for publication. She also seeks to help universities integrate social analysis into core natural science and engineering curricula. Finally, she advises industry on develop products that meet the needs of complex and diverse user groups.
=== Has Feminism Changed Science? (1999) ===
Schiebinger's book, Has Feminism Changed Science?, has been split into three sections: 'Women in Science', 'Gender in the Cultures of Science', and 'Gender in the Substance of Science'. Throughout the book, she describes the factors that led to the inequality between male and female in the science field. In addition, she gave examples of different types of women in the society. An important idea brought up in the book was the private versus the public, where the private sphere is seen as the domain of women and public sphere as an area refers for men. Another important point she brought up was that the idea of including women in the fields of science does not mean that the sciences will adopt a more feminist view point. A simple increase in the number of women in a given field does not change the culture of that field. The construction of gender and science is a cycle in that ideas of gender are brought to the table already when practicing science and can inform what evidence people look for or areas they choose to study, and that whatever is found then influences theories of gender. The various contradictions shown through the achievements and silencing of women in science throughout history shows how nature and the society can influence gender and science. Schiebinger not only addresses the gender in the context of science, she also describes the feminism is changed through the history and culture. It is important to note that the book is written from a Western perspective and that the culture she discusses is that of the Western World, and in many cases, more specifically, the United States.
The first of the book's three sections takes a look at the impacts of some of the first women to be known to have participated in science, such as Christine de Pizan and Marie Curie. The section also examines the numerical count of women in the various fields of science in academics in the late 20th century United States, as well as looking at the breakdown of other factors, such as pay rates and the level of degree held, in relation to gender. The section goes on to theorize that the cultural reinforcement of gender roles may play a factor as to why there are fewer women in science.
The second section, 'Gender in the Cultures of Science', argues that science has been gendered as being a masculine field and that women report a distaste for the excessive competition fostered by academic science. The section also argues that the splitting of gender roles in personal life, where women still take on a majority of domestic responsibilities, may be a reason that is hindering women in scientific fields from accomplishing more.
The third section of the book, 'Gender in the substance of Science' details the perspectives that women have brought to fields such as medicine, primatology, archeology, biology, and physics. In fact, Schiebinger states that as of the writing of the book, that women earned nearly 80 percent of all Ph.D.s in primatology, and yet, despite this, having a large number of women scientists in a field does not necessarily lead to a change in the assumptions of science, or the culture of science.
=== The Mind Has No Sex? Women in the Origins of Modern Science (1989) ===
Using a theory coined by François Poullain de la Barre, Schiebinger's prize-winning historical work focuses on eighteenth-century history of science and medicine. The Mind Has No Sex? Women in the Origins of Modern Science (1989) is one of the first scholarly works to investigate women and gender in the origins of modern Western science. The Mind Has No Sex? exposed the privileged first-born twins of modern science: the myth of the natural body, and the myth of value-neutral knowledge. As Schiebinger demonstrates, the claim of science to objectivity was the linchpin holding together a system that rendered women's exclusion from science invisible, and made this exclusion appear fair and just. She argues that women were ready and willing to take their place in science in the early modern period in astronomy, physics, mathematics, anatomy, and botany. But it was not to be.
Schiebinger first identifies these women and the structures of early modern European society that allowed them a place in science. Of note is her work on German women working in guild-like sciences—Maria Sibylla Merian and Maria Margarethe Winkelmann. Schiebinger uncovered the story of Winkelmann, a noted astronomer, and described important paths not taken with respect to women in science in the eighteenth century. Winkemann, for example, applied to be the astronomer of the royal academy of sciences in Berlin when her husband died in 1710. Despite the great philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz’s support, she was rejected. With that, the door slammed on women astronomers for the next several centuries.
Not only were women, such as Merian and Winkelmann, excluded from modern science but something called “femininity” was also excluded. The best known part of this book is Schiebinger's chapter on “Skeletons in the Closet,” where she tells the story of the first illustrations of female skeletons in European anatomy. Schiebinger argues that it was the attempt to define the position of women (especially white middle-class women) in European society at large and in science in particular that spawned the first representations of the female skeleton. Great debate arose over the particular strengths and weakness of these female skeletons, focusing in particular on depictions of the skull as a measure of intelligence and pelvis as a measure of womanliness. After the 1750s, the anatomy of sex difference provided a kind of bedrock upon which to build natural relations between the sexes. The seemingly superior build of the male body (and mind) was cited to justify his social role. At the same time, the particularities of the female body justified her natural role as wife and mother. Women were not to be men's equals in science and society, but their complements.
This internationally acclaimed book has been translated into Japanese, German, Chinese, Portuguese, Spanish, Korean, and Greek.
=== Nature's Body: Gender in the Making of Modern Science (1993) ===
This book, written immediately after The Mind has No Sex?, focuses on how knowledge is gendered. It explores how gender structured important aspects of the content of early modern science, with case studies exploring the sexing of plants, the gender politics of taxonomies and nomenclatures, the gendering of apes, and the agency ascribed to women in shaping racial characters. Her chapter on the “Private Lives of Plants,” focuses on Carl Linnaeus and how his taxonomies contributed to naturalizing the role of “woman” in modern culture. Quaint hyperbole of plants celebrating steamy nuptials on softly perfumed pedaled beds surrounded the discovery of plant sexuality. Plant sexuality was strongly assimilated to heterosexual models of human affections, even though the majority of the flowers are hermaphroditic. Here Schiebinger reveals how Linnaean taxonomy recapitulated social hierarchies by setting the taxon defined by the male stamens above that defined by female pistils.
Best known is her chapter “Why Mammals are Called Mammals.” recounting the torrid history of the breast in eighteenth-century Europe. More importantly, this chapter zeroes in on how notions of gender formed scientific taxonomies, and how these taxonomies buttressed gender roles in science and society. By emphasizing how natural it was for females—both human and nonhuman—to suckle their own children, Linnaeus's newly coined Mammalia helped to legitimize the restructuring of European society in an age of cultural upheaval and revolution.
This book also contains chapters on the eighteenth-century origins of scientific studies of sex and race, and their relation to questions about who should be included and who excluded from newly emerging scientific institutions.
Nature's Body won the 1995 Ludwik Fleck Book Prize from the Society for Social Studies of Science, and her article, “Why Mammals are Called Mammals,” featured on the cover of the American Historical Review, won the 1994 History of Women in Science Prize from the History of Science Society.
=== Plants and Empire: Colonial Bioprospecting in the Atlantic World (2004) ===
Shifting attention from Europe to the Atlantic World, Schiebinger published Plants and Empire in 2004. Developing a new methodology, ”agnotology” (defined as the cultural history of ignorance), she explores the movement, triumph, suppression, and extinction of the diverse knowledges in the course of eighteenth-century encounters between Europeans and the inhabitants of the Caribbean—both indigenous Amerindians and African slaves. While much history of colonial science has focused on how knowledge is made and moved between continents and heterodox traditions, Schiebinger explores instances of the nontransfer of important bodies of knowledge from the New World into Europe.
Schiebinger tells the remarkable story of Maria Sibylla Merian, one of the few European women to voyage for science in the eighteenth century. In a moving passage in her magnificent 1705 Metamorphosis insectorum Surinamensium, the German-born naturalist Merian recorded how the Indian and African slave populations in Surinam, then a Dutch colony, used the seeds of a plant she identified as the flos pavonis, literally ‘peacock flower’, as an abortifacient to abort their children so they would not become slaves like themselves. This book reveals how gender relations in Europe and its West Indian colonies influenced what European bioprospectors collected—and failed to collect—as they entered the rich knowledge traditions of the Caribbean. As Schiebinger tells, abortifacients were a body of knowledge that did not circulate freely between the West Indies and Europe. Trade winds of prevailing opinion impeded shiploads of New World abortifacients and knowledge of their use from ever reaching Europe.
This book won the prize in Atlantic History from the American Historical Association in 2005, the Alf Andrew Heggoy Book Prize from the French Colonial Historical Society in 2005, and the J. Worth Estes Prize for the History of Pharmacology from the American Association for the History of Medicine in 2005. These prizes demonstrate her ability to win the admiration of scholars across a wide-variety of disciplines.
=== Secret Cures of Slaves: People, Plants, and Medicine in the Eighteenth-Century Atlantic World (2017) ===
From 1932 to 1972, 600 impoverished Alabamian African-American sharecroppers were exploited by the U.S. Public Health Service in its Tuskegee Syphilis Study (1932–1972). This book explores the eighteenth-century background of medical experimentation with humans, asking in particular if the large populations of enslaved people, concentrated on American plantations, were used as human guinea pigs.
A major finding of Secret Cures of Slaves is that, in many instances, European physicians in the British and French West Indies did not—as might be expected—use enslaved people as guinea pigs. Enslaved laborers were considered valuable property of powerful plantation owners whom doctors were employed to serve. The master's will prevailed over a doctor's advice, and colonial physicians did not always have a free hand in devising medical experiments to answer scientific questions.
Yet, enslaved people were exploited in eighteenth-century. Schiebinger tells those stories, and also sets these findings firmly in the context of slavery, colonial expansion, the development of drug testing, and medical ethics of the time. It seeks to answer questions about sex and race in medical testing. Specifically, how were human subjects in this period chosen for experiments, and how were notions of uniformity and variability across living organisms developed? Did physicians imagine a natural human body that once tested held universally? Were tests done on white bodies thought to hold for Black bodies (and vice versa)? Were male and female bodies considered interchangeable in this regard? These questions are today still key to the mission of protecting and improving human health.
Schiebinger also expands our knowledge of African and Amerindian contributions to health and medicine. Europeans, from the sixteenth through to the end of the eighteenth century, tended to value medical knowledge of the peoples they encountered around the world, especially those who were experienced in what we today call tropical medicine. In the Caribbean, Europeans tested many of these medical techniques. Schiebinger explores what was thought of at the time as “slave medicine” (often a fusion of Amerindian and African cures) in the eighteenth-century West Indies in order to gather and evaluate African and American contributions to health and healing. She argues that proper care of enslaved people as well as soldiers and sailors was a matter of moral concern in this period to be sure, but also a means to secure the wealth of nations. Schiebinger analyzes the circulation of medical knowledge between Africa, Europe, and the Americas, and emphasizes that knowledge created in this period did not respond to science for its own sake, but was fired in the colonial crucible of conquest, slavery, violence, and secrecy.
== Personal life ==
Her partner is Robert N. Proctor, and her children are Geoffrey Schiebinger, now professor of mathematics and computational biology, and Jonathan Neel Proctor, now professor of environmental economics. She and her husband each gave their name to one of their two children.
== Selected bibliography ==
A Framework for Sex, Gender, and Diversity Analysis in Research: Funding Agencies Have Ample Room to Improve Their Policies (Science, 2022) doi:10.1126/science.abp977
Sex and Gender Analysis Improves Science and Engineering (Nature, 2019) doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1657-6
AI can be Sexist and Racist— It’s Time to Make it Fair (Nature, 2018) doi:10.1038/d41586-018-05707-8
Secret Cures of Slaves: People, Plants, and Medicine in the Eighteenth-Century Atlantic World (Stanford University Press, 2017) ISBN 9781503602915
Women and Gender in Science and Technology, 4 vols. (London: Routledge, 2014), ISBN 9780415855600
Gendered Innovations: How Gender Analysis Contributes to Research, ed. with Ineke Klinge (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2013) doi:10.2777/11868
"Changing Assumptions", American Scientist, September–October 2008
== Selected media coverage ==
"Londa Schiebinger: Inclusive Design Will Help Create AI That Works for Everyone", by Prabha Kannan, Stanford Human-Centered AI Institute, July 2022.
"Women in STEM Need More Than a Law", by Caitlin McDermott-Murphy, Harvard Gazette, June 22, 2022
"The Researcher Fighting to Embed Analysis of Sex and Gender into Science", by Elizabeth Gibney, Nature, November 2020
"Academics 'Need Training' on Sex and Gender in Research", by Ellie Bothwell, Times Higher Education, November 7, 2019
"Gender Diversity is Linked to Research Diversity, Stanford Historian Says", by Amy Adams, Stanford News, October 4, 2018
"Why Gendered Medicine Can Be Good Medicine", by Rena Xu, The New Yorker, November 6, 2017
== Peer-reviewed website ==
Gendered Innovations in Science, Health & Medicine, Engineering, and Environment.
== Prizes and awards ==
Schiebinger's awards have included
Global Navigation Board Member, University of Tokyo, Japan, 2023
Berlin Falling Walls Breakthrough Winner in Science & Innovation Management, 2022
Honorary Doctorate, Universitat de València, Spain, 2018
Honorary Doctorate, Faculty of Science, Lund University, Sweden, 2017
Medical Women's Association President's Recognition Award, 2017
Impact of Gender/Sex on Innovation and Novel Technologies Pioneer Award, 2016
Linda Pollin Women's Heart Health Leadership Award, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, 2015
Elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 2014
Honorary Doctorate, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, 2013
Distinguished Affiliated Professor, Technische Universität, Münichen, 2011-
Board of Trustees, Institute for Advanced Studies, Technische Universität, Munich, 2011-
Interdisciplinary Leadership Award, 2010, Women's Health, Stanford School of Medicine
2007-2009 Board of Trustees, RWTH Aachen, Germany
2006 Maria Goeppert-Meyer distinguished Visitor, Oldenburg University, Germany
2005 Prize in Atlantic History, American Historical Association, for Plants and Empire
2005 Alf Andrew Heggoy Book Prize, French Colonial Historical Society, for Plants and Empire
2005 J. Worth Estes Prize for the History of Pharmacology, American Association for the History of Medicine, for Feminist History of Colonial Science
2005 Jantine Tammes Chair, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, University of Groningen, the Netherlands
1999 Alexander von Humboldt Research Prize, Berlin
2001-2004 National Science Foundation Grant
2002-2004 National Science Foundation Scholars Award
1999-2000 Max-Planck-Institut für Wissenschaftsgeschichte, Berlin Senior Research Fellow
1998 National Institutes of Health, National Library of Medicine Fellowship
1994 Margaret W. Rossiter History of Women in Science Prize
1991–1993, 1996 National Science Foundation Scholars Award
1995 Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
1994 Her article "Why Mammals Are Called Mammals: Gender Politics in Eighteenth-Century National History", American Historical Review, 1993, 98: 382–411 received the 1994 Margaret W. Rossiter History of Women in Science Prize.
1991–1992 Guggenheim Fellow
1988–1989 Rockefeller Foundation Humanist-in-Residence
1986–1987 National Endowment for the Humanities Fellowship
1985-1986 Rockefeller Foundation Fellowship
Summer 1985 Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst Grant
1983–1984 Charlotte W. Newcombe Doctoral Dissertation Fellowship, Woodrow Wilson Foundation
Summer 1982 Marion and Jasper Whiting Fellowship, Paris
1980–1981 Fulbright-Hayes Graduate Scholar in Germany
== References ==
== External links ==
Interview for KanaalZ, Belgian television
TEDx CERN
"Housework is an Academic Issue," profiled on ABC News.
Michelle R. Clayman Institute for Gender Research
"Londa Schiebinger", The Economist
"Sex, Knowledge and Society", Australian Broadcasting Corporation
"Londa Schiebinger talks Gender and Science", Stanford University Press
Gendered Innovations: Designing Better Research"
"Tuve hijos tarde para poder pagar una asistenta" El Pais
Gender News Clayman Institute, Stanford University
Inside Higher Education
Sex in Science Yields Gendered Innovations on MyScienceWork
Stanford Daily, Stanford University
Sister Ape, London Review of Books, April 19, 1990
Science from Women's Lives. Better Science? How Gendered Studies Improve Science and Lives, Methode
STEM—the acronym for science, technology, engineering and math—has sparked a nationwide debate about education, gender, immigration and the future of the U.S. economy, CNN Money
Gendered Innovations: Making Research Better
Why It's Crucial to Get More Women Into Science, National Geographic
Det kan bli umulig å publisere i Science eller Nature hvis artikkelen din ikke har et kjønnsperspektiv, sier Stanford-professor
Technology's Man Problem
L’innovazione di genere è migliore
Maeil Business News Korea
The Kukmin Daily, Seoul |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Afzal_Cheema#Council_of_Islamic_ideology | Mohammad Afzal Cheema | Justice Mohammad Afzal Cheema (Punjabi and Urdu: محمد افضل چیمہ; 1 January 1913 – 4 August 2008) was a Pakistani politician and judge. Justice Cheema is the only Pakistani to reach the top positions in all branches of state. He served as the acting President of Pakistan, Judge of the High Court and then Supreme Court of Pakistan, Senior Deputy Speaker of the National Assembly of Pakistan, Federal Law Secretary, and Chairman of the Council of Islamic Ideology. He is considered the most prominent personality in the Cheema tribe and is commonly referred to as the "Chief of Cheemas".
== Early age and education ==
Justice Cheema was born in a small village named Kathore Kalan, 303 JB near Gojra, Toba Tek Singh in 1913. After graduation from Islamia College in 1932, he received his master's degree in English literature from the University of the Punjab in 1934. Later, circumstances forced him to return to his native village, where he oversaw the affairs of his family and the village following his father's sudden demise, who was the head of the village. A desire for continued professional education led him into the field of law in 1945. In 1947, he received his law degree and subsequently started a law practice in Lyallpur, now known as Faisalabad.
== Participation in the Pakistan movement ==
Justice Cheema played an active role in the Pakistan movement and supported Mohammad Ali Jinnah. He also participated in the gathering in Lahore on the 23 March 1940. He had several meetings with national poet Allama Iqbal and had cordial and personal relations with many Muslim leaders of the Indian subcontinent, including Mohammad Ali Bogra, Feroz Khan Noon, Syed Ata Ullah Shah Bukhari, Molvi Tamizuddin Khan.
== Political career ==
Justice Cheema was elected as member of the West Pakistan Legislative Assembly in one unit system in 1951 and later elected as the Deputy Opposition Leader. He became the member of the National Assembly of Pakistan in 1962 for Toba Tek Singh (The largest Constituency of the country at that time). Subsequently, he was elected Senior Deputy Speaker of the National Assembly of Pakistan by a single vote, defeating the Treasury Candidate. Throughout his tenure as Senior Deputy Speaker, he served as the Speaker of the National Assembly because of the illness of Maulvi Tamizuddin Khan and absence of Fazul ul Qadir. Justice Cheema is the only Speaker of the National Assembly of Pakistan who had cast his Casting vote in the House twice: once in favour of the Treasury and once in favour of the Opposition. He also served as the Acting President of Pakistan in the absence of Field Marshal Ayub Khan more than three times.
== Judicial career ==
Besides his political career, Justice Cheema served as Judge of West Pakistan High Court and also as Federal Law Secretary. He headed the team which drafted the first complete, comprehensive constitution of Pakistan now known as the 1973 Constitution. He was elevated to the Supreme Court and retired as the Senior Most Judge of the Supreme Court of Pakistan.
== Council of Islamic ideology ==
After his retirement from the Supreme Court, Cheema was made the full-time Chairman of Council of Islamic Ideology (Islami Nazeryati Council) and was responsible for the conversion of the parts of the Pakistani common law into Sharia Laws.
== International service ==
=== United Nations ===
Cheema led the Pakistani Delegation at the United Nations annual conference twice. He also represented Pakistan in the Annual Conference of the Parliamentarians held in Caracas, Venezuela as leader of the Pakistani delegation.
=== Muslim World League ===
Cheema served in the Muslim World League (MWL), an international Muslim organisation having observer status in the UN and OIC, as its Secretary General, Asian Branch for more than 15 years. His contribution as Secretary General of the MWL was in Humanitarian relief and Mediation for the Muslim Ummah and in particular for the Muslims of the Asian region.
His main accomplishments were:
Approval and Opening of the first Islamic Centre (largest in the Asian Region) in Xinjiang province in China.
Repatriation efforts for stranded Pakistanis often referred to as Biharis in Bangladesh
Contribution for the revival of the Islamic Values and the religion in various Asian States
Successful mediation among the various factions in Afghanistan
== Honours ==
He was awarded the Highest Civil Award of South Korea by President Roh Tae-woo for his endeavours in bringing Pakistan and South Korea closer through the establishment of diplomatic relations and for the formation of the Pak-Korea Friendship Association.
== Timeline ==
Deputy Leader of the Opposition in the West Pakistan Legislative Assembly. 1951–1955
Senior Deputy Speaker of the National Assembly. 1962–1965.
Acting President of Pakistan. More than thrice. 1962–1965.
Judge of the West Pakistan/Lahore High Court. 1965–1973.
Federal Law Secretary. 1973–1975.
Judge of the Supreme Court of Pakistan. 1975–1979.
Chairman Council of Islamic Ideology. 1977–1980.
Secretary General of Muslim World League Asian Branch. 1980–2000.
== Book ==
The Qadiani Problem: A Legal and Historical Perspective : Working Paper, 1986.
Ijtehad and Islamization of Laws, 2010.
== References ==
[1]
[2]
[3]
== External links ==
"Punjab Legislative Assembly - Second Assembly (May 7, 1951 to October 14, 1955)".
http://www.na.gov.pk/en/deputyspeakers.php
http://cii.gov.pk/aboutcii/Listofchairmen.aspx |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estelle_v._Gamble | Estelle v. Gamble | Estelle v. Gamble, 429 U.S. 97 (1976), was a case in which the Supreme Court of the United States established the standard of what a prisoner must plead in order to claim a violation of Eighth Amendment rights under 42 U.S.C. § 1983. Specifically, the Court held that a prisoner must allege acts or omissions sufficiently harmful to evidence deliberate indifference to serious medical needs. Though the Court credited Gamble's complaint that doctors had failed to provide appropriate care, it held that medical malpractice did not rise to the level of "cruel and unusual punishment" simply because the victim is a prisoner.
== Background ==
J. W. Gamble was a state prisoner within the Texas Department of Corrections who was given a prison labor assignment loading and unloading cotton bales from a truck. On November 9, 1973, he injured his back when a cotton bale fell on him. He continued to work for a few more hours until his back was completely stiff. He was ultimately granted permission to visit the hospital unit. A medical assistant checked him for a hernia and returned him to his cell. Soon after, the pain became intolerable, so he returned to the hospital unit. Ultimately, a doctor diagnosed him with a lower back strain and provided him with pain medication, including a muscle relaxant. Gamble was also given “cell-pass,” which permitted him to stay in his cell for two days. A few days later, he was evaluated and given the same medication and orders to remain in his cell for another seven days. On November 26, he was ordered to stay in his cell.
Over the next three months, he complained of back and chest pains, was subject to administrative segregation for refusing to work, and ultimately was treated for an irregular heartbeat.
On December 3, Despite Gambles's protest and complaints of pain, his doctor took him off "cell-pass," claiming he could begin light work. Two days later, he was sent to the disciplinary committee for failing to work. The committee sent him to a doctor the next day, who performed multiple tests and prescribed him Ser-Ap-Es for his high blood pressure and Febridyne for his pain. He continued to be prescribed medication by multiple doctors, including instances where he was not able to have his prescription filled for four days. In January, Gamble was ordered to work and continued to refuse due to his pain. Eventually, on January 31, Gamble went back to the disciplinary committee, where a medical assistant who was treating him told them Gamble was "in first-class medical condition."
Four days later, on February 4, at 8 A.M., Gamble asked to see a doctor for chest pains and "blank outs." It was not until 7:30 that night that a medical assistant examined him and ordered him hospitalized. The following day, Dr. Heaton performed an electrocardiogram; one day later Gamble was placed on Quinidine for treatment of irregular cardiac rhythm and moved to administrative segregation. On February 7, Gamble again experienced pain in his chest, left arm, and back and asked to see a doctor. The guards refused. He asked again the next day. The guards again refused. Finally, on February 9, he was allowed to see Dr. Heaton, who ordered the Quinidine continued for three more days.
=== Lawsuit ===
On February 11, 1974, Gamble initiated a Section 1983 lawsuit pro se against W. J. Estelle, Jr., the Director of the Department of Corrections; H. H. Husbands, the warden of the prison; and Dr. Ralph Gray, the medical director of the Department and chief medical officer of the prison hospital. In his complaint, Gamble alleged that he received inadequate treatment for a back injury he sustained while engaging in prison work.
The district court dismissed Gamble's complaint for failure to state a claim. The Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals reversed the dismissal, finding a cognizable claim for the insufficiency of the medical treatment. The defendants appealed to the Supreme Court of the United States, which granted certiorari.
== Opinion of the court ==
Due to the failure to state a claim, the Supreme Court addressed Gamble's complaint as if it was a claim that the state had violated his rights under the Eighth Amendment. The Court stated: "[r]egardess of how evidenced, deliberate indifference to a prisoner's serious illness or injury states a cause of action under § 1983." Thus, the Court decided whether the defendant’s conduct amounted to cruel and unusual punishment.
In a 8–1 decision, the Court reversed the court of appeals' decision regarding Dr. Gray. The Court reversed and remanded for further proceedings on whether there is a cause of action against Estelle and Husbands.
The Court found for the defendants because it viewed Gamble's failure to receive proper medical care as "inadvertent". The case nevertheless established the principle that the deliberate failure of prison authorities to address the medical needs of an inmate constitutes "cruel and unusual punishment". It held that "deliberate indifference to serious medical needs of prisoners constitutes the 'unnecessary and wanton infliction of pain'...proscribed by the Eighth Amendment."
== Subsequent developments ==
=== Helling v. McKinney ===
The Supreme Court in 1993 extended the requirement that inmates receive required medical care beyond what it established in Estelle. In Helling v. McKinney, the Court considered the case of a Nevada prisoner, "the cellmate of a five-pack-a-day smoker," who sought to be housed in an environment free of second-hand smoke. McKinney suffered from no ailment and sought no medical treatment. Justice Byron White wrote for a 7−2 majority of the Court that McKinney's claim that prison officials "have, with deliberate indifference, exposed him to levels of ETS [second hand smoke] that pose an unreasonable risk of serious damage to his future health" raised a valid claim under the Eighth Amendment. He wrote that McKinney would have to prove both the scientific facts of the dangers of exposure to second-hand smoke and prove that community standards supported him, that "it violates contemporary standards of decency to expose anyone unwillingly to such a risk. In other words, the prisoner must show that the risk of which he complains is not one that today's society chooses to tolerate." He would also have to prove that prison officials acted with deliberate indifference.
Since Helling, courts have evaluated whether prison medical care gives rise to an Eight Amendment violation using an objective and subjective standard. To establish a claim, the plaintiff must furnish evidence that objectively shows "that the seriousness of the potential harm and the likelihood of such injury were so grave that exposing anyone to such a risk would violate contemporary standards of decency." Then, the court looks at the prison's intent and asks: "[w]ere they aware of allegedly dangerous jail conditions that they deliberately ignored?"
=== Legislative updates ===
The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990 has been used by incarcerated litigants bringing claims against correctional healthcare violations. “Under Title II of the ADA, ‘no qualified individual with a disability shall […] be excluded from participation in or be denied the benefits of the services, programs, or activities of a public entity.
The Prison Litigation Reform Act (PLRA) is a federal law enacted in 1996 in the United States. The PLRA was designed to limit the ability of prisoners to file lawsuits concerning the conditions of their confinement.
== See also ==
List of United States Supreme Court cases involving mental health
DeShaney v. Winnebago County
Farmer v. Brennan
Davis v. City of Las Vegas (9th Cir. 2007)
== Notes ==
== External links ==
Works related to Estelle v. Gamble at Wikisource
Text of Estelle v. Gamble, 429 U.S. 97 (1976) is available from: Cornell Google Scholar Justia Library of Congress Oyez (oral argument audio) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Hamburg | Margaret Hamburg | Margaret Ann "Peggy" Hamburg (born July 12, 1955, Chicago, Illinois) is an American physician and public health administrator, who is serving as the chair of the board of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) and co-chair of the InterAcademy Partnership (IAP). She served as the 21st Commissioner of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration from May 2009 to April 2015.
== Early life and education ==
Hamburg is the daughter of Beatrix Hamburg and David A. Hamburg, both physicians. Her mother was the first self-identified African-American woman to be accepted at Vassar College and to earn a degree from the Yale University School of Medicine. Her father is President Emeritus of the Carnegie Corporation of New York and also served as the president of the AAAS in 1984.
Hamburg graduated from Harvard College in 1977 and earned her M.D. from Harvard Medical School in 1983. She completed her medical residency training at the New York Hospital-Cornell Medical Center and is Board Certified in Internal Medicine.
Hamburg is married to Peter Fitzhugh Brown, a computer scientist and artificial intelligence expert. The couple were married on May 23, 1992. Brown is the chief executive officer of Renaissance Technologies. Renaissance Technologies employees were collectively the top donors to President Donald Trump's 2016 campaign and collectively the third largest donors to Hillary Clinton, giving $15.5 million and $16.5 million respectively. The couple has two children together.
Hamburg was ranked on the list of The World's 100 Most Powerful Women three times—ranking 21st in 2011, 61st in 2012, and 59th in 2013.
== Career ==
Following her medical training, Hamburg moved to Washington, D.C., to begin her career in public service. She served in several roles, beginning with a position in the Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion at the US Department of Health and Human Services. She also worked as a clinical instructor for Georgetown University School of Medicine from 1986 to 1990.
From May 1989 to May 1990, she worked as assistant director of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health under Anthony Fauci. In this position, she participated in HIV/AIDS policy development and research.
In 1991, Hamburg was appointed Commissioner of the New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, where she served for six years, working first for Mayor David Dinkins and then-Mayor Rudy Giuliani. During her tenure, she worked on improved services for women and children, a needle-exchange program to reduce HIV transmission, a program to curtail the resurgence and spread of tuberculosis, and the nation's first public health bioterrorism preparedness program.
In 1997, President Bill Clinton appointed Hamburg as Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation at the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. She served in this policy role until 2001 when she became the founding Vice President for Biological Programs and later the Senior Scientist for the Nuclear Threat Initiative, a foundation created by Ted Turner dedicated to reducing the threat to public safety from nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons. In that role, Hamburg spearheaded efforts to prevent, detect, and respond to both naturally occurring and deliberately caused biological threats. She worked on reforms to reduce the dangers associated with modern bioterrorism and infectious diseases such as pandemic influenza.
In June 2001, Hamburg participated in the Operation Dark Winter exercise at Andrews Air Force Base simulating a bioterrorism event involving weaponized smallpox.
Hamburg is a member of the Medical Advisory Team for the Sidwell Friends School, where she also served on the board of trustees from 2004 to 2009. On July 13, 2005, she was announced as an advisor to the Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies by the Pew Charitable Trusts and Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars.
=== U.S. Food and Drug Administration ===
Hamburg was nominated by President Barack Obama in March 2009 to become Commissioner of the Food and Drug Administration, and was unanimously confirmed in May 2009. As FDA Commissioner she was known for advancing regulatory science, streamlining and modernizing FDA's regulatory pathways, and globalization of the agency, as well as the implementation of the Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act (2009), the Food Safety Modernization Act (2011), and a review of the system for the evaluation and approval of medical devices.
Hamburg was the longest-serving FDA commissioner since David A. Kessler, as well as the second woman to hold the position. She served at the FDA until her resignation on March 28, 2015.
During Hamburg's tenure at the FDA, the agency was criticized for speeding approvals at the expense of safety, while some industry voices indicated the pace was "justified". The FDA, under Hamburg's leadership approved 51 drugs in 2014 alone, which was noted as being "most in more than 20 years" to which Hamburg attributes to "innovative approaches".
=== National Academy of Medicine ===
In April 2015 Hamburg was appointed Foreign Secretary of the National Academy of Medicine. In December 2016, Hamburg was named president-elect for the American Association for the Advancement of Science. She served a three-year term as an officer and member of the executive committee of the AAAS Board of Directors beginning in February 2017.
In 2018, she participated in the Clade X pandemic exercise that modelled a fictional parainfluenza bioterrorism attack designed to reduce the global population. She played the role of Secretary of Health and Human Services. The event was held by the Johns Hopkins Center for Health Security. Hamburg joined the board of directors for Alnylam Pharmaceuticals in 2018.
In 2020, Hamburg participated in the strategic framework development for the Grand Challenge on Climate Change, Human Health, & Equity. Other notable participants included Peter Daszak of EcoHealth Alliance, Jeremy Farrar of Wellcome Trust, and representatives from the National Institutes of Health, Rockefeller Foundation, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, ExxonMobil, University of Hong Kong, Burroughs Wellcome Fund, World Health Organization, African Development Bank, Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and numerous universities.
Additionally, Hamburg was appointed by the Council on Foreign Relations to serve on its Independent Task Force on Improving Pandemic Preparedness, co-chaired by Sylvia Mathews Burwell and Frances Fragos Townsend. That year, she also served on the CSIS-LSHTM High-Level Panel on Vaccine Confidence and Misinformation amid the COVID-19 pandemic, co-chaired by Heidi Larson and J. Stephen Morrison.
Hamburg participated in a tabletop exercise at the March 2021 Munich Security Conference modelling a fictional international outbreak of monkeypox. The exercise was led by the Nuclear Threat Initiative and funded by Open Philanthropy. In the exercise scenario, the hypothetical outbreak was set to begin on May 15, 2022. On May 18, 2022, a real confirmed case of monkeypox was reported in an American traveller who had recently travelled to Canada.
== Awards and recognition ==
Hamburg is a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and the American College of Physicians, as well as a member of the Council on Foreign Relations and the National Academy of Medicine, where she now serves as Foreign Secretary.
Hamburg has received numerous awards, among them the National Consumers League's Trumpeter Award in 2011 and the National Center for Health Research's 2011 Health Research Policy Hero Award. She has also received the American College of Clinical Pharmacology's (ACCP) Nathaniel T. Kwit Memorial Distinguished Service Award, the New York Academy of Medicine Medal for Distinguished Contributions in Health Policy, the Radcliffe Alumnae Award and the American Lung Association's Breath of Life Award. Hamburg was the 2017 recipient of the FDAAA's Harvey W. Wiley Lecture Award for Outstanding Leadership in Advancing Public Health.
She is a distinguished senior fellow with the Center for Strategic and International Studies and holds several Honorary Degrees.
Forbes named her as one of the world's 100 most powerful women multiple times, most recently in 2014 (#51).
In 2022, Hamburg was awarded the AAAS Philip Hauge Abelson Prize which honors individuals' groundbreaking work in the areas of public service, scientific achievement or notable services to community.
== Other activities ==
=== Corporate boards ===
Alnylam Pharmaceuticals, member of the board of directors (since 2018)
=== Non-profit organizations ===
American Museum of Natural History, member of the board of trustees
AmfAR, The Foundation for AIDS Research, member of the board of directors (former)
Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, member of the Global Health Scientific Advisory Committee
Bipartisan Commission on Biodefense, commissioner
Broad Institute, member of the board of directors
Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), Member of the Commission on Strengthening America's Health Security (since 2017)
Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI), chair of the Joint Coordinating Group (–2023)
Commonwealth Fund, member of the board of directors
Centre of Regulatory Excellence (CoRE), Duke–NUS Medical School, member of the advisory board
Department of Global Health, University of Washington, member of the external advisory board
GAVI Alliance, member of the board
Harvard Medical School, member of the board of fellows
Harvard University, member of the global advisory council
Nuclear Threat Initiative (NTI), member of the board of directors
Simons Foundation, member of the scientific advisory board for the Autism Research Initiative
Urban Institute, member of the board of trustees
Wellcome Trust, member of the Strategic Advisory Board on Vaccines and Drug-resistant Infections
World Dementia Council, member of the board
Hamburg formerly served on the boards of the Rockefeller Foundation, the Rockefeller University, the Nathan Cummings Foundation, Conservation International and Henry Schein Inc. She has participated as a member of the Central Intelligence Agency's Intelligence Science Board.
She is also a member of the National Advisory Council for the COVID Collaborative.
Hamburg is affiliated with the World Economic Forum. On April 6, 2021, she participated as a speaker at a WEF event titled "The Next Frontier: Synthetic Biology".
== Legal issues ==
In 2016, Hamburg, her husband, Johnson & Johnson, and others were named in a lawsuit by Larry Klayman, who has since been suspended from practicing law in DC. The suit was dismissed with prejudice in 2017 by a District of Columbia federal judge.
== In Popular Culture ==
Hamburg is the subject of an R. Crumb comic strip entitled "Deep State Woman" that appears in his 2025 book Tales of Paranoia
== Selected publications ==
== References ==
== External links ==
FDA Biography
FORA.tv videos
Margaret Hamburg on LinkedIn
Personal Bio
Appearances on C-SPAN |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santo_Domingo,_Antioquia | Santo Domingo, Antioquia | Santo Domingo is a town and municipality in the Colombian department of Antioquia. Part of the subregion of Northeastern Antioquia, it lies at an altitude of 1,975 m (6,480 ft) above sea level.
The municipio was founded in 1778 by Don Juan Gregorio Duque. In 1858, the writer Tomás Carrasquilla was born here.
== Climate ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dickson_Prize | Dickson Prize | The Dickson Prize in Medicine and the Dickson Prize in Science were both established in 1969 by Joseph Z. Dickson and Agnes Fischer Dickson.
== Dickson Prize in Medicine ==
The Dickson Prize in Medicine is awarded annually by the University of Pittsburgh and recognizes US citizens who have made "significant, progressive contributions" to medicine. The award includes $50,000, a bronze medal, and the Dickson Prize Lecture.
=== Recipients ===
Source: University of Pittsburgh
== Dickson Prize in Science ==
The Dickson Prize in Science is awarded annually by Carnegie Mellon University and recognizes those who "have made the most progress in the scientific field in the United States for the year in question." The award is dated by the year in which it was announced, which is often the year before the lecture occurs.
=== Recipients ===
Source: Carnegie Mellon University
== Further reading ==
Dickson Prize in Science at Carnegie Mellon University
Dickson Prize in Medicine at University of Pittsburgh
== See also ==
List of medicine awards
== Notes == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BCleymaniye_Mosque#Overall_design | Süleymaniye Mosque | The Süleymaniye Mosque (Turkish: Süleymaniye Camii, pronounced [sylejˈmaːnije]) is an Ottoman imperial mosque located on the Third Hill of Istanbul, Turkey. The mosque was commissioned by Suleiman the Magnificent (r. 1520–1566) and designed by the imperial architect Mimar Sinan. An inscription specifies the foundation date as 1550 and the inauguration date as 1557, although work on the complex probably continued for a few years after this.
The Süleymaniye Mosque is one of the best-known sights of Istanbul and from its location on the Third Hill it commands an extensive view of the city around the Golden Horn. It is considered a masterpiece of Ottoman architecture and one of Mimar Sinan's greatest works. It is the largest Ottoman-era mosque in the city.
Like other Ottoman imperial foundations, the mosque is part of a larger külliye (religious and charitable complex) which included madrasas, a public kitchen, and a hospital, among others. Behind the qibla wall of the mosque is an enclosed cemetery containing the separate octagonal mausoleums of Suleiman the Magnificent and his wife Hurrem Sultan (Roxelana).
The Süleymaniye Mosque and its Associated Conservation Area is one of the four components of the UNESCO World Heritage Site "Historic Areas of Istanbul", protected under cultural criteria (i), (ii), (iii), and (iv). Located within the Historic Peninsula, the site falls under multiple conservation designations: it was nationally registered in 1981 as an urban and historic conservation area and again in 1995 as an Archaeological, Urban Archaeological, Historical and Urban Site. The area contains 920 registered properties, including monumental and civil architecture.
== History ==
=== Context ===
Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent chose the architect Mimar Sinan to create a mosque in memory of his son Şehzade (Crown Prince) Mehmed. Suleiman was so impressed with the ensuing Şehzade Mosque that he asked Sinan to design a mosque for himself too. This mosque would represent the pre-eminence of the Ottoman Empire.
In the era of the mosque's construction, Suleiman controlled a huge empire that, after his father Selim's conquest of the Mamluk Sultanate in 1517, covered much of the Islamic world, encouraging him to define his role as an Islamic ruler. During this time, he was also engaged in confrontation with the Safavids, a Shi'a dynasty in Iran, and successfully forced them to make symbolic political concesssions in the Treaty of Amasya in 1555. In this context, Suleiman promoted the Ottoman state's reliance on the Shari'a (Islamic law), the ulama (Islamic legal scholars), and orthodox Sunni ideology as a pillar of the sultan's authority and legitimacy. This is reflected in the function and organization of the madrasas and other educational facilities that were built as part of the new mosque's complex (külliye). The latter were given a much larger staff than previous madrasas and the endowment deed (waqf) for the mosque complex designated various religious officials that were to be closely associated with the Ottoman state. More generally, the monumental mosque and its extensive facilities formed a political display of the sultan's power. Among other functions, it served as an impressive setting for the sultan's public appearances at Friday prayers.
Suleiman's intention was to build a mosque that would surpass all others built by his predecessors. Suleiman appears to have represented himself at times as a "second Solomon" and his construction projects in both Jerusalem and Constantinople (Istanbul) appear to reflect this. Architecturally, Suleiman's mausoleum (built behind the mosque) references the Dome of the Rock, which was built on the site of the Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem. According to popular tradition, Justinian I boasted upon the completion of the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople: "Solomon, I have surpassed thee!" Suleiman's mosque, in turn, references the Hagia Sophia, Justinian's creation, in its design and layout. The mosque recalls the Hagia Sophia and the Bayezid II Mosque in its basic form, but as Sinan had already moved beyond this design with the Şehzade Mosque and he rarely revisited old designs during his career, it is likely that this design choice was requested by the sultan himself. The Hagia Sophia, which was converted into a mosque during the Ottoman conquest of the city in 1453, had remained an idealized symbol of sovereignty in Ottoman culture and this probably motivated Suleiman to emulate or surpass it with his own mosque.
=== Construction ===
The mosque was built on the site of the old Ottoman palace (Eski Saray) which was still in use at the time and had to be demolished. The Arabic inscription above the entrance to the prayer hall gives a foundation date of 1550 and an inauguration date of 1557. In reality, the planning of the mosque began before 1550 and parts of the complex were not completed until after 1557. The final construction expenses were recorded in 1559, relating to some of the madrasas and to the mausoleum of Suleiman's wife, Hürrem Sultan (d. 1558). The mausoleum for Suleiman himself was built after his death on the orders of his son and successor, Selim II, between 1566 and 1568.
Marble spolia from various sites in Constantinople and other parts of the empire were reportedly gathered and shipped to the construction site. Petrus Gyllius, a contemporary observer, wrote about seeing one of the four enormous porphyry columns destined for the mosque's interior being cut down to size and about marble columns being taken from the Hippodrome.
=== Damages and restorations ===
The Süleymaniye was damaged in the great fire of 1660 and was restored by Sultan Mehmed IV. Part of the dome collapsed during the earthquake of 1766. Repairs damaged what was left of Sinan's original decoration (recent cleaning has shown that he experimented with blue, before making red the dominant colour of the dome).
In 1858 and 1859, extensive repairs were made in the interior of the mosque, the minarets, the outer courtyard, and the tombs. New spaces such as the muvakkithane in the courtyard of the mosque and the custodian's room in the tomb of Sultan Suleiman were built.
During World War I the courtyard was used as a weapons depot, and when some of the ammunition ignited, the mosque suffered another fire. Not until 1956 was it fully restored. Between 1961 and 1967, a restoration of the mosque's prayer hall took place. 19th-century wall decorations were removed and earlier designs beneath the plaster were revealed. These original decorations were identified, partially uncovered, and revived, restoring some of the mosque’s 16th-century character, except for the central dome.
Over time, the mosque has faced various structural and material deteriorations, including erosion of stone surfaces, damage to minarets, corrosion of metal elements, and biological decay in wooden components. Notable issues included black crusts on facades, cracks in minarets, missing or deformed architectural details, and the use of inappropriate materials like cement-based mortars during earlier restorations. The use of cement and gypsum-based mortars as plaster materials in the repairs carried out between 1955 and the 2000s damaged the original structure. In some of these repairs, the original decorations were partially or completely destroyed and sometimes they were left under new layers of plaster and painted over. New decorations imitating the old ones or made in accordance with the taste of the period caused the original atmosphere of the structure to change.The mosque was restored again between 2007 and 2010. This was the most comprehensive restoration work that has been undertaken in moderrn times. Original mortar, plaster and decorations were strengthened and preserved in-situ, regardless of how damaged they were, and only strengthening and cleaning works were carried out in the areas where original decorations were preserved. Intervention with color was avoided as much as possible. Façades and stone elements were cleaned with dry micro-sandblasting and chemical methods. Cement-based additions were removed and replaced with stone and plaster compatible with the original materials. Corroded clamps and iron elements were substituted with stainless steel. Wooden components were disassembled, fumigated, and repaired, with varnishes removed to restore breathability. Reconstructed parts followed original designs, informed by archival and on-site remains. Minaret roofs were replaced or restored, and missing marble and stone elements were remade. During restoration works, widespread cracks were observed across the surface of the main dome, extending from above the window level and continuing along the tension zone. In addition to regular structural monitoring, stratigraphic scraping conducted for the analysis of original painted decorations revealed further details about the cracks. Following this investigation, intervention zones were identified on site. After documenting the ornamental painting in these areas, careful plaster removal was carried out along the cracks. Based on structural calculations, consolidation was performed both on the interior and exterior surfaces of the main dome using injection-based reinforcement.
== Architecture ==
=== Courtyard ===
Like the other imperial mosques in Istanbul, the entrance to the mosque is preceded by a forecourt with a central fountain. The main front gate, on the northwest side of the mosque, projects outward from and above the walls on either side. The entrance portal consists of a recess covered by a triangular vault sculpted with muqarnas, with slender pilasters on either side. Above the muqarnas canopy is an inscription featuring the Sunni version of the shahada (profession of faith). The windows on either side of the portal mark the presence of interior rooms which housed the muvakkithane (chamber of the timekeeper).
The courtyard, measuring around 47 by 57 metres (154 by 187 feet), is of exceptional grandeur with a colonnaded peristyle supported by tall columns of marble, granite and porphyry. The columns are topped by classic Ottoman "stalactite" capitals (carved with muqarnas). On the southeast side of the courtyard, the portico preceding the prayer hall is higher than those on the other three sides, giving this façade a greater monumentality. The three center arches of the northwest portico, corresponding to the front entrance, are also higher than the other arches around them. According to Godfrey Goodwin, reconciling these elements of different heights along the peristyle was Sinan's main aesthetic difficulty. The facade of the prayer hall is also decorated with rectangular Iznik tile window lunettes. It was the first building in which the Iznik tiles included the brightly coloured tomato-red clay under the glaze.
The mosque is equipped with water taps outside the courtyard, between the side entrances of the prayer hall, which are used for performing ablutions. As a result, the drinking fountain in the center of the courtyard is purely decorative. It is a rectangular marble enclosure with a ceiling. The fountain was designed so that water sprayed from the ceiling into the basin below, an unusual feature noted by some 16th-century writers.
Behind the southeast portico, the main entrance to the prayer hall is set within a recess with a complex muqarnas canopy. This is preceded by a dome with a more distinctive design than the other domes of the peristyle. The entrance portal features a foundation inscription carved onto three rectangular panels (two vertical panels on the side and an horizontal one on top). The text was composed by Ebussuud Efendi and its calligraphy, in thuluth script, was created by Hasan Çelebi, a student of Ahmed Karahisari. It states the sultan's name and titles, his genealogy, and a prayer for the continuation of the Ottoman dynasty. The wooden doors of the entrance are made of carved wood, including walnut, ebony, and olive wood, and they are inlaid with ivory and mother-of-pearl.
The side entrances of the mosque courtyard have inscriptions as well. The western gate to the courtyard has an inscription reading, "Peace be unto thee! Thou art good, so enter ye to dwell therein" (Quran 39:73). The other entrances of the mosque have similar inscriptions which compare its gates with the gates of paradise.
=== Minarets ===
Four minarets occupy the four corners of the courtyard. The two taller ones have three balconies and rise to a high of 63.8 m (209 ft) without their lead caps and 76 m (249 ft) including the caps. The balconies are supported by consoles carved with muqarnas and they have balustrades carved and pierced with geometric patterns.
The use of four minarets at the corners of a mosque courtyard had been done previously at the Üç Şerefeli Mosque in Edirne, although Sinan introduced a strict symmetry not present in the earlier example. In the history of Ottoman architecture, this many minarets were only added to some mosques endowed by a sultan (princes and princesses could construct two minarets; others only one). The minarets have a total of ten balconies, which is said to reflect the fact that Suleiman I was the 10th Ottoman sultan. By making the outer minarets shorter than the inner ones, Sinan also increased the overall visual impression of a structure rising towards the central dome.
=== Prayer hall ===
==== Overall design ====
The interior of the mosque is almost a square, measuring 58.5 by 57.5 metres (192 by 189 feet), forming a single vast space dominated by its central dome. The dome is 53 metres (174 feet) high and has a diameter of 26.5 metres (86.9 feet) which is exactly half the height. The square space directly below this dome occupies exactly half the total area of the prayer hall. The layout emulates the dome design of the Hagia Sophia and also follows the layout of the earlier Bayezid II Mosque: the central dome is flanked by semi-domes both in front and behind, covering the main central space, while a row of smaller and lower domes covers each of the two lateral aisles on either side. Between these smaller domes and the main dome are large tympanas filled with windows. This repetition of an older building plan is uncharacteristic of Sinan and may have been the result of Suleiman's personal wishes.
Sinan refined the design by repeating the innovations he had previously used in the Şehzade Mosque. The dome and semi-domes are supported by a limited number of load-bearing pillars and buttresses, allowing for more windows in the walls between them and minimizing any obstructive divisions within the prayer space. He dissimulated many of the load-bearing buttresses by incorporating them into the outer walls, where they project partly inwards and partly outwards so as to make them appear less massive from either side. He built colonnaded galleries between them both on the outside and on the inside, thus further obscuring their presence. Because the supporting buttresses are dissimulated within the walls of the building, they do not dominate and obscure its profile as they do at the Hagia Sophia. Thus, on the outside, the arrangement of arches, turrets, and semi-domes forms a more harmonious, almost pyramid-like progression to the central dome, emphasizing the latter as the visual culmination of the structure. The exception to this is the southeast wall (facing the cemetery), where the buttresses are fully situated on the outside in order to maintain a flat surface for the qibla wall on the inside.
Sinan also introduced greater variety and detail to the mosque's design than in previous works. For example, in the domes covering the lateral aisles, he alternated between domes of different sizes, thus introducing a certain visual rhythm. The spaces in front of the side entrances of the prayer hall, between the pairs of massive buttresses at the corners of the building, are also covered by domes of alternating designs: a circular dome in the middle flanked by two smaller elliptical domes on the side. Moreover, by adding these four side entrances at the corners – instead of two side entrances at the middle of the lateral walls, as was done in the Şehzade Mosque – Sinan found a better use for these corner areas that were typically neglected or omitted in other centrally-planned buildings. On the outside, the two level-galleries have wide projecting eaves which shelter water taps used for ablutions, another innovation.
==== Decoration ====
The interior decoration is restrained and this seems to have been deliberate on Sinan's part. The documents of the mosque's waqf (religious endowment) explicitly claim that ostentatious ornamentation of gold or jewels was avoided in order to conform with the traditions of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It's possible that Suleiman and Sinan regarded calligraphy as the primary form of decoration, in the spirit of a period when the Ottoman sultan championed a more austere Sunni orthodoxy. The calligraphy of the mosque is almost entirely in monumental thuluth form and is attributed to Hasan Çelebi, whom Sinan may have favoured.
Most or all of the mosque's original painted decoration has been destroyed in the course of later damages and repairs. Very little is known directly about the original painted decoration. The present-day painting of the central dome dates from a 19th-century restoration by the Fossati brothers, who chose to roughly imitate Ottoman Baroque decoration. Traces of the original decoration were found during 20th-century cleaning and suggest that blue colours were used before Sinan replaced them with predominantly red colours. The Fossati-era painting has been maintained in more recent restorations as it is now considered part of the mosque's history. Elsewhere, the voussoirs of the mosque's stone arches are painted in red and white to imitate marble. Except for the inscriptions carved in stone, most of the other calligraphy found throughout the mosque is painted and was thus likely restored in later periods. The restorations appear to have been careful and probably retain some aspects of the original compositions.
The stonework of the mosque is of high quality. The columns have classic Ottoman "stalactite" or muqarnas-carved capitals. On both the front and back sides of the four main pillars are tall and sharply-pointed muqarnas niches. Water faucets are also set into the pillars.
The mihrab consists of the traditional niche with a muqarnas hood. This is framed inside a marble surface in the same shape as the central (northwest) gate of the mosque's courtyard (aligned on the same axis as the mihrab). The edges of this simple marble composition are sculpted into fluted columns that terminate at the top with crescent symbols, while an arabesque runs along the top edge in between.
Next to the mihrab is the minbar, which is crafted in traditional Ottoman form: a narrow staircase, with triangular sides, climbing from a portal to a canopy. The decoration is simplified in comparison with more ornate Ottoman examples, limited to the geometric patterning of the balustrades and the gilded stars on a blue ground covering the conical cap of the canopy. Located nearby are a simple platform or balcony for the sultan (hünkar mahfili) and another platform for the muezzin (muezzin mahfili), all made of marble with only a few discrete embellishments.
Iznik tile revetments are only used around the mihrab. The repeating rectangular tiles have a stencil-like floral pattern on a white ground. The flowers are mainly blue with turquoise, red, and black, but green is not used. On either side of the mihrab are large Iznik-tile calligraphic roundels with text from the Al-Fatiha surah of the Quran 1:1-7.
The most elaborate stained-glass windows are found on the qibla wall, near the mihrab. They are generally believed to have been the work of Sarhos Ibrahim, but some of the present-day windows have likely been restored at later periods. They are designed to display the names of God (Allah), the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and the four Rashidun caliphs.
The names of God and Muhammad are repeated in inscriptions above the lower windows, emphasizing God as the source of Islamic law (Shari'a) and Muhammad as the preacher of that law. The names of the four caliphs are also repeated on the mosque's four main pillars, recalling the four pillars of Sunni theology. The selection of these inscriptions, along with others across the mosque, emphasize the orthodox Sunni character of the mosque, reflecting in part the Ottoman rivalry with the contemporary Safavids, the main Shi'a dynasty to the east.
== Complex ==
=== Mausoleums ===
Behind the qibla wall (southeast wall) of the mosque is an enclosed cemetery which contains the separate mausoleums (türbe) of Sultan Suleiman I and his wife Hürrem Sultan (Roxelana).
The large octagonal mausoleum of Suleiman the Magnificent bears the date of 1566, the year of his death, but it was probably not completed until the following year. It is one of the largest Ottoman mausoleums and its design has been compared to the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, on which it may have been modeled on the latter. The mausoleum is surrounded by a peristyle (portico) with a projecting roof supported by 24 columns; the entrance faces towards the east rather than the usual north. Beneath the portico on either side of the entrance are Iznik tiled panels. These are the earliest known tiles decorated with the bright emerald green colour that would become a common feature of Iznik ceramics. The dome, 14 meters in diameter, is the first major example of a double-shelled dome in Sinan's architecture. The interior has a false dome supported on eight columns within the outer shell. There are 14 windows at ground level and an additional 24 windows with stained glass set in the tympana under the arches. The walls and pendentives are covered with polychrome Iznik tiles. Above the windows runs a band of inscriptive tiled panels. The text quotes the Throne verse and the following two verses from the Quran 2:255-258. In addition to the tomb of Suleiman the Magnificent, the mausoleum houses the tomb of his daughter Mihrimah Sultan and those of two later sultans: Suleiman II (ruled 1687–1691) and Ahmed II (ruled 1691–1695).
Hurrem Sultan's octagonal mausoleum is dated 1558, the year of her death. The 16-sided interior is decorated with Iznik tiles. The seven rectangular windows are surmounted by tiled lunettes and epigraphic panels. Between the windows are eight mihrab-like hooded niches. The ceiling is now whitewashed but was probably once painted in bright colours.
=== Other buildings ===
As with other imperial mosques in Istanbul, the Süleymaniye Mosque was designed as a külliye, or complex, with adjacent structures to service both religious and cultural needs. The mosque incorporates the everyday needs for an Islamic community such as prayer, education, health and much more. Due to the sloping nature of the site around the mosque, many of the structures are built above massive substructures that created a more level ground. Vaulted rooms existed in these substructures and were probably put to various uses.
The original complex consisted of the mosque itself, four madrasas or religious colleges (medrese), a small primary school (mekteb), a medical school (darüttıb), a hospital (darüşşifa or timarhane), a public kitchen (imaret) that served food to the poor, a caravanserai or guesthouse (tabhane), public baths (hamam), a specialized school (darülhadis) for the learning of hadith, a small domed building for the employees of the cemetery (attached to the latter's southeast wall), and rows of small shops integrated into the outer edges and along the street on the southwest side of the mosque. Many of these structures are still in existence. The former imaret has been converted into a restaurant. The former hospital is now a printing factory owned by the Turkish Army. Just outside the complex walls, to the north is the tomb of architect Sinan. It was completely restored in 1922.
Most of the buildings are classical Ottoman courtyard structures consisting of a rectangular courtyard surrounded by a domed peristyle portico giving access to domed rooms. In the madrasas, Sinan modified some details of the typical layout for functional reasons. The Salis Medrese and Rabı Medrese, located on the northeast side of the mosque where the ground slopes down towards the Golden Horn, have a "stepped" design in which the courtyard descends in three terraces connected by stairs while the domed rooms are built at progressively lower levels alongside it. The current remains of the hadith school (darülhadis) have been crudely restored. It consists of a long line of small vaulted rooms on the eastern edge of the complex. According to Doğan Kuban, the original school must have had a different appearance. The triangular plaza between this structure and the courtyard was once used for weekly wrestling matches.
The two other madrasas, on the southwest side, are known as the Sani Medrese and Evvel Medrese and have regular floor plans on flatter ground. Of the medical school (darüttıb or Tıp Medrese) next to these, not much has survived except for the rooms on the northeast side. All three of these madrasas are fronted by shops on their northeast sides (the sides facing the mosque), which contributed revenues to the complex. This created a market street known as the Tiryaki Çarșısı, the "Antidote Market", due to the former presence of coffee houses and shops devoted to the smoking of hashish. A small primary school (sibyan mekteb), consisting of two domed rooms, is attached to the eastern corner of the Evvel Medrese, though separated from the main building by a narrow garden.
== Burials ==
Suleiman I (1494–1566)
Hürrem Sultan (1505–1558), Suleiman's wife
Mihrimah Sultan (1522–1578), Suleiman and Hürrem's daughter
Ahmed II (1642/43–1695)
Rabia Sultan (d. 1712), Ahmed's consort
Asiye Sultan (1694–1695), Ahmed II and Rabia's daughter
Suleiman II, (1642–1691)
Aşub Sultan (d. 1690), Suleiman II's mother
== See also ==
List of Friday mosques designed by Mimar Sinan
List of mosques in Istanbul
List of tallest structures built before the 20th century
== References ==
== Sources ==
== Further reading ==
== External links ==
Süleymaniye Külliyesi, Archnet
Süleymaniye Mosque ve Mimar Sinan (in Turkish)
Suleymaniye Mosque Virtual Walking Tour, Saudi Aramco World.
Photographs by Dick Osseman |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anantnag_district | Anantnag district | Anantnag district is an administrative district of Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir in the disputed Kashmir region. It is one of ten districts which make up the Kashmir Valley. The district headquarters is Anantnag city. As of 2011, it was the third most populous district of Jammu and Kashmir (out of 22), after Jammu and Srinagar.
== Administration ==
At the time of the 2011 census, Anantnag district comprised: Anantnag, Bijbehara, Dooru, Kokernag, Pahalgam, and Shangus tehsils. The district consisted of seven blocks: Breng, Shangus, Achabal, Dachnipora, Qazigund, Khoveripora and Shahabad.
== Geography ==
Anantnag district has a total area of 3,574 square kilometres (1,380 sq mi). The district is bordered by Kargil district and Kishtwar district in the east, Doda district and Ramban district to the south and Ganderbal district to the north and Kulgam, Srinagar, Pulwama and Shopian districts to the west.
== Climate ==
Anantnag features a moderate climate (Köppen climate classification). Anantnag's climate is largely defined by its geographic location, with the towering Karakoram to its east and the Pirpanjal range to the south. It can be generally described as cool in the spring and autumn, mild in the summer, and cold in the winter. As a large city with significant differences in Geolocation among various districts, the weather is often cooler in the hilly areas of the east as compared to the flat northern part of Anantnag.
Summer is usually mild and with a little rain, but relative humidity is generally high and the nights are cool. The precipitation occurs throughout the year but no one month is particularly dry. The hottest month is July (mean minimum temperature 6 °C, mean maximum temperature 32 °C) and the coldest are December–January (mean minimum temperature −15 °C, mean maximum temperature 0 °C).
Weather conditions are unpredictable. The record high temperature is 33 °C and the record low is −18 °C. On 5–6 January 2012, after years of relatively little snow, a wave of heavy snow and low temperatures shocked the city covering it in a thick layer of snow and ice, forcing them to officially declare a state of emergency and calling the following two days (6 and 7 January) off for the whole valley.
Anantnag has seen an increase in relative humidity and annual precipitation in the last few years. This is most likely because of the commercial afforestation projects which also includes expanding parks and green cover. The suburb parts of Anantnag are lusher than the central part.
Anantnag District possesses all the typical characteristics of the climate of Kashmir Valley as a whole. "In his introduction to the Rajtarangini Kulan or Kalhána, Pandit says about the climate of Valley: 'It is a country where the sun shines mildly, being the place created by Kashayapa as if for his glory. High school-houses, the saffron, iced water and grapes, which are rare even in heaven, are common here. Kailasa is the best place in the three worlds, Himalaya the best part of Kailásá, and Kashmir the best place in Himalaya.'"
"Sir Walter Lawrence writes in his book The Valley of Kashmir that in latitude Kashmir corresponds with Peshawar, Baghdad and Damascus in Asia: with Fez in Morocco: and South Carolina in America, but it presents none of the characteristics of those countries. People have linked the climate of Kashmir to that of Switzerland until the end of May, and of Southern France in July and August. But it is impossible to speak of Kashmir as possessing any one climate or group of characteristics. Every hundred feet of elevation brings some new phase of climate and of vegetation."
== Politics ==
Anantnag district has 7 assembly constituencies: Anantnag, Anantnag West, Dooru, Kokernag, Shangus-Anantnag East, Bijbehara and Pahalgam. Anantnag district has one Lok Sabha constituency. The present MP of Anantnag-Rajouri is Mian Altaf Ahmed Larvi of the JKNC. The DDC chairperson of the district is Yousuf Gorsi of JKNC which is part of the PAGD.
== Demographics ==
According to the 2011 census Anantnag district had a population of 1,078,692, roughly equal to the nation of Cyprus or the US state of Rhode Island. This gives it a ranking of 425th in India (out of a total of 640).
The district has a population density of 375 inhabitants per square kilometre (970/sq mi). Its population growth rate over the decade 2001-2011 was 37.48%. Anantnag had a sex ratio of 927 females for every 1,000 males (this varies with religion) and a literacy rate of 64.32% in 2011. 26.23% of the population lives in urban areas. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes make up 0.17% and 10.75% of the population respectively.
Anantnag city with population of 108,505 was the largest city in the district. Anantnag Urban Agglomeration had a population of 158,785.
The predominant language of the district is Kashmiri which is spoken by 85.10% of the population. The second largest language is Gujari which is 11.46%, while Pahari is third with 1.21% of the population.
== Transportation ==
=== Air ===
The nearest airport is Sheikh ul-Alam International Airport in Srinagar located 60 kilometres from district headquarters Anantnag. There is a nearby airbase in Awantipora which is used by the Indian Air Force.
=== Rail ===
Anantnag district is very well-connected with railways. The Jammu–Baramulla line passes through the district. There are numerous railway stations throughout the district.
=== Road ===
The district is well-connected with roads and highways. The NH 44, NH 244 and NH 501 pass through Anantnag district alongside other intra-district roads.
== Villages ==
Khiram
== Gallery ==
== See also ==
Anantnag railway station
Kashmir Railway
Kokernag
Martand Sun Temple
Pahalgam
Qazigund
Sinthan
Verinag
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzo_Ferrari#:~:text=When%20he%20was%2010%20he%20witnessed%20Felice%20Nazzaro%27s%20win%20at%20the%201908%20Circuito%20di%20Bologna%2C%20an%20event%20which%20inspired%20him%20to%20become%20a%20racing%20driver. | Enzo Ferrari | Enzo Anselmo Giuseppe Maria Ferrari (; Italian: [ˈɛntso anˈsɛlmo ferˈraːri]; 18 February 1898 – 14 August 1988) was an Italian racing driver and entrepreneur, the founder of Scuderia Ferrari in Grand Prix motor racing, and subsequently of the Ferrari automobile marque. Under his leadership in Formula One, Ferrari won nine World Drivers' Championships and eight World Constructors' Championships during his lifetime.
He was widely known as il Commendatore or il Drake, a nickname given by British opponents in reference to the English privateer Francis Drake, due to Ferrari's demonstrated ability and determination in achieving significant sports results with his small company. In his final years, he was often referred to as l'Ingegnere ("the Engineer"), il Grande Vecchio ("the Grand Old Man"), il Cavaliere ("the Knight"), il Mago ("the Wizard"), and il Patriarca ("the Patriarch").
== Early life ==
Enzo Anselmo Giuseppe Maria Ferrari was born on 18 February 1898 in Modena, Italy, while his birth certificate states 20 February. His parents were Alfredo Ferrari and Adalgisa Bisbini; he had an older brother Alfredo Junior (Dino). The family lived in via Paolo Ferrari n°85, next to the mechanical workshop founded by Alfredo, who worked for the nearby railways. This site is now the Enzo Ferrari Museum.
Alfredo Senior was the son of a grocer from Carpi, and began a workshop fabricating metal parts at the family home.
Enzo grew up with little formal education. Unlike his brother, he preferred working in his father's workshop and participated in the construction of the canopy at the Giulianova station in 1914. He had ambitions of becoming an operetta tenor, sports journalist, or racing driver. When he was 10 he witnessed Felice Nazzaro's win at the 1908 Circuito di Bologna, an event which inspired him to become a racing driver. During World War I, he served in the 3rd Mountain Artillery Regiment of the Italian Army. His father Alfredo, and his older brother, Alfredo Jr., died in 1916 as a result of a widespread Italian flu outbreak. Ferrari became seriously sick himself during the 1918 flu pandemic and was consequently discharged from the Italian service.
== Racing career ==
"Second place is the first loser".(Original: "Il secondo è il primo dei perdenti".)
After the collapse of his family's carpentry business, Ferrari searched for a job in the car industry. He unsuccessfully volunteered his services to Fiat in Turin, eventually settling for a job as test-driver for CMN (Costruzioni Meccaniche Nazionali), a car manufacturer in Milan which rebuilt used truck bodies into small passenger cars. He was later promoted to race car driver and made his competitive debut in the 1919 Parma-Poggio di Berceto hillclimb race, where he finished fourth in the three-litre category at the wheel of a 2.3-litre 4-cylinder C.M.N. 15/20. On 23 November of the same year, he took part in the Targa Florio but had to retire after his car's fuel tank developed a leak. Due to the large number of retirements, he finished 9th.
In 1920, Ferrari joined the racing department of Alfa Romeo as a driver. Ferrari won his first Grand Prix in 1923 in Ravenna on the Savio Circuit. 1924 was his best season, with three wins, including Ravenna, Polesine and the Coppa Acerbo in Pescara. Deeply shocked by the death of Ugo Sivocci in 1923 and Antonio Ascari in 1925, Ferrari, by his admission, continued to race half-heartedly. At the same time, he developed a taste for the organisational aspects of Grand Prix racing. Following the birth of his son Alfredo (Dino) in 1932, Ferrari decided to retire and form a team of superstar drivers, including Giuseppe Campari and Tazio Nuvolari. This team was called Scuderia Ferrari (founded by Enzo in 1929) and acted as a racing division for Alfa Romeo. The team was very successful, thanks to excellent cars like the Alfa Romeo P3 and to the talented drivers, like Nuvolari. Ferrari retired from competitive driving having participated in 41 Grands Prix with a record of 11 wins.
During this period, the prancing horse emblem appeared on his team's cars. The emblem had been created and sported by Italian fighter plane pilot Francesco Baracca. During World War I, Baracca's mother gave her son a necklace with the prancing horse on it before takeoff. Baracca was shot down and killed by an Austrian aeroplane in 1918. In memory of his death, Ferrari used the prancing horse to create the emblem that would become the world-famous Ferrari shield. Initially displayed on Ferrari's Alfa Romeo racing car, the shield was first seen on a factory Ferrari in 1947.
== Building Ferrari ==
Alfa Romeo agreed to partner with Ferrari's racing team until 1933, when financial constraints forced them to withdraw their support – a decision subsequently retracted thanks to the intervention of Pirelli. Despite the quality of the Scuderia drivers, the team struggled to compete with Auto Union and Mercedes. Although the German manufacturers dominated the era, Ferrari's team achieved a notable victory in 1935 when Tazio Nuvolari beat Rudolf Caracciola and Bernd Rosemeyer on their home turf at the German Grand Prix.
In 1937 Scuderia Ferrari was dissolved and Ferrari returned to Alfa's racing team, named "Alfa Corse". Alfa Romeo decided to regain full control of its racing division, retaining Ferrari as Sporting Director. After a disagreement with Alfa's managing director Ugo Gobbato, Ferrari left in 1939 and founded Auto-Avio Costruzioni, a company supplying parts to other racing teams. Although a contract clause restricted him from racing or designing cars for four years, Ferrari managed to manufacture two cars for the 1940 Mille Miglia, which were driven by Alberto Ascari and Lotario Rangoni. With the outbreak of World War II, Ferrari's factory was forced to undertake war production for Mussolini's fascist government. Following Allied bombing of the factory, Ferrari relocated from Modena to Maranello. At the end of the war, Ferrari decided to start making cars bearing his name, and founded Ferrari S.p.A. in 1947.
Enzo decided to battle the dominating Alfa Romeos and race with his own team. The team's open-wheel debut took place in Turin in 1948 and the first win came later in the year in Lago di Garda. The first major victory came at the 1949 24 Hours of Le Mans, with a Ferrari 166 MM driven by Luigi Chinetti and (Baron Selsdon of Scotland) Peter Mitchell-Thomson. In 1950 Ferrari enrolled in the newly born Drivers World Championship and is the only team to remain continuously present since its introduction. Ferrari won his first world championship Grand Prix with José Froilán González at Silverstone in 1951. Apocryphally, Enzo cried like a baby when his team finally defeated the mighty Alfetta 159. The first championship came in 1952, with Alberto Ascari, a task that was repeated one year later. In 1953 Ferrari made his only attempt at the Indianapolis 500, but the car driven by Ascari crashed on lap 41 of the race.
In order to finance his racing endeavors in Formula One as well as in other events such as the Mille Miglia and Le Mans, the company started selling sports cars.
Ferrari's decision to continue racing in the Mille Miglia brought the company new victories and greatly increased public recognition. However, increasing speeds, poor roads, and nonexistent crowd protection eventually spelled disaster for both the race and Ferrari. During the 1957 Mille Miglia, near the town of Guidizzolo, a 4.0-litre Ferrari 335 S driven by Alfonso de Portago was traveling at 250 km/h (160 mph) when it blew a tyre and crashed into the roadside crowd, killing de Portago, his co-driver and nine spectators, five of whom were children. In response, Enzo Ferrari and Englebert, the tyre manufacturer, were charged with manslaughter in a lengthy criminal prosecution that was finally dismissed in 1961.
Deeply unsatisfied with the way motorsports were covered in the Italian press, in 1961 Ferrari supported Bologna-based publisher Luciano Conti's decision to start a new publication, Autosprint. Ferrari himself regularly contributed to the magazine for a few years.
Many of Ferrari's greatest victories came at Le Mans (nine victories, including six in a row in 1960–1965) and in Formula One during the 1950s and 1960s, with the successes of Juan Manuel Fangio (1956), Mike Hawthorn (1958), and Phil Hill (1961).
== The Great Walkout ==
Enzo Ferrari's strong personality and controversial management style became notorious in 1962. Following a rather weak title defence of Phil Hill's 1961 world title, sales manager Girolamo Gardini, together with manager Romolo Tavoni, chief engineer Carlo Chiti, sports car development chief Giotto Bizzarrini and other key figures in the company left Ferrari to found the rival car manufacturer and racing team Automobili Turismo e Sport (ATS). Based in Bologna, and financially supported by Count Giovanni Volpi, ATS managed to lure away Phil Hill and Giancarlo Baghetti from Ferrari, who responded by promoting junior engineers like Mauro Forghieri, Sergio Scaglietti and Giampaolo Dallara, and hiring Ludovico Scarfiotti, Lorenzo Bandini, Willy Mairesse and John Surtees to drive his Formula One cars.
The "great walkout" came at an especially difficult time for Ferrari. At the urging of Chiti, the company was developing a new 250-based model. Even if the car would be finished, it was unclear if it could be raced successfully. Ferrari's shakeup proved to be successful. The mid-engined Dino racers laid the foundation for Forghieri's dominant 250-powered 250 P. Driver John Surtees won the world title in 1964 following a tense battle with Jim Clark and Graham Hill. The Dino road cars sold well, and other models like the 275 and Daytona were on the way. Conversely, ATS, following a troubled Formula One 1963 campaign, with both cars retiring four times in five races, folded at the end of the year.
In 1998, Tavoni declared in an interview that he and the remainder of Ferrari's senior figures did not leave on their initiative, but were ousted following a disagreement with Ferrari over the role of his wife in the company. He said: "Our mistake was to go to a lawyer and write him a letter, instead of openly discussing the issue with him. We knew that his wife wasn't well. We should have been able to deal with it in a different way. When he called the meeting to fire us, he had already nominated our successors."
== Merging with Fiat ==
By the end of the 1960s, increasing financial difficulties and the problem of racing in many categories and having to meet new safety and clean air emissions requirement for road car production and development, caused Ferrari to start looking for a business partner. In 1969 Ferrari sold 50% of his company to Fiat S.p.A., with the caveat that he would remain 100% in control of the racing activities and that Fiat would pay a sizable subsidy until his death for use of his Maranello and Modena production plants. Ferrari had previously offered Ford the opportunity to buy the firm in 1963 for US$18 million ($184,871,739 in 2024 dollars ) but, late in negotiations, Ferrari withdrew once he realized that Ford would not agree to grant him independent control of the company racing department. Ferrari became a joint-stock company, and Fiat took a small share in 1965. In 1969, Fiat increased their holding to 50% of the company. In 1988 Fiat's holding rose to 90%.
Following the agreement with Fiat, Ferrari stepped down as managing director of the road car division in 1971. In 1974, Ferrari appointed Luca Cordero di Montezemolo as Sporting Director/Formula One Team manager. Montezemolo eventually assumed the presidency of Ferrari in 1992, a post he held until September 2014. Clay Regazzoni was runner-up in 1974, while Niki Lauda won the championship in 1975 and 1977. In 1977, Ferrari was criticized in the press for replacing World Champion Lauda with newcomer Gilles Villeneuve. Ferrari claimed that Villeneuve's aggressive driving style reminded him of Tazio Nuvolari. These feelings were reinforced after the 1979 French Grand Prix when Villeneuve finished second after an intense battle with René Arnoux. According to technical director Mauro Forghieri, "When we returned to Maranello, Ferrari was ecstatic. I have never seen him so happy for a second place."
== The Modena Aerautodrome ==
In the early 1970s, Ferrari, aided by fellow Modena constructors Maserati and Automobili Stanguellini, demanded that the Modena Town Council and Automobile Club d'Italia upgrade the Aerautodromo di Modena, the reasoning being that the race track was obsolete and inadequate to test modern racing cars. The proposal was initially discussed with interest, but eventually stalled due to lack of political will. Ferrari then proceeded to buy the land adjacent to his factory and build the Fiorano Circuit, a 3 km track still in use to test Ferrari racing and road cars.
== Final years ==
After Jody Scheckter won the title in 1979, the team experienced a disastrous 1980 campaign. In 1981 Ferrari attempted to revive his team's fortunes by switching to turbo engines. In 1982, the second turbo-powered Ferrari, the 126C2, showed great promise. However, driver Gilles Villeneuve was killed in an accident during qualifying for the Belgian Grand Prix in Zolder, in May. In August, at Hockenheim, teammate Didier Pironi had his career cut short in a violent end over end flip on the misty back straight after hitting the Renault F1 driven by Alain Prost. Pironi was leading the driver's championship at the time; he would lose the lead and the championship by five points as he sat out the remaining five races. The Scuderia went on to win the Constructors Championship at the end of the season and in 1983, with driver René Arnoux in contention for the championship until the very last race. Michele Alboreto finished second in 1985, but the team would not see championship glory again before Ferrari's death in 1988. The final race win Ferrari saw before his death was when Gerhard Berger and Alboreto scored a 1–2 finish at the final round of the 1987 season in Australia.
== Auto racing and management controversies ==
Ferrari's management style was autocratic and he was known to pit drivers against each other in the hope of improving their performance. Some critics believe that Ferrari deliberately increased psychological pressure on his drivers, encouraging intra-team rivalries and fostering an atmosphere of intense competition for the position of number one driver. "He thought that psychological pressure would produce better results for the drivers", said Ferrari team driver Tony Brooks. "He would expect a driver to go beyond reasonable limits... You can drive to the maximum of your ability, but once you start psyching yourself up to do things that you don't feel are within your ability it gets stupid. There was enough danger at that time without going over the limit." According to Mario Andretti, "[Ferrari] just demanded results. But he was a guy that also understood when the cars had shortcomings. He was one that could always appreciate the effort that a driver made, when you were just busting your butt, flat out, flinging the car, and all that. He knew and saw that. He was all-in. Had no other interest in life outside of motor racing and all of the intricacies of it. Somewhat misunderstood in many ways because he was so demanding, so tough on everyone, but at the end of the day he was correct. Always correct. And that's why you had the respect that you had for him."
Between 1955 and 1971 eight Ferrari drivers were killed driving Ferrari racing cars: Alberto Ascari, Eugenio Castellotti, Alfonso de Portago, Luigi Musso, Peter Collins, Wolfgang von Trips, Lorenzo Bandini and Ignazio Giunti. Although such a high death toll was not unusual in motor racing in those days, the Vatican newspaper L'Osservatore Romano described Ferrari as being like the god Saturn, who consumed his own sons. In Ferrari's defence, contemporary F1 race car driver Stirling Moss commented: "I can't think of a single occasion where a (Ferrari) driver's life was taken because of mechanical failure."
In public Ferrari was careful to acknowledge the drivers who risked their life for his team, insisting that praise should be shared equally between car and driver for any race won. However, his longtime friend and company accountant, Carlo Benzi, related that privately Ferrari would say that "the car was the reason for any success".
Following the deaths of Giuseppe Campari in 1933 and Alberto Ascari in 1955, both of whom he had a strong personal relationship with, he chose not to get too close to his drivers, out of fear of emotionally hurting himself. Later in life, he relented his position and grew very close to Clay Regazzoni and especially Gilles Villeneuve.
== Personal life ==
Enzo Ferrari lived a reserved life and rarely granted interviews. He seldom left Modena and Maranello and never went to any Grands Prix outside of Italy after the 1950s (because his passport was confiscated while he was on trial following the Guidizzolo tragedy). He was usually seen at the Grands Prix at Monza, near Milan, and Imola, not far from the Ferrari factory, where the circuit was named after the late Dino. His last known trip abroad was in 1982, when he went to Paris to broker a compromise between the warring FISA and FOCA parties. He never flew in an aeroplane (always using a car or train for their travels) and never set foot in a lift (always preferred using stairs, although he himself said it was more tiring).
Ferrari met his future wife, Laura Dominica Garello (c. 1900–1978) in Turin. They lived together for two years, and married on 28 April 1923. According to Brock Yates' 1991 book Enzo Ferrari: The Man and the Machine, Ferrari married to keep up appearances for the sake of his career, as divorce was frowned upon in the predominantly Catholic Italy, and sought sexual conquests not so much for pleasure but for the gratification of his ego. According to Yates, Ferrari once remarked to racing manager Romolo Tavoni that "a man should always have two wives", and at one point in 1961, when he was dating three women simultaneously, he wrote, "I am convinced that when a man tells a woman he loves her, he only means that he desires her and that the only perfect love in this world is that of a father for his son", a comment that came several years after the death of his first son.
Ferrari and Laura's one son, Alfredo "Dino", who was born in 1932 and groomed as Enzo's successor, suffered from ill-health and died from muscular dystrophy in 1956. According to Time magazine, Ferrari and Laura's love for their son is what kept them together. Although Dino never raced competitively, his father provided him with a fleet of cars that he raced for pleasure. He also designed engine parts while bedridden. Ferrari and Laura remained married until her death in 1978. John Nikas, writer and expert on the history of cars who founded the British Sports Car Hall of Fame, said of Ferrari, "His real loves in life were racing and Dino."
Enzo had a second son, Piero, with his mistress Lina Lardi in 1945. As divorce was illegal in Italy until 1970, Piero could only be recognized as Enzo's son after Laura's death in 1978. Piero Lardi's existence was kept a secret known only to a few of his father's confidantes. According to Yates, "There is no question that at some point in the late 1950s, Laura Ferrari discovered her husband's second life", and openly derided him as a "bastard" when she saw him in a factory. After Laura's death, Ferrari adopted Piero, who took the name Piero Lardi Ferrari. As of 2023, he is vice chairman of the company, and owns a 10% share of it. Piero told the Los Angeles Times that Michael Mann's 2023 biographical film Ferrari was accurate, in particular in its depiction of his father's drive, saying, "My father was a person who was always looking ahead, moving forward, never going back."
Ferrari was made a Cavaliere del Lavoro in 1952, to add to his honours of Cavaliere and Commendatore in the 1920s. He also received several honorary degrees, including the Hammarskjöld Prize in 1962, the Columbus Prize in 1965, and the De Gasperi Award in 1987. He was posthumously inducted into the International Motorsports Hall of Fame (1994) and the Automotive Hall of Fame (2000).
== Death ==
Ferrari died on 14 August 1988 in Maranello at the age of 90, of leukemia. Because he was a private person, and because he feared possible popular protests due to the fact that Ferrari's team had been beaten by McLaren in every race of the 1988 season so far, Enzo expressed the wish for his death to be reported in the media only on 16 August, the day after his burial (witnessed only by his family) on 15 August.
He witnessed the launch of the Ferrari F40 shortly before his death, which was dedicated as a symbol of his achievements in 40 years. In 2002 Ferrari began production of the Ferrari Enzo, named after its founder.
The Italian Grand Prix was held just weeks after Ferrari's death, and the result was a 1–2 finish for Ferrari, with the Austrian Gerhard Berger leading home Italian and Milan native Michele Alboreto; it was the only race that McLaren did not win that season. Since Ferrari's death, the Scuderia Ferrari team has remained successful.
The team won the Constructors' Championship every year from 1999 to 2004, and in both 2007 and 2008. Michael Schumacher won the World Drivers' Championship with Scuderia Ferrari every year from 2000 to 2004, and Kimi Räikkönen won the title with the team in 2007.
== Racing record ==
=== Grand Prix wins ===
== In popular culture ==
The 2003 film Ferrari was based on his life. He is portrayed by Sergio Castellitto.
Augusto Dallara played Enzo in a bit part in the 2013 film Rush.
In the November 2019 film Ford v Ferrari, Ferrari is portrayed by Italian actor Remo Girone.
Gabriel Byrne played Enzo Ferrari in the 2022 film Lamborghini: The Man Behind the Legend.
The 2023 film Ferrari is based on his life. He is played by Adam Driver, who replaced Christian Bale and Hugh Jackman, also considered for the role.
A popular joke among fans of association football holds that German footballer Mesut Özil is the reincarnation of Enzo Ferrari. Özil bears a striking resemblance to Ferrari, and was born two months after Ferrari's death.
== See also ==
Ferrari (2003 film)
The Snake and the Stallion
Ferrari (2023 film)
== Notes ==
== References ==
Ferrari, Enzo (1964). My terrible joys: The Enzo Ferrari memoirs. Macmillan Publishing.
Ferrari, Enzo (1985). Piloti, che gente... Conti Editore.
Dal Monte, Luca (2018). Enzo Ferrari. Power, Politics, and the Making of an Automotive Empire. David Bull Publishing.
Laban, Brian (2002). The Ultimate History of Ferrari. Parragon Publishing.
Schleifer, Jay (1992). Cool Classics: Ferrari. Macmillan Publishing.
Yates, Brock (1991). Enzo Ferrari: The Man, the Cars, the Races, the Machine. Doubleday.
Williams, Richard (2011). Enzo Ferrari: A Life. Random House. ISBN 978-1-4464-5037-6.
Dal Monte, Luca (2024). Enzo Ferrari: The Definitive Biography of an Icon. Cassell. ISBN 978-1-78840-473-0.
== External links ==
Grand Prix History — Hall of Fame Archived 5 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Enzo Ferrari
GrandPrix.com biography
Enzo Ferrari entrepreneur |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Girlfriends_episodes#Season_8_(2007%E2%80%9308) | List of Girlfriends episodes | Girlfriends is an American situation comedy. The series was on UPN for its first six seasons and was on The CW for its final two seasons, running for a total of 172 episodes, spanning eight seasons. Girlfriends premiered on September 11, 2000, and aired its final episode on February 11, 2008.
== Series overview ==
== Episodes ==
=== Pilot (1999) ===
=== Season 1 (2000–01) ===
=== Season 2 (2001–02) ===
=== Season 3 (2002–03) ===
=== Season 4 (2003–04) ===
=== Season 5 (2004–05) ===
=== Season 6 (2005–06) ===
=== Season 7 (2006–07) ===
=== Season 8 (2007–08) ===
== References ==
== External links ==
Girlfriends at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nathalie_M%C3%A9nigon | Nathalie Ménigon | Nathalie Ménigon (born 28 February 1957 in Enghien-les-Bains, Val-d'Oise), was convicted for acts of terrorism committed while she was a member of the French revolutionary group Action Directe. She was sentenced to life in prison in 1989 and released in August 2008 after serving more than 20 years in prison.
== Arrest and imprisonment ==
She was arrested, with her companions Jean-Marc Rouillan, Joëlle Aubron and Georges Cipriani, on 18 February 1987 on a farm in Vitry-aux-Loges. She was convicted in 1989 for the 1986 assassination of Georges Besse, then-president of Renault, and of the 1985 assassination of René Audran, a senior official at the French Ministry of Defence. She was sentenced to life in prison.
She married Jean-Marc Rouillan on 29 June 1999 at the Fleury-Mérogis Prison.
== Release from prison ==
She was imprisoned in the Bapaume Prison, located in Pas-de-Calais, until August 2007. She was three times denied a suspended sentence for medical reasons, after suffering from hemiplegia, depression, problems balancing, and spasms. In May 2007 she was transferred to a house arrest program. The conditions allowed her to work during the days, but she had to spend her nights in prison. This parole was required in order for her to eventually be conditionally released from prison. Her conditional release was effective 2 August 2008.
While in prison she suffered from hemiplegia, caused by two strokes. She also engaged in self-harm in 2003, in protest of the jail conditions.
== New Anticapitalist Party ==
In July 2008, she expressed interest in the New Anticapitalist Party, started by Olivier Besancenot and the Revolutionary Communist League.
== Notes == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_Rico | Puerto Rico | Puerto Rico (abbreviated PR), officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, is a self-governing Caribbean archipelago and island organized as an unincorporated territory of the United States under the designation of commonwealth. Located about 1,000 miles (1,600 km) southeast of Miami, Florida, between the Dominican Republic in the Greater Antilles and the U.S. Virgin Islands in the Lesser Antilles, it consists of the eponymous main island and numerous smaller islands, including Vieques, Culebra, and Mona. With approximately 3.2 million residents, it is divided into 78 municipalities, of which the most populous is the capital municipality of San Juan, followed by those within the San Juan metropolitan area. Spanish and English are the official languages of the government, though Spanish predominates.
Puerto Rico was settled by a succession of Amerindian peoples beginning 2,000 to 4,000 years ago; these included the Ortoiroid, Saladoid, and Taíno. It was claimed by Spain following the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1493 and subsequently colonized by Juan Ponce de León in 1508. Puerto Rico was contested by other European powers into the 18th century but remained a Spanish possession for the next 400 years. The decline of the Indigenous population, followed by an influx of Spanish settlers, primarily from the Canary Islands and Andalusia, and African slaves vastly changed the cultural and demographic landscape of the archipelago. Within the Spanish Empire, Puerto Rico played a secondary but strategically significant role compared to larger and wealthier colonies like Peru and New Spain. By the late 19th century, a distinct Puerto Rican identity began to emerge, centered on a fusion of European, African, and Indigenous elements. In 1898, following the Spanish–American War, Puerto Rico was acquired by the United States.
Puerto Ricans have been U.S. citizens since 1917 and can move freely between the archipelago and the mainland. However, residents of Puerto Rico are disenfranchised from federal elections and generally do not pay federal income tax. In common with four other territories, Puerto Rico sends a nonvoting representative to the U.S. Congress, called a Resident Commissioner, and participates in presidential primaries; as it is not a state, Puerto Rico does not have a vote in the U.S. Congress, which oversees it under the Puerto Rico Federal Relations Act of 1950. Congress approved a territorial constitution in 1952, allowing residents of the archipelago to elect a governor in addition to a senate and house of representatives. The political status of Puerto Rico is an ongoing debate.
Beginning in the mid-20th century, the U.S. government, together with the Puerto Rico Industrial Development Company, launched a series of economic projects to develop Puerto Rico into an industrial high-income economy. It is classified by the International Monetary Fund as a developed jurisdiction with an advanced, high-income economy; it ranks 47th on the Human Development Index. The major sectors of Puerto Rico's economy are manufacturing, primarily pharmaceuticals, petrochemicals, and electronics, followed by services, namely tourism and hospitality.
== Etymology ==
Puerto Rico is Spanish for 'rich port'. Puerto Ricans often call the island Borinquen, a derivation of Borikén, its indigenous Taíno name, which is popularly said to mean 'Land of the Valiant Lord'. The terms boricua, borinqueño, and borincano are commonly used to identify someone of Puerto Rican heritage, and derive from Borikén and Borinquen respectively. The island is also popularly known in Spanish as La Isla del Encanto, meaning "the island of enchantment".
Columbus named the island San Juan Bautista, in honor of Saint John the Baptist, while the capital city was named Ciudad de Puerto Rico ("Rich Port City"). Eventually traders and other maritime visitors came to refer to the entire island as Puerto Rico, while San Juan became the name used for the main trading/shipping port and the capital city.
The island's name was changed to Porto Rico by the United States after the Treaty of Paris of 1898. The anglicized name was used by the U.S. government and private enterprises. The name was changed back to Puerto Rico in 1931 by a joint resolution in Congress introduced by Félix Córdova Dávila.
The official name of the entity in Spanish is Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico ("Free Associated State of Puerto Rico"), while its official English name is Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. The Spanish official name was suggested by its architect Luis Muñoz Marín and adopted by a constitutional assembly on July 25, 1952. Some authorities have called it a euphemism and have charged that the official name in English of "Commonwealth" constitutes a fig leaf, i.e., associated with the covering up of an act that is actually embarrassing or distasteful with something of innocuous appearance. Puerto Rico remains a territory of the United States, exercising substantial internal self-government, but subordinated to the U.S. Constitution in areas such as foreign affairs or defense. For this reason, it is not considered to be a full-fledged associated state under either international or U.S. domestic law.
== History ==
=== Indigenous settlement and European conquest ===
The history of Puerto Rico began with the settlement of the Ortoiroid people before 430 BC. At the time of Christopher Columbus's arrival in the New World in 1493, the dominant indigenous culture was that of the Taínos. The Taíno people's numbers went dangerously low during the later half of the 16th century because of new infectious diseases carried by Europeans, exploitation by Spanish settlers, and warfare.
Located in the northeastern Caribbean, Puerto Rico formed a key part of the Spanish Empire from the early years of the exploration, conquest and colonization of the New World. The island was a major military post during many wars between Spain and other European powers for control of the region in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries.
In 1593, Portuguese soldiers, sent from Lisbon by order of Phillip II, composed the first garrison of the San Felipe del Morro fortress in Puerto Rico. Some brought their wives, while others married Puerto Rican women, and today there are many Puerto Rican families with Portuguese last names. The smallest of the Greater Antilles, Puerto Rico was a stepping-stone in the passage from Europe to Cuba, Mexico, Central America, and the northern territories of South America. Throughout most of the 19th century until the conclusion of the Spanish–American War, Puerto Rico and Cuba were the last two Spanish colonies in the New World; they served as Spain's final outposts in a strategy to regain control of the American continents. Realizing that it was in danger of losing its two remaining Caribbean territories, the Spanish Crown revived the Royal Decree of Graces of 1815. The decree was printed in Spanish, English and French in order to attract Europeans, with the hope that the independence movements would lose their popularity and strength with the arrival of new settlers. Free land was offered to those who wanted to populate the islands on the condition that they swear their loyalty to the Spanish Crown and allegiance to the Catholic Church.
=== U.S. era ===
In 1898, during the Spanish–American War, Puerto Rico was invaded and subsequently became a possession of the U.S. The first years of the 20th century were marked by the struggle to obtain greater democratic rights from the U.S.
The Foraker Act of 1900 established a civil government, ending rule by American generals and the Department of War. A U.S. Supreme Court ruling, Ortega v. Lara, 202 U.S. 339, 342 (1906), involving the Foraker Act and referring to the island as "the acquired country", soon affirmed that the U.S. Constitution applied within its territory and that any domestic Puerto Rican laws which did not conflict with it remained in force.
The Jones Act of 1917 made Puerto Ricans U.S. citizens. The Jones Act paved the way for the drafting of Puerto Rico's Constitution and its approval by Congress and Puerto Rican voters in 1952 Puerto Rico is one of five territories with less representation in the Federal government, along with the Federal District.
==== 21st century ====
In 2009, the United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization approved a draft resolution calling on the U.S. government to expedite a process that would allow the Puerto Rican people to exercise fully their inalienable right to self-determination and independence. In November 2012, a two-question referendum took place, simultaneous with the general elections. The first question, voted on in August, asked voters whether they wanted to maintain the current status under the territorial clause of the U.S. Constitution. 54% voted against the status quo, effectively approving the second question to be voted on in November. The second question posed three alternate status options: statehood, independence, or free association. 61.16% voted for statehood, 33.34% for a sovereign free-associated state, and 5.49% for independence.
In 2016, President Barack Obama signed into law H.R. 5278: PROMESA, establishing a Control Board over the Puerto Rican government. This board will have a significant degree of federal control involved in its establishment and operations. In particular, the authority to establish the control board derives from the federal government's constitutional power to "make all needful rules and regulations" regarding U.S. territories; The president would appoint all seven voting members of the board; and the board would have broad sovereign powers to effectively overrule decisions by Puerto Rico's legislature, governor, and other public authorities. There would be another referendum in 2017 in Puerto Rico, in favor of statehood although it was boycotted by some political opponents of it. (see 2017 Puerto Rican status referendum)
In 2017, Puerto Rico suffered back-to-back large hurricanes: the Category 5 Hurricane Irma (September 7, 2017) and the Category 4 Hurricane Maria (September 20, 2017). The storms caused an extreme amount of damage to the island, causing the following effects: all power was knocked out, 95% cell service, 43% of waste water treatment plants, 40 thousand land slides, 97% of roads blocked, 28% of health facilities damaged, leading to over 90% of the population applying for assistance after the storms. See also Effects of Hurricane Maria in Puerto Rico
It is thought that a combination of the debt crisis and two major hurricanes in the late 2010s, caused further departures from the island. Overall the population has decreased by about half a million in the 21st century, with many seeking better opportunities on the mainland.
Puerto Rico held its statehood referendum during the November 3, 2020, general elections; the ballot asked one question: "Should Puerto Rico be admitted immediately into the Union as a State?" The results showed that 52 percent of Puerto Rico voters answered yes. In the United States in the early 2020s, the Puerto Rico Status Act was being worked on by Congress, and H.R. 8393 passed the House in 2022—though it has not passed the Senate; this bill would support PR making a binding referendum. The bill does not decide PR's fate, it simply prepares the United States to respond to the outcome of the referendum. In the November 5, 2024, elections, there were three choices in a non-binding referendum which included Statehood, Independence, or Independence with Free Association on the ballot; Statehood won with 59%. In addition, on November 5, 2024, Jenniffer González-Colón, who is pro-statehood, won the office of Governor of Puerto Rico in the 2024 general election with nearly 40% of the vote.
== Geography ==
Puerto Rico consists of the main island of Puerto Rico and various smaller islands, including Vieques, Culebra, Mona, Desecheo, and Caja de Muertos. Of these five, only Culebra and Vieques are inhabited year-round. Mona, which has played a key role in maritime history, is uninhabited most of the year except for employees of the Puerto Rico Department of Natural Resources. There are many other even smaller islets, like Monito, located near Mona, and Isla de Cabras and La Isleta de San Juan, both located on the San Juan Bay. The latter is the only inhabited islet with communities like Old San Juan and Puerta de Tierra, which are connected to the main island by bridges.
The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico has an area of 3,515 square miles (9,100 km2), of which 3,459 sq mi (8,960 km2) is land and 56 sq mi (150 km2) is water. Puerto Rico is larger than Delaware and Rhode Island but smaller than Connecticut. The maximum length of the main island from east to west is 110 mi (180 km), and the maximum width from north to south is 40 mi (64 km). Puerto Rico is the smallest of the Greater Antilles. It is 80% of the size of Jamaica, just over 18% of the size of Hispaniola and 8% of the size of Cuba, the largest of the Greater Antilles.
The topography of the island is mostly mountainous with large flat areas in the northern and southern coasts. The main mountain range that crosses the island from east to west is called the Cordillera Central (also known as the Central Mountain Range in English). The highest elevation in Puerto Rico, Cerro de Punta 4,390 feet (1,340 m), is located in this range. Another important peak is El Yunque, one of the highest in the Sierra de Luquillo at the El Yunque National Forest, with an elevation of 3,494 ft (1,065 m).
Puerto Rico has 17 lakes, all man-made, and more than 50 rivers, most of which originate in the Cordillera Central. Rivers in the northern region of the island are typically longer and of higher water flow rates than those of the south, since the south receives less rain than the central and northern regions.
Puerto Rico is composed of Cretaceous to Eocene volcanic and plutonic rocks, overlain by younger Oligocene and more recent carbonates and other sedimentary rocks. Most of the caverns and karst topography on the island occurs in the northern region. The oldest rocks are approximately 190 million years old (Jurassic) and are located at Sierra Bermeja in the southwest part of the island. They may represent part of the oceanic crust and are believed to come from the Pacific Ocean realm.
Puerto Rico lies at the boundary between the Caribbean and North American Plates and is being deformed by the tectonic stresses caused by their interaction. These stresses may cause earthquakes and tsunamis. These seismic events, along with landslides, represent some of the most dangerous geologic hazards in the island and in the northeastern Caribbean. The 1918 San Fermín earthquake occurred on October 11, 1918 and had an estimated magnitude of 7.5 on the Richter scale. It originated off the coast of Aguadilla, several kilometers off the northern coast, and was accompanied by a tsunami. It caused extensive property damage and widespread losses, damaging infrastructure, especially bridges. It resulted in an estimated 116 deaths and $4 million in property damage. The failure of the government to move rapidly to provide for the general welfare contributed to political activism by opponents and eventually to the rise of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party. On January 7, 2020, the country experienced its largest earthquake since 1918, estimated at magnitude 6.4. Economic losses were estimated to be more than $3.1 billion.
The Puerto Rico Trench, the largest and deepest trench in the Atlantic, is located about 71 mi (114 km) north of Puerto Rico at the boundary between the Caribbean and North American plates. It is 170 mi (270 km) long. At its deepest point, named the Milwaukee Deep, it is almost 27,600 ft (8,400 m) deep. The Mona Canyon, located in the Mona Passage between Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic, is another prominent oceanic landform with steep walls measuring between 1.25 and 2.17 miles (2.01 and 3.49 km) in height from bottom to top.
=== Climate ===
The climate of Puerto Rico in the Köppen climate classification is mostly tropical rainforest. Temperatures are warm to hot year round, averaging near 85 °F (29 °C) in lower elevations and 70 °F (21 °C) in the mountains. Easterly trade winds pass across the island year round. Puerto Rico has a rainy season, which stretches from April into November, and a dry season stretching from December to March. The mountains of the Cordillera Central create a rain shadow and are the main cause of the variations in the temperature and rainfall that occur over very short distances. The mountains can also cause wide variation in local wind speed and direction due to their sheltering and channeling effects, adding to the climatic variation. Daily temperature changes seasonally are quite small in the lowlands and coastal areas.
Between the dry and wet seasons, there is a temperature change of around 6 °F (3.3 °C). This change is due mainly to the warm waters of the tropical Atlantic Ocean, which significantly modify cooler air moving in from the north and northwest. Coastal water temperatures during the year are about 75 °F (24 °C) in February and 85 °F (29 °C) in August. The highest temperature ever recorded was 110 °F (43 °C) at Arecibo, while the lowest temperature ever recorded was 40 °F (4 °C) in the mountains at Adjuntas, Aibonito, and Corozal. The average yearly precipitation is 66 in (1,676 mm). Climate change in Puerto Rico has had a large impact on the ecosystems and landscapes.
Puerto Rico experiences the Atlantic hurricane season, similar to the rest of the Caribbean Sea and North Atlantic Ocean. On average, a quarter of its annual rainfall is contributed from tropical cyclones, which are more prevalent during periods of La Niña than El Niño. A cyclone of tropical storm strength passes near Puerto Rico, on average, every five years. A hurricane passes in the vicinity of the island, on average, every seven years. Since 1851, the Lake Okeechobee Hurricane (also known as the San Felipe Segundo hurricane in Puerto Rico) of September 1928 is the only hurricane to make landfall as a Category 5 hurricane. In 2017, Puerto Rico was affected by Category 5 Hurricane Irma and Category 4 Hurricane Maria, causing widespread and devastating impacts, particularly to the electric grid.
=== Biodiversity ===
Puerto Rico is home to three terrestrial ecoregions: Puerto Rican moist forests, Puerto Rican dry forests, and Greater Antilles mangroves. Puerto Rico has two biosphere reserves recognized by the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Programme: Luquillo Biosphere Reserve represented by El Yunque National Forest and the Guánica Biosphere Reserve.
Species endemic to the archipelago number 239 plants, 16 birds and 39 amphibians/reptiles, recognized as of 1998. Most of these (234, 12 and 33 respectively) are found on the main island. The most recognizable endemic species and a symbol of Puerto Rican pride is the coquí, a small frog easily identified by the sound of its call, from which it gets its name. Most coquí species (13 of 17) live in the El Yunque National Forest, the only tropical rainforest in the U.S. Forest Service system, located in the northeast of the island. It was previously known as the Caribbean National Forest. El Yunque is home to more than 240 plants, 26 of which are endemic to the island. It is also home to 50 bird species, including the critically endangered Puerto Rican amazon.
In addition to El Yunque National Forest, the Puerto Rican moist forest ecoregion is represented by protected areas such as the Maricao and Toro Negro state forests. These areas are home to endangered endemic species such as the Puerto Rican boa (Chilabothrus inornatus), the Puerto Rican sharp-shinned hawk (Accipiter striatus venator), the Puerto Rican broad-winged hawk (Buteo platypterus brunnescens) and the elfin woods warbler (Setophaga angelae). The Northern Karst country of Puerto Rico is also home to one of the remaining rainforest tracts in the island, with the Río Abajo State Forest being the first focus for the reintroduction of the highly endangered Puerto Rican parrot outside of the Sierra de Luquillo.
In the southwest, the Guánica State Forest and Biosphere Reserve contain over 600 uncommon species of plants and animals, including 48 endangered species and 16 that are endemic to Puerto Rico, and is considered a prime example of the Puerto Rican dry forest ecoregion and the best-preserved dry forest in the Caribbean. Other protected dry forests in Puerto Rico can be formed within the Caribbean Islands National Wildlife Refuge complex at the Cabo Rojo, Desecheo, Culebra and Vieques National Wildlife Refuges, and in the Caja de Muertos and Mona and Monito Islands Nature Reserves. Examples of endemic species found in this ecoregion are the higo chumbo (Harrisia portoricensis), the Puerto Rican crested toad (Peltophryne lemur), and the Mona ground iguana (Cyclura stejnegeri), the largest land animal native to Puerto Rico.
Puerto Rico has three of the seven year-long bioluminescent bays in the Caribbean: Laguna Grande in Fajardo, La Parguera in Lajas and Puerto Mosquito in Vieques. These are unique bodies of water surrounded by mangroves that are inhabited by the dinoflagellate Pyrodinium bahamense. However, tourism, pollution, and hurricanes have highly threatened these unique ecosystems.
== Government and politics ==
Puerto Rico has a republican form of government based on the American model, with separation of powers subject to the jurisdiction and sovereignty of the United States. All governmental powers are delegated by the United States Congress, with the head of state being the president of the United States. As an unincorporated territory, Puerto Rico lacks full protection under the U.S. Constitution.
The government of Puerto Rico is composed of three branches. The executive is headed by the governor, currently Jenniffer González-Colón. The legislative branch consists of the bicameral Legislative Assembly, made up of a Senate as its upper chamber and a House of Representatives as its lower chamber; the Senate is headed by a president, currently José Luis Dalmau, while the House is headed by the speaker of the House, currently Tatito Hernández. The governor and legislators are elected by popular vote every four years, with the last election held in November 2024. The judicial branch is headed by the chief justice of the Supreme Court of Puerto Rico, currently Maite Oronoz Rodríguez. Members of the judiciary are appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of the Senate.
Puerto Rico is represented in the U.S. Congress by a nonvoting delegate to the House of Representatives, the resident commissioner, currently Pablo Hernández Rivera. Current congressional rules have removed the commissioner's power to vote in the Committee of the Whole, but the commissioner can vote in committee.
Puerto Rican elections are governed by the Federal Election Commission and the State Elections Commission of Puerto Rico. Residents of Puerto Rico, including other U.S. citizens, cannot vote in U.S. presidential elections, but can vote in primaries. Puerto Ricans who become residents of a U.S. state or Washington, D.C. can vote in presidential elections.
Puerto Rico has eight senatorial districts, 40 representative districts, and 78 municipalities; there are no first-order administrative divisions as defined by the U.S. government. Municipalities are subdivided into barrios. Each municipality has a mayor and a municipal legislature elected for a four-year term. The municipality of San Juan is the oldest, founded in 1521; the next earliest settlements are San Germán in 1570, Coamo in 1579, Arecibo in 1614, Aguada in 1692 and Ponce in 1692. Increased settlement in the 18th century saw 30 more communities established, following 34 in the 19th century. Six were founded in the 20th century, the most recent being Florida in 1971.
=== Political parties and elections ===
Since 1952, Puerto Rico has had three main political parties: the Popular Democratic Party (PPD in Spanish), the New Progressive Party (PNP in Spanish) and the Puerto Rican Independence Party (PIP). The three parties stand for different political status. The PPD, for example, seeks to maintain the island's status with the U.S. as a commonwealth, while the PNP seeks to make Puerto Rico a U.S. state. Meanwhile, the PIP seeks to make Puerto Rico a sovereign nation free from U.S. authority. In terms of party strength, the PPD and PNP usually hold about 47% of the vote each while the PIP holds about 5%.
After 2007, other parties emerged on the island. The first, the Puerto Ricans for Puerto Rico Party was registered that same year. The party claims that it seeks to address the islands' problems from a status-neutral platform. But it ceased to remain as a registered party when it failed to obtain the required number of votes in the 2008 general election. Four years later, the 2012 election saw the emergence of the Movimiento Unión Soberanista (English: Sovereign Union Movement) and the Partido del Pueblo Trabajador (English: Working People's Party) but none obtained more than 1% of the vote.
Other non-registered parties include the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party, the Socialist Workers Movement, and the Hostosian National Independence Movement.
=== Political status ===
The nature of Puerto Rico's political relationship with the U.S. is the subject of ongoing debate in Puerto Rico, the U.S. Congress, and the United Nations. Specifically, the basic question is whether Puerto Rico should remain an unincorporated territory of the U.S., become a U.S. state, or become an independent country.
Constitutionally, Puerto Rico is subject to the plenary powers of the U.S. Congress under the territorial clause of Article IV of the U.S. Constitution. Laws enacted at the federal level in the U.S. apply to Puerto Rico as well, regardless of its political status. Their residents do not have voting representation in the U.S. Congress. Puerto Rico lacks "the full sovereignty of an independent nation", for example, the power to manage its "external relations with other nations", which is held by the U.S. federal government. The U.S. Supreme Court has indicated that once the U.S. Constitution has been extended to an area (by Congress or the courts), its coverage is irrevocable. To hold that the political branches may switch the Constitution on or off at will would lead to a regime in which they, not this Court, say "what the law is".
Puerto Ricans "were collectively made U.S. citizens" in 1917 as a result of the Jones–Shafroth Act. U.S. citizens residing in Puerto Rico cannot vote in U.S. presidential elections, though both major parties, Republican and Democratic, hold primary elections in Puerto Rico to choose delegates to vote on the parties' presidential candidates. Since Puerto Rico is an unincorporated territory and not a U.S. state, the U.S. Constitution does not fully enfranchise U.S. citizens residing in Puerto Rico.
Only fundamental rights under the American federal constitution and adjudications are applied to Puerto Ricans. Various other U.S. Supreme Court decisions have held which rights apply in Puerto Rico and which ones do not. Puerto Ricans have a long history of service in the U.S. Armed Forces and, since 1917, they have been included in the U.S. compulsory draft when it has been in effect.
Though the Commonwealth government has its own tax laws, residents of Puerto Rico, contrary to a popular misconception, do pay U.S. federal taxes: customs taxes (which are subsequently returned to the Puerto Rico Treasury), import/export taxes, federal commodity taxes, social security taxes, etc. Residents pay federal payroll taxes, such as Social Security and Medicare, as well as Commonwealth of Puerto Rico income taxes. All federal employees, those who do business with the federal government, Puerto Rico-based corporations that intend to send funds to the U.S., and some others, such as Puerto Rican residents that are members of the U.S. military, and Puerto Rico residents who earned income from sources outside Puerto Rico also pay federal income taxes. In addition, because the cutoff point for income taxation is lower than that of the U.S. IRS code, and because the per-capita income in Puerto Rico is much lower than the average per-capita income on the mainland, more Puerto Rico residents pay income taxes to the local taxation authority than if the IRS code were applied to the island. This occurs because "the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico government has a wider set of responsibilities than do U.S. State and local governments."
In 2009, Puerto Rico paid $3.742 billion into the U.S. Treasury. Residents of Puerto Rico pay into Social Security, and are thus eligible for Social Security benefits upon retirement. They are excluded from the Supplemental Security Income, and the island receives a smaller fraction of the Medicaid funding it would receive if it were a U.S. state. Also, Medicare providers receive less-than-full state-like reimbursements for services rendered to beneficiaries in Puerto Rico, even though the latter paid fully into the system.
Puerto Rico's authority to enact a criminal code derives from Congress and not from local sovereignty as with the states. Thus, individuals committing a crime can only be tried in federal or territorial court, otherwise it would constitute double jeopardy and is constitutionally impermissible.
In 1992, President George H. W. Bush issued a memorandum to heads of executive departments and agencies establishing the current administrative relationship between the federal government and the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. This memorandum directs all federal departments, agencies, and officials to treat Puerto Rico administratively as if it were a state, insofar as doing so would not disrupt federal programs or operations.
Many federal executive branch agencies have significant presence in Puerto Rico, just as in any state, including the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Federal Emergency Management Agency, Transportation Security Administration, Social Security Administration, and others. While Puerto Rico has its own Commonwealth judicial system similar to that of a U.S. state, there is also a U.S. federal district court in Puerto Rico, and Puerto Ricans have served as judges in that Court and in other federal courts on the U.S. mainland regardless of their residency status at the time of their appointment. Sonia Sotomayor, a New Yorker of Puerto Rican descent, serves as an associate justice of the U.S. Supreme Court. Puerto Ricans have also been frequently appointed to high-level federal positions, including serving as U.S. ambassadors to other nations.
=== Administrative divisions ===
Unlike the vast majority of U.S. states, Puerto Rico has no first-order administrative divisions akin to counties, but has 78 municipalities or municipios as the secondary unit of administration; for U.S. Census purposes, the municipalities are considered county equivalents. Municipalities are subdivided into barrios. Each municipality has a mayor and a municipal legislature elected for four-year terms, per the Autonomous Municipalities Act of 1991.
=== Foreign and intergovernmental relations ===
Puerto Rico is subject to the Commerce and Territorial Clause of the U.S. Constitution and is thus restricted on how it can engage with other nations, sharing the opportunities and limitations that state governments have albeit not being one. As is the case with state governments, it has established several trade agreements with other nations, particularly with Latin American countries such as Colombia and Panamá.
It has also established trade promotion offices in many foreign countries, all Spanish-speaking, and within the U.S. itself, which now include Spain, the Dominican Republic, Panama, Colombia, Washington, D.C., New York City and Florida, and has included in the past offices in Chile, Costa Rica, and Mexico. Such agreements require permission from the U.S. Department of State; most are simply allowed by existing laws or trade treaties between the U.S. and other nations which supersede trade agreements pursued by Puerto Rico and different U.S. states. Puerto Rico hosts consulates from 41 countries, mainly from the Americas and Europe, with most located in San Juan.
At the local level, Puerto Rico established by law that the international relations which states and territories are allowed to engage must be handled by the Department of State of Puerto Rico, an executive department, headed by the secretary of state of Puerto Rico, who also serves as the unincorporated territory's lieutenant governor. It is also charged to liaise with general consuls and honorary consuls based in Puerto Rico. The Puerto Rico Federal Affairs Administration, along with the Office of the Resident Commissioner, manages all its intergovernmental affairs before entities of or in the U.S. (including the federal government of the U.S., local and state governments of the U.S., and public or private entities in the U.S.).
Both entities frequently assist the Department of State of Puerto Rico in engaging with Washington, D.C.-based ambassadors and federal agencies that handle Puerto Rico's foreign affairs, such as the U.S. Department of State, the Agency for International Development, and others. The current secretary of state is Larry Seilhamer Rodríguez from the New Progressive Party, while the current director of the Puerto Rico Federal Affairs Administration is Jennifer M. Stopiran also from the NPP and a member of the Republican Party of the U.S.
The resident commissioner of Puerto Rico, the delegate elected by Puerto Ricans to represent them before the federal government, including the U.S. Congress, sits in the U.S. House of Representatives, serves and votes on congressional committees, and functions in every respect as a legislator except being denied a vote on the final disposition of legislation on the House floor. The current resident commissioner is Jenniffer González-Colón, a member of the New Progressive Party and the Republican Party, elected in 2016. She received more votes than any other official elected in Puerto Rico that year.
Many Puerto Ricans have served as U.S. ambassadors to different nations and international organizations, such as the Organization of American States, mostly but not exclusively in Latin America. For example, Maricarmen Aponte, a Puerto Rican and now an acting assistant secretary of state, previously served as U.S. ambassador to El Salvador.
=== Military ===
As it is an unincorporated U.S. territory, the defense of Puerto Rico is provided by the U.S. as part of the Treaty of Paris with the president of the U.S. as its commander-in-chief. Puerto Rico has its own National Guard, and its own state defense force, the Puerto Rico State Guard, which by local law is under the authority of the Puerto Rico National Guard.
The commander-in-chief of both local forces is the governor of Puerto Rico who delegates his authority to the Puerto Rico adjutant general, currently Major General José J. Reyes. The Adjutant General, in turn, delegates the authority over the State Guard to another officer but retains the authority over the Puerto Rico National Guard as a whole.
U.S. military installations in Puerto Rico were part of the U.S. Atlantic Command (LANTCOM after 1993 USACOM), which had authority over all U.S. military operations that took place throughout the Atlantic. Puerto Rico had been seen as crucial in supporting LANTCOM's mission until 1999, when U.S. Atlantic Command was renamed and given a new mission as U.S. Joint Forces Command. Puerto Rico is currently under the responsibility of U.S. Northern Command.
Both the Naval Forces Caribbean (NFC) and the Fleet Air Caribbean (FAIR) were formerly based at the Roosevelt Roads Naval Station. The NFC had authority over all U.S. Naval activity in the waters of the Caribbean while FAIR had authority over all U.S. military flights and air operations over the Caribbean. With the closing of the Roosevelt Roads and Vieques Island training facilities, the U.S. Navy has basically exited from Puerto Rico, except for the ships that steam by, and the only significant military presence in the island is the U.S. Army at Ft Buchanan, the Puerto Rican Army and Air National Guards, and the U.S. Coast Guard. Protests over the noise of bombing practice forced the closure of the naval base. This resulted in a loss of 6,000 jobs and an annual decrease in local income of $300 million.
A branch of the U.S. Army National Guard is stationed in Puerto Rico – known as the Puerto Rico Army National Guard – which performs missions equivalent to those of the Army National Guards of different U.S. states, including ground defense, disaster relief, and control of civil unrest. The local National Guard also incorporates a branch of the U.S. Air National Guard – known as the Puerto Rico Air National Guard – which performs missions equivalent to those of the Air National Guards of each one of the U.S. states.
At different times in the 20th century, the U.S. had about 25 military or naval installations in Puerto Rico. The largest of these installations were the former Roosevelt Roads Naval Station in Ceiba, the Atlantic Fleet Weapons Training Facility (AFWTF) on Vieques, the National Guard training facility at Camp Santiago in Salinas, Fort Allen in Juana Diaz, the Army's Fort Buchanan in San Juan, the former U.S. Air Force's Ramey Air Force Base in Aguadilla, and the Puerto Rico Air National Guard's Muñiz Air National Guard Base in San Juan.
The former U.S. Navy facilities at Roosevelt Roads, Vieques, and Sabana Seca have been deactivated and partially turned over to the local government. Other than U.S. Coast Guard and Puerto Rico National Guard facilities, there are only two remaining military installations in Puerto Rico: the U.S. Army's small Ft. Buchanan (supporting local veterans and reserve units) and the PRANG (Puerto Rico Air National Guard) Muñiz Air Base (the C-130 Fleet). In recent years, the U.S. Congress has considered their deactivations, but these have been opposed by diverse public and private entities in Puerto Rico – such as retired military who rely on Ft. Buchanan for the services available there.
Puerto Ricans have participated in many U.S. military conflicts, including the American Revolution, when volunteers from Puerto Rico, Cuba, and Mexico fought the British in 1779 under the command of General Bernardo de Gálvez (1746–1786). They continue to be disproportionately represented in present-day conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan. The most notable example is the 65th Infantry Regiment of the U.S. Army, nicknamed The Borinqueneers, from the original Taíno name of the island (Borinquen). The all-Puerto Rican regiment participated in World War I, World War II, the Korean War, and the war on terror; in 2014, it was awarded the Congressional Gold Medal for its heroism during the Korean War.
A significant number of Puerto Ricans serve in the U.S. Armed Forces, largely as National Guard members and civilian employees. The size of the overall military-related community is estimated to be 100,000, including retired personnel. Fort Buchanan has about 4,000 military and civilian personnel. In addition, approximately 17,000 people are members of the Puerto Rico Army and Air National Guards, or the U.S. Reserve forces.
=== Law ===
The insular legal system is a blend of civil law and the common law systems.
Puerto Rico is the only current U.S. jurisdiction whose legal system operates primarily in a language other than American English: namely, Spanish. Because the U.S. federal government operates primarily in English, all Puerto Rican attorneys must be bilingual in order to litigate in English in U.S. federal courts, and litigate federal preemption issues in Puerto Rican courts.
Title 48 of the United States Code outlines the role of the U.S. Code to U.S. territories and insular areas such as Puerto Rico. After the U.S. government assumed control of Puerto Rico in 1901, it initiated legal reforms resulting in the adoption of codes of criminal law, criminal procedure, and civil procedure modeled after those then in effect in California. Although Puerto Rico has since followed the federal example of transferring criminal and civil procedure from statutory law to rules promulgated by the judiciary, several portions of its criminal law still reflect the influence of the California Penal Code.
The judicial branch is headed by the chief justice of the Puerto Rico Supreme Court, which is the only appellate court required by the Constitution. All other courts are created by the Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico. There is also a Federal District Court for Puerto Rico, and someone accused of a criminal act at the federal level may not be accused for the same act in a Commonwealth court, and vice versa, since Puerto Rico as an unincorporated territory lacks sovereignty separate from Congress as a state does. The U.S. Supreme Court held in 2016 that such a parallel accusation would constitute double jeopardy.
==== Crime ====
The homicide rate of 19.2 per 100,000 inhabitants was significantly higher than any U.S. state in 2014. Most homicide victims are gang members and drug traffickers with about 80% of homicides in Puerto Rico being drug related.
In 1992, the FBI made armed carjacking a federal crime and rates decreased per statistics, but as of 2019, the problem continued in municipalities like Guaynabo and others. From January 1, 2019, to March 14, 2019, thirty carjackings had occurred on the island.
== Economy ==
Puerto Rico is classified as a high income economy by the World Bank and International Monetary Fund. It is considered the most competitive economy in Latin America by the World Economic Forum and ranks highly on the Human Development Index. According to World Bank, gross national income per capita in Puerto Rico in 2020 was $21,740. Puerto Rico's economy is mainly driven by manufacturing (primarily pharmaceuticals, textiles, petrochemicals and electronics) followed by services (primarily finance, insurance, real estate and tourism); agriculture represents less than 1% of GNP. In recent years, it has also become a popular destination for MICE (meetings, incentives, conferencing, exhibitions), with a modern convention center district overlooking the Port of San Juan.
Responsibility for San Juan port inspections lies with PPQ. So high is the volume of cargo traffic that between 1984–2000 the San Juan PPQ station recorded 7.74% of all interceptions, #4 in the country, #2 for insects and #3 for pathogens. Most species are originally from South America or elsewhere in the Caribbean due to PR's position as an intermediary on the way to the mainland. This is one of the worst locations for cut flowers and other plant parts – both in terms of number of problems and diversity of species – for insects in plant parts in baggage, and for pathogens in plant parts in baggage and cargo. Pathogen interceptions were dramatically (17%) higher 1999–2000 than in 1985–1986.
Puerto Rico's geography and political status are both determining factors for its economic prosperity, primarily due to its relatively small size; lack of natural resources and subsequent dependence on imports; and vulnerability to U.S. foreign policy and trading restrictions, particularly concerning its shipping industry.
Puerto Rico experienced a recession from 2006 to 2011, interrupted by four quarters of economic growth, and entered into recession again in 2013, following growing fiscal imbalance and the expiration of the IRS Section 936 corporate incentives that the U.S. Internal Revenue Code had applied to Puerto Rico. This IRS section was critical to the economy, as it established tax exemptions for U.S. corporations that settled in Puerto Rico and allowed their insular subsidiaries to send their earnings to the parent corporation at any time, without paying federal tax on corporate income. Puerto Rico has been able to maintain a relatively low inflation in the past decade while maintaining a purchasing power parity per capita higher than 80% of the rest of the world.
Academically, most of Puerto Rico's economic woes stem from federal regulations that expired, have been repealed, or no longer apply to Puerto Rico; its inability to become self-sufficient and self-sustainable throughout history; its highly politicized public policy which tends to change whenever a political party gains power; as well as its highly inefficient local government which has accrued a public debt equal to 68% of its gross domestic product throughout time. Puerto Rico currently has a public debt of $72.204 billion (equivalent to 103% of GNP), and a government deficit of $2.5 billion.
By American standards, Puerto Rico is underdeveloped: It is poorer than Mississippi, the poorest state of the U.S., with 41% of its population below the poverty line. However, it has the highest GDP per capita in Latin America. Puerto Rico's main trading partners are the United States, Ireland, and Japan, with most products coming from East Asia, mainly China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan. Puerto Rico's dependency on oil for transportation and electricity generation, as well as its dependency on food imports and raw materials, makes Puerto Rico volatile and highly reactive to changes in the world economy and climate.
=== Tourism ===
Tourism in Puerto Rico is also an important part of the economy. In 2017, Hurricane Maria caused severe damage to the island and its infrastructure, disrupting tourism for many months. The damage was estimated at $100 billion. An April 2019 report indicated that by that time, only a few hotels were still closed, that life for tourists in and around the capital had, for the most part, returned to normal. By October 2019, nearly all of the popular amenities for tourists, in the major destinations such as San Juan, Ponce and Arecibo, were in operation on the island and tourism was rebounding. This was important for the economy, since tourism provides up to 10% of Puerto Rico's GDP, according to Discover Puerto Rico.
A tourism campaign was launched by Discover Puerto Rico in 2018 intended to highlight the island's culture and history, branding it distinct, and different from other Caribbean destinations. In 2019, Discover Puerto Rico planned to continue that campaign.
=== Fiscal debt ===
In early 2017, the Puerto Rican government-debt crisis posed serious problems for the government which was saddled with outstanding bond debt that had climbed to $70 billion. The debt had been increasing during a decade-long recession.
The Commonwealth had been defaulting on many debts, including bonds, since 2015. With debt payments due, the governor was facing the risk of a government shutdown and failure to fund the managed health care system. "Without action before April, Puerto Rico's ability to execute contracts for Fiscal Year 2018 with its managed care organizations will be threatened, thereby putting at risk beginning July 1, 2017 the health care of up to 900,000 impoverished U.S. citizens living in Puerto Rico", according to a letter sent to Congress by the Secretary of the Treasury and the Secretary of Health and Human Services. They also said that "Congress must enact measures recommended by both Republicans and Democrats that fix Puerto Rico's inequitable health care financing structure and promote sustained economic growth."
Initially, the oversight board created under PROMESA called for Puerto Rico's governor Ricardo Rosselló to deliver a fiscal turnaround plan by January 28. Just before that deadline, the control board gave the Commonwealth government until February 28 to present a fiscal plan (including negotiations with creditors for restructuring debt) to solve the problems. A moratorium on lawsuits by debtors was extended to May 31. It is essential for Puerto Rico to reach restructuring deals to avoid a bankruptcy-like process under PROMESA. An internal survey conducted by the Puerto Rican Economists Association revealed that the majority of Puerto Rican economists reject the policy recommendations of the Board and the Rosselló government, with more than 80% of economists arguing in favor of auditing the debt.
In early August 2017, the island's financial oversight board (created by PROMESA) planned to institute two days off without pay per month for government employees, down from the original plan of four days per month; the latter had been expected to achieve $218 million in savings. Governor Rossello rejected this plan as unjustified and unnecessary. Pension reforms were also discussed including a proposal for a 10% reduction in benefits to begin addressing the $50 billion in unfunded pension liabilities.
=== Public finances ===
Puerto Rico has an operating budget of about U.S.$9.8 billion with expenses at about $10.4 billion, creating a structural deficit of $775 million (about 7.9% of the budget). The practice of approving budgets with a structural deficit has been done for 25 consecutive years starting in 2000. Throughout those years, including present time, all budgets contemplated issuing bonds to cover these projected deficits rather than making structural adjustments. This practice increased Puerto Rico's cumulative debt, as the government had already been issuing bonds to balance its actual budget for four decades beginning in 1973.
Projected deficits added substantial burdens to an already indebted nation which accrued a public debt of $71B or about 70% of Puerto Rico's gross domestic product. This sparked an ongoing government-debt crisis after Puerto Rico's general obligation bonds were downgraded to speculative non-investment grade ("junk status") by three credit-rating agencies. In terms of financial control, almost 9.6%—or about $1.5 billion—of Puerto Rico's central government budget expenses for FY2014 is expected to be spent on debt service. Harsher budget cuts are expected as Puerto Rico must now repay larger chunks of debts in the coming years.
For practical reasons the budget is divided into two aspects: a "general budget" which comprises the assignments funded exclusively by the Department of Treasury of Puerto Rico, and the "consolidated budget" which comprises the assignments funded by the general budget, by Puerto Rico's government-owned corporations, by revenue expected from loans, by the sale of government bonds, by subsidies extended by the federal government of the United States, and by other funds.
Both budgets contrast each other drastically, with the consolidated budget being usually thrice the size of the general budget; currently $29B and $9.0B respectively. Almost one out of every four dollars in the consolidated budget comes from U.S. federal subsidies while government-owned corporations compose more than 31% of the consolidated budget.
The critical aspects come from the sale of bonds, which comprise 7% of the consolidated budget – a ratio that increased annually due to the government's inability to prepare a balanced budget in addition to being incapable of generating enough income to cover all its expenses. In particular, the government-owned corporations add a heavy burden to the overall budget and public debt, as none is self-sufficient. For example, in FY2011 the government-owned corporations reported aggregated losses of more than $1.3B with the Puerto Rico Highways and Transportation Authority (PRHTA) reporting losses of $409M, the Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority (PREPA; the government monopoly that controls all electricity on the island) reporting losses of $272M, while the Puerto Rico Aqueducts and Sewers Authority (PRASA; the government monopoly that controls all water utilities on the island) reported losses of $112M.
Losses by government-owned corporations have been defrayed through the issuance of bonds compounding more than 40% of Puerto Rico's entire public debt today. Holistically, from FY2000–FY2010 Puerto Rico's debt grew at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 9% while GDP remained stagnant. This has not always provided a long-term solution. In early July 2017 for example, the PREPA power authority was effectively bankrupt after defaulting in a plan to restructure $9 billion in bond debt; the agency planned to seek Court protection.
=== Cost of living ===
The cost of living in Puerto Rico is high and has increased over the past decade.
Statistics used for cost of living sometimes do not take into account certain costs, such as the high cost of electricity, which has hovered in the 24¢ to 30¢ range per kilowatt-hour, two to three times the national average, increased travel costs for longer flights, additional shipping fees, and the loss of promotional participation opportunities for customers "outside the continental United States". While some online stores do offer free shipping on orders to Puerto Rico, many merchants exclude Hawaii, Alaska, Puerto Rico and other U.S. territories.
The household median income is stated as $19,350 and the mean income as $30,463 in the U.S. Census Bureau's 2015 update. The report also indicates that 45.5% of individuals are below the poverty level. In 2011, median home value in Puerto Rico ranged from U.S.$100,000 to U.S.$214,000, while the national median home value was $119,600.
One of the most cited contributors to the high cost of living in Puerto Rico is the Merchant Marine Act of 1920, also known as the Jones Act, which prevents foreign-flagged ships from carrying cargo between two American ports, a practice known as cabotage. Because of the Jones Act, foreign ships inbound with goods from Central and South America, Western Europe, and Africa cannot stop in Puerto Rico, offload Puerto Rico-bound goods, load mainland-bound Puerto Rico-manufactured goods, and continue to U.S. ports. Instead, they must proceed directly to U.S. ports, where distributors break bulk and send Puerto Rico-bound manufactured goods to Puerto Rico across the ocean by U.S.-flagged ships. The local government of Puerto Rico has requested several times to the U.S. Congress to exclude Puerto Rico from the Jones Act restrictions without success.
In 2013 the Government Accountability Office published a report which concluded that "repealing or amending the Jones Act cabotage law might cut Puerto Rico shipping costs" and that "shippers believed that opening the trade to non-U.S.-flag competition could lower costs". Ultimately, the report concluded that "[the] effects of modifying the application of the Jones Act for Puerto Rico are highly uncertain" for both Puerto Rico and the U.S., particularly for the U.S. shipping industry and the military preparedness of the U.S. A 2018 study by economists at Boston-based Reeve & Associates and Puerto Rico-based Estudios Tecnicos has concluded that the 1920 Jones Act has no impact on either retail prices or the cost of living on Puerto Rico.
=== Transportation ===
Cities and towns in Puerto Rico are interconnected by a system of roads, freeways, expressways, and highways maintained by the Highways and Transportation Authority under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Department of Transportation, and patrolled by the Puerto Rico Police Department. The island's San Juan metropolitan area is served by a public bus transit system and a metro system called Tren Urbano ('Urban Train'). Other forms of Puerto Rican public transport include seaborne ferries that serve Puerto Rico's archipelago as well as carros públicos (private mini buses).
Puerto Rico has three international airports, the Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport in Carolina, Mercedita International Airport in Ponce, and the Rafael Hernández International Airport in Aguadilla, and 27 local airports. The Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport is the largest aerial transportation hub in the Caribbean.
Puerto Rico has nine ports in different cities across the main island. The San Juan Port is the largest in Puerto Rico, and the busiest port in the Caribbean and the 10th busiest in the United States in terms of commercial activity and cargo movement, respectively. The second largest port is the Port of the Americas in Ponce, currently under expansion to increase cargo capacity to 1.5 million twenty-foot containers (TEUs) per year.
=== Utilities ===
==== Electricity ====
The Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority (PREPA, Spanish: Autoridad de Energía Eléctrica, AEE)—is an electric power company and the government-owned corporation of Puerto Rico responsible for electricity generation, power transmission, and power distribution in Puerto Rico. PREPA was, by law, the only entity authorized to conduct such business in Puerto Rico, effectively making it a government monopoly until 2018. The Authority is ruled by a governing board appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of the Senate of Puerto Rico, and is run by an executive director.
On July 20, 2018, Puerto Rico Law 120-2018 (Ley para Transformar el Sistema Eléctrico de Puerto Rico) was signed. This law authorized PREPA to sell infrastructure and services to other providers. As a result, a contract was signed on June 22, 2020, making LUMA Energy the new operator of the energy distribution and transmission infrastructure, as well as other areas of PREPA's operations, in effect partially privatizing the Puerto Rican power grid. The takeover was set for June 1, 2021, amidst protests and uncertainty from the point of view of the general public and the former-PREPA workers and union members.
==== Water and sewage ====
Similarly, the Puerto Rico Aqueducts and Sewers Authority (PRASA, Spanish: Autoridad de Acueductos y Alcantarillados, AAA)—is a water company and the government-owned corporation responsible for water quality, management, and supply in Puerto Rico. It is the only entity authorized to conduct such business in Puerto Rico, effectively making it a government monopoly. Its existence is designated by Law No. 40 of May 1, 1945, including the corresponding amendments.
=== Telecommunications ===
Telecommunications in Puerto Rico includes radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet. Broadcasting in Puerto Rico is regulated by the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC). As of 2007, there were 30 TV stations, 125 radio stations and roughly 1 million TV sets on the island. Cable TV subscription services are available, and the U.S. Armed Forces Radio and Television Service also broadcast on the island. Puerto Rico also has its own amateur radio prefixes, which differ from those of the contiguous United States in that there are two letter before the number. The most well-known prefix is KP4, but others separated for use on the archipelago (including Desecheo and Mona) are: KP3/KP4/NP3/NP4/WP3/WP4 (Puerto Rico, Vieques and Culebra) and KP5/NP5/WP5 (Desecheo Island). Amateur radio operators (also known as ham radio operators) are a well-known group in the island and can obtain special vehicle license plates with their callsign on them. They have been a key element in disaster relief.
== Demographics ==
The population of Puerto Rico reflects influences from initial Amerindian settlement, European colonization, slavery, economic migration, and the archipelago's status as unincorporated territory of the United States. Puerto Ricans are characterized by a high degree of ethnic and cultural diversity, as well as a long history of intermarriage and acculturation among different demographics; racial and ethnic identity is subsequently complex and often nebulous, shaped by the broader attitudes and policies of the Spanish colonial period, 20th century American racial politics, and modern trends in cultural and identity in the 21st century United States.
According to the most recent 2020 United States census, Puerto Rico had 3,285,874 residents, an 11.8% decrease since 2010. The commonwealth's population peaked in 2000, when it was 3,808,610, before declining (for the first time in census history) to 3,725,789 in 2010. Emigration due to economic difficulties and natural disasters, coupled with a low birth rate, have resulted in continued population decline into the 21st century.
=== Population distribution ===
The most populous municipality is the capital, San Juan, with 342,259 people based on the 2020 Census. Other major cities include Bayamón, Carolina, Ponce, and Caguas. Of the ten most populous cities on the island, eight are located within what is considered San Juan's metropolitan area, while the other two are located in the south (Ponce) and west (Mayagüez) of the island.
=== Population makeup ===
As of 2020, Hispanic or Latinos made up 98.9 percent of the population, of which 95.5 percent were Puerto Rican and 3.4% were Hispanic of non-Puerto Rican origins; only 1.1 percent of the population was non-Hispanic. Fewer than one-fifth of people (17.1 percent) identified as "White", a decline of almost 80 percent; by contrast, nearly half of Puerto Ricans (49.8 percent) reported being multiracial—compared to just 3 percent in 2010—while roughly one-quarter chose "some other race alone" (25.5 percent).
Censuses of Puerto Rico were completed by Spain in 1765, 1775, 1800, 1815, 1832, 1846 and 1857, yet some of the data remained untabulated and were considered reliable in a 1943 report by Irene Barnes Taeuber, an American demographer at the Office of Population Research at Princeton University.
Continuous European immigration and high natural increase helped the population of Puerto Rico grow from 155,426 in 1800 to almost a million by the end of the 19th century. A census conducted by royal decree on September 30, 1858, gave the following totals of the Puerto Rican population at that time: 341,015 were free colored; 300,430 were white; and 41,736 were slaves. A census in 1887 found a population of around 800,000, of which 320,000 were black.
During the 19th century, hundreds of families arrived in Puerto Rico, primarily from the Canary Islands and Andalusia, but also from other parts of Spain such as Catalonia, Asturias, Galicia and the Balearic Islands; they were later joined by numerous Spanish loyalists from Spain's former colonies in South America. There were also smaller numbers of settlers from outside Spain, including from Corsica, France, Lebanon, Portugal, Ireland, Scotland, Germany and Italy; this immigration from non-Hispanic countries was largely the result of the Real Cédula de Gracias de 1815 (Royal Decree of Graces of 1815), which provided European Catholics with land allotments in the sparsely inhabited interior of the island, provided they paid taxes and continued to support the Catholic Church.
Between 1960 and 1990, the census questionnaire in Puerto Rico did not ask about race or ethnicity. The 2000 United States census included a racial self-identification question in Puerto Rico, according to which most Puerto Ricans identified as white and Latino and few identified as black or some other race.
Although less than one percent of the population identifies as Indigenous, a large proportion of Puerto Ricans have Native ancestry: A 2003 study by the University of Puerto Rico, which took genetic samples from 800 randomly selected subjects throughout the island, found that 61.1 percent of those surveyed had mitochondrial DNA of Indigenous origin; additionally, 26.4 percent had African markers and 12.5 percent showed European descent. The study reportedly resulted in a resurgence of Indigenous and Taíno identity among Puerto Ricans; in the 2010 census, 19,839 respondents identified as "American Indian or Alaskan Native", an increase of almost 49 percent from 2000 count.
=== Immigration and emigration ===
The vast majority of recent immigrants, both legal and illegal, come from Latin America, over half come from the Dominican Republic. Dominicans represent 53% of non-Puerto Rican Hispanics, about 1.8% of Puerto Rico's population. Some illegal immigrants, particularly from Haiti, Dominican Republic, and Cuba, use Puerto Rico as a temporary stop-over point to get to the U.S. mainland. Other major sources of recent immigrants include Cuba, Colombia, Mexico, Venezuela, Haiti, Honduras, Panama, Ecuador, Spain, and Jamaica. Additionally, there are many non-Puerto Rican U.S. citizens settling in Puerto Rico from the U.S. mainland, majority of which are White Americans and a smaller number are Black Americans. In fact, non-Hispanic people represent 1.1% and majority of them are from the U.S. mainland. Smaller numbers of U.S. citizens come from the U.S. Virgin Islands. There are also large numbers of Nuyoricans and other stateside Puerto Ricans coming back, as many Puerto Ricans engage in 'circular migration'. Small numbers of non-Puerto Rican Hispanics in Puerto Rico are actually American-born migrants from the mainland U.S. and not recent immigrants. Most recent immigrants settle in and around the San Juan metropolitan area.
Emigration is a major part of contemporary Puerto Rican history. Starting soon after World War II, poverty, cheap airfares, and promotion by the island government caused waves of Puerto Ricans to move to the U.S. mainland, particularly to the northeastern states and nearby Florida. This trend continued even as Puerto Rico's economy improved and its birth rate declined. Puerto Ricans continue to follow a pattern of "circular migration", with some migrants returning to the island. In recent years, the population has declined markedly, falling nearly 1% in 2012 and an additional 1% (36,000 people) in 2013 due to a falling birthrate and emigration. The impact of hurricanes Maria and Irma in 2017, combined with the unincorporated territory's worsening economy, led to its greatest population decline since the U.S. acquired the archipelago.
According to the 2020 U.S. census, the number of Puerto Ricans living outside of Puerto Rico in the U.S. is almost twice as many as those living in Puerto Rico. As those who leave tend to be better educated than those who remain, this accentuates the drain on Puerto Rico's economy.
Based on July 1, 2019, estimate by the U.S. Census Bureau, the population of the Commonwealth had declined by 532,095 people since the 2010 Census data had been tabulated.
=== Languages ===
The official languages of the executive branch of government of Puerto Rico are Spanish and English. In 2015, the Puerto Rican legislature declared Spanish to be the first official language and English the second official language. Spanish is, and has been, the only official language of the entire Commonwealth judiciary system, despite a 1902 English-only language law. However, all official business of the U.S. District Court for the District of Puerto Rico is conducted in English. English is the primary language of less than 10% of the population. Spanish is the dominant language of business, education and daily life on the island, spoken by nearly 95% of the population.
Out of people aged five and older, 94.3% speak only Spanish at home, 5.5% speak English, and 0.2% speak other languages. A Pew Research survey indicated an adult literacy rate of 90.4% in 2012 based on data from the United Nations.
In Puerto Rico, public school instruction is conducted almost entirely in Spanish. There have been pilot programs in about a dozen of the over 1,400 public schools aimed at conducting instruction in English only. Objections from teaching staff are common, perhaps because many of them are not fully fluent in English. English is taught as a second language and is a compulsory subject from elementary levels to high school. The languages of the deaf community are American Sign Language and its local variant, Puerto Rican Sign Language.
The Spanish language of Puerto Rico has evolved into a variety with
many idiosyncrasies in vocabulary and syntax that differentiate it from Spanish spoken elsewhere. Puerto Rican Spanish utilizes many Taíno words as well as English words. The largest influence on the Spanish spoken in Puerto Rico is that of the Canary Islands. Taíno loanwords are most often used in the context of vegetation, natural phenomena, and native musical instruments. Similarly, words attributed to primarily West African languages were adopted in the contexts of foods, music, and dances, particularly in coastal towns with concentrations of descendants of Sub-Saharan Africans.
=== Religion ===
Christianity is the dominant religion in Puerto Rico. Catholicism was brought by Spanish colonists and gradually became the prevailing faith. The first dioceses in the Americas, including that of Puerto Rico, were authorized by Pope Julius II in 1511. In 1512, priests were established for the parochial churches. By 1759, there was a priest for each church. One Pope, John Paul II, visited Puerto Rico in October 1984. All municipalities in Puerto Rico have at least one Catholic church, most of which are located at the town center, or plaza.
Protestantism, which was suppressed under the Spanish Catholic regime, reemerged under U.S. rule, making contemporary Puerto Rico more interconfessional than in previous centuries, although Catholicism continues to be the dominant religion. The first Protestant church, Iglesia de la Santísima Trinidad, was established in Ponce by the Anglican Diocese of Antigua in 1872. It was the first non-Catholic church in the entire Spanish Empire in the Americas.
Sources differ on the denominational breakdown of the population. Pollster Pablo Ramos stated in 1998 that the population was 38 percent Catholic, 28 percent Pentecostal, and 18 percent independent churches; the total number of Protestants collectively added up to almost two million people, or 46 percent of the population. Another researcher gave a more conservative assessment of the proportion of Protestants in 1997, finding a Protestant population of approximately 33 to 38 percent, the majority of whom are Pentecostal; however, it estimated that Puerto Rico would become 75 percent evangelical by 2022.
A 2014 Pew Research report found that only 56% of Puerto Ricans were Catholic, while 33% were Protestant and 8% were unaffiliated; these figures are shared by the CIA World Factbook, which further notes that Protestants are "largely Pentecostal", while other religions make up 2 percent and atheists only one percent. Pew Research from the year before, which surveyed Puerto Ricans living in the mainland United States, found that only about 45% of Puerto Rican adults identified themselves as Catholic, 29% as Protestant and 20% as unaffiliated with a religion. By contrast, an Associated Press article in March 2014 stated that "more than 70 percent" of Puerto Ricans identified as Catholic.
There is a small Eastern Orthodox community, centered mostly around two Eastern Orthodox Churches in the territory: the Russian Orthodox mission of Saint John Climacus in San German and the Saint George Antiochian Orthodox Church in Carolina; both have services in English and Spanish. There is a small Syriac Orthodox church in Aguada and an Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church in Utuado, Puerto Rico, which represents the only Oriental Orthodox denominations in the Island. The Roman Catholic Church has a Greek Catholic Church in Trujillo Alto as well, Orthodox Christians accounted for one percent of the population in 2010. In 2017, the first Eastern Catholic Church was established in Puerto Rico. In 2023, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints dedicated a temple in San Juan, and reported having a membership of approximately 23,000 in the commonwealth. In 2015, the 25,832 Jehovah's Witnesses represented about 0.70% of the population, with 324 congregations.
Puerto Rico has the largest Jewish community in the Caribbean, at roughly 3,000, and is the only Caribbean island where Conservative, Reform and Orthodox Jewish movements are all represented. The island's first synagogue, Sha'are Zedeck, was established in 1952 by American Jews.
In 2007, there were about 5,000 Muslims in Puerto Rico, representing about 0.13% of the population. Eight mosques are located throughout the island, with most Muslims living in Río Piedras and Caguas; most Muslims are of Palestinian and Jordanian descent. There is also a Baháʼí community.
Buddhism in Puerto Rico is represented with Nichiren, Zen and Tibetan Buddhism, with the New York Padmasambhava Buddhist Center for example having a branch in San Juan. There are several atheist activist and educational organizations, and an atheistic parody religion called the Pastafarian Church of Puerto Rico. An ISKCON temple in Gurabo is devoted to Krishna, with two preaching centers in the San Juan metropolitan area.
Taíno religious practices have been rediscovered and reinvented to some degree by a handful of advocates. Similarly, some aspects of African religious traditions have persisted, as African slaves maintained various ethnic African religious practices associated with different peoples; in particular, the Yoruba beliefs of Santería or Ifá, and the Kongo-derived Palo Mayombe. Some Indigenous and African practices and beliefs are syncretized with Christianity. In 1940, Juanita García Peraza founded the Mita Congregation, the first religion of Puerto Rican origin.
=== Education ===
The first school in Puerto Rico was the Escuela de Gramática (Grammar School). It was established by Bishop Alonso Manso in 1513, in the area where the Cathedral of San Juan was to be constructed. The school was free of charge and the courses taught were Latin language, literature, history, science, art, philosophy and theology.
Education in Puerto Rico is divided in three levels—Primary (elementary school grades 1–6), Secondary (intermediate and high school grades 7–12), and Higher Level (undergraduate and graduate studies). As of 2002, the literacy rate of the Puerto Rican population was 94.1%; by gender, it was 93.9% for males and 94.4% for females. According to the 2000 Census, 60.0% of the population attained a high school degree or higher level of education, and 18.3% has a bachelor's degree or higher.
Instruction at the primary school level is compulsory between the ages of 5 and 18. As of 2010, there are 1539 public schools and 806 private schools.
The largest and oldest university system is the public University of Puerto Rico (UPR) with 11 campuses. The largest private university systems on the island are the Sistema Universitario Ana G. Mendez which operates the Universidad del Turabo, Metropolitan University and Universidad del Este. Other private universities include the multi-campus Inter American University, the Pontifical Catholic University, Universidad Politécnica de Puerto Rico, and the Universidad del Sagrado Corazón. Puerto Rico has four schools of Medicine and three ABA-approved Law Schools.
=== Health ===
In 2017, there were 69 hospitals in Puerto Rico. As of 2021, average life expectancy is approximately 82.1 years according to the CIA World Factbook, an improvement from 78.7 years in 2010.
Reforma de Salud de Puerto Rico (Puerto Rico Health Reform) – locally referred to as La Reforma ('The Reform') – is a government-run program which provides medical and health care services to the indigent and impoverished, by means of contracting private health insurance companies, rather than employing government-owned hospitals and emergency centers. The Reform is administered by the Puerto Rico Health Insurance Administration.
== Culture ==
Modern Puerto Rican culture is a unique mix of cultural antecedents: including European (predominantly Spanish, Italian, French, German and Irish), African, and, more recently, some North American and many South Americans. Many Cubans and Dominicans have relocated to the island in the past few decades.
From the Spanish, Puerto Rico received the Spanish language, the Catholic religion and the vast majority of their cultural and moral values and traditions. The United States added English-language influence, the university system and the adoption of some holidays and practices. On March 12, 1903, the University of Puerto Rico was officially founded, branching out from the "Escuela Normal Industrial", a smaller organization that was founded in Fajardo three years earlier.
Much of Puerto Rican culture centers on the influence of music and has been shaped by other cultures combining with local and traditional rhythms. Early in the history of Puerto Rican music, the influences of Spanish and African traditions were most noticeable. The cultural movements across the Caribbean and North America have played a vital role in the more recent musical influences which have reached Puerto Rico.
Puerto Rico has many symbols, but only the Flor de Maga has been made official by the Government of Puerto Rico. Other popular, traditional, or unofficial symbols of Puerto Rico are the Puerto Rican spindalis, the kapok tree, the coquí frog, the jíbaro, the Taíno Indian, and Cerro Las Tetas with its jíbaro culture monument.
=== Architecture ===
The architecture of Puerto Rico demonstrates a broad variety of traditions, styles and national influences accumulated over four centuries of Spanish rule, and a century of American rule. Spanish colonial architecture, Ibero-Islamic, art deco, post-modern, and many other architectural forms are visible throughout the island. From town to town, there are also many regional distinctions.
Old San Juan is one of the two barrios, in addition to Santurce, that made up the municipality of San Juan from 1864 to 1951, at which time the former independent municipality of Río Piedras was annexed. With its abundance of shops, historic places, museums, open air cafés, restaurants, gracious homes, tree-shaded plazas, and its old beauty and architectonical peculiarity, Old San Juan is a main spot for local and internal tourism. The district is also characterized by numerous public plazas and churches including San José Church and the Cathedral of San Juan Bautista, which contains the tomb of the Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de León. It also houses the oldest Catholic school for elementary education in Puerto Rico, the Colegio de Párvulos, built in 1865.
The oldest parts of the district of Old San Juan remain partly enclosed by massive walls. Several defensive structures and notable forts, such as the emblematic Fort San Felipe del Morro, Fort San Cristóbal, and El Palacio de Santa Catalina, also known as La Fortaleza, acted as the primary defenses of the settlement which was subjected to numerous attacks. La Fortaleza continues to serve also as the executive mansion for the governor of Puerto Rico. Many of the historic fortifications are part of San Juan National Historic Site.
During the 1940s, sections of Old San Juan fell into disrepair, and many renovation plans were suggested in the following decades and into the present. There was even a strong push to develop Old San Juan as a "small Manhattan". Strict remodeling codes were implemented to prevent new constructions from affecting the common colonial Spanish architectural themes of the old city. When a project proposal suggested that the old Carmelite Convent in San Juan be demolished to erect a new hotel, the Institute had the building declared as a historic building, and then asked that it be converted to a hotel in a renewed facility. This was what became the Hotel El Convento in Old San Juan. The paradigm to reconstruct and renovate the old city and revitalize it has been followed by other cities in the Americas, particularly Havana, Lima and Cartagena de Indias.
Ponce Creole is a unique architectural style created in Ponce, Puerto Rico, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This style of Puerto Rican buildings is found predominantly in residential homes in Ponce that developed between 1895 and 1920. Ponce Creole architecture borrows heavily from the traditions of France, Spain and the Caribbean vernacular to create houses that were especially built to withstand the hot and dry climate of the region, and to take advantage of the sun and sea breezes characteristic of the southern Puerto Rico's Caribbean Sea coast. It is a blend of wood and masonry, incorporating architectural elements of other styles, from Classical revival and Spanish Revival to Victorian.
=== Arts ===
Puerto Rican art reflects many influences, much from its ethnically diverse background. A form of folk art, called santos evolved from the Catholic Church's use of sculptures to convert Indigenous Puerto Ricans to Christianity. Santos depict figures of saints and other religious icons and are made from native wood, clay, and stone. After shaping simple, they are often finished by painting them in vivid colors. Santos vary in size, with the smallest examples around eight inches tall and the largest about twenty inches tall. Traditionally, santos were seen as messengers between the earth and Heaven. As such, they occupied a special place on household altars, where people prayed to them, asked for help, or tried to summon their protection.
Also popular, caretas or vejigantes are masks worn during carnivals. Similar masks signifying evil spirits were used in both Spain and Africa, though for different purposes. The Spanish used their masks to frighten lapsed Christians into returning to the church, while tribal Africans used them as protection from the evil spirits they represented. True to their historic origins, Puerto Rican caretas always bear at least several horns and fangs. While usually constructed of papier-mâché, coconut shells and fine metal screening are sometimes used as well. Red and black were the typical colors for caretas but their palette has expanded to include a wide variety of bright hues and patterns.
=== Literature ===
Puerto Rican literature evolved from the art of oral story telling to its present-day status. Written works by the native islanders of Puerto Rico were prohibited and repressed by the Spanish colonial government. Only those who were commissioned by the Spanish Crown to document the chronological history of the island were allowed to write. Diego de Torres Vargas was allowed to circumvent this strict prohibition and in 1647 wrote Descripción de la Ciudad e Isla de Puerto Rico ("Description of the Island and City of Puerto Rico"). This historical book was the first to make a detailed geographic description of the island.
Some of Puerto Rico's earliest writers were influenced by the teachings of Rafael Cordero. Among these was Manuel A. Alonso, the first Puerto Rican writer of notable importance. In 1849 he published El Gíbaro, a collection of verses whose main themes were the poor Puerto Rican country farmer. Eugenio María de Hostos wrote La peregrinación de Bayoán in 1863, which used Bartolomé de las Casas as a springboard to reflect on Caribbean identity. After this first novel, Hostos abandoned fiction in favor of the essay which he saw as offering greater possibilities for inspiring social change.
In the late 19th century, with the arrival of the first printing press and the founding of the Royal Academy of Belles Letters, Puerto Rican literature began to flourish. The first writers to express their political views in regard to Spanish colonial rule of the island were journalists. Alejandro Tapia y Rivera, also known as the Father of Puerto Rican Literature, ushered in a new age of historiography with the publication of The Historical Library of Puerto Rico. Cayetano Coll y Toste was another Puerto Rican historian and writer. His work The Indo-Antillano Vocabulary is valuable in understanding the way the Taínos lived. Manuel Zeno Gandía in 1894 wrote La Charca and talked about the harsh life in the remote and mountainous coffee regions in Puerto Rico. Antonio S. Pedreira, described in his work Insularismo the cultural survival of the Puerto Rican identity after the American invasion.
With the Puerto Rican diaspora of the 1940s, Puerto Rican literature was greatly influenced by a phenomenon known as the Nuyorican Movement. Puerto Rican literature continued to flourish, and many Puerto Ricans have since distinguished themselves as authors, journalists, poets, novelists, playwrights, essayists, and screenwriters. The influence of Puerto Rican literature has transcended the boundaries of the island to the U.S. and the rest of the world. Over the past fifty years, significant writers include Ed Vega (Omaha Bigelow), Miguel Piñero (Short Eyes), Piri Thomas (Down These Mean Streets), Giannina Braschi (Yo-Yo Boing!), Rosario Ferrer (Eccentric Neighborhoods). and Esmeralda Santiago (When I was Puerto Rican).
=== Media ===
The mass media in Puerto Rico includes local radio stations, television stations and newspapers, the majority of which are conducted in Spanish. There are also three stations of the U.S. Armed Forces Radio and Television Service. Newspapers with daily distribution are El Nuevo Día, El Vocero and Índice, Metro, and Primera Hora. El Vocero is distributed free of charge, as are Índice and Metro.
Newspapers distributed on a weekly or regional basis include Claridad, La Perla del Sur, La Opinión, Visión, and La Estrella del Norte, among others. Several television channels provide local content in the island. These include WIPR-TV, Telemundo, Univision affiliate WLII-DT (Teleonce), WAPA-TV, and WKAQ-TV.
=== Music ===
The music of Puerto Rico has evolved as a heterogeneous and dynamic product of diverse cultural resources. The most conspicuous musical sources have been Spain and West Africa, although many aspects of Puerto Rican music reflect origins elsewhere in Europe and the Caribbean and, over the last century, from the U.S. Puerto Rican music culture today comprises a wide and rich variety of genres, ranging from Indigenous genres like bomba, plena, aguinaldo, danza and the popular salsa to recent hybrids like reggaeton and Latin trap, popular with the new generation of musicians and popularized across the world by Puerto Rican musician Bad Bunny.
Puerto Rico has some national instruments, like the cuatro (Spanish for "four"). The cuatro is a local instrument that was made by the "Jibaro" or people from the mountains. Originally, the Cuatro consisted of four steel strings, hence its name, but currently the Cuatro consists of five double steel strings. It is easily confused with a guitar, even by locals. When held upright, from right to left, the strings are G, D, A, E, B.
In the realm of classical music, the island hosts two main orchestras, the Orquesta Sinfónica de Puerto Rico and the Orquesta Filarmónica de Puerto Rico. The Casals Festival takes place annually in San Juan, drawing in classical musicians from around the world.
With respect to opera, the legendary Puerto Rican tenor Antonio Paoli was so celebrated, that he performed private recitals for Pope Pius X and Tsar Nicholas II of Russia. In 1907, Paoli was the first operatic artist in world history to record an entire opera – when he participated in a performance of Pagliacci by Ruggiero Leoncavallo in Milan, Italy.
Musical artists with great international success include Menudo, Ricky Martin, Bad Bunny and others.
=== Philately ===
Puerto Rico has been commemorated on four U.S. postal stamps. Insular Territories were commemorated in 1937, the third stamp honored Puerto Rico featuring 'La Fortaleza', the Spanish Governor's Palace. The first free election for governor of the U.S. territory of Puerto Rico was honored on April 27, 1949, at San Juan, Puerto Rico. 'Inauguration' on the 3-cent stamp refers to the election of Luis Muñoz Marín, the first democratically elected governor of Puerto Rico. San Juan, Puerto Rico was commemorated with an 8-cent stamp on its 450th anniversary issued September 12, 1971, featuring a sentry box from Castillo San Felipe del Morro. In the "Flags of our nation series" 2008–2012, of the fifty-five, five territorial flags were featured. Forever stamps included the Puerto Rico Flag illustrated by a bird issued 2011.
=== Cuisine ===
Puerto Rican cuisine has its roots in the cooking traditions and practices of Europe (Spain), Africa and the Native Taínos. Basic ingredients include grains and legumes, herbs and spices, starchy tropical tubers, vegetables, meat and poultry, seafood and shellfish, and fruits. Main dishes include mofongo, arroz con gandules, pasteles, and pig roast (or lechón). Beverages include maví and piña colada. Desserts include flan, arroz con dulce (sweet rice pudding), piraguas, brazo gitanos, tembleque, polvorones, and dulce de leche.
=== Sports ===
Baseball was one of the first sports to gain widespread popularity in Puerto Rico. The Puerto Rico Baseball League serves as the only active professional league, operating as a winter league. No Major League Baseball franchise or affiliate plays in Puerto Rico; however, San Juan hosted the Montreal Expos for several series in 2003 and 2004 before they moved to Washington, D.C. and became the Washington Nationals.
The Puerto Rico national baseball team has participated in the World Cup of Baseball winning one gold (1951), four silver and four bronze medals, the Caribbean Series (winning fourteen times) and the World Baseball Classic. In March 2006, San Juan's Hiram Bithorn Stadium hosted the opening round as well as the second round of the newly formed World Baseball Classic. Puerto Rican baseball players include Hall of Famers Roberto Clemente, Orlando Cepeda and Roberto Alomar, enshrined in 1973, 1999, and 2011 respectively.
Boxing, basketball, and volleyball are considered popular sports as well. Wilfredo Gómez and McWilliams Arroyo have won their respective divisions at the World Amateur Boxing Championships. Other medalists include José Pedraza, who holds a silver medal, and three boxers who finished in third place, José Luis Vellón, Nelson Dieppa and McJoe Arroyo. In the professional circuit, Puerto Rico has the third-most boxing world champions and it is the global leader in champions per capita. These include Miguel Cotto, Félix Trinidad, Wilfred Benítez and Gómez among others.
The Puerto Rico national basketball team joined the International Basketball Federation in 1957. Since then, it has won more than 30 medals in international competitions, including gold in three FIBA Americas Championships and the 1994 Goodwill Games August 8, 2004, became a landmark date for the team when it became the first team to defeat the United States in an Olympic tournament since the integration of National Basketball Association players. Winning the inaugural game with scores of 92–73 as part of the 2004 Summer Olympics organized in Athens, Greece. Baloncesto Superior Nacional acts as the top-level professional basketball league in Puerto Rico and has experienced success since its beginning in 1930.
Puerto Rico is also a member of FIFA and CONCACAF. In 2008, the archipelago's first unified league, the Puerto Rico Soccer League, was established.
Other sports include professional wrestling and road running. The World Wrestling Council and International Wrestling Association are the largest wrestling promotions in the main island. The World's Best 10K, held annually in San Juan, has been ranked among the 20 most competitive races globally. The "Puerto Rico All Stars" team, which has won twelve world championships in unicycle basketball.
Organized streetball has gathered some exposition, with teams like "Puerto Rico Street Ball" competing against established organizations including the Capitanes de Arecibo and AND1's Mixtape Tour Team. Six years after the first visit, AND1 returned as part of their renamed Live Tour, losing to the Puerto Rico Streetballers. Consequently, practitioners of this style have earned participation in international teams, including Orlando "El Gato" Meléndez, who became the first Puerto Rican born athlete to play for the Harlem Globetrotters.
Puerto Rico has representation in all international competitions including the Summer and Winter Olympics, the Pan American Games, the Caribbean World Series, and the Central American and Caribbean Games. Puerto Rico hosted the Pan Am Games in 1979 (officially in San Juan), and The Central American and Caribbean Games were hosted in 1993 in Ponce and in 2010 in Mayagüez.
Puerto Rican athletes have won ten medals in Olympic competition (two gold, two silver, six bronze), the first one in 1948 by boxer Juan Evangelista Venegas. Monica Puig won the first gold medal for Puerto Rico in the Olympic Games by winning the Women's Tennis singles title in Rio 2016.
== See also ==
Outline of Puerto Rico
Stateside Puerto Ricans, living on mainland
List of islands of Puerto Rico
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website (in Spanish)
Investment
Tourism
Department of Economic Development and Commerce
U.S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System: Puerto Rico
"Puerto Rico". Country profiles. BBC.
"Puerto Rico". Encyclopædia Britannica. August 24, 2023.
"Datos y Estadisticas de Puerto Rico y sus Municipios" [Data and Statistics about Puerto Rico and Its Municipalities]. Tendencias PR (in Spanish). Archived from the original on February 9, 2014. Retrieved May 1, 2010.
=== Geography ===
Wikimedia Atlas of Puerto Rico
Geographic data related to Puerto Rico at OpenStreetMap
=== United States government ===
"Application of the U.S. Constitution in U.S. Insular Areas" (PDF). November 1997. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 29, 2020. Retrieved March 28, 2008.
"Puerto Rico: Resource Guide". LOC.
=== United Nations Declaration on Puerto Rico ===
"Special Committee on Decolonization Calls Upon United States to Expedite Puerto Rico's Self-Determination Process". Special Committee on Decolonization. Press release. UN General Assembly. June 14, 2007. Archived from the original on December 26, 2007. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zofia_Kielan-Jaworowska# | Zofia Kielan-Jaworowska | Zofia Emilia Kielan-Jaworowska (25 April 1925 – 13 March 2015) was a Polish paleobiologist. In the mid-1960s, she led a series of Polish-Mongolian paleontological expeditions to the Gobi Desert. She was the first woman to serve on the executive committee of the International Union of Geological Sciences. The most notable dinosaur species she discovered include: Deinocheirus and Gallimimus while Kielanodon and Zofiabaatar were named in her honour.
In her obituary in Nature, Richard L. Cifelli wrote that "Much of what we know about the origin and early evolution of mammals stems, directly or indirectly, from [her work]".
== Early life and education ==
Zofia Kielan-Jaworowska was born in Sokołów Podlaski, Poland, on April 25, 1925. In 1928, her father, Franciszek Kielan, was offered a job for the Association of Agriculture and Trade Cooperatives in Warsaw, to which her family moved for five years. Zofia and family returned to Warsaw in 1934 and lived in Żoliborz - a borough of Warsaw. She began her studies in Warsaw, following the destruction after the war when the Nazis had attempted to completely destroy the city, resulting in the Department of Geology joining the ruins. She attended lectures given instead by the Polish paleontologist, Roman Kozłowski, in his own home. This is where her passion began. She subsequently earned a master's degree in zoology and a paleontology doctorate at Warsaw University, where she later became a professor. 15 years later, she organized the first Polish-Mongolian paleontological quest to the Gobi Desert, and returned seven times. She became the first woman to serve on the committee of the International Union of Geological Sciences. Her findings remain arguably unmatched by any living expert.
During World War II, together with her family, she helped to hide two Jewish women.
== Career and research ==
She was employed by the Institute of Paleobiology of the Polish Academy of Sciences. She held a number of functions in professional organizations in Poland and the United States.
Her work included the study of Devonian and Ordovician trilobites from Central Europe (Poland and Czech Republic), leading several Polish-Mongolian paleontological expeditions to the Gobi Desert, and the discovery of new species of crocodiles, lizards, turtles, dinosaurs (notably Deinocheirus), birds and multituberculates. She is the author of the book Hunting for Dinosaurs, and a co-author of the book Mammals from the Age of Dinosaurs.
Her work was published widely in peer reviewed scientific journals, books and monographs.
While at the University of Warsaw, she started her master's research. This allowed her to join expeditions with other paleontologists and make various contributions. Kielan-Jaworowska participated in her first paleontological excavation in 1947 along with a group of researchers from the Museum of Earth and the National Geological Institute. The excavations, led by the geologist Jan Czarnocki, took place in Poland's Świętokrzyskie Mountains in exposures of Middle Devonian strata. The group's work involved digging for soft rock and rinsing away the sediment, consisting of yellow marl, in running water while using a sieve to collect any fossils that were present. Kielan-Jaworowska spent two months with the group and specifically sought trilobite fossils, which became the focus of her master's thesis. She returned to specific sites in the Świętokrzyskie Mountains over the next three summers to continue developing her collection, which grew to over one hundred trilobite specimens.
Kielan-Jaworowska was awarded her master's degree in 1949. She had been employed as an assistant in the University of Warsaw's Department of Paleontology since fall 1948. She worked there until 1952, teaching classes in paleontology for biology and geology students.
During her expeditions from 1963 to 1971 to the Gobi Desert, she unearthed many dinosaurs and mammals from the Cretaceous and early Tertiary. Her findings were so extensive that, in 1965, her team had shipped over 20 tons of fossils back to Poland. One of her most notable finds was in 1971, when she discovered a Protoceratops and a young Velociraptor tangled in a struggle. The fossilization process of how these two remained intact in this position is still debated. Although her findings were mainly dinosaurs, she did not focus all her research on them. From 1949 to 1963, she concentrated on Paleozoic invertebrates, especially trilobites. They were among the oldest fossils commonly found. This led her to shift her focus on researching Mesozoic mammals in 1963.
Kielan-Jaworowska has added a great deal of contribution to monographs that detail findings of fossils and wrote her own book, Hunting for Dinosaurs, which give brief descriptions of her paleontological endeavors in the Gobi Desert. The book was written in Polish and translated to English and published in 1969. The book notes her exchange with the Mongolian people, as well as the hardships she faced to achieve success in her life's work. In her research, she explored the asteroid theory regarding the mass extinction of dinosaurs. Kielan-Jaworowska concluded the book with noting how the research of the mass extinctions could promote awareness for future decades. Kielan-Jaworowska and her book gained international attention and fame.
From 1960 to 1982, she was the director of the Institute of Paleobiology. In 1982, she stepped down from her position to undertake a visiting professorship at the Musée national d’Histoire naturelle in Paris, which lasted for two years. Soon after her return to Warsaw, she was appointed Professor of Paleontology at the University of Oslo, which lasted from 1986 to 1995 when she was appointed Professor Emerita in the institute of Paleobiology.
== Awards and honours ==
In 1988, she was awarded the Walter Granger Memorial Award.
In 1999, Kielan-Jaworowska received the Righteous Among the Nations Medal.
She was awarded the Romer-Simpson Medal in 1996, becoming the 8th recipient of the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology's award, which honors sustained and outstanding scholarly excellence in the discipline of vertebrate paleontology. In 2002, she also became the recipient of the Commander's Cross with Star of the Order of Polonia Restituta. Her book, Mammals from the Age of Dinosaurs, won her the prestigious Prize of the Foundation for Polish Science in 2005. Her work was recognized "for a creative synthesis of research on the Mesozoic evolution of mammals".
Kielan-Jaworowska's co-author, Zhe-Xi Lou, describes her contribution to paleontology as unmatched by any living experts, and that "in the whole of Mesozoic mammalian studies for the last 100 years, only the late American paleontologist George Gaylord Simpson would be her equal". "She is the rarest among the rare – she has been a leader in making important scientific contributions, and also a gregarious and charismatic figure, both of which have made paleontology a better science, and paleontologists worldwide a better community."
She was a member of the Polish Geological Society, Academia Europaea, Palaeontological Association, Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters, Norwegian Paleontological Society, Polish Academy of Sciences as well as an honorary member of the Linnean Society of London, Polish Copernicus Society of Naturalists and the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology. She worked at Harvard University (1973–74), Paris Diderot University (1982–84), University of Oslo (1987–95) and the Polish Academy of Sciences.
A number of extinct animals have been named in her honour including Kielanodon, Zofiabaatar, Kielantherium, Zofiagale as well as Indobaatar zofiae.
== Personal life ==
She married Zbigniew Jaworowski, a professor of radiobiology, in 1958.
== Books ==
Kielan-Jaworowska, Z. (1974). Hunting for dinosaurs. Cambridge: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-61007-0.
Lillegraven, Jason A.; Kielan-Jaworowska, Zofia; Clemens, William A., eds. (1979). Mesozoic mammals : the first two-thirds of mammalian history. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-03951-3.
Kielan-Jaworowska, Zofia; Cifelli, Richard L.; Luo, Zhe-Xi (2004). Mammals from the age of dinosaurs : origins, evolution, and structure. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-11918-6.
Kielan-Jaworowska, Z. (2013). In pursuit of early mammals. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-00817-6.
== References ==
== External links ==
Professor Kielan-Jaworowska's Web-page on PAN Server Archived 2017-05-27 at the Wayback Machine
In memoriam: Zofia Kielan-Jaworowska (1925–2015), obituary in Acta Palaeontologica Polonica |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Senior_Chess_Championship | World Senior Chess Championship | The World Senior Chess Championship is an annual chess tournament established in 1991 by FIDE, the World Chess Federation.
The 2025 tournament took place in Gallipoli, Italy, from 20 October to 2 November.
== Overview ==
Originally, the minimum age was 60 years for men, and 50 for women.
Since 2014, the Senior Championship is split in two different age categories, 50+ and 65+, with separate open and women-only tournaments. Participants must reach the age of 50 or 65 years by December 31 of the year of the event. There is a category for players 75+ which provides special prizes.
The championship is organized as an eleven-round Swiss system tournament. It is an open tournament, and each FIDE member federation may send as many players as desired. The separate women's tournament is held only if there are enough participants (at least 10 women from four different FIDE zones).
The winners of the open tournaments (both age categories) are awarded the title of Grandmaster if they do not already have it and the winners of the women's tournaments (both age categories) are awarded the title of Woman Grandmaster if they do not already have it.
So far one World Chess Champion, Vasily Smyslov, has gone on to win the World Senior Championship as well, winning the first such championship aged 70 in 1991. Nona Gaprindashvili is the only Women's World Chess Champion to obtain the women's World Senior title as well.
The oldest World Senior Champion, male or female – before the split in two different age categories was made – was Viktor Korchnoi, who won the title at the age of 75 and a half (in 2006, his only participation).
Vlastimil Jansa then won the 65+ section at the age of 76 in 2018 (his first gold medal), Gaprindashvili won the same year in the women's group 65+ at the age of 77. Julio Ernesto Granda Zuniga of Peru (born in 1967) is the youngest Senior World Chess Champion, section 50+, at the age of 50 in 2017.
For comparison, the oldest reigning World Chess Champion ever was Wilhelm Steinitz, who held the title until the age of 58 years, 10 days. The oldest reigning classical World Chess Champion since the inception of the World Senior Chess championship in 1991 was Viswanathan Anand, who held the title until age 43 when he lost to Magnus Carlsen.
== History ==
The 8th World Senior Championship was held 9–23 November 1998 in Grieskirchen, Austria.
Vladimir Bagirov (Latvia) won the 200-player open section on tie-break over Wolfgang Uhlmann (Germany), both with 8.5/11.
Ten players tied a half point behind with 8.0/11, including former World Championship Candidates Mark Taimanov and Borislav Ivkov, the first ever World Junior Chess Champion.
WGM Tamar Khmiadashvili (Georgia) won the 24-player women's section outright with 9.5 points.
The 13th World Senior Championship was held 16–29 November 2003 in Bad Zwischenahn, Germany.
IM Yuri Shabanov (Russia) won the 272-player open section 9.0/11 on tie-break over GM Jānis Klovāns (Latvia) and IM Vladimir Bukal (Croatia). Khmiadashvili (Georgia) won the 22-player women's section 7.5/9 on tie-break over WGM Marta Litinskaya-Shul (Ukraine).
The 14th World Senior Championship was held 24 October–5 November 2004 in Halle (Saale), Germany.
IM Yuri Shabanov (Russia) defended his championship, winning the 215-player open section on a tie-break with five players scoring 8.5/11.
GM Elena Fatalibekova (Russia) won the 19-player women's section outright with 8.0/9.
The 16th World Senior Chess Championship was held 11–23 September 2006 in Arvier, Italy.
Former World Chess Championship challenger and top seed GM Viktor Korchnoi (Switzerland) won the 126-player open section 9.0/11.
Competing in his first and sole Seniors' Championship, Korchnoi won his first four games, drew in the fifth round with Jānis Klovāns, and then won the next three again. Entering the ninth round with a full point lead, Korchnoi drew his final three games to take the € 3000 gold medal. WGM Ludmila Saunina (Russia), won the 14-player women's section by a full point, 8.5/11, to earn € 700.
== Winners ==
== See also ==
European Senior Chess Championship
Asian Senior Chess Championship
== References ==
== General references ==
FIDE, "D.VIII.01. World Senior (Women) Championship", FIDE Handbook, archived from the original on 2007-06-08
Crowther, Mark (23 November 1998), THE WEEK IN CHESS 211: 8th World Senior Championships, London Chess Center
FIDE, World Senior Championship 2003
FIDE, World Senior Championship 2004
15th World Senior Chess Championship, Chess-Results.com
== External links ==
https://www.worldseniorchampionship2025.com/ Website for the 2025 tournament in Gallipoli, Italy] |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tatiana_Zatulovskaya | Tatiana Zatulovskaya | Tatiana Zatulovskaya (Hebrew: טטיאנה זטולובסקיה; Russian: Татьяна Яковлевна Затуловская, Tatiana Yakovlevna Zatulovskaya; 8 December 1935 – 2 July 2017) was an Israeli (formerly Soviet and Russian) chess player. She was a three-time Soviet women's champion and twice the world women's senior champion. She was awarded the titles Woman International Master (WIM) in 1961 and Woman Grandmaster (WGM) in 1976 by FIDE. Her last name may also be spelled as Zatulovskaia or Zatulovskaja.
Zatulovskaya won the Women's Soviet Chess Championship in 1960, 1962, and 1963. She represented the USSR at the Women's Chess Olympiad in 1963 and 1966, winning the team gold medal on both occasions. She won an individual silver medal in 1963 and an individual gold in 1966. In the 1960s and the 1970s, she often qualified for Interzonals and Candidates Tournaments for the Women's World Chess Championship.
In 1993, she won the Women's Seniors World Championship with a score of 10 out of 11 points (10 wins, 0 losses, and 2 draws). She repeated this success in 1997. In 2000, she emigrated to Israel, which she represented at the 2002 Women's Chess Olympiad. Zatulovskaya died on 2 July 2017 at age 81. In her lifetime, she was also a geological engineer and a good gymnast.
== See also ==
List of Jewish chess players
== References ==
== External links ==
Tatiana Zatulovskaya chess games at 365Chess.com
Tatiana Zatulovskaya player profile and games at Chessgames.com
Tatiana Zatulovskaya Women's Chess Olympiad record at OlimpBase.org |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediumwave_transmitter_Lopik#:~:text=The%20Mediumwave%20transmitter%20Lopik%20was,Radio%20Maria%20on%20675%20kHz. | Mediumwave transmitter Lopik | The Mediumwave transmitter Lopik was a medium wave broadcasting facility near Lopik in the Netherlands. It was constructed in 1938 (1938) and destroyed on September 1, 2015 (2015-09-01). Its last use was to transmit the Dutch language edition of Radio Maria on 675 kHz. The aerial consisted of a 196-metre (643 ft) guyed steel framework mast, which was insulated against ground.
On 24 July 2015, Radio Maria Netherlands announced the closedown of its transmissions on 675 kHz Medium wave as of 1 September 2015.
Originally, there was also a second, 165 metres (541 ft) guyed steel framework mast for the mediumwave frequency 1332 kHz, but this was taken down on 21 August 2004.
On 4 September 2015, the remaining 196 metres (643 ft) mast was also taken down, marking the end of 75 years of Medium wave transmissions from the Lopik site.
This mast should not be confused with the Gerbrandy tower in the nearby town of IJsselstein, which is used for FM- and TV-broadcasting. The Gerbrandy Tower used to be in the municipality of Lopik as well before an administrative change, and is often referred to as the "Lopik tower".
== See also ==
List of masts
== References ==
== External links ==
Lopik on www.waniewski.de
http://www.skyscraperpage.com/diagrams/?b30108
http://www.skyscraperpage.com/diagrams/?b30110
Lopik Transmission Mast at Structurae
https://web.archive.org/web/20050301000032/http://www.xs4all.nl/~okznet/Other/nozema/index.htm (dead link) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine | Wayback Machine | The Wayback Machine is a digital archive of the World Wide Web founded by the Internet Archive, an American nonprofit organization based in San Francisco, California. Launched for public access in 2001, the service allows users to go "back in time" to see how websites looked in the past. Founders Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat developed the Wayback Machine to provide "universal access to all knowledge" by preserving archived copies of defunct web pages.
The name is a reference to the fictional time-traveling device of the same name from the animated cartoon The Bullwinkle Show from the 1960s. In a segment of the cartoon entitled "Peabody's Improbable History", the characters Mister Peabody and Sherman use the "Wayback Machine" to travel back in time to witness and participate in famous historical events.
The Wayback Machine's earliest archives go back at least to 1995, and by the end of 2009, more than 38.2 billion webpages had been saved. As of October 2025, the Wayback Machine has archived more than 1 trillion web pages and well over 99 petabytes of data.
== History ==
The Internet Archive has been archiving cached web pages since at least 1995. One of the earliest known pages was archived on May 8, 1995.
Internet Archive founders Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat launched the Wayback Machine in San Francisco, California, in October 2001, primarily to address the problem of web content vanishing whenever it gets changed or when a website is shut down. The service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a "three-dimensional index". Kahle and Gilliat created the machine hoping to archive the entire Internet and provide "universal access to all knowledge".
From 1996 to 2001, the information was kept on digital tape, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers and scientists to tap into the "clunky" database. When the archive reached its fifth anniversary in 2001, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. By the time the Wayback Machine launched, it already contained over 10 billion archived pages. The data is stored on the Internet Archive's large cluster of Linux nodes. It revisits and archives new versions of websites on occasion (see technical details below). Sites can also be captured manually by entering a website's URL into the search box, provided that the website allows the Wayback Machine to "crawl" it and save the data.
On October 30, 2020, the Wayback Machine began fact-checking content. As of January 2022, domains of ad servers are disabled from capturing.
In May 2021, for Internet Archive's 25th anniversary, the Wayback Machine introduced the "Wayforward Machine", which allows users to "travel to the Internet in 2046, where knowledge is under siege".
On July 24, 2025, Senator Alex Padilla designated the Internet Archive as a federal depository library.
In 2025, Wayback Machine reached 1 trillion webpages archived, with a series of events being scheduled throughout October to celebrate it.
== Technical information ==
The Wayback Machine's software has been developed to "crawl" the Web and download all publicly accessible information and data files on webpages, the Gopher hierarchy, the Netnews (Usenet) bulletin board system, and software. The information collected by these 'crawlers' does not include all the content available on the Internet since much of the data is restricted by the publisher or stored in databases that are not accessible. To overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It.org was developed in 2005 by the Internet Archive as a means of allowing institutions and content creators to voluntarily harvest and preserve collections of digital content and create digital archives.
Crawls are contributed from various sources, some imported from third parties and others generated internally by the Archive. For example, content comes from crawls contributed by the Sloan Foundation and Alexa, crawls run by the Internet Archive on behalf of NARA and the Internet Memory Foundation, webpages archived by Archive Team, and mirrors of Common Crawl. The "Worldwide Web Crawls" have been running since 2010 and capture the global Web. In September 2020, the Internet Archive announced a partnership with Cloudflare – an American content delivery network service provider – to automatically index websites served via its "Always Online" services.
Documents and resources are stored with time stamp URLs such as 20251213180519. Pages' individual resources, such as images, style sheets and scripts, as well as outgoing hyperlinks, are linked to with the time stamp of the currently viewed page, so they are redirected automatically to their individual captures that are the closest in time.
The frequency of snapshot captures varies per website. Websites in the "Worldwide Web Crawls" are included in a "crawl list", with the site archived once per crawl. A crawl can take months or even years to complete, depending on size. For example, "Wide Crawl Number 13" started on January 9, 2015, and was completed on July 11, 2016. However, there may be multiple crawls ongoing at any one time, and a site might be included in more than one crawl list, so how often a site is crawled varies widely.
A "Save Page Now" archiving feature was made available in October 2013, accessible on the lower right of the Wayback Machine's main page. Once a target URL is entered and saved, the web page will become part of the Wayback Machine. Through the Internet address web.archive.org, users can upload to the Wayback Machine a large variety of contents, including PDF and data compression file formats. The Wayback Machine creates a permanent local URL of the upload content, that is accessible in the web, even if not listed while searching in the https://archive.org official website.
Starting in October 2019, users were limited to 15 archival requests and retrievals per minute.
=== Storage capacity and growth ===
As technology has developed over the years, the storage capacity of the Wayback Machine has grown. In 2003, after only two years of public access, the Wayback Machine was growing at a rate of 12 terabytes per month. The data is stored on PetaBox rack systems custom designed by Internet Archive staff. The first 100 TB rack became fully operational in June 2004, although it soon became clear that they would need much more storage than that.
The Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage in 2009, and hosts a new data centre in a Sun Modular Datacenter on Sun Microsystems' California campus. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month.
A new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and a fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing in 2011, where captures appear in a calendar layout with circles whose width visualizes the number of crawls each day, but no marking of duplicates with asterisks or an advanced search page. A top toolbar was added to facilitate navigating between captures. A bar chart visualizes the frequency of captures per month over the years. Features like "Changes", "Summary", and a graphical site map were added subsequently.
In March that year, it was said on the Wayback Machine forum that "the Beta of the new Wayback Machine has a more complete and up-to-date index of all crawled materials into 2010, and will continue to be updated regularly. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a little bit of material past 2008, and no further index updates are planned, as it will be phased out this year." Also in 2011, the Internet Archive installed their sixth pair of PetaBox racks which increased the Wayback Machine's storage capacity by 700 terabytes.
In January 2013, Internet Archive announced a milestone of 240 billion URLs.
In October 2013, Wayback Machine introduced the "Save a Page" feature, which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL, and quickly generates a permanent link unlike the preceding liveweb feature.
In December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained 435 billion web pages—almost nine petabytes of data, and was growing at about 20 terabytes a week.
In July 2016, the Wayback Machine reportedly contained around 15 petabytes of data. In October 2016, it was announced that the way web pages are counted would be changed, resulting in the decrease of the archived pages counts shown. Embedded objects such as pictures, videos, style sheets, JavaScripts are no longer counted as a "web page", whereas HTML, PDF, and plain text documents remain counted.
In September 2018, the Wayback Machine contained over 25 petabytes of data. As of December 2020, the Wayback Machine contained over 70 petabytes of data.
=== Wayback Machine APIs ===
The Wayback Machine service offers three public APIs, SavePageNow, Availability, and CDX. SavePageNow can be used to archive web pages. Availability API for checking the archive availability status for a web page, checking whether an archive for the web page exists or not. CDX API is for complex querying, filtering, and analysis of captured data.
=== Website exclusion policy ===
Historically, the Wayback Machine has respected the robots exclusion standard (robots.txt) in determining if a website would be crawled – or if already crawled, if its archives would be publicly viewable. Website owners had the option to opt out of Wayback Machine through the use of robots.txt. It applied robots.txt rules retroactively; if a site blocked the Internet Archive, any previously archived pages from the domain were immediately rendered unavailable as well. In addition, the Internet Archive stated that "Sometimes, a website owner will contact us directly and ask us to stop crawling or archiving a site. We comply with these requests." In addition, the website says: "The Internet Archive is not interested in preserving or offering access to Web sites or other internet documents of persons who do not want their materials in the collection."
On April 17, 2017, reports surfaced of sites that had gone defunct and became parked domains that were using robots.txt to exclude themselves from search engines, resulting in them being inadvertently excluded from the Wayback Machine. Following this, the Internet Archive changed the policy to require an explicit exclusion request to remove sites from the Wayback Machine.
==== The Oakland Archive Policy ====
Wayback's retroactive exclusion policy is based in part upon Recommendations for Managing Removal Requests and Preserving Archival Integrity, known as The Oakland Archive Policy, published by the School of Information Management and Systems at University of California, Berkeley in 2002, which gives a website owner the right to block access to the site's archives. Wayback has complied with this policy to help avoid expensive litigation.
The Wayback retroactive exclusion policy began to relax in 2017, when it stopped honoring robots on U.S. government and military web sites for both crawling and displaying web pages. As of April 2017, Wayback is ignoring robots.txt more broadly, not just for U.S. government websites.
== Uses ==
From its public launch in 2001, the Wayback Machine has been studied by scholars both for the ways it stores and collects data and for the actual pages contained in its archive. As of 2013, scholars had written about 350 articles on the Wayback Machine, mostly from the information technology, library science, and social science fields. Social science scholars have used the Wayback Machine to analyze how the development of websites from the mid-1990s to the present has affected the growth of companies.
When the Wayback Machine archives a page, it usually includes most of the hyperlinks, keeping those links active when they just as easily could have been broken by the Internet's instability. Researchers in India studied the effectiveness of the Wayback Machine's ability to save hyperlinks in online scholarly publications and found that it saved slightly more than half of them.
"Journalists use the Wayback Machine to view dead websites, dated news reports, and changes to website contents. Its content has been used to hold politicians accountable and expose battlefield lies." In 2014, an archived social media page of Igor Girkin, a separatist rebel leader in Ukraine, showed him boasting about his troops having shot down a suspected Ukrainian military airplane before it became known that the plane actually was a civilian Malaysian Airlines jet (Malaysia Airlines Flight 17), after which he deleted the post and blamed Ukraine's military for downing the plane. In 2017, the March for Science originated from a discussion on Reddit that indicated someone had visited Archive.org and discovered that all references to climate change had been deleted from the White House website. In response, a user commented, "There needs to be a Scientists' March on Washington".
The site is used heavily for verification, providing access to references and content creation by Wikipedia editors. When new URLs are added to Wikipedia, the Internet Archive has been archiving them.
In September 2020, a partnership was announced with Cloudflare to automatically archive websites served via its "Always Online" service, which will also allow it to direct users to its copy of the site if it cannot reach the original host.
=== Limitations ===
In 2014, there was a six-month lag time between when a website was crawled and when it became available for viewing in the Wayback Machine. As of 2024, the lag time is 3 to 10 hours. The Wayback Machine offers only limited search facilities. Its "Site Search" feature allows users to find a site based on words describing the site, rather than words found on the web pages themselves.
The Wayback Machine does not include every web page ever made due to the limitations of its web crawler. The Wayback Machine cannot completely archive web pages that contain interactive features such as Flash platforms and forms written in JavaScript and progressive web applications, because those functions require interaction with the host website. This means that, since approximately July 9, 2013, the Wayback Machine has been unable to display YouTube comments when saving videos' watch pages, as, according to the Archive Team, comments are no longer "loaded within the page itself." The Wayback Machine's web crawler has difficulty extracting anything not coded in HTML or one of its variants, which can often result in broken hyperlinks and missing images. Due to this, the web crawler cannot archive "orphan pages" that are not linked to by other pages. The Wayback Machine's crawler only follows a predetermined number of hyperlinks based on a preset depth limit, so it cannot archive every hyperlink on every page.
=== In legal evidence ===
==== Civil litigation ====
===== Netbula LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. =====
In a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc., defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots.txt file on its website that was causing the Wayback Machine to retroactively remove access to previous versions of pages it had archived from Netbula's site, pages that Chordiant believed would support its case.
Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbula's website and that they should have subpoenaed Internet Archive for the pages directly. An employee of Internet Archive filed a sworn statement supporting Chordiant's motion, however, stating that it could not produce the web pages by any other means "without considerable burden, expense and disruption to its operations."
Magistrate Judge Howard Lloyd in the Northern District of California, San Jose Division, rejected Netbula's arguments and ordered them to disable the robots.txt blockage temporarily in order to allow Chordiant to retrieve the archived pages that they sought.
===== Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite =====
In an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No. 02 C 3293, 65 Fed. R. Evid. Serv. 673 (N.D. Ill. October 15, 2004), a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, perhaps for the first time. Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network. Prior to the trial proceedings, EchoStar indicated that it intended to offer Wayback Machine snapshots as proof of the past content of Telewizja Polska's website. Telewizja Polska brought a motion in limine to suppress the snapshots on the grounds of hearsay and unauthenticated source, but Magistrate Judge Arlander Keys rejected Telewizja Polska's assertion of hearsay and denied TVP's motion in limine to exclude the evidence at trial. At the trial, however, District Court Judge Ronald Guzman, the trial judge, overruled Magistrate Keys' findings, and held that neither the affidavit of the Internet Archive employee nor the underlying pages (i.e., the Telewizja Polska website) were admissible as evidence. Judge Guzman reasoned that the employee's affidavit contained both hearsay and inconclusive supporting statements, and the purported web page, printouts were not self-authenticating.
==== Patent law ====
The United States Patent and Trademark Office and the European Patent Office will accept date stamps from the Internet Archive as evidence of when a given Web page was accessible to the public. These dates are used to determine if a Web page is available as prior art for instance in examining a patent application.
==== Limitations of utility ====
There are technical limitations to archiving a website, and as a consequence, opposing parties in litigation can misuse the results provided by website archives. This problem can be exacerbated by the practice of submitting screenshots of web pages in complaints, answers, or expert witness reports when the underlying links are not exposed and therefore, can contain errors. For example, archives such as the Wayback Machine do not fill out forms and therefore, do not include the contents of non-RESTful e-commerce databases in their archives.
== Legal status ==
In Europe, the Wayback Machine could be interpreted as violating copyright laws. Only the content creator can decide where their content is published or duplicated so the Archive would have to delete pages from its system upon request of the creator. The exclusion policies for the Wayback Machine may be found in the FAQ section of the site.
Some cases have been brought against the Internet Archive specifically for its Wayback Machine archiving efforts.
== Archived content legal issues ==
=== Scientology ===
In late 2002, the Internet Archive removed various sites that were critical of Scientology from the Wayback Machine. An error message stated that this was in response to a "request by the site owner". Later, it was clarified that lawyers from the Church of Scientology had demanded the removal and that the site owners did not want their material removed.
=== Healthcare Advocates, Inc. ===
In 2003, Harding Earley Follmer & Frailey defended a client from a trademark dispute using the Archive's Wayback Machine. The attorneys were able to demonstrate that the claims made by the plaintiff were invalid, based on the content of their website from several years prior. The plaintiff, Healthcare Advocates, then amended their complaint to include the Internet Archive, accusing the organization of copyright infringement as well as violations of the DMCA and the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act. Healthcare Advocates claimed that, since they had installed a robots.txt file on their website, even if after the initial lawsuit was filed, the Archive should have removed all previous copies of the plaintiff website from the Wayback Machine; however, some material continued to be publicly visible on Wayback. The lawsuit was settled out of court after Wayback fixed the problem.
=== Suzanne Shell ===
Activist Suzanne Shell filed suit in December 2005, demanding Internet Archive pay her US$100,000 for archiving her website profane-justice.org between 1999 and 2004. Internet Archive filed a declaratory judgment action in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California on January 20, 2006, seeking a judicial determination that Internet Archive did not violate Shell's copyright. Shell responded and brought a countersuit against Internet Archive for archiving her site, which she alleges is in violation of her terms of service. On February 13, 2007, a judge for the United States District Court for the District of Colorado dismissed all counterclaims except breach of contract. The Internet Archive did not move to dismiss the copyright infringement claims that Shell asserted arose out of its copying activities, which would also go forward.
On April 25, 2007, Internet Archive and Suzanne Shell jointly announced the settlement of their lawsuit. The Internet Archive said it "...has no interest in including materials in the Wayback Machine of persons who do not wish to have their Web content archived. We recognize that Ms. Shell has a valid and enforceable copyright in her Web site and we regret that the inclusion of her Web site in the Wayback Machine resulted in this litigation." Shell said, "I respect the historical value of Internet Archive's goal. I never intended to interfere with that goal nor cause it any harm."
=== Daniel Davydiuk ===
Between 2013 and 2016, Daniel Davydiuk, a pornographic actor, tried to remove archived images of himself from the Wayback Machine's archive, first by sending multiple DMCA requests to the archive, and then by appealing to the Federal Court of Canada. The images were removed from the website in 2017.
=== FlexiSpy ===
In 2018, archives of stalkerware application FlexiSpy's website were removed from the Wayback Machine. The company claimed to have contacted the Internet Archive, presumably to remove the archives of its website.
== Censorship and other threats ==
Archive.org is blocked in China. The Internet Archive was blocked in its entirety in Russia in 2015–16, ostensibly for hosting a Jihad outreach video. Since 2016, the website has been back, available in its entirety, although in 2016 Russian commercial lobbyists were suing the Internet Archive to ban it on copyright grounds.
In March 2015, it was published that security researchers became aware of the threat posed by the service's unintentional hosting of malicious binaries from archived sites.
Alison Macrina, director of the Library Freedom Project, notes that "while librarians deeply value individual privacy, we also strongly oppose censorship".
There is at least one case in which an article was removed from the archive shortly after it had been removed from its original website. A Daily Beast reporter had written an article that outed several gay Olympian athletes in 2016 after the reporter had made a fake profile posing as a gay man on a dating app. The Daily Beast removed the article after it was met with widespread furor; not long after, the Internet Archive soon did as well, and stated that they did so for no other reason than to protect the safety of the outed athletes.
Other threats include natural disasters, destruction (both remote and physical), manipulation of the archive's contents, problematic copyright laws, and surveillance of the site's users.
Alexander Rose, executive director of the Long Now Foundation, suspects that in the long term of multiple generations "next to nothing" will survive in a useful way, stating, "If we have continuity in our technological civilization, I suspect a lot of the bare data will remain findable and searchable. But I suspect almost nothing of the format in which it was delivered will be recognizable" because sites "with deep back-ends of content-management systems like Drupal and Ruby and Django" are harder to archive.
In 2016, in an article reflecting on the preservation of human knowledge, The Atlantic has commented that the Internet Archive, which describes itself to be built for the long-term, "is working furiously to capture data before it disappears without any long-term infrastructure to speak of."
In September 2024, the Internet Archive suffered a data breach that exposed 31 million records containing personal information, including email addresses and hashed passwords. On October 9, 2024, the site went down due to a distributed denial-of-service attack. On October 14, the site returned online, but it remained in read-only mode until November 4, during which time "Save Page Now" was disabled, replaced with a "Temporarily Unavailable" banner.
In November 2025, the Internet Archive displayed a "temporarily offline" message that directed people to social media for updates following a massive internet-wide disruption involving Cloudflare on November 18, 2025.
== See also ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Internet history is fragile. This archive is making sure it doesn't disappear. PBS Newshour. Archived from the original on January 6, 2022. Retrieved November 5, 2024. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sicily_Sewell#:~:text=She%20made%20her%20television%20appearance,miniseries%20Mighty%20Morphin%20Alien%20Rangers. | Sicily Sewell | Sicily Sewell (born October 1, 1985) is an American chef, restaurateur, television producer, and actress. She is sometimes credited in film or television as simply with a mononym Sicily. Following the birth of two daughters, Sewell became a restaurateur.
== Early life, family and education ==
Sewell was born in Pontiac, Michigan. Her parents divorced, and she and her mother and brothers relocated to California where other family resided. She has three brothers (one of which was born after their relocation to California). She resided in Los Angeles during her childhood.
As an adult, Sewell attending the Hollywood campus of Le Cordon Bleu College of Culinary Arts.
== Career ==
=== Television and film ===
Sewell made her television appearance on an Emmy Award-winning episode of Sesame Street when she was eight years old. She played "Young Aisha" in a two-part episode of Season 2 of Mighty Morphin Power Rangers called "Rangers Back in Time", as well as in the 10 part miniseries Mighty Morphin Alien Rangers. She starred as young Diana in the hit miniseries, Mama Flora's Family in 1998, and as Angela Bassett's niece in the film How Stella Got Her Groove Back.
For 4 seasons, Sewell portrayed Spirit Jones, the best friend of Breanna Barnes (played by Kyla Pratt) in the sitcom One on One. Citing a decision by UPN to move in a different direction for the fifth season, Sicily was released from the series on June 20, 2005, when it was nine episodes away from syndication.
Sewell also appeared in the Lifetime original movie Fighting the Odds: The Marilyn Gambrell Story alongside Ernie Hudson, Edwin Hodge and Jami Gertz in August 2005.
=== Chef and restaurateur ===
Sewell's family has a long tradition of skilled cookery. She has told interviewers she is much happier as a chef and restaurateur than she was an actor.
In 2010, while Sewell was attending the Hollywood campus of Le Cordon Bleu College of Culinary Arts, she was an intern at the Los Angeles Times' Test Kitchen. Sewell subsequently graduated, with honours.
Sewell and her mother are co-owners of a soul food restaurant known as Pinky and Red's, in Berkeley, California. In late 2019, Sewell was hired as the chef of a high-profile restaurant known as Colors, in New York City.
== Personal life ==
Sewell came out as gay in a 2022 interview with Comedy Hype channel. She revealed that, despite still being in the closet to her One On One castmates, she was open about her attraction to women at a young age to her close friends.
== Filmography ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Sicily Sewell at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mar%C3%ADa_Fernanda_Cabal#:~:text=Mar%C3%ADa%20Fernanda%20Cabal%20Molina%20was,until%20her%20high%20school%20years. | María Fernanda Cabal | María Fernanda Cabal Molina (born August 8, 1966) is a Colombian political scientist, businesswoman, politician, and Senator of Colombia. A member of the Democratic Center Party, she has held her seat since 2018 and is her party's most voted-for member of Congress.
Born in Cali, Cauca Valley, Cabal graduated from the University of the Andes in Bogotá, D.C. She began her career as a Member of the Chamber of Representatives in 2014. Cabal was first elected to the Senate in 2018. She was re-elected in 2022. Cabal is a female member of the Democratic Center, the highest-ranking member in the Senate. Cabal is known for her far-right views. She was one of the members of her party who voted against the plebiscite for the peace process.
== Personal life ==
=== Early life ===
María Fernanda Cabal Molina was born on August 8, 1966, in Cali, Cauca Valley, where she lived until her high school years. She later moved to Bogotá, D.C. to begin her career as a political scientist at the University of the Andes where she joined the Political Science Department as coordinator of the Democracy Program, which was funded by the National Endowment for Democracy.
She is of spanish ancestry from asturias and Madrid.
During the 90's, Cabal participated as a member of the student movement that later promoted the Seventh Ballot, which called for a constitutional reform through the convening of the National Constituent Assembly.
=== Religion ===
Cabal was once at birth baptized under the Catholic rite, by her parents in 1964, despite this she declares herself as a Lapsed Catholic, and has shown herself to be an admirer of the Evangelical Protestant rite, which she has expressed to attend on multiple occasions.
=== Political positions ===
Cabal is known for her conservative positions. As a member of congress, she maintained close relations with the Donald Trump administration in the United States and Jair Bolsonaro of Brazil, as well as being a constant critic of leftist movements in Colombia and Latin America. She is in favor of controversial policies such as promoting the right of civilians to bear arms to defend themselves and the rejection of the peace agreement between the FARC guerrillas and the Colombian government.
Cabal would sign the Madrid Charter of the Madrid Forum, joining the right-wing group organized by the Spanish political party Vox.
== References ==
== External links ==
Media related to María Fernanda Cabal at Wikimedia Commons |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamini_Roy | Jamini Roy | Jamini Roy (11 April 1887 – 24 April 1972) was an Indian painter. He was honoured by the Government of India the award of Padma Bhushan in 1954. He remains one of the most famous pupils of Abanindranath Tagore, another praised Indian artist and instructor. Roy's highly simplified, flattened-out style, and reminiscent of European modern art was influenced by the “bazaar” paintings sold at Indian temples as talismans.
== Early life and background ==
Jamini Roy was born on 11 April 1887 into a moderately prosperous Kayastha family of land-owners in Beliatore village of the Bankura district, West Bengal. He was raised in an average middle-class, art loving household which ultimately influenced his future decisions.
When he was sixteen he was sent to study at the Government College of Art, Kolkata. Abanindranath Tagore, the founder of Bengal school was vice-principal at the institution. He was taught to paint in the prevailing academic tradition drawing Classical nudes and painting in oils and in 1908 he received his Diploma in Fine Art.
However, the principal E.B. Havell's influence, and Rabindranath Tagore's decisive lecture brought him to a realization that he needed to draw inspiration, not from Western traditions, but from his own culture, and so he looked to the living folk and tribal art for inspiration. He was most influenced by the Kalighat Pat (Kalighat painting), which was a style of art with bold sweeping brush-strokes. He moved away from his earlier impressionist landscapes and portraits and between 1921 and 1924 began his first period of experimentation with the Santhal dance as his starting point. Jamini Roy had 4 sons and 1 daughter.
== Style ==
Roy began his career as a commissioned portrait painter. Somewhat abruptly in the early 1920s, he gave up commissioned portrait painting in an effort to discover his own.
Roy changed style from his academic Western training and featured a new style based on Bengali folk traditions.
Roy is also described as an art machine because he produced 20,000 paintings in his lifetime which is about 10 paintings daily but made sure his artistic aims remained the same. He always targeted to the ordinary middle class as the upholder of art however he was thronged by the rich. Keeping his respect to the middle class reflected on his critical views; he believed that ordinary people were more important than governments because they were the voice of his art.
His underlying quest was threefold: to capture the essence of simplicity embodied in the life of the folk people; to make art accessible to a wider section of people; and to give Indian art its own identity.
He also used indigenous materials like lamp black, organic tempera, earth and mineral pigments to paint.
Jamini Roy's paintings were put on exhibition for the first time in the British India Street of Calcutta (Kolkata) in 1938. During the 1940s, his popularity touched new highs, with the Bengali middle class and the European community becoming his main clientele. In 1946, his work was exhibited in London and in 1953, in New York. He was awarded the Padma Bhushan in 1954. His work has been exhibited extensively in international exhibitions and can be found in many private and public collections such as the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. He spent most of his life living and working in Calcutta. Initially he experimented with Kalighat paintings but found that it has ceased to be strictly a "patua" and went to learn from village patuas. Consequently, his techniques as well as subject matter was influenced by traditional art of Bengal.
He preferred himself to be called a patua. Jamini Roy died in 1972. He was survived by four sons and a daughter. Currently his successors (daughters-in-law and grand children and their children) stay at the home he had built in Ballygunge Place, Kolkata. His works can be found in various museums and galleries across the globe.
== Awards ==
In 1934, he received a Viceroy's gold medal in an all India exhibition for one of his work. In 1954 he was awarded the Padma Bhushan by the Government of India, the third highest award a civilian can be given. In 1956, he was made the second Fellow of the Lalit Kala Akademi, the highest honour in the fine arts conferred by the Lalit Kala Akademi, India's National Academy of Art, Government of India.
== Critical views ==
In 1929 while inaugurating Roy's exhibition sponsored by Mukul Dey at Calcutta, the then Statesman Editor Sir Alfred Watson said:
…Those who study the various pictures will be able to trace the development of the mind of an artist constantly seeking his own mode of expression. His earlier work done under purely Western influence and consisting largely of small copies of larger works must be regarded as the exercises of one learning to use the tools of his craft competently and never quite at ease with his models. From this phase we see him gradually breaking away to a style of his own.
You must judge for yourselves how far Mr. Roy has been able to achieve the ends at which he is obviously aiming. His work will repay study. I see in it as I see in much of the painting in India today a real endeavour to recover a national art that shall be free from the sophisticated tradition of other countries, which have had a continuous art history. The work of those who are endeavouring to revive Indian art is commonly not appreciated in its true significance. It is sometimes assumed that revival means no more than a return to the methods and traditions of the past. That would be to create a school of copyists without visions and ideals of their own.
… Art in any form cannot progress without encouragement. The artist must live and he must live by the sale of his work. In India as elsewhere the days when the churches and the princes were the patrons of art have passed. Encouragement today must come from a wider circle. I would say to those who have money to spare buy Indian art with courage. You may obtain some things of little worth; you may, on the other hand, acquire cheaply something that is destined to have great value. What does it matter whether you make mistakes or not. By encouraging those who are striving to give in line and colour a fresh expression to Indian thought you are helping forward a movement that we all hope is destined to add a fresh lustre to the country.
== Key works ==
"Ramayana", 1946, Spread across 17 canvases (106 × 76 cm, each) Roy's Ramayana is considered to be his magnum opus. Patronized by Sarada Charan Das, Roy created this masterpiece series in Kalighat pata style with natural colors, using earth, chalk powder and vegetable colors instead of dyes. Later Roy also created individual replicas capturing various moments from the entire series. Some of these paintings have been preserved in the National Art Gallery of India and are also in display in the Victoria Memorial Hall. His story of Ramayana begins with sage Valmiki and completes the circle back to his hermitage after Sita's aagnipariksha. All his 17 canvases are frequently characterized by decorative flowers, landscape, birds and animals typical of the Bengal School of Art. His lines are simple, bold and roundish initially derived from clay images but they lead to complex moments rendering subtle yet powerful emotions. Jamini Roy's complete “Ramayana” is on display today at Sarada Charan Das' residence "Rossogolla Bhavan" in Kolkata along with 8 other large-scale originals. The Das residence today harbors the largest private collection of Jamini Roy paintings with 25 of the master's originals.
"Bride and two Companions", 1952, tempera on card, 75 x 39 cm. Coates described the painting: "Note the magnificent indigo of Bengal, and how the palms of the bride's hands are smeared with red sandalpaste. Jamini Roy's choice of colours looks at first sight purely decorative. In fact, nearly every thing in his pictures has a reason and a meaning." It is very flat and heavily outlined. Roy portrays a traditional woman without the artificial beauty and the mythological background portraying the folk-art inspiration that has always been present since his beginnings.
"Dual Cats with one Crayfish", 1968, tempera on card, 55.5 x 44 cm. Coates wrote: "Yet another new style, colours reduced in number and very restrained, an almost overwhelming sense of formality."
== Death and legacy ==
Jamini Roy died on 24 April 1972. In 1976, the Archaeological Survey of India, Ministry of Culture, Govt. of India declared his works among the "Nine Masters" whose work, to be henceforth considered "to be art treasures, having regard to their artistic and aesthetic value".
On 11 April 2017, Google India dedicated a Google Doodle to celebrate Roy on his 130th birthday.
== See also ==
Zainul Abedin
SM Sultan
Quamrul Hassan
Safiuddin Ahmed
Shahabuddin Ahmed
Rafiqun Nabi
Qayyum Chowdhury
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Bishnu Dey; John Irwin (1944). Jamini Roy. Indian Society of Oriental Art.
Six Indian painters: Rabindranath Tagore, Jamini Roy, Amrita Sher-Gil, M.F. Husain, K.G. Subramanyan, Bhupen Khakhar. Tate Gallery Publications Dept. 1982. ISBN 978-0-905005-58-4.
Jamini Roy in the Context of Indian Folk Sensibility and His Impact on Modern Art: Seminar Papers. Lalit Kala Akademi. 1992.
Jamini Roy: A Painter Who Revisited the Roots. Niyogi Books. 2022. ISBN 978-93-91125-36-3.
== External links ==
Profile on Google Arts & Culture
Documentary by Films Division of India – Portrait of a Painter
Documentary by Virasat Art – The Art of Jamini Roy
Documentary by National Gallery of Modern Art – The Four Pioneers |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honda,_Tolima | Honda, Tolima | Honda (IPA: [onda]) is a town and municipality in the Tolima department of Colombia. The population of the municipality was 24,693 as of the census 2018. Along with Líbano, Honda is the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Líbano-Honda. The main industries of Honda are tourism, fishing, and cattle-ranching.
== Toponymy (name origin) ==
Honda takes its name from the Ondaimas, the indigenous people that inhabited the banks of the Magdalena River and the region where the city lies today.
Honda is called "the City of Bridges" with more than 40 of them on the rivers Magdalena, Gualí, Guarinó, and Quebrada Seca. It is also called the "City of Peace" as it escaped most of the violence of the 1950s.
== History ==
Honda was founded on August 24, 1539 by Francisco Nuñez Pedroso. The "golden age" of the city was between 1850 and 1910 when the Magdalena river constituted the only means of transportation between the Caribbean coast and the inland city of Bogotá. The city was the main river port of the country and all the imported goods and articles arrived in Bogotá through the port of Honda.
Because of its historical importance, Honda was named a Pueblo Patrimonio (heritage town) of Colombia in 2010. As of March 2021, it is the only municipality in the Middle Magdalena Valley region that has been awarded this distinction.
== Climate ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosi_River | Kosi River | The Kosi or Koshi is a transboundary river which flows through China, Nepal and India. It drains the northern slopes of the Himalayas in Tibet and the southern slopes in Nepal. From a major confluence of tributaries north of the Chatra Gorge onwards, the Kosi River is also known as the Saptakoshi (Nepali: सप्तकोशी, saptakoshī) for its seven upper tributaries. These include the Tamur River originating from the Kanchenjunga area in the east and Arun River and the Sun Kosi from Tibet. The Sun Koshi's tributaries from east to west are the Dudh Koshi, Likhu Khola, Tamakoshi River, Bhote Koshi and Indravati. The Saptakoshi crosses into northern Bihar, India where it branches into distributaries before joining the Ganges near Kursela in Katihar district. The Kosi is the third-largest tributary of the Ganges by water discharge after the Ghaghara and the Yamuna.
The Kosi is 720 km (450 mi) long and drains an area of about 74,500 km2 (28,800 sq mi) in Tibet, Nepal and Bihar. In the past, several authors proposed that the river has shifted its course by more than 133 km (83 mi) from east to west during the last 200 years. But a review of 28 historical maps dating 1760 to 1960 revealed a slight eastward shift for a long duration, and that the shift was random and oscillating in nature.
The river basin is surrounded by ridges which separate the Kosi from the Yarlung Tsangpo River in the north, the Gandaki Rive in the west and the Mahananda River in the east. The river is joined by major tributaries in the Mahabharat Range approximately 48 km (30 mi) north of the Indo-Nepal border. Below the Siwaliks, the river has built up a megafan some 15,000 km2 (5,800 sq mi) in extent, breaking into more than 12 distinct channels, all with shifting courses due to flooding. Kamalā and Bagmati Rivers are the major tributaries of Kosi River in India, besides minor tributaries such as Bhutahi Balān.
Its unstable nature has been attributed to the power it can build up as it passes through the steep and narrow Chatra Gorge in Nepal. During the monsoon season, it picks up a heavy silt load, which it redeposits at times, causing it to change its channel. This leads to flooding in India with extreme effects. Fishing is an important enterprise on the river but fishing resources are being depleted and youth are leaving for other areas of work.
== Geography ==
The Kosi River catchment covers six geological and climatic belts varying in altitude from above 8,000 m (26,000 ft) to 95 m (312 ft) comprising the Tibetan Plateau, the Himalayas, the Himalayan mid-hill belt, the Mahabharat Range, the Siwalik Hills and the Terai. The Dudh-Koshi sub-basin alone consists of 36 glaciers and 296 glacier lakes.
The Kosi River basin borders the Tsangpo River basin in the north, the Mahananda River basin in the east, the Ganges Basin in the south and the Gandaki River basin in the west. The eight tributaries of the basin upstream the Chatra Gorge include from east to west:
Tamur River with an area of 6,053 km2 (2,337 sq mi) in eastern Nepal;
Arun River with an area of 33,500 km2 (12,900 sq mi), most of which is in Tibet;
Sun Kosi with an area of 4,285 km2 (1,654 sq mi) in Nepal and its northern tributaries Dudh Kosi, Likhu Khola, Tama Koshi, Bhote Koshi and Indravati.
The three major tributaries meet at Triveni, from where they are called Sapta Koshi meaning Seven Rivers. After flowing through the Chatra Gorge the Sapta Koshi is controlled by the Koshi Barrage before it drains into the Gangetic plain.
The reason for such a large, deep gorge is that the river is antecedent to the Himalayas, meaning that it had existed before them and has entrenched itself since they started rising.
Peaks located in the basin include Mount Everest, Kangchenjunga, Lhotse, Makalu, Cho Oyu and Shishapangma. The Bagmati river sub-basin forms the south-western portion of the overall Kosi basin.
The Kosi alluvial fan is one of the largest in the world. It shows evidence of lateral channel shifting exceeding 120 km (75 mi) during the past 250 years, via at least twelve major channels. The river, which flowed near Purnea in the 18th century, now flows west of Saharsa. A satellite image shows old channels with a confluence before 1731 with the Mahananda River north of Lava.
== Floods ==
The Kosi River is known as the "Sorrow of Bihar" as the annual floods affect about 21,000 km2 (8,100 sq mi) of fertile agricultural lands thereby disturbing the rural economy.
It has an average water flow (discharge) of 2,166 cubic metres per second (76,500 cu ft/s).
=== 2008 flood in Bihar ===
On 18 August 2008, the Kosi River picked up an old channel it had abandoned over 100 years previously near the border with Nepal and India. Approximately 2.7 million people were affected as the river broke its embankment at Kusaha in Nepal, submerging several districts of Nepal and India. 95% of the Kosi's water flowed through the new course. The worst affected districts included Supaul, Araria, Saharsa, Madhepura, Purnia, Katihar, parts of Khagaria and northern parts of Bhagalpur, as well as adjoining regions of Nepal. Relief work was carried out with Indian Air Force helicopters by dropping relief materials from Purnia in the worst hit districts where nearly two million persons were trapped.
The magnitude of deaths or destruction were hard to estimate, as the affected areas were inaccessible. 150 people were reported washed away in a single incident. Another news item stated that 42 people had died.
The Government of Bihar convened a technical committee, headed by a retired engineer-in-chief of the water resource department to supervise the restoration work and close the breach in the East Kosi afflux embankment. Indian authorities worked to prevent widening of the breach, and channels were to be dug to direct the water back to the main river bed.
The fury of the Kosi River left at least 2.5 million people marooned in eight districts and inundated 400 sq mi (1,000 km2). The prime Minister of India declared it a national calamity. The Indian Army, National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) and non-government organizations operated the biggest flood rescue operation in India in more than 50 years.
=== 2024 flood ===
== Kosi Project ==
The National Flood Control Policy in 1954 (following the disastrous floods of 1954 in a large part of the Kosi river basin) planned to control floods through a series of dams, embankments and river training works. The Kosi project was thus conceptualized (based on investigations between 1946 and 1955), in three continuous interlinked stages
Firstly, a barrage will be built at Bhimnagar to anchor the river that had migrated about 120 km (75 mi) westward in the last 250 years laying waste to a huge tract in north Bihar and to provide irrigation and power benefits to Nepal and India.
Secondly, embankments will be built both below and above the barrage to hold the river within the defined channel.
Thirdly, a high multipurpose dam was envisaged within Nepal at Barakshetra to provide a substantial flood cushion along with large irrigation and power benefits to both countries.
This was followed by the Kosi Agreement between Nepal and India signed on 25 April 1954 and revised on 19 December 1966 to address Nepal's concerns. Further letters of Exchange to the Agreement between the two countries identified additional schemes for providing benefits of irrigation. While the first two parts of the plan were implemented by the Government of India, the Kosi High dam, the linchpin of the whole plan, for various political reasons has yet precluded any action for several years but has since been revived under a fresh agreement, in a modified form for further investigations and studies.
=== Kosi barrage ===
Kosi Barrage, also called Bhimnagar Barrage, was built between 1959 and 1963 and straddles the Indo-Nepal border. It is an irrigation, flood control and hydropower generation project on the Kosi River built under a bilateral agreement between Nepal and India: the entire cost of the project was borne by India. The catchment area of the river is 61,788 km2 (23,856 sq mi) in Nepal at the barrage site. The highest peaks lie in its catchment. About 10% is snow-fed. The Eastern Canal and the Western Canal taking off from the barrage, were designed for a discharge capacity of 455 cubic metres per second (16,100 cu ft/s) to irrigate 6,125 square kilometres (1,514,000 acres) and 210 cubic metres per second (7,400 cu ft/s) to irrigate 3,566.1 square kilometres (881,200 acres), respectively. A hydropower plant has been built on the Eastern Canal, at a canal drop (3.6 km (2.2 mi) from the Kosi Barrage), to generate 20 MW. The Western Koshi Canal provides irrigation to 250 square kilometres (62,000 acres) in Nepal. A valuable bridge over the barrage opened up the east–west highway in the eastern sector of Nepal.
An inundation canal taking off at Chatra, where the Kosi River debouches into the plains, has been built to irrigate a gross area of 860 km2 in Nepal. The project was renovated with IDA assistance after Nepal took over the project in 1976.
=== Kosi embankment system ===
The Koshi barrage, with earth dams across the river, as well as afflux bunds and embankments above and below the river, confines the river to flow within embankments. Embankments on both sides downstream of the barrage with a length of 246 km (153 mi) were constructed to check the westward movement of the river. The embankments have been kept far apart, about 12 to 16 km (9.9 mi), to serve as a silt trap.
=== Sapta Koshi High Multipurpose Project (Indo-Nepal) ===
The governments of India and Nepal agreed to conduct joint investigations and other studies for the preparation of a detailed project report of Sapta Koshi High Dam Multipurpose Project and Sun Koshi Storage-cum-Diversion Scheme to meet the objectives of both countries for development of hydropower, irrigation, flood control and management and navigation. As currently outlined, the dam would displace approximately 10,000 people.
Envisaged are a 269-meter (883 ft) high concrete or rock-filled dam, a barrage, and two canals. The dam is on the Sapta Koshi River with an underground powerhouse, producing 3,000 MW at 50% load factor. The barrage is planned for the Sapta Koshi about 8 km (5.0 mi) downstream of Sapta Koshi High Dam to re-regulate the diverted water. The Eastern Chhatra Canal and Western Chhatra Canal, off-take from the barrage site to provide water for irrigation both in Nepal and India and navigation through Koshi up to Kursela and also in the reservoir of Sapta Koshi dam.
A power canal existing Kosi barrage at Hanuman Nagar is proposed for conveying water for irrigation from the Eastern Chatra Canal and also water that may be required downstream for navigation. To utilize the head available between Chatra and Hanuman Nagar barrages for power generation, three canal power houses, each of 100 MW installed capacity are proposed on the power canal.
Extra storage capacity of Sapta Koshi High Dam would be provided to moderate downstream flooding.
Chatra Canal System would provide irrigation to large areas in Nepal and India, particularly in Bihar.
A Joint Project Office (JPO) has been set up in Nepal for investigation of the project.
== Hydropower ==
Nepal has a total estimated potential of 83,290 MW with economically exploitable potential of 42,140 MW. The Kosi River basin contributes 22,350 MW of this potential including 360 MW from small schemes and 18750 MW from major schemes. The economically exploitable potential is assessed as 10,860 MW (includes the Sapta Koshi Multipurpose Project [3300MW] mentioned above).
== Protected areas ==
In Nepal two protected areas are located in the Koshi River basin.
=== Sagarmatha National Park ===
The Sagarmatha National Park encompasses the upper catchments of the Dudh Koshi River system. The park covers an area of 1,148 km2 (443 sq mi) and ranges in elevation from 2,845 m (9,334 ft) to 8,848 m (29,029 ft) at the summit of Mount Everest. Established in 1976 the park was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1979. The landscape in the park is rugged consisting of mountain peaks, glaciers, rivers, lakes, forests, alpine scrubs and meadows. The forests comprise stands of oak, blue pine, fir, birch, juniper and rhododendron. The park provides habitat for snow leopards, red pandas, musk deer, Himalayan tahrs, and 208 bird species including impeyan pheasant, bearded vulture, snow cock, and the yellow-billed chough.
About 3500 Sherpa people live in villages and seasonal settlements situated along the main tourist trails. Tourism to the region began in the early 1960s. In 2003, about 19,000 tourists arrived in the area.
=== Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve ===
The Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve is situated in the flood plains of the Saptkoshi River in the eastern Terai. It covers an area of 175 km2 (68 sq mi) comprising grasslands and khair–sissoo riverine forests. It was established in 1976 and was declared a Ramsar site in 1987. The reserve provides habitat for hog deer, spotted deer, wild boar, blue bull, gaur, smooth-coated otter, jackal, 485 bird species including 114 water bird species, 200 fish species, 24 reptile and 11 amphibian species. The last surviving population of wild water buffalo in Nepal is found in the reserve, as well as Gangetic dolphin, swamp francolin and rufous-vented prinia. A small population of the critically endangered Bengal florican is present along the Koshi River. There are also records of white-throated bush chat and Finn's weaver. The bristled grassbird breeds in the reserve. The reserve together with the Koshi Barrage was identified as one of 27 Important Bird Areas of Nepal.
== See also ==
List of rivers of India
List of rivers of Nepal
Kolasi
Katihar
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Floods, Flood plains and Environmental Myths – State of Art of India's Environment – A Citizens' Report, Centre for Science and Environment, 807, Vishal Bhavavn, 95, Nehru Place, New Delhi – 110019.
A Framework for Sustainable Development of the Ganges- Brahmaputra- Meghna (GBM Region), Proceedings of Conference held in Dhaka, 4–5 December 1999–Nepal Water Vision in the GBM Regional Framework, Institute for Integrated Studies, Kathmandu.
Water Conflicts in South Asia, Managing Water Resources Disputes Within and Between Countries of the Region (2004), Published by GEE-21Honolulu Hi 96825–0517, USA.
Barrages in India (1981), Publication number 148, Central Board of Irrigation and Power, Malcha Marg, Chanakyapuri, New Delhi.
Design and Construction of selected Barrages in India (1981), Publication number 149, Central Board of Irrigation and Power, Malcha Marg, Chanakyapuri, New Delhi.
== External links ==
CNN-IBN documentaries on Bihar Floods 2008 by Marya Shakil: Part 1, Part 2, Part 3, Part 4
Struggling rivers: crying waters
Legend of Kosi Maiyaa
GIS in Flood Hazard Mapping: a case study of Kosi River basin, India
Kosi floods – methods to minimize the effect
Expert's biggest fear about 2008 floods
Fixing Kosi – How is that possible |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitti_Tondo | Pitti Tondo | The Pitti Tondo (Tondo Pitti) is an unfinished marble relief of the Virgin and Child by Michelangelo in round or tondo form. It was executed between 1503 and 1504 while he was residing in Florence and is now in the Museo nazionale del Bargello in Florence.
== History ==
The tondo was worked on during the year in which Michelangelo sculpted his David, having found the time to dedicate to some other paid private commissions. The work was not completed before Michelangelo left Florence for Rome, and never to return. Many details are missing and the sides of the work are not polished.
This sculpture was commissioned by Bartolomeo Pitti. His son Miniato, a monk at Monte Oliveto, donated it to Luigi Guicciardini (1487–1551). In 1564, the art historian, Benedetto Varchi, saw the work in the house of Guicciardini's nephew, Piero. In 1823, the tondo was bought by the Florentine authorities for 200 scudi, from the shop of the dealer Fedele Acciai.
The tondo entered the collection of the Museo nazionale del Bargello in 1873 and was placed where it resides, in the Galleria degli Uffizi.
== Description and style ==
In the unfinished tondo only the heads of Mary and of the baby Jesus are in high relief. Mary is depicted with an open book on her knees. Detail of her eyes is not complete, as in the typical style of Michelangelo, but interpretations suggest that her gaze seems distracted, as if she is looking into the distance and meditating on the fate of her son that is foretold in the scriptures she is reading. The cherub upon Mary's forehead symbolizes her knowledge of the prophecies, as is found in the terracotta relief, Madonna with Child, that is attributed to Donatello of Padua and dated to c. 1440. The baby Jesus leans on her in a lively contrapposto and just visible emerging in the background, is a young Saint John the Baptist.
Apparently, Michelangelo also was influenced by the now-lost cartoon of Saint Anne by Leonardo da Vinci that was exhibited in Florence at the Santissima Annunziata during the years Michelangelo was working on the sculpture. Both works are based on the interaction between the figures.
The central figure of the composition is Mary, sitting on a cube block (resembling that in Michelangelo's Madonna of the Stairs). Interpretations have suggested that she seems to bend over in order to fill the space allotted by the tondo and that her posture gives an impression that she desires to escape from the scene depicted.
Her head, in high relief, projects both outward and upward beyond the border of the tondo and turns left to break the rigidity of the vertical axis of her body. The contrast between the unfinished figure of John the Baptist and the relief of the Virgin also gives the work depth.
== See also ==
List of works by Michelangelo
Taddei Tondo
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Gonzáles, Marta Alvarez (2007). Michelangelo (in Italian). Milan: Mondadori Arte.
Baldini, Umberto (1973). Michelangelo scultore (in Italian). Milan: Rizzoli.
== External links ==
http://www.polomuseale.firenze.it/catalogo/scheda.asp?nctn=00286603&value=
Media related to Pitti Tondo at Wikimedia Commons |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_space | Women in space | Women have flown and worked in outer space since almost the beginning of human spaceflight. A number of women from a range of countries have worked in space, though overall women are still significantly less often chosen to go to space than men, and in June 2020, constituted only 12% of all astronauts who had been to space. Yet, the proportion of women among space travelers has been increasing substantially over time.
Women were not qualified as space pilots and workers co-equal to their male counterparts until 1982. By October 2021, most of the 70 women who have been to space have been United States citizens, with missions on the Space Shuttle and on the International Space Station. Other countries (USSR, Canada, Japan, Russia, China, United Kingdom, France, South Korea, Italy, Belarus) have flown one, two or three women in human spaceflight programs. Additionally one woman of dual Iranian-US citizenship has participated as a tourist on a US spaceflight.
The first woman to fly in space was Soviet Valentina Tereshkova, aboard the Vostok 6 space capsule on June 16–19, 1963. Tereshkova was a textile-factory assembly worker, rather than a pilot like the male cosmonauts flying at the time, chosen for propaganda value, her devotion to the Communist Party, and her years of experience in sport parachuting, which she used on landing after ejecting from her capsule.
Women face many of the same physical and psychological difficulties of spaceflight as men. Scientific studies generally show no particular adverse effect from short space missions. It has even been suggested by some that women might be better suited for longer space missions. Studies have continually indicated that the main obstacle for women to go to space remains gender discrimination.
== History ==
=== Early Space Race struggle ===
In the competition between the Soviet Union (USSR) and the United States known as the Space Race, both nations chose their first space pilots (known as cosmonauts in the USSR and astronauts in the US) in the late 1950s and early 1960s from the ranks of their military high-speed jet test pilots, who were exclusively men.
In 1959, after their research project Woman in Space Earliest of the Air Force Air Research and Development Command was not permitted, Don Flickinger and William Randolph Lovelace II subsequently formed a group of thirteen women US pilots, dubbed by the American press as the "Mercury 13". Wanting the chance to become astronauts the women took and passed the health screening tests as the men, supervised by Lovelace Clinic staff. This was funded privately (e.g. by aviation pioneer Jacqueline Cochran) and not by the government; the idea of female astronauts faced a great deal of resistance in the military command and NASA, leaving these women no chance of becoming astronauts. Jerrie Cobb of the "Mercury 13" became a consultant to NASA in 1961 and testified before Congress in July 1962 about the "Mercury 13"'s positive medical results and gender discrimination.
Meanwhile, the USSR's director of cosmonaut training, Nikolai Kamanin, lobbied for having women as cosmonauts, after being inspired in 1961 by repeated questions from the foreign press about women in space. Subsequently, Kamanin crucially gained space program leader Sergey Korolev as a supporter, getting approval six months later for women cosmonauts. During a visit to the US in 1962 Kamanin got to know Jerrie Cobb of the then rejected "Mercury 13". At one point Kamanin noted in his diary, "We cannot allow that the first woman in space will be American. This would be an insult to the patriotic feelings of Soviet women." The Soviet government generally had no interest in using women as cosmonaut pilots, but Premier Nikita Khrushchev was extremely interested in the propaganda value of proving Soviet superiority over the US in women's equality. In February 1962 from over 400 applicants a group of five female cosmonauts were chosen to be trained for a solo spaceflight in a Vostok spacecraft.
To increase the odds of sending a Soviet woman into space first, the women cosmonauts began their training before the men.
==== First Woman in Space ====
The first woman to fly in space was Valentina Tereshkova, a textile factory worker who was an avid amateur parachutist, as parachuting was necessary for the Earth landing which was made outside the reentry capsule.
Tereshkova flew aboard Vostok 6 on June 16, 1963, completing a 70.8 hour flight making a total of 48 orbits before returning to Earth.
Kamanin framed her as "Gagarin in a skirt". Tereshkova married Vostok 3 cosmonaut Andriyan Nikolayev on November 3, 1963, at the Moscow Wedding Palace, with Khrushchev presiding at the wedding party together with top government and space program leaders. The occasion was described by Kamanin as "probably useful for politics and science". Tereshkova gave birth on 8 June 1964, nearly one year after her space flight, to the first person with a mother and father who had both traveled into space, their daughter Elena Andrianovna Nikolaeva-Tereshkova.
==== Further female missions cancelled ====
Kamanin hoped to fly two other women on the Voskhod 3 and 4 flights, despite the opposition of Yuri Gagarin and the other male cosmonauts. These plans were canceled in 1965, leaving the women with Soviet Air Force officer commissions.
The American Apollo program to land a man on the Moon included only male astronauts. Neither the USSR nor US launched another woman into space until women were admitted to the astronaut and cosmonaut corps in the late 1970s.
=== Later Space Race advances ===
By 1971 NASA had hired staff tasked to address issues of adhering to legal ramifications to include underrepresented people of society. In 1973 staff such as Ruth Bates Harris criticized NASA's poor inclusion of women and minorities. Subsequently, the NASA Astronaut Group 8 was to include women and people of minorities. To assist finding candidates the milestone Star Trek star Nichelle Nichols was hired, after she spoke at the National Space Institute for the inclusion of women and minorities as astronauts.
On January 16, 1978, NASA announced the selection of its eighth group of astronaut candidates, which included the first women, six Mission specialists (not pilots): Anna L. Fisher, Shannon Lucid, Judith A. Resnik, Sally K. Ride, Margaret Rhea Seddon, and Kathryn D. Sullivan.
Similarly, in 1978 Tereshkova and her colleague Tatyana Kuznetsova pushed for a new cosmonaut program for women, with the USSR in July 1980 choosing a cosmonaut group which included nine women in addition to four men. The women were: Svetlana Savitskaya, Galina Amelkina, Yelena Dobrokvashina, Larisa Pozharskaya, Tamara Zakharova, Yekaterina Ivanova, Natalya Kuleshova, Irina Pronina, and Irina Latysheva.
Of the nine women only Savitskaya got to fly to space. As a research cosmonaut she flew aboard the Soyuz T-7 to the space station Salyut 7 in August 1982.
Savitskaya became the first woman to fly in space twice, on the Soyuz T-12 mission on July 25, 1984 and became the first woman to walk in space (extravehicular activity, EVA) outside the Salyut 7 space station on that mission.
Of NASA's first women astronaut group all flew in space at least once, with mission specialist Sally Ride becoming in 1983 the first US woman to fly in space, with the seventh Space Shuttle mission, and third woman altogether to fly in space.
=== After the Space Race ===
Since the final years of the Space Race most of the women who have been to space have been American women, outnumbering all other countries combined. But the more than 50 American women astronauts, contrasted by the several hundred astronauts who have entered space, women still only make up about 12% of all people who have gone to space, still being less chosen and enabled. NASA only in 2013 enabled the first time an equal number of women as part of an astronaut class, the NASA Astronaut Group 21, a short lived situation since the subsequently and current Group 22 has yet again a lower number.
==== Advancements ====
In 1992 Mae Jemison became the first woman of color in space. Susan Helms became the first woman on an ISS expedition crew on Expedition 2, lasting from March 2001 until August 2001. Peggy Whitson became in 2007 the first woman to command the International Space Station, and in October 2009 NASA's first female Chief of the Astronaut Office.
On October 18, 2019, the first all female spacewalk was conducted by Jessica Meir and Christina Koch.
==== Future ====
Only 12 human beings, all men, have walked on the Moon. In 2020, NASA's communication director reported that NASA planned to land astronauts on the Moon, including possibly a woman astronaut or astronauts, as part of the U.S. Artemis program. Of the 18 candidates in the Artemis program, nine are women: Nicole Aunapu Mann, Kayla Barron, Christina Koch, Kate Rubins, Stephanie Wilson, Jessica Meir, Jasmin Moghbeli, Anne McClain and Jessica Watkins. Furthermore, the European Space Agency (ESA) has six astronauts, of whom one is a woman (Samantha Cristoforetti), training for Artemis. This group is later to be joined by members of the 2022 European Space Agency Astronaut Group, which includes two women, (Sophie Adenot and Rosemary Coogan), plus history's first parastronaut.
In April 2023 NASA, together with the Canadian Space Agency, announced their selection of the Artemis II crew, the first since the Apollo program to go around the Moon. The crew will include Christina Koch.
== Discrimination ==
Space programs allowed women generally only well into the space age, with NASA opening its space program in 1976. When Sally Ride became the first female US astronaut to go into space in 1983, the press asked her questions about her reproductive organs and whether she would cry if things went wrong on the job.
Women with children have also been faced with questions about how they would compare to traditional expectations of motherhood. Shannon Lucid, one of the first group of female US astronauts, remembers questions by the press on how her children would handle her being a mother in space. Women are often expected to be the ones mainly responsible for child-rearing, which can impact their career.
According to the historian Kim McQuaid the American space agency NASA ignored gender issues at the beginning of the space era, and women were not normally allowed to enter technical schools or undergraduate/graduate training in engineering and the physical sciences until changes started happening in the end of the 1960s. Particularly in the period between 1972 and 1974 the focus on women became more prominent. In 1967, NASA changed its policy to make it easier for women to join and 17 women applied for the role to join a space travel mission, but all 17 job applications were declined. NASA did employ thousands of women in jobs where space travel was not included in the 1960s, but there was still hierarchical differences between women and men. The women employed in the space agency NASA are also still more likely to work in lower-ranked jobs, while men are more often employed in higher-ranked occupations, particularly in space crew settings, despite women having similar qualifications to those of men. There has also been found a larger gender gap in certain jobs such as manufacturing, while downstream application and service jobs have a higher representation of women employees.
In 2023, numbers released by UNOOSA showed that only 11 percent of the world's astronauts are women, 6.6 percent are spacewalkers and 20 percent are in the space workforce. In March 2023, the Director of Space Technology of the Australian Space Agency, Katherine Bennell-Pegg, said that women are still in the minority in the space industry and that ‘STEM is for everyone’ whilst adding that inclusivity is important. The UN Sustainable Development Goals suggests that an increase of women being involved in the space industry is important to achieve the SDGs and gender equality, since 90 percent of future jobs will probably require STEM related skills. The promotion of space technology in an inclusive manner is also an important step towards achieving the SDG 5B. In 2022, the American astronaut Nicole Aunapu Mann, who studied mechanical engineering at Stanford University and also has military combat background in Iraq and Afghanistan, became the first Native American woman in space and she went on the International Space Station. On the 2023 International Women's Day, Mann stated that "inequality does stifle success" and that it is important to continue to break barriers and inspire and empower the youth to achieve their dreams.
In 1995, an academic journal stated that outer space occupations was regarded as a male dominated arena where the male body was the standard while the female body was seen as ‘contamination’ or uncertainty in an otherwise stable environment, and women have previously said that they have struggled to be taken seriously in outer space environments. Some women in the space industry have also reported that they feel like they have to express typically masculine traits like assertiveness and dominance in outer space occupations, since 'feminine' traits are looked down upon. For example, men are thought to be more rational, which is beneficial in the space industry, while femininity is associated with being emotional which is viewed as 'negative' in the context of outer space travel. The American scientist and former government official Carloyn Huntoon, has previously said in an interview in 2002 that if the women did not behave in the same way as the guys, it would mean that they were not doing the job properly.
Chris Pesterfield, a lecturer at the University of Bristol, has stated that legal and political changes have been made to allow for women to enter outer space occupations, but that these changes do not seem to have been as effective as one might have expected. Pesterfield has argued that the unequal number of women and men in space might be an outcome of the socialisation process, starting already in child years. For example, boys are more often encouraged to have interests in STEM subjects such as technology and science than girls and there may be societal expectations that gender will influence what a person is good at. The OECD found that the majority of women employed by NASA have studied biological sciences (48 percent), while they are underrepresented in mathematics (25 percent), physical sciences (25 percent) and engineering (22 percent). Rebecca Spyke Keiser, who is a special assistant to the NASA administrator for innovation and public-private partnership, has stated that the lack of woman role models in aerospace and physics might also have contributed to the low number of women in space-related work as well as perceptions about women only being good at certain things.
There have been attempts at combating gender discrimination within the space sector. For example, the United Nations has made the Space4Women project which is intended to focus on gender related issues in space and find reasons why gender inequality is still an issue in the outer space sector. The project includes women from different backgrounds, professions and countries. One of the mentees in the programme stated that "working for girls and women in science has been empowering, encouraging me to persist in a work environment that is sometimes so hostile and not inclusive". In October 2017, UNOOSA and UN women also cooperated to organise a ‘Space for Women’ Expert Meeting with the goal of empowering women in space industry jobs. Commercial spaceflight and more focus on diversity are also factors that play a role in boosting participation by women.
== Physical effects of space on women ==
Female astronauts are subject to the same general physical effects of space travel as male astronauts. These include physiological changes due to weightlessness such as loss of bone and muscle mass, health threats from cosmic rays, dangers due to vacuum and temperature, and psychological stress.
NASA reports initially argued that menstruation could pose serious health risks or have a negative effect on performance, although it is now dealt with as a matter of routine.
Since women have been sent to space, the previously male focused clothing has been reconsidered addressing the issues and needs for clothing like space suits for extravehicular activity (EVA) and bras, e.g. for exercise in micro-g environments.
Furthermore, space toilet designs did not have women in mind, until October 2020 when the first toilet with better design for women (as well as men) was delivered to the ISS.
=== Radiation and uterine and breast cancer ===
Both men and women are affected by radiation.
Massive particles are a concern for astronauts outside the Earth's magnetic field who receive solar particles from solar proton events (SPE) and galactic cosmic rays from cosmic sources. These high-energy charged nuclei are blocked by Earth's magnetic field but pose a major health concern for astronauts traveling to the Moon and to any distant location beyond Earth orbit. Evidence indicates past solar particle event (SPE) radiation levels that would have been lethal for unprotected astronauts.
However, due to the currently used risk models for endometrial, ovarian and breast cancer, women at NASA can currently only spend half as much time on missions as men, which limits their career options compared to men.
Astronauts on Apollo and Skylab missions received on average 1.2 mSv/day and 1.4 mSv/day respectively. Exposures on the ISS average 0.4 mSv per day (150 mSv per year), although frequent crew rotations minimize risk to individuals.
A trip to Mars with current technology might be related to measurements by the Mars Science Laboratory which for a 180-day journey estimated an exposure approximately 300 mSv, which would be equivalent of 24 CAT scans or "15 times an annual radiation limit for a worker in a nuclear power plant".
=== Fertility ===
A study published in 2005 in the International Journal of Impotence Research reported that short-duration missions (no longer than nine days) did not affect "the ability of astronauts to conceive and bear healthy children to term." In another experiment, the frog Xenopus laevis successfully ovulated in space.
Astronauts Valentina Tereshkova (the first woman in space) and Andriyan Nikolayev became the first married astronauts and the first having a child after both being in space.
=== Pregnancy ===
NASA has not permitted pregnant astronauts to fly in space, and there have been no pregnant women in space. However, various science experiments have dealt with some aspects of pregnancy.
For air travel, the United States' Federal Aviation Administration recommends a limit of 1 mSv total for a pregnancy, and no more than 0.5 mSv per month.
For fetus radiation increases the risk of childhood cancers.
Additionally children of female astronauts could be sterile if the astronaut were exposed to too much ionizing radiation during the later stages of a pregnancy. Ionizing radiation may destroy the egg cells of a female fetus inside a pregnant woman, rendering the offspring infertile even when grown.
While no human had gestated in space as of 2003, scientists have conducted experiments on non-human mammalian gestation. Space missions that have studied "reproducing and growing mammals" include Kosmos 1129 and 1154, as the Shuttle missions STS-66, 70, 72, and 90. A Soviet experiment in 1983 showed that a rat that orbited while pregnant later gave birth to healthy babies; the babies were "thinner and weaker than their Earth-based counterparts and lagged behind a bit in their mental development," although the developing pups eventually caught up.
The lack of knowledge about pregnancy and birth control in micro-gravity has been noted in regards to conducting long-term space missions.
==== Post-natal ====
A 1998 Space Shuttle mission showed that rodent Rattus mothers were either not producing enough milk or not feeding their offspring in space. However, a later study on pregnant rats showed that the animals successfully gave birth and lactated normally.
Anna Lee Fisher was in 1984 the first biological mother going into space.
To date no human children have been born in space; neither have children gone into space. Nevertheless, the idea of children in space is taken seriously enough that some have discussed how to raise children in space.
== Fatalities ==
Four women have died during two spaceflight missions that occurred 1986 and 2003.
The first Teacher in Space Project (TISP) participant as payload specialist Christa McAuliffe, along with mission specialist Judith Resnik of STS-51-L died when their Space Shuttle Challenger exploded on January 28, 1986, less than two minutes after launch, along with all of their crewmates.
In February 2003, mission specialists Kalpana Chawla and Laurel Clark were among those killed on re-entry in the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster.
== Statistics ==
== By public space program ==
=== USA ===
The US has since the 1980s the largest group of women of all countries, more than all other that have ever gone to space combined.
Sally Ride became the first American woman in space, when she flew in June 1983 on the Space Shuttle mission STS-7 to space.
The first US woman to perform Extravehicular activity (EVA) was Kathryn D. Sullivan on the STS-41-G, which launched on October 11, 1984.
NASA's first female pilot was Eileen Collins from group 13, who first flew in February 1995 on STS-63 and became the first female US mission commander in July 1999 on STS-93.
Although not a NASA astronaut, Millie Hughes-Fulford of the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs flew on the STS-40 Space Shuttle mission in June 1991 as the first female payload specialist from outside the space agency.
=== Russia ===
Russia has sent three women since its Roscosmos state corporation inherited in 1991 the Soviet space program, which had sent two, the very first women altogether from Russia to space.
Originally chosen as cosmonaut during Soviet times, Yelena V. Kondakova became the first woman cosmonaut for the Russian Federation in 1994, and the first woman to travel for both the Soyuz program and on the Space Shuttle. Twenty years later, Yelena Serova became the first Russian woman cosmonaut to visit the International Space Station on September 26, 2014.
Actress Yulia Peresild became 2021 the fourth Russian woman flying to space. Though she was not sent by the Russian state, since she flew as Spaceflight participant, shooting scenes for a Russian movie at the ISS.
Russia's only current woman cosmonaut, Anna Kikina, was admitted to the Russian cosmonaut corps in 2012. In 2019 Roscosmos announced changes to their space suits to accommodate women and announced in 2020 that Kikina was selected for a flight to the International Space Station in 2022, with SpaceX Crew-5.
=== Canada ===
Canada has sent two women to space.
Roberta Bondar was the first Canadian woman to fly in space, on the Space Shuttle Discovery in January 1992.
The second Canadian woman astronaut is Julie Payette from Montreal. Payette was part of the crew of STS-96, on the Space Shuttle Discovery from May 27 to June 6, 1999. During the mission, the crew performed the first manual docking of the Shuttle to the International Space Station, and delivered four tons of logistics and supplies to the station. On Endeavour in 2009 for STS-127, Payette served as a mission specialist. Her main responsibility was to operate the Canadarm robotic arm from the space station. Payette was sworn in as the 29th Governor-General of Canada on October 2, 2017.
In July 2017, Dr. Jennifer Sidey-Gibbons was selected by the Canadian Space Agency to receive astronaut training at Johnson Space Center. She completed the two-year Astronaut Candidate Training Program and obtained the official title of astronaut in January 2020. She has been assigned as the backup for Jeremy Hansen for Artemis II.
=== Japan ===
Japan's JAXA has sent two women to space.
In 1985, Chiaki Mukai was selected as one of three Japanese Payload Specialist candidates for the First Material Processing Test (Spacelab-J) that flew aboard STS-47 in 1992. She also served as a back-up payload specialist for the Neurolab (STS-90) mission. Mukai has logged over 566 hours in space. She flew aboard STS-65 in 1994 and STS-95 in 1998. She is the first Japanese and Asian woman to fly in space, and the first Japanese citizen to fly twice.
Naoko Yamazaki became the second Japanese woman to fly into space with her launch on April 5, 2010. Yamazaki entered space on the shuttle Discovery as part of mission STS-131. She returned to Earth on April 20, 2010. Yamazaki worked on ISS hardware development projects in the 1990s. She is an aerospace engineer and also holds a master's degree in that field. She was selected for astronaut training in 1999 and was certified by 2001. She was a mission specialist on her 2010 space shuttle flight, and spent 362 hours in space. Yamazaki worked on robotics and transitioned through the reorganization of Japanese spaceflight organization in 2003 when NASDA (National Space Development Agency) merged with ISAS (Institute of Space and Astronautical Science) and NAL (National Aerospace Laboratory of Japan). The new organization was called JAXA (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency).
=== European Space Agency (ESA) ===
The European Space Agency has sent two women to space, while it has sent many more men.
The first woman sent by ESA, as well as France and its state space agency CNES, was Claudie Haigneré, who went to the Russian space station Mir in 1996. She flew again in 2001 as the first European woman to visit the International Space Station.
Since then the only other woman sent by a European agency ASI and ESA has been Italian Samantha Cristoforetti launched on Soyuz TMA-15M in November 2014. She returned to space in April 2021 on the SpaceX Crew-4 mission to the International Space Station.
The 2022 European Space Agency Astronaut Group had specifically invited women to join. They also extended the first invitation to people with disabilities (parastronauts) to apply for the group. Of the selected five career astronauts and one para-astronaut two are women: Sophie Adenot and Rosemary Coogan.
=== China ===
China has sent three women to space.
In 2012, the Chinese space program sent their first woman Liu Yang to space aboard Shenzhou 9 to dock with Tiangong-1.
China's first female astronaut candidates, chosen in 2010 from the ranks of fighter pilots, were required to be married mothers. The Chinese stated that married women were "more physically and psychologically mature" and that the rule that they had have had children was because of concerns that spaceflight would harm their reproductive organs (including unreleased ova). The unknown nature of the effects of spaceflight on women was also noted. However, the director of the China Astronaut Centre has stated that marriage is a preference but not a strict limitation. Part of why they were so strict was because it was their first astronaut selection and they were trying be "extra cautious". China's first woman astronaut, Liu Yang, was married but had no children at the time of her flight in June 2012. Her second mission launched in June 2022 on Shenzhou 14.
Wang Yaping became the second Chinese female astronaut as a member of the Shenzhou 10 spaceship crew, which orbited the Earth in June 2013, and of the Tiangong-1 orbiting space station with which it docked. In October 2021, Wang again flew on Shenzhou 13, this time to the Tiangong Space Station, where she became the first Chinese female astronaut to perform a spacewalk.
Wang Haoze, who served on the Shenzhou 19 mission aboard the Tiangong Space Station, was the third Chinese woman to travel to space and the first female aerospace engineer in the Chinese Space Program. Being ethnically Manchu, she was also China's first female astronaut from an ethnic minority and second overall.
=== Other countries ===
Yi So-yeon from South Korea was launched into space as a space flight participant with Roscosmos, alongside two Russian cosmonauts.
Rayyanah Barnawi became the first female astronaut from Saudi Arabia in May 2023 on the Axiom-2 mission to the International Space Station.
Maryna Vasileuskaya was launched to the International Space Station with the Soyuz MS-25 mission in March 2024, making her the first woman and astronaut in general from the Republic of Belarus. However, she is not the first Belarusian to travel to space, with two previous ones, both male, being from the Byelorussian SSR and hence travelling as citizens of the Soviet Union.
== Privately funded ==
In May 1991 Helen Sharman went into space on a flight to the Mir space station as a spaceflight participant. Her flight was privately funded by Project Juno, a British-Soviet collaboration. She was the second person and first woman to be funded privately to go to space. Sharman was the first citizen of the United Kingdom to go into space, making the United Kingdom the first of two countries (the other being South Korea) to have a woman as its first person in space.
Anousheh Ansari was the fourth overall, second woman who went privately funded and first self-funded to space. As well as the first privately funded woman to fly to the International Space Station she was also the first Iranian woman citizen (dual citizenship with the US) to go to space. She flew to the station in 2006 on the Soyuz TMA-9 spacecraft. Her mission launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome on September 18, 2006. Soyuz TMA-9 transported two-thirds of ISS Expedition 14 to the space station along with Ansari. Ansari performed several experiments on behalf of the European Space Agency.
In February 2019 Beth Moses of Virgin Galactic became the first commercial astronaut woman to go to space (sub-orbital). Sirisha Bandla also flew on Virgin Galactic in July 2021.
Wally Funk, member of the Mercury 13, became the oldest woman in space when she flew on Blue Origin's New Shephard sub-orbital flight on 20 July 2021. In addition to being the only member of the Mercury 13 to ever fly in space, she also broke the record for oldest person in space at the age of 82, though her record was broken by William Shatner, age 90, in October that same year.
On 16 September 2021, Sian Proctor and Hayley Arceneaux became the first female commercial astronauts to go into orbit on board Inspiration4.
Shortly after, in October 2021, Russian Yulia Peresild reached space on a Soyuz flight, as the first actress, to shoot the first professional movie scenes in space as well as a space station.
Vanessa O'Brien carried the UN Women's flag on her sub-orbital spaceflight, Blue Origin NS-22 in August 2022. Sara Sabry from Egypt was on the same flight, becoming the first Egyptian, first Arab woman, and first woman from Africa in space.
In 2023, Kellie Gerardi served as a payload specialist on the Galactic 05 / IIAS-01 research mission with Virgin Galactic, during which she operated three biomedical and thermodynamic fluids experiments in space.
In April 2025, Rabea Rogge from Germany is first female German astronaut with human spaceflight Fram2.
In April 2025, Jannicke Mikkelsen from Norway is first female Norwegian astronaut with human spaceflight Fram2.
In April 2025, Katy Perry, Kerianne Flynn, Gayle King, Lauren Sánchez, Amanda Nguyen, and Aisha Bowe were part of the first all female space crew since 1963 on Blue Origin's New Shepard. The flight lasted 11 minutes and took the crew to the Karman line, the internationally recognised boundary of space, before returning to Earth.
== Non-astronaut personnel ==
Alongside astronauts, there have been many women who have been working in astronautics and related fields. To name some:
Eilene Galloway
Laurel van der Wal
Katherine Johnson
Mary Jackson
Dorothy Vaughan
Nichelle Nichols
A number of other high-profile women have contributed to interest in space programs. In the early 2000s, Lori Garver initiated a project to increase the visibility and viability of commercial spaceflight with the "AstroMom" project. She aimed to fill an unused Soyuz seat bound for the International Space Station because "…creating a spacefaring civilization was one of the most important things we could do in our lifetime."
== See also ==
List of female astronauts
List of spaceflight records
List of space travelers by nationality
Maximum Absorbency Garment (unisex garment to help contain bodily emissions during spaceflight, specifically designed for women)
Mercury 13
List of female explorers and travelers
Human presence in space
Women in Antarctica
== References ==
== External links ==
Women in Space from Telegraph Jobs
50 years of humans in space: European Women in Space (ESA) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Network | Game Network | Game Network was a European free-to-air television channel. It was initially owned by Digital Bros group, and later taken over by Cellcast Group. It was first launched in 1999.
== History ==
Game Network first broadcast in Italy on 17 September 1999. The channel was available throughout Southern Europe, and developed, attracting an estimated audience of 300,000. It launched in the United Kingdom in May 2001 on Sky EPG number 223. At its UK launch, the Financial Times evaluated the channel's free-to-air business proposition, commenting that its potential viewers should be abundant with consideration to the surge of popularity of video games at the time, noting the rising popularity of video games, the release of hundreds of titles in the UK each year and the launch of the PlayStation 2 months earlier. The channel was expected to provide 24-hour television dedicated to video games and earn money from advertising and sponsorship.
The UK version of the television channel, produced by Cellcast included regional content with programs such as Digital Crack, Me in Mir, The Weekly Chart Show, Game Guru, Reloaded, LiveWire, and Evolution. In 2003, Cellcast started increasing control of the channel, with Sem Mioli of Digital Bros. side and Jonathan French and Craig Gardiner from the Cellcast side spearheading the channel) with the launch of non-gaming programmes such as Babestation, a late-night "tease" show. The success of this show lead to many other clone programmes appearing on other channels, and this alternative revenue stream lead to a later influx of phone-in quiz shows, of which Game Network shows many. By 2005, Game Network's UK games programming went largely limited to a block of raw games footage from 5:30 am – 10am, with Game Guru airing from 5 pm until 7 pm, followed by programmes such as Psychic Interactive, which continue until Babestation starts.
Game Guru relaunched on 20 September, 2004 with interactive features, including live chat and MMS picture messaging.
In 2004, the channel's Sky EPG number was 172.
In 2005, Charlie Brooker writing for The Guardian noted the incongruity of the channel's programming, with clairvoyance programme Psychic Interactive being, "interrupted every few minutes by an "ad break" largely consisting of stills of Pac Man accompanied by captions in Italian, or Mortal Kombat characters backed with heavy metal music".
The major gaming shows, such as LiveWire, were cancelled in May 2005, and the Italian-language feed from Hot Bird ceased on September 17, 2005, after six years on air. At this time, Digital Bros. sold Game Network UK completely to Cellcast Group, which completely dropped all video game content by 20 February 2006 and renamed it Babestation. On 28 February, the channel was moved to the adult section of the Sky EPG.
== References ==
== External links ==
Game Network Italia
Game Media Network |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Now_Is_the_Time_(Brenda_Fassie_album) | Now Is the Time (Brenda Fassie album) | Now Is the Time is the eleventh studio album by South African singer Brenda Fassie. Released on August 4, 1996, by CCP Records, this is her eleventh album for the label. Now Is The Time features two duets with Congolese superstar Papa Wemba.
The album primarily incorporates Kwaito, gospel and Afropop music elements with lyrical themes of music industry experience and Fassie's faith in God.
== Background ==
During the 1990s, Fassie's life went into a downward spiral after her divorce from Nhlanhla Mbambo, and for years she checked in and out of drug rehabilitation clinics, and missed gigs. Following year 1996, opting to re-establish her music career, Fassie made her comeback producing her own the album and planning the project.
She collaborated with her long time producer Sello Chicco Twala. The album represents a departure from the Afropop music of Fassie's previous albums; Fassie's genre shift came after Kwaito was becoming a popular genre in South Africa.
Now is the time was released in 1996 by CCP Music in its physical form. EMI Digital re-released the album in its digital form in 2015 on the music streaming services like Spotify and the iTunes Store.
== Track listing ==
Notes
"Tonight Is the Night" contains a sample of "Tonight Is the Night",written by Willie Clarke performed by Betty Wright.
== Personnel ==
Brenda Fassie – Vocals, producer
Papa Wemba – main vocals (track 4)
== Release history ==
== References == |
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