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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beilby_Medal_and_Prize | Beilby Medal and Prize | The Beilby Medal and Prize is awarded annually to a scientist or engineer for work that has exceptional practical significance in chemical engineering, applied materials science, energy efficiency or a related field. The prize is jointly administered by the Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining, the Royal Society of Chemistry and the Society of Chemical Industry, who make the award in rotation.
The award is open to members of the Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining, the Royal Society of Chemistry and the Society of Chemical Industry as well as other scientists and engineers worldwide. The aim of the award is to recognise the achievements of early-career scientists, and nominees should be no older than 39 years of age.
The Beilby Medal and Prize is awarded in memory of Scottish scientist Sir George Thomas Beilby FRS. Born in 1850, he joined the Oakbank Oil Company in 1869 following his studies at the University of Edinburgh. He later became President of all three organisations or their precursor societies, acting as President of the Society of Chemical Industry from 1898–99, The Institute of Chemistry from 1902–12 and the Institute of Metals from 1916-18.
Recipients of the award receive a medal, a certificate and a prize of £1,000. The first award was made in 1930.
== Recipients ==
The Beilby Medal and Prize recipients since 1930 are:
== See also ==
List of chemistry awards
List of engineering awards
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolling_Papers_2#Commercial_performance | Rolling Papers 2 | Rolling Papers 2 (sometimes stylized as Rolling Papers II) is the sixth studio album by American rapper Wiz Khalifa. It was released on July 13, 2018, by Taylor Gang Entertainment and Atlantic Records, and is the sequel to his major-label debut Rolling Papers (2011). The album features guest appearances by Gucci Mane, Swae Lee, Ty Dolla Sign, PartyNextDoor, Bone Thugs-n-Harmony and Snoop Dogg, among others. It also features appearances from R&B duo THEMXXNLIGHT, as well as Jimmy Wopo, who is credited posthumously following his death on June 18, 2018, less than a month before the album's release. The production is handled by Cardo, Mike Will Made It, Tay Keith, and Young Chop, among others.
It was supported by the singles "Something New", "Real Rich", "Hopeless Romantic" and "Gin & Drugs". "Something New" and "Hopeless Romantic" were both modest hits, eventually being certified platinum by the RIAA. The album debuted at number 2 on the Billboard 200.
== Background ==
In an episode of Genius' For the Record, Wiz Khalifa sat down with hip hop journalist Rob Markman to speak on the album, stating,
"With Rolling Papers 2, it's like I'm at a whole new point in my career where people may or may not know what to expect. I feel like this is such an opportunity to just come out to the world. It feels so important, it feels as important as the first time. So that's why I said Rolling Papers 2."
== Reception ==
Rolling Papers 2 was met with generally mixed reviews from critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 from mainstream publications, the album received an average score of 56, based on 6 reviews.
== Commercial performance ==
In the United States, Rolling Papers 2 debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 based on 84.2 million streams of its songs and 14,000 pure album sales, which Billboard equated to 80,000 album-equivalent units. It is Khalifa's fifth top-ten album in the United States. The album earned 33,000 album-equivalent units in the second week. In Canada, the album debuted at number four on the Canadian Albums Chart. It serves as Khalifa's third non-consecutive top-ten album in the country.
In 2018, Rolling Papers 2 was ranked as the 128th most popular album of the year on the Billboard 200. The album was certified Gold by the RIAA 11 months after its release.
== Track listing ==
== Charts ==
=== Weekly charts ===
== Certifications ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mario-Rafael_Ionian | Mario-Rafael Ionian | Mario-Rafael Ionian (born 14 October 1990) is an Austrian former competitive figure skater who competed in men's singles. He is a three-time Austrian national champion and the 2012 Golden Bear of Zagreb champion. He competed at the 2009 World Junior Championships in Sofia, Bulgaria, and at the 2010 World Junior Championships in The Hague, Netherlands, but was eliminated after the short program at both events. He qualified for the free skate at the 2016 European Championships in Bratislava, Slovakia.
His brother, Simon-Gabriel Ionian, is also a competitive skater.
== Programs ==
== Competitive highlights ==
CS: Challenger Series; JGP: Junior Grand Prix
== References ==
== External links ==
Mario-Rafael Ionian at the International Skating Union |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jovian_(emperor) | Jovian (emperor) | Jovian (; Latin: Jovianus; Ancient Greek: Ἰοβιανός, romanized: Iobianós; 331 – 17 February 364) was Roman emperor from June 363 to February 364. As part of the imperial bodyguard, he accompanied Julian on his campaign against the Sasanian Empire. Julian was killed in battle, and the exhausted and ill-provisioned army declared Jovian his successor. Unable to cross the Tigris, Jovian made peace with the Sasanids on humiliating terms. He spent the rest of his seven-month reign traveling back to Constantinople. After his arrival at Edessa, Jovian was petitioned by bishops over doctrinal issues concerning Christianity. He died at Dadastana, never having reached the capital.
From Jovian's successors Valentinian I and Valens to the fall of the Western Roman Empire, all subsequent administrations involved co-emperors governing a territory split into Eastern and Western jurisdictions. Jovian was consequently the last emperor to rule the entire empire for the whole of his reign.
== Early life and accession ==
Jovian was born at Singidunum, Moesia Superior (today Belgrade in Serbia), in 331, son of Varronianus, the commander of Constantius II's imperial bodyguards (comes domesticorum). He also joined the guards and in this capacity in 361, escorted Constantius' remains to the Church of the Holy Apostles. Jovian was married to Charito and they had two sons, Varronianus, and another whose name is unknown.
Jovian accompanied the Emperor Julian on the Mesopotamian campaign of the same year against Shapur II, the Sassanid king. At the Battle of Samarra, a small but decisive engagement, Julian was mortally wounded. Ammianus Marcellinus reports that the dying emperor declined to name his preferred successor, fearful that he either might overlook a worthy candidate, or put his desired candidate in danger of power-hungry nobles. Julian died on 26 June 363. The next day, the army offered the throne to the aged Saturninius Secundus Salutius, praetorian prefect of the Orient, who refused it. Instead, and in spite of Julian's reinstitution of paganism, the army chose the Christian Jovian, senior officer of the Scholae, as Emperor.
== Reign ==
On the very morning of his accession, Jovian resumed the retreat begun by Julian. Though harassed by the Sasanids, the army succeeded in reaching the city of Dura on the banks of the Tigris. Unable to bridge the river and reach Roman lands on the western bank, Jovian was forced to sue for a peace treaty on humiliating terms. In exchange for an unhindered retreat to his own territory, he agreed to a thirty-year truce, a withdrawal from the five Roman provinces, Arzamena, Moxoeona, Azbdicena, Rehimena and Corduena, and to allow the Sasanids to occupy the fortresses of Nisibis, Castra Maurorum and Singara. The Romans also surrendered their interests in the Kingdom of Armenia to the Sasanids. The king of Armenia, Arsaces II (Arshak II), was to receive no help from Rome. The treaty was widely seen as a disgrace.
After crossing the Tigris, Jovian sent an embassy to the West to announce his elevation. With the treaty signed, Jovian and his army marched to Nisibis. The populace of Nisibis, devastated by the news their city was to be given to the Sasanids, were given three days to leave.
In September 363 Jovian arrived at Edessa where he issued two edicts. The first, a limitation on the distance a soldier could be sent for straw, was to indicate an end to the war with Sasanid Persia. The second was the restoration of estates of the res privata to the Imperial finances following Julian's incorporating them to pagan temples.
Jovian's arrival at Antioch in October 363, was met with an enraged populace. Faced with offensive graffiti and insulting authorless bills (famosi) throughout the city, he ordered the Library of Antioch to be burned down. Jovian left Antioch in November 363, making his way back to Constantinople.
By December 363 Jovian was at Ancyra proclaiming his infant son, Varronianus, consul. While en route from there to Constantinople, Jovian was found dead in his tent at Dadastana, halfway between Ancyra and Nicaea, on 17 February 364. His death, which went uninvestigated, was possibly the result of suffocating on poisonous fumes seeping from the newly painted bedchamber walls by a brazier. Jovian died aged 33 and was buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople, in a porphyry sarcophagus. He was succeeded by two brothers, Valentinian I and Valens, who subsequently divided the empire between them.
Following Jovian's death, Valentinian and Valens removed any threats to their position. Jovian's son Varronianus was blinded to ensure he would never inherit the throne. According to John Chrysostom, Jovian's wife Charito lived in fear the remaining days of her life.
== Restoration of Christianity ==
Jovian was met at Edessa by a group of bishops, including Athanasius, who was newly returned from exile. The Semi-Arian bishops received a poor greeting, while Athanasius delivered a letter to Jovian insisting on the Nicene Creed and the rejection of Arianism. Athanasius was restored to his episcopal duties, and allowed to accompany Jovian to Antioch.
Upon his arrival in the city, Jovian received a letter from the Synod of Antioch, imploring for Meletius' restoration as bishop. By September 363, Jovian restored the labarum ("Chi-Rho") as the army's standard and revoked the edicts of Julian against Christians, but did not close any pagan temples. He issued an edict of toleration, to the effect that his subjects could enjoy full liberty of conscience, but he banned magic and divination. Despite supporting the Nicene doctrines, he passed no edicts against Arians. Philostorgius, an Arian church historian, stated, "The Emperor Jovian restored the churches to their original uses, and set them free from all the vexatious persecutions inflicted on them by the Apostate Julian."
== See also ==
List of Roman emperors
List of Byzantine emperors
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Sources ==
== Further reading ==
Kettenhofen, Erich (2009). "JOVIAN". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica. Vol. XV/1: Joči–Judeopersian communities of Iran V. Qajar period (1786-1925). London and New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 74–77. ISBN 978-1-934283-14-1.
Banchich, Thomas, "Jovian", De Imperatoribus Romanis.
Ammianus Marcellinus, xxv. 5–10
J. P. de la Bleterie, Histoire de Jovien (1740)
Gibbon, Decline and Fall, chapters xxiv., xxv.
Gibbon, Edward, 1737–1794. The history of the decline and fall of the Roman Empire. (NY : Knopf, 1993), v. 2, pp. 517–529.
G. Hoffmann, Julianus der Abtrünnige, 1880
J. Wordsworth in Smith and Wace's Dictionary of Christian Biography
H. Schiller, Geschichte der römischen Kaiserzeit, volume ii. (1887)
A. de Broglie, L'Église et l'empire romain au IVe siècle (4th ed. 1882).
== External links ==
Media related to Jovian at Wikimedia Commons |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equinox | Equinox | A solar equinox is a moment in time when the Sun appears directly above the equator, rather than to its north or south. On the day of the equinox, the Sun appears to rise directly east and set directly west. This occurs twice each year, around 20 March and 23 September.
An equinox is equivalently defined as the time when the plane of Earth's equator passes through the geometric center of the Sun's disk. This is also the moment when Earth's rotation axis is directly perpendicular to the Sun-Earth line, tilting neither toward nor away from the Sun. In modern times, since the Moon (and to a lesser extent the planets) causes Earth's orbit to vary slightly from a perfect ellipse, the equinox is officially defined by the Sun's more regular ecliptic longitude rather than by its declination. The instants of the equinoxes are currently defined to be when the apparent geocentric longitude of the Sun is 0° and 180°.
The word is derived from the Latin aequinoctium, from aequa (equal) and nox (night). On the day of an equinox, daytime and nighttime are of approximately equal duration all over the planet. Contrary to popular belief, they are not exactly equal because of the angular size of the Sun, atmospheric refraction, and the rapidly changing duration of the length of day that occurs at most latitudes around the equinoxes. Long before conceiving this equality, equatorial cultures noted the day when the Sun rises due east and sets due west, and indeed this happens on the day closest to the astronomically defined event. As a consequence, according to a properly constructed and aligned sundial, the daytime duration is 12 hours.
In the Northern Hemisphere, the March equinox is called the vernal or spring equinox while the September equinox is called the autumnal or fall equinox. In the Southern Hemisphere, the reverse is true. During the year, equinoxes alternate with solstices. Leap years and other factors cause the dates of both events to vary slightly.
Hemisphere-neutral names are northward equinox for the March equinox, indicating that at that moment the solar declination is crossing the celestial equator in a northward direction, and southward equinox for the September equinox, indicating that at that moment the solar declination is crossing the celestial equator in a southward direction.
Daytime is increasing most quickly at the vernal equinox and decreasing most quickly at the autumnal equinox.
== Equinoxes on Earth ==
=== General ===
Systematically observing the sunrise, people discovered that it occurs between two extreme locations at the horizon and eventually noted the midpoint between the two. Later it was realized that this happens on a day when the duration of the day and the night are practically equal and the word "equinox" comes from Latin aequus, meaning "equal", and nox, meaning "night".
In the northern hemisphere, the vernal equinox (March) conventionally marks the beginning of spring in most cultures and is considered the start of the New Year in the Assyrian calendar, Hindu, and the Persian or Iranian calendars, while the autumnal equinox (September) marks the beginning of autumn. Ancient Greek calendars too had the beginning of the year either at the autumnal or vernal equinox and some at solstices. The Antikythera mechanism predicts the equinoxes and solstices.
The equinoxes are the only times when the solar terminator (the "edge" between night and day) is perpendicular to the equator. As a result, the northern and southern hemispheres are equally illuminated.
For the same reason, this is also the time when the Sun rises for an observer at one of Earth's rotational poles and sets at the other. For a brief period lasting approximately four days, both North and South Poles are in daylight. For example, in 2021 sunrise on the North Pole is 18 March 07:09 UTC, and sunset on the South Pole is 22 March 13:08 UTC. Also in 2021, sunrise on the South Pole is 20 September 16:08 UTC, and sunset on the North Pole is 24 September 22:30 UTC.
In other words, the equinoxes are the only times when the subsolar point is on the equator, meaning that the Sun is exactly overhead at a point on the equatorial line. The subsolar point crosses the equator moving northward at the March equinox and southward at the September equinox.
=== Date ===
When Julius Caesar established the Julian calendar in 45 BC, he set 25 March as the date of the spring equinox; this was already the starting day of the year in the Persian and Indian calendars. Because the Julian year is longer than the tropical year by about 11.3 minutes on average (or 1 day in 128 years), the calendar "drifted" with respect to the two equinoxes – so that in 300 AD the spring equinox occurred on about 21 March, and by the 1580s AD it had drifted backwards to 11 March.
This drift induced Pope Gregory XIII to establish the modern Gregorian calendar. The Pope wanted to continue to conform with the edicts of the Council of Nicaea in 325 AD concerning the date of Easter, which means he wanted to move the vernal equinox to the date on which it fell at that time (21 March is the day allocated to it in the Easter table of the Julian calendar), and to maintain it at around that date in the future, which he achieved by reducing the number of leap years from 100 to 97 every 400 years. However, there remained a small residual variation in the date and time of the vernal equinox of about ±27 hours from its mean position, virtually all because the distribution of 24 hour centurial leap-days causes large jumps (see Gregorian calendar leap solstice).
==== Modern dates ====
The dates of the equinoxes change progressively during the leap-year cycle, because the Gregorian calendar year is not commensurate with the period of the Earth's revolution about the Sun. It is only after a complete Gregorian leap-year cycle of 400 years that the seasons commence at approximately the same time. In the 21st century the earliest March equinox will be 19 March 2096, while the latest was 21 March 2003. The earliest September equinox will be 21 September 2096 while the latest was 23 September 2003 (Universal Time).
=== Names ===
Vernal equinox and autumnal equinox: these classical names are direct derivatives of Latin (ver = spring, and autumnus = autumn). These are the historically universal and still most widely used terms for the equinoxes, but are potentially confusing because in the southern hemisphere the vernal equinox does not occur in spring and the autumnal equinox does not occur in autumn. The equivalent common language English terms spring equinox and autumn (or fall) equinox are even more ambiguous. It has become increasingly common for people to refer to the September equinox in the southern hemisphere as the Vernal equinox.
March equinox and September equinox: names referring to the months of the year in which they occur, with no ambiguity as to which hemisphere is the context. They are still not universal, however, as not all cultures use a solar-based calendar where the equinoxes occur every year in the same month (as they do not in the Islamic calendar and Hebrew calendar, for example). Although the terms have become very common in the 21st century, they were sometimes used at least as long ago as the mid-20th century.
Northward equinox and southward equinox: names referring to the apparent direction of motion of the Sun. The northward equinox occurs in March when the Sun crosses the equator from south to north, and the southward equinox occurs in September when the Sun crosses the equator from north to south. These terms can be used unambiguously for other planets. They are rarely seen, although were first proposed over 100 years ago.
First point of Aries and first point of Libra: names referring to the astrological signs the Sun is entering. However, the precession of the equinoxes has shifted these points into the constellations Pisces and Virgo, respectively.
=== Length of equinoctial day and night ===
On the date of the equinox, the center of the Sun spends a roughly equal amount of time above and below the horizon at every location on the Earth, so night and day are about the same length. Sunrise and sunset can be defined in several ways, but a widespread definition is the time that the top limb of the Sun is level with the horizon. With this definition, the day is longer than the night at the equinoxes:
From the Earth, the Sun appears as a disc rather than a point of light, so when the centre of the Sun is below the horizon, its upper edge may be visible. Sunrise, which begins daytime, occurs when the top of the Sun's disk appears above the eastern horizon. At that instant, the disk's centre is still below the horizon.
The Earth's atmosphere refracts sunlight. As a result, an observer sees daylight before the top of the Sun's disk appears above the horizon.
In sunrise/sunset tables, the atmospheric refraction is assumed to be 34 arcminutes, and the assumed semidiameter (apparent radius) of the Sun is 16 arcminutes. (The apparent radius varies slightly depending on time of year, slightly larger at perihelion in January than aphelion in July, but the difference is comparatively small.) Their combination means that when the upper limb of the Sun is on the visible horizon, its centre is 50 arcminutes below the geometric horizon, which is the intersection with the celestial sphere of a horizontal plane through the eye of the observer.
These effects make the day about 14 minutes longer than the night at the equator and longer still towards the poles. The real equality of day and night only happens in places far enough from the equator to have a seasonal difference in day length of at least 7 minutes, actually occurring a few days towards the winter side of each equinox. One result of this is that, at latitudes below ±2.0 degrees, all the days of the year are longer than the nights.
The times of sunset and sunrise vary with the observer's location (longitude and latitude), so the dates when day and night are equal also depend upon the observer's location.
A third correction for the visual observation of a sunrise (or sunset) is the angle between the apparent horizon as seen by an observer and the geometric (or sensible) horizon. This is known as the dip of the horizon and varies from 3 arcminutes for a viewer standing on the sea shore to 160 arcminutes for a mountaineer on Everest. The effect of a larger dip on taller objects (reaching over 2½° of arc on Everest) accounts for the phenomenon of snow on a mountain peak turning gold in the sunlight long before the lower slopes are illuminated.
The date on which the length of day and night are exactly the same is known as an equilux; the neologism, believed to have been coined in the 1980s, achieved more widespread recognition in the 21st century. At the most precise measurements, a true equilux is rare, because the lengths of day and night change more rapidly than any other time of the year around the equinoxes. In the mid-latitudes, daylight increases or decreases by about three minutes per day at the equinoxes, and thus adjacent days and nights only reach within one minute of each other. The date of the closest approximation of the equilux varies slightly by latitude; in the mid-latitudes, it occurs a few days before the spring equinox and after the fall equinox in each respective hemisphere.
=== Unequal intervals between equinoxes ===
Because the movement of the Earth on its orbit obeys Kepler's laws of planetary motion, the interval from March equinox to September equinox is about 186 days, while the interval from September equinox to March equinox is about 179 days, which makes the polar day at the North Pole about 7 days longer than that at the South Pole.
=== Auroras ===
Mirror-image conjugate auroras have been observed during the equinoxes.
=== Cultural aspects ===
The equinoxes are sometimes regarded as the start of spring and autumn. A number of traditional harvest festivals are celebrated on the date of the equinoxes.
People in a large part of the former Persian Empire, in Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan and most of the Central Asia, celebrate the Persian new year, Nowruz, which is spring equinox in northern hemisphere. This day marks the new year in Solar Hijri calendar.
Religious architecture is often determined by the equinox; the Angkor Wat Equinox during which the sun rises in a perfect alignment over Angkor Wat in Cambodia is one such example.
Catholic churches, since the recommendations of Charles Borromeo, have often chosen the equinox as their reference point for the orientation of churches.
== Effects on satellites ==
One effect of equinoctial periods is the temporary disruption of communications satellites. For all geostationary satellites, there are a few days around the equinox when the Sun goes directly behind the satellite relative to Earth (i.e. within the beam-width of the ground-station antenna) for a short period each day. The Sun's immense power and broad radiation spectrum overload the Earth station's reception circuits with noise and, depending on antenna size and other factors, temporarily disrupt or degrade the circuit. The duration of those effects varies but can range from a few minutes to an hour. (For a given frequency band, a larger antenna has a narrower beam-width and hence experiences shorter duration "Sun outage" windows.)
Satellites in geostationary orbit also experience difficulties maintaining power during the equinox because they have to travel through Earth's shadow and rely only on battery power. Usually, a satellite travels either north or south of the Earth's shadow because Earth's axis is not directly perpendicular to a line from the Earth to the Sun at other times. During the equinox, since geostationary satellites are situated above the Equator, they are in Earth's shadow for the longest duration all year.
== Equinoxes on other planets ==
Equinoxes are defined on any planet with a tilted rotational axis. A dramatic example is Saturn, where the equinox places its ring system edge-on facing the Sun. When seen from above – a view seen during an equinox for the first time from the Cassini space probe in 2009 – they receive very little sunshine; indeed, they receive more planetshine than light from the Sun. This phenomenon occurs once every 14.7 years on average, and can last a few weeks before and after the exact equinox. Saturn's most recent equinox was on 6 May 2025.
Mars's most recent equinoxes were on 12 January 2024 (northern autumn), and on 26 December 2022 (northern spring).
== See also ==
== Footnotes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
"Day and Night World Map (night and day map on equinox)".
"Calculation of Length of Day (Formulas and Graphs)".
"Equinoctial Points". The Nuttall Encyclopædia.
"Table of times of spring Equinox for a thousand years: 1452–2547".
Gray, Meghan; Merrifield, Michael. Haran, Brady (ed.). "Solstice and Equinox". Sixty Symbols. University of Nottingham. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/126_Velleda | 126 Velleda | 126 Velleda is a main-belt asteroid. It is probably a rather typical, albeit sizable, S-type asteroid. Named for Veleda, a priestess and prophet of the Germanic tribe of the Bructeri. It was discovered by Paul Henry on 5 November 1872, in Paris, France. It was his first credited discovery. He and his brother Prosper Henry discovered a total of 14 asteroids.
This body is orbiting the Sun with a period of 3.81 years and an eccentricity (ovalness) of 0.11. The orbital plane is inclined by 2.9° to the plane of the ecliptic. It has a cross-section diameter of ~45 km. This asteroid rotates once every 5.36 hours. During each rotation the brightness varies by 0.22 magnitudes.
== References ==
== External links ==
126 Velleda at AstDyS-2, Asteroids—Dynamic Site
Ephemeris · Observation prediction · Orbital info · Proper elements · Observational info
126 Velleda at the JPL Small-Body Database |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/259_Aletheia#:~:text=Aletheia%20(minor%20planet%20designation%3A%20259%20Aletheia)%20is%20a%20very%20large%20main%2Dbelt%20asteroid%20that%20was%20discovered%20by%20German%E2%80%93American%20astronomer%20Christian%20Peters%20on%20June%2028%2C%201886%2C%20at%20Litchfield%20Observatory%2C%20Clinton%2C%20New%20York. | 259 Aletheia | 259 Aletheia is a very large main-belt asteroid that was discovered by German–American astronomer Christian Peters on June 28, 1886, at Litchfield Observatory, Clinton, New York. The dark and heterogeneously composed X-type (Tholen: CP-type) asteroid contains primitive carbonaceous materials, responsible for its low albedo of 0.04. Aletheia measures about 185 kilometers in diameter and belongs to the largest asteroids of the main-belt. It has a semi-major axis of 3.1 AU and an orbit inclined by 11 degrees with a period of 5.55 years.
Richard P. Binzel and Schelte Bus further added to the knowledge about this asteroid in a lightwave survey published in 2003. This project was known as Small Main-belt Asteroid Spectroscopic Survey, Phase II or SMASSII, which built on a previous survey of the main-belt asteroids. The visible-wavelength (0.435-0.925 micrometre) spectra data was gathered between August 1993 and March 1999.
Lightcurve data has also been recorded by observers at the Antelope Hill Observatory, which has been designated as an official observatory by the Minor Planet Center.
It is named after the Greek goddess of truth, Aletheia, the daughter of Zeus and one of the nurses of Apollo.
== References ==
== External links ==
Lightcurve plot of (259) Aletheia Archived 13 September 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Antelope Hills Observatory
The Asteroid Orbital Elements Database
Minor Planet Discovery Circumstances
Asteroid Lightcurve Data File
259 Aletheia at AstDyS-2, Asteroids—Dynamic Site
Ephemeris · Observation prediction · Orbital info · Proper elements · Observational info
259 Aletheia at the JPL Small-Body Database |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss#:~:text=Gauss%20completed%20his%20masterpieces%20Disquisitiones,binary%20and%20ternary%20quadratic%20forms. | Carl Friedrich Gauss | Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss ( ; German: Gauß; [kaʁl ˈfʁiːdʁɪç ˈɡaʊs] ; Latin: Carolus Fridericus Gauss; 30 April 1777 – 23 February 1855) was a German mathematician, astronomer, geodesist, and physicist, who contributed to many fields in mathematics and science. His mathematical contributions spanned the branches of number theory, algebra, analysis, geometry, statistics, and probability. Gauss was director of the Göttingen Observatory in Germany and professor of astronomy from 1807 until his death in 1855.
From an early age, Gauss was known as a child prodigy in mathematics. While studying at the University of Göttingen, he propounded several mathematical theorems. As an independent scholar, he wrote the masterpieces Disquisitiones Arithmeticae and Theoria motus corporum coelestium. Gauss produced the second and third complete proofs of the fundamental theorem of algebra. He also introduced the triple bar symbol (≡) for congruence. In number theory, he made numerous contributions, such as the composition law, the law of quadratic reciprocity, and proved the triangular case of the Fermat polygonal number theorem. He also contributed to the theory of binary and ternary quadratic forms, and the theory of hypergeometric series. When Gauss was only 19 years old, he proved the construction of the heptadecagon, the first progress in regular polygon construction in over 2000 years. He also introduced the concept of Gaussian curvature and proved its key properties, especially with his Theorema Egregium. Gauss was the first to prove Gauss's inequality. Further, he was instrumental in the development of the arithmetic–geometric mean. Due to Gauss's extensive and fundamental contributions to science and mathematics, more than 100 mathematical and scientific concepts are named after him.
Gauss was instrumental in the identification of Ceres as a dwarf planet. His work on the motion of planetoids disturbed by large planets led to the introduction of the Gaussian gravitational constant and the method of least squares, which he had discovered before Adrien-Marie Legendre published it. Gauss also introduced the algorithm known as recursive least squares. Gauss led the geodetic survey of the Kingdom of Hanover together with an arc measurement project from 1820 to 1844; Gauss was one of the founders of geophysics and formulated the fundamental principles of magnetism. His practical work led to the invention of the heliotrope in 1821, a magnetometer in 1833 and – with Wilhelm Eduard Weber – the first electromagnetic telegraph in 1833.
Gauss was the first to discover and study non-Euclidean geometry, which he also named. Gauss was the first to develop a fast Fourier transform, doing so some 160 years before John Tukey and James Cooley.
Gauss was awarded the Lalande Prize in 1809 for his work on planetary theory and determination of orbits, and the Copley Medal in 1838 for his mathematical research in magnetism. He is known for not publishing incomplete work and left several works to be edited posthumously. He believed that the act of learning, not possession of knowledge, provided the greatest enjoyment. While Gauss was not a committed or enthusiastic teacher, generally preferring to focus on his own work, some of his students, such as Richard Dedekind and Bernhard Riemann, became well-known and influential mathematicians in their own right.
== Biography ==
=== Youth and education ===
Gauss was born on 30 April 1777 in Brunswick, in the Duchy of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (now in the German state of Lower Saxony). His family was of relatively low social status. His father Gebhard Dietrich Gauss (1744–1808) worked variously as a butcher, bricklayer, gardener, and treasurer of a death-benefit fund. Gauss characterized his father as honourable and respected, but rough and dominating at home. He was experienced in writing and calculating, whereas his second wife Dorothea, Carl Friedrich's mother, was nearly illiterate. He had one elder brother from his father's first marriage.
Gauss was a child prodigy in mathematics. When the elementary teachers noticed his intellectual abilities, they brought him to the attention of the Duke of Brunswick who sent him to the local Collegium Carolinum, which he attended from 1792 to 1795 with Eberhard August Wilhelm von Zimmermann as one of his teachers. Thereafter the Duke granted him the resources for studies of mathematics, sciences, and classical languages at the University of Göttingen until 1798. His professor in mathematics was Abraham Gotthelf Kästner, whom Gauss called "the leading mathematician among poets, and the leading poet among mathematicians" because of his epigrams. Astronomy was taught by Karl Felix Seyffer, with whom Gauss stayed in correspondence after graduation; Olbers and Gauss mocked him in their correspondence. On the other hand, he thought highly of Georg Christoph Lichtenberg, his teacher of physics, and of Christian Gottlob Heyne, whose lectures in classics Gauss attended with pleasure. Fellow students of this time were Johann Friedrich Benzenberg, Farkas Bolyai, and Heinrich Wilhelm Brandes.
He was likely a self-taught student in mathematics since he independently rediscovered several theorems. He solved a geometrical problem that had occupied mathematicians since the Ancient Greeks when he determined in 1796 which regular polygons can be constructed by compass and straightedge. This discovery ultimately led Gauss to choose mathematics instead of philology as a career. Gauss's mathematical diary, a collection of short remarks about his results from the years 1796 until 1814, shows that many ideas for his mathematical magnum opus Disquisitiones Arithmeticae (1801) date from this time.
As an elementary student, Gauss and his class were tasked by their teacher, J.G. Büttner, to sum the numbers from 1 to 100. Much to Büttner's surprise, Gauss replied with the correct answer of 5050 in a vastly faster time than expected. Gauss had realised that the sum could be rearranged as 50 pairs of 101 (1 + 100 = 101, 2 + 99= 101, etc.). Thus, he simply multiplied 50 by 101. Other accounts state that he computed the sum as 100 sets of 101 and divided by 2.
=== Private scholar ===
Gauss graduated as a Doctor of Philosophy in 1799, not in Göttingen, as is sometimes stated, but at the Duke of Brunswick's special request from the University of Helmstedt, the only state university of the duchy. Johann Friedrich Pfaff assessed his doctoral thesis, and Gauss got the degree in absentia without further oral examination. The Duke then granted him the cost of living as a private scholar in Brunswick. Gauss subsequently refused calls from the Russian Academy of Sciences in St. Peterburg and Landshut University. Later, the Duke promised him the foundation of an observatory in Brunswick in 1804. Architect Peter Joseph Krahe made preliminary designs, but one of Napoleon's wars cancelled those plans: the Duke was killed in the battle of Jena in 1806. The duchy was abolished in the following year, and Gauss's financial support stopped.
When Gauss was calculating asteroid orbits in the first years of the century, he established contact with the astronomical communities of Bremen and Lilienthal, especially Wilhelm Olbers, Karl Ludwig Harding, and Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel, forming part of the informal group of astronomers known as the Celestial police. One of their aims was the discovery of further planets. They assembled data on asteroids and comets as a basis for Gauss's research on their orbits, which he later published in his astronomical magnum opus Theoria motus corporum coelestium (1809).
=== Professor in Göttingen ===
In November 1807, Gauss was hired by the University of Göttingen, then an institution of the newly founded Kingdom of Westphalia under Jérôme Bonaparte, as full professor and director of the astronomical observatory, and kept the chair until his death in 1855. He was soon confronted with the demand for two thousand francs from the Westphalian government as a war contribution, which he could not afford to pay. Both Olbers and Laplace wanted to help him with the payment, but Gauss refused their assistance. Finally, an anonymous person from Frankfurt, later discovered to be Prince-primate Dalberg, paid the sum.
Gauss took on the directorship of the 60-year-old observatory, founded in 1748 by Prince-elector George II and built on a converted fortification tower, with usable but partly out-of-date instruments. The construction of a new observatory had been approved by Prince-elector George III in principle since 1802, and the Westphalian government continued the planning, but Gauss could not move to his new place of work until September 1816. He got new up-to-date instruments, including two meridian circles from Repsold and Reichenbach, and a heliometer from Fraunhofer.
The scientific activity of Gauss, besides pure mathematics, can be roughly divided into three periods: astronomy was the main focus in the first two decades of the 19th century, geodesy in the third decade, and physics, mainly magnetism, in the fourth decade.
Gauss made no secret of his aversion to giving academic lectures. But from the start of his academic career at Göttingen, he continuously gave lectures until 1854. He often complained about the burdens of teaching, feeling that it was a waste of his time. On the other hand, he occasionally described some students as talented. Most of his lectures dealt with astronomy, geodesy, and applied mathematics, and only three lectures on subjects of pure mathematics. Some of Gauss's students went on to become renowned mathematicians, physicists, and astronomers: Moritz Cantor, Dedekind, Dirksen, Encke, Gould, Heine, Klinkerfues, Kupffer, Listing, Möbius, Nicolai, Riemann, Ritter, Schering, Scherk, Schumacher, von Staudt, Stern, Ursin; as geoscientists Sartorius von Waltershausen, and Wappäus.
Gauss did not write any textbook and disliked the popularization of scientific matters. His only attempts at popularization were his works on the date of Easter (1800/1802) and the essay Erdmagnetismus und Magnetometer of 1836. Gauss published his papers and books exclusively in Latin or German. He wrote Latin in a classical style but used some customary modifications set by contemporary mathematicians.
Gauss gave his inaugural lecture at Göttingen University in 1808. He described his approach to astronomy as based on reliable observations and accurate calculations, rather than on belief or empty hypothesizing. At university, he was accompanied by a staff of other lecturers in his disciplines, who completed the educational program; these included the mathematician Thibaut with his lectures, the physicist Mayer, known for his textbooks, his successor Weber since 1831, and in the observatory Harding, who took the main part of lectures in practical astronomy. When the observatory was completed, Gauss occupied the western wing of the new observatory, while Harding took the eastern. They had once been on friendly terms, but over time they became alienated, possibly – as some biographers presume – because Gauss had wished the equal-ranked Harding to be no more than his assistant or observer. Gauss used the new meridian circles nearly exclusively, and kept them away from Harding, except for some very seldom joint observations.
Brendel subdivides Gauss's astronomic activity chronologically into seven periods, of which the years since 1820 are taken as a "period of lower astronomical activity". The new, well-equipped observatory did not work as effectively as other ones; Gauss's astronomical research had the character of a one-man enterprise without a long-time observation program, and the university established a place for an assistant only after Harding died in 1834.
Nevertheless, Gauss twice refused the opportunity to solve the problem, turning down offers from Berlin in 1810 and 1825 to become a full member of the Prussian Academy without burdening lecturing duties, as well as from Leipzig University in 1810 and from Vienna University in 1842, perhaps because of the family's difficult situation. Gauss's salary was raised from 1000 Reichsthaler in 1810 to 2500 Reichsthaler in 1824, and in his later years he was one of the best-paid professors of the university.
When Gauss was asked for help by his colleague and friend Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel in 1810, who was in trouble at Königsberg University because of his lack of an academic title, Gauss provided a doctorate honoris causa for Bessel from the Philosophy Faculty of Göttingen in March 1811. Gauss gave another recommendation for an honorary degree for Sophie Germain but only shortly before her death, so she never received it. He also gave successful support to the mathematician Gotthold Eisenstein in Berlin.
Gauss was loyal to the House of Hanover. After King William IV died in 1837, the new Hanoverian King Ernest Augustus annulled the 1833 constitution. Seven professors, later known as the "Göttingen Seven", protested against this, among them his friend and collaborator Wilhelm Weber and Gauss's son-in-law Heinrich Ewald. All of them were dismissed, and three of them were expelled, but Ewald and Weber could stay in Göttingen. Gauss was deeply affected by this quarrel but saw no possibility to help them.
Gauss took part in academic administration: three times he was elected as dean of the Faculty of Philosophy. Being entrusted with the widow's pension fund of the university, he dealt with actuarial science and wrote a report on the strategy for stabilizing the benefits. He was appointed director of the Royal Academy of Sciences in Göttingen for nine years.
Gauss remained mentally active into his old age, even while suffering from gout and general unhappiness. On 23 February 1855, he died of a heart attack in Göttingen; and was interred in the Albani Cemetery there. Heinrich Ewald, Gauss's son-in-law, and Wolfgang Sartorius von Waltershausen, Gauss's close friend and biographer, gave eulogies at his funeral.
Gauss was a successful investor and accumulated considerable wealth with stocks and securities, amounting to a value of more than 150,000 Thaler; after his death, about 18,000 Thaler were found hidden in his rooms.
=== Gauss's brain ===
The day after Gauss's death his brain was removed, preserved, and studied by Rudolf Wagner, who found its mass to be slightly above average, at 1,492 grams (3.29 lb). Wagner's son Hermann, a geographer, estimated the cerebral area to be 219,588 square millimetres (340.362 sq in) in his doctoral thesis. In 2013, a neurobiologist at the Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry in Göttingen discovered that Gauss's brain had been mixed up soon after the first investigations, due to mislabelling, with that of the physician Conrad Heinrich Fuchs, who died in Göttingen a few months after Gauss. A further investigation showed no remarkable anomalies in the brains of either person. Thus, all investigations of Gauss's brain until 1998, except the first ones of Rudolf and Hermann Wagner, actually refer to the brain of Fuchs.
=== Family ===
Gauss married Johanna Osthoff on 9 October 1805 in St. Catherine's church in Brunswick. They had two sons and one daughter: Joseph (1806–1873), Wilhelmina (1808–1840), and Louis (1809–1810). Johanna died on 11 October 1809, one month after the birth of Louis, who himself died a few months later. Gauss chose the first names of his children in honour of Giuseppe Piazzi, Wilhelm Olbers, and Karl Ludwig Harding, the discoverers of the first asteroids.
On 4 August 1810, Gauss married Wilhelmine (Minna) Waldeck, a friend of his first wife, with whom he had three more children: Eugen (later Eugene) (1811–1896), Wilhelm (later William) (1813–1879), and Therese (1816–1864). Minna Gauss died on 12 September 1831 after being seriously ill for more than a decade. Therese then took over the household and cared for Gauss for the rest of his life; after her father's death, she married actor Constantin Staufenau. Her sister Wilhelmina married the orientalist Heinrich Ewald. Gauss's mother Dorothea lived in his house from 1817 until she died in 1839.
The eldest son Joseph, while still a schoolboy, helped his father as an assistant during the survey campaign in the summer of 1821. After a short time at university, in 1824 Joseph joined the Hanoverian army and assisted in surveying again in 1829. In the 1830s he was responsible for the enlargement of the survey network into the western parts of the kingdom. With his geodetical qualifications, he left the service and engaged in the construction of the railway network as director of the Royal Hanoverian State Railways. In 1836 he studied the railroad system in the US for some months.
Eugen left Göttingen in September 1830 and emigrated to the United States, where he spent five years with the army. He then worked for the American Fur Company in the Midwest. He later moved to Missouri and became a successful businessman. Wilhelm married a niece of the astronomer Bessel; he then moved to Missouri, started as a farmer and became wealthy in the shoe business in St. Louis in later years. Eugene and William have numerous descendants in America, but the Gauss descendants left in Germany all derive from Joseph, as the daughters had no children.
=== Personality ===
==== Scholar ====
In the first two decades of the 19th century, Gauss was the only important mathematician in Germany comparable to the leading French mathematicians. His Disquisitiones Arithmeticae was the first mathematical book from Germany to be translated into the French language.
Gauss was "in front of the new development" with documented research since 1799, his wealth of new ideas, and his rigour of demonstration. In contrast to previous mathematicians like Leonhard Euler, who let their readers take part in their reasoning, including certain erroneous deviations from the correct path, Gauss introduced a new style of direct and complete exposition that did not attempt to show the reader the author's train of thought.
Gauss was the first to restore that rigor of demonstration which we admire in the ancients and which had been forced unduly into the background by the exclusive interest of the preceding period in new developments.
But for himself, he propagated a quite different ideal, given in a letter to Farkas Bolyai as follows:
It is not knowledge, but the act of learning, not possession but the act of getting there, which grants the greatest enjoyment. When I have clarified and exhausted a subject, then I turn away from it, in order to go into darkness again.
His posthumous papers, his scientific diary, and short glosses in his own textbooks show that he empirically worked to a great extent. He was a lifelong busy and enthusiastic calculator, working extraordinarily quickly and checking his results through estimation. Nevertheless, his calculations were not always free from mistakes. He coped with the enormous workload by using skillful tools. Gauss used numerous mathematical tables, examined their exactness, and constructed new tables on various matters for personal use. He developed new tools for effective calculation, for example the Gaussian elimination. Gauss's calculations and the tables he prepared were often more precise than practically necessary. Very likely, this method gave him additional material for his theoretical work.
Gauss was only willing to publish work when he considered it complete and above criticism. This perfectionism was in keeping with the motto of his personal seal Pauca sed Matura ("Few, but Ripe"). Many colleagues encouraged him to publicize new ideas and sometimes rebuked him if he hesitated too long, in their opinion. Gauss defended himself by claiming that the initial discovery of ideas was easy, but preparing a presentable elaboration was a demanding matter for him, for either lack of time or "serenity of mind". Nevertheless, he published many short communications of urgent content in various journals, but left a considerable literary estate, too. Gauss referred to mathematics as "the queen of sciences" and arithmetics as "the queen of mathematics", and supposedly once espoused a belief in the necessity of immediately understanding Euler's identity as a benchmark pursuant to becoming a first-class mathematician.
On certain occasions, Gauss claimed that the ideas of another scholar had already been in his possession previously. Thus his concept of priority as "the first to discover, not the first to publish" differed from that of his scientific contemporaries. In contrast to his perfectionism in presenting mathematical ideas, his citations were criticized as negligent. He justified himself with an unusual view of correct citation practice: he would only give complete references, with respect to the previous authors of importance, which no one should ignore, but citing in this way would require knowledge of the history of science and more time than he wished to spend.
==== Private man ====
Soon after Gauss's death, his friend Sartorius published the first biography (1856), written in a rather enthusiastic style. Sartorius saw him as a serene and forward-striving man with childlike modesty, but also of "iron character" with an unshakeable strength of mind. Apart from his closer circle, others regarded him as reserved and unapproachable "like an Olympian sitting enthroned on the summit of science". His close contemporaries agreed that Gauss was a man of difficult character. He often refused to accept compliments. His visitors were occasionally irritated by his grumpy behaviour, but a short time later his mood could change, and he would become a charming, open-minded host. Gauss disliked polemic natures; together with his colleague Hausmann he opposed to a call for Justus Liebig on a university chair in Göttingen, "because he was always involved in some polemic."
Gauss's life was overshadowed by severe problems in his family. When his first wife Johanna suddenly died shortly after the birth of their third child, he revealed the grief in a last letter to his dead wife in the style of an ancient threnody, the most personal of his surviving documents. His second wife and his two daughters suffered from tuberculosis. In a letter to Bessel, dated December 1831, Gauss hinted at his distress, describing himself as "the victim of the worst domestic sufferings".
Because of his wife's illness, both younger sons were educated for some years in Celle, far from Göttingen. The military career of his elder son Joseph ended after more than two decades at the poorly paid rank of first lieutenant, although he had acquired a considerable knowledge of geodesy. He needed financial support from his father even after he was married. The second son Eugen shared a good measure of his father's talent in computation and languages but had a lively and sometimes rebellious character. He wanted to study philology, whereas Gauss wanted him to become a lawyer. Having run up debts and caused a scandal in public, Eugen suddenly left Göttingen under dramatic circumstances in September 1830 and emigrated via Bremen to the United States. He wasted the little money he had taken to start, after which his father refused further financial support. The youngest son Wilhelm wanted to qualify for agricultural administration, but had difficulties getting an appropriate education, and eventually emigrated as well. Only Gauss's youngest daughter Therese accompanied him in his last years of life.
In his later years Gauss habitually collected various types of useful or useless numerical data, such as the number of paths from his home to certain places in Göttingen or peoples' ages in days; he congratulated Humboldt in December 1851 for having reached the same age as Isaac Newton at his death, calculated in days.
Beyond his excellent knowledge of Latin, he was also acquainted with modern languages. Gauss read both classical and modern literature, and English and French works in the original languages. His favorite English author was Walter Scott, his favorite German Jean Paul. At the age of 62, he began to teach himself Russian, very likely to understand scientific writings from Russia, among them those of Lobachevsky on non-Euclidean geometry. Gauss liked singing and went to concerts. He was a busy newspaper reader; in his last years, he would visit an academic press salon of the university every noon. Gauss did not care much for philosophy, and mocked the "splitting hairs of the so-called metaphysicians", by which he meant proponents of the contemporary school of Naturphilosophie.
Gauss had an "aristocratic and through and through conservative nature", with little respect for people's intelligence and morals, following the motto "mundus vult decipi". He disliked Napoleon and his system and was horrified by violence and revolution of all kinds. Thus he condemned the methods of the Revolutions of 1848, though he agreed with some of their aims, such as that of a unified Germany. He had a low estimation of the constitutional system and he criticized parliamentarians of his time for their perceived ignorance and logical errors.
Some Gauss biographers have speculated on his religious beliefs. He sometimes said "God arithmetizes" and "I succeeded – not on account of my hard efforts, but by the grace of the Lord." Gauss was a member of the Lutheran church, like most of the population in northern Germany, but it seems that he did not believe all Lutheran dogma or understand the Bible fully literally. According to Sartorius, Gauss's religious tolerance, "insatiable thirst for truth" and sense of justice were motivated by his religious convictions.
== Mathematics ==
=== Algebra and number theory ===
==== Fundamental theorem of algebra ====
In his doctoral thesis from 1799, Gauss proved the fundamental theorem of algebra which states that every non-constant single-variable polynomial with complex coefficients has at least one complex root. Mathematicians including Jean le Rond d'Alembert had produced false proofs before him, and Gauss's dissertation contains a critique of d'Alembert's work. He subsequently produced three other proofs, the last one in 1849 being generally rigorous. His attempts led to considerable clarification of the concept of complex numbers.
==== Disquisitiones Arithmeticae ====
In the preface to the Disquisitiones, Gauss dates the beginning of his work on number theory to 1795. By studying the works of previous mathematicians like Fermat, Euler, Lagrange, and Legendre, he realized that these scholars had already found much of what he had independently discovered. The Disquisitiones Arithmeticae, written in 1798 and published in 1801, consolidated number theory as a discipline and covered both elementary and algebraic number theory. Therein he introduces the triple bar symbol (≡) for congruence and uses it for a clean presentation of modular arithmetic. It deals with the unique factorization theorem and primitive roots modulo n. In the main sections, Gauss presents the first two proofs of the law of quadratic reciprocity and develops the theories of binary and ternary quadratic forms.
The Disquisitiones include the Gauss composition law for binary quadratic forms, as well as the enumeration of the number of representations of an integer as the sum of three squares. As an almost immediate corollary of his theorem on three squares, he proves the triangular case of the Fermat polygonal number theorem for n = 3. From several analytic results on class numbers that Gauss gives without proof towards the end of the fifth section, it appears that Gauss already knew the class number formula in 1801.
In the last section, Gauss gives proof for the constructibility of a regular heptadecagon (17-sided polygon) with straightedge and compass by reducing this geometrical problem to an algebraic one. This was the first progress in regular polygon construction in over 2000 years. He shows that a regular polygon is constructible if the number of its sides is either a power of 2 or the product of a power of 2 and any number of distinct Fermat primes. In the same section, he gives a result on the number of solutions of certain cubic polynomials with coefficients in finite fields, which amounts to counting integral points on an elliptic curve. An unfinished chapter, consisting of work done during 1797–1799, was found among his papers after his death.
==== Further investigations ====
One of Gauss's first results was the empirically found conjecture of 1792 – the later called prime number theorem – giving an estimation of the number of prime numbers by using the integral logarithm.
In 1816, Olbers encouraged Gauss to compete for a prize from the French Academy for a proof for Fermat's Last Theorem; he refused, considering the topic uninteresting. However, after his death a short undated paper was found with proofs of the theorem for the cases n = 3 and n = 5. The particular case of n = 3 was proved much earlier by Leonhard Euler, but Gauss developed a more streamlined proof which made use of Eisenstein integers; though more general, the proof was simpler than in the real integers case.
Gauss contributed to solving the Kepler conjecture in 1831 with the proof that a greatest packing density of spheres in the three-dimensional space is given when the centres of the spheres form a cubic face-centred arrangement, when he reviewed a book of Ludwig August Seeber on the theory of reduction of positive ternary quadratic forms. Having noticed some lacks in Seeber's proof, he simplified many of his arguments, proved the central conjecture, and remarked that this theorem is equivalent to the Kepler conjecture for regular arrangements.
In two papers on biquadratic residues (1828, 1832) Gauss introduced the ring of Gaussian integers
Z
[
i
]
{\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} [i]}
, showed that it is a unique factorization domain, and generalized some key arithmetic concepts, such as Fermat's little theorem and Gauss's lemma. The main objective of introducing this ring was to formulate the law of biquadratic reciprocity – as Gauss discovered, rings of complex integers are the natural setting for such higher reciprocity laws.
In the second paper, he stated the general law of biquadratic reciprocity and proved several special cases of it. In an earlier publication from 1818 containing his fifth and sixth proofs of quadratic reciprocity, he claimed the techniques of these proofs (Gauss sums) can be applied to prove higher reciprocity laws.
=== Analysis ===
One of Gauss's first discoveries was the notion of the arithmetic-geometric mean (AGM) of two positive real numbers. He discovered its relation to elliptic integrals in the years 1798–1799 through Landen's transformation, and a diary entry recorded the discovery of the connection of Gauss's constant to lemniscatic elliptic functions, a result that Gauss stated "will surely open an entirely new field of analysis". He also made early inroads into the more formal issues of the foundations of complex analysis, and from a letter to Bessel in 1811 it is clear that he knew the "fundamental theorem of complex analysis" – Cauchy's integral theorem – and understood the notion of complex residues when integrating around poles.
Euler's pentagonal numbers theorem, together with other researches on the AGM and lemniscatic functions, led him to plenty of results on Jacobi theta functions, culminating in the discovery in 1808 of the later called Jacobi triple product identity, which includes Euler's theorem as a special case. His works show that he knew modular transformations of order 3, 5, 7 for elliptic functions since 1808.
Several mathematical fragments in his Nachlass indicate that he knew parts of the modern theory of modular forms. In his work on the multivalued AGM of two complex numbers, he discovered a deep connection between the infinitely many values of the AGM and its two "simplest values". In his unpublished writings he recognized and made a sketch of the key concept of fundamental domain for the modular group. One of Gauss's sketches of this kind was a drawing of a tessellation of the unit disk by "equilateral" hyperbolic triangles with all angles equal to
π
/
4
{\displaystyle \pi /4}
.
An example of Gauss's insight in analysis is the cryptic remark that the principles of circle division by compass and straightedge can also be applied to the division of the lemniscate curve, which inspired Abel's theorem on lemniscate division. Another example is his publication "Summatio quarundam serierum singularium" (1811) on the determination of the sign of quadratic Gauss sums, in which he solved the main problem by introducing q-analogs of binomial coefficients and manipulating them by several original identities that seem to stem from his work on elliptic function theory; however, Gauss cast his argument in a formal way that does not reveal its origin in elliptic function theory, and only the later work of mathematicians such as Jacobi and Hermite has exposed the crux of his argument.
In the "Disquisitiones generales circa series infinitam..." (1813), he provides the first systematic treatment of the general hypergeometric function
F
(
α
,
β
,
γ
,
x
)
{\displaystyle F(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma ,x)}
, and shows that many of the functions known at the time are special cases of the hypergeometric function. This work is the first exact inquiry into convergence of infinite series in the history of mathematics. Furthermore, it deals with infinite continued fractions arising as ratios of hypergeometric functions, which are now called Gauss continued fractions.
In 1823, Gauss won the prize of the Danish Society with an essay on conformal mappings, which contains several developments that pertain to the field of complex analysis. Gauss stated that angle-preserving mappings in the complex plane must be complex analytic functions, and used the later-named Beltrami equation to prove the existence of isothermal coordinates on analytic surfaces. The essay concludes with examples of conformal mappings into a sphere and an ellipsoid of revolution.
==== Numerical analysis ====
Gauss often deduced theorems inductively from numerical data he had collected empirically. As such, the use of efficient algorithms to facilitate calculations was vital to his research, and he made many contributions to numerical analysis, such as the method of Gaussian quadrature, published in 1816.
In a private letter to Gerling from 1823, he described a solution of a 4x4 system of linear equations with the Gauss-Seidel method – an "indirect" iterative method for the solution of linear systems, and recommended it over the usual method of "direct elimination" for systems of more than two equations.
Gauss invented an algorithm for calculating what is now called discrete Fourier transforms when calculating the orbits of Pallas and Juno in 1805, 160 years before Cooley and Tukey found their similar Cooley–Tukey algorithm. He developed it as a trigonometric interpolation method, but the paper Theoria Interpolationis Methodo Nova Tractata was published only posthumously in 1876, well after Joseph Fourier's introduction of the subject in 1807.
=== Geometry ===
==== Differential geometry ====
The geodetic survey of Hanover fuelled Gauss's interest in differential geometry and topology, fields of mathematics dealing with curves and surfaces. This led him in 1828 to the publication of a work that marks the birth of modern differential geometry of surfaces, as it departed from the traditional ways of treating surfaces as cartesian graphs of functions of two variables, and that initiated the exploration of surfaces from the "inner" point of view of a two-dimensional being constrained to move on it. As a result, the Theorema Egregium (remarkable theorem), established a property of the notion of Gaussian curvature. Informally, the theorem says that the curvature of a surface can be determined entirely by measuring angles and distances on the surface, regardless of the embedding of the surface in three-dimensional or two-dimensional space.
The Theorema Egregium leads to the abstraction of surfaces as doubly-extended manifolds; it clarifies the distinction between the intrinsic properties of the manifold (the metric) and its physical realization in ambient space. A consequence is the impossibility of an isometric transformation between surfaces of different Gaussian curvature. This means practically that a sphere or an ellipsoid cannot be transformed to a plane without distortion, which causes a fundamental problem in designing projections for geographical maps. A portion of this essay is dedicated to a profound study of geodesics. In particular, Gauss proves the local Gauss–Bonnet theorem on geodesic triangles, and generalizes Legendre's theorem on spherical triangles to geodesic triangles on arbitrary surfaces with continuous curvature; he found that the angles of a "sufficiently small" geodesic triangle deviate from that of a planar triangle of the same sides in a way that depends only on the values of the surface curvature at the vertices of the triangle, regardless of the behaviour of the surface in the triangle interior.
Gauss's memoir from 1828 lacks the conception of geodesic curvature. However, in a previously unpublished manuscript, very likely written in 1822–1825, he introduced the term "side curvature" (German: "Seitenkrümmung") and proved its invariance under isometric transformations, a result that was later obtained by Ferdinand Minding and published by him in 1830. This Gauss paper contains the core of his lemma on total curvature, but also its generalization, found and proved by Pierre Ossian Bonnet in 1848 and known as the Gauss–Bonnet theorem.
==== Non-Euclidean geometry ====
During Gauss's lifetime, the parallel postulate of Euclidean geometry was heavily discussed. Numerous efforts were made to prove it in the frame of the Euclidean axioms, whereas some mathematicians discussed the possibility of geometrical systems without it. Gauss thought about the basics of geometry from the 1790s on, but only realized in the 1810s that a non-Euclidean geometry without the parallel postulate could solve the problem. In a letter to Franz Taurinus of 1824, he presented a short comprehensible outline of what he named a "non-Euclidean geometry", but he strongly forbade Taurinus to make any use of it. Gauss is credited with having been the one to first discover and study non-Euclidean geometry, even coining the term as well.
The first publications on non-Euclidean geometry in the history of mathematics were authored by Nikolai Lobachevsky in 1829 and Janos Bolyai in 1832. In the following years, Gauss wrote his ideas on the topic but did not publish them, thus avoiding influencing the contemporary scientific discussion. Gauss commended the ideas of Janos Bolyai in a letter to his father and university friend Farkas Bolyai claiming that these were congruent to his own thoughts of some decades. However, it is not quite clear to what extent he preceded Lobachevsky and Bolyai, as his written remarks are vague and obscure.
Sartorius first mentioned Gauss's work on non-Euclidean geometry in 1856, but only the publication of Gauss's Nachlass in Volume VIII of the Collected Works (1900) showed Gauss's ideas on the matter, at a time when non-Euclidean geometry was still an object of some controversy.
==== Early topology ====
Gauss was also an early pioneer of topology or Geometria Situs, as it was called in his lifetime. The first proof of the fundamental theorem of algebra in 1799 contained an essentially topological argument; fifty years later, he further developed the topological argument in his fourth proof of this theorem.
Another encounter with topological notions occurred to him in the course of his astronomical work in 1804, when he determined the limits of the region on the celestial sphere in which comets and asteroids might appear, and which he termed "Zodiacus". He discovered that if the Earth's and comet's orbits are linked, then by topological reasons the Zodiacus is the entire sphere. In 1848, in the context of the discovery of the asteroid 7 Iris, he published a further qualitative discussion of the Zodiacus.
In Gauss's letters of 1820–1830, he thought intensively on topics with close affinity to Geometria Situs, and became gradually conscious of semantic difficulty in this field. Fragments from this period reveal that he tried to classify "tract figures", which are closed plane curves with a finite number of transverse self-intersections, that may also be planar projections of knots. To do so he devised a symbolical scheme, the Gauss code, that in a sense captured the characteristic features of tract figures.
In a fragment from 1833, Gauss defined the linking number of two space curves by a certain double integral, and in doing so provided for the first time an analytical formulation of a topological phenomenon. On the same note, he lamented the little progress made in Geometria Situs, and remarked that one of its central problems will be "to count the intertwinings of two closed or infinite curves". His notebooks from that period reveal that he was also thinking about other topological objects such as braids and tangles.
Gauss's influence in later years to the emerging field of topology, which he held in high esteem, was through occasional remarks and oral communications to Mobius and Listing.
=== Minor mathematical accomplishments ===
Gauss applied the concept of complex numbers to solve well-known problems in a new concise way. For example, in a short note from 1836 on geometric aspects of the ternary forms and their application to crystallography, he stated the fundamental theorem of axonometry, which tells how to represent a 3D cube on a 2D plane with complete accuracy, via complex numbers. He described rotations of this sphere as the action of certain linear fractional transformations on the extended complex plane, and gave a proof for the geometric theorem that the altitudes of a triangle always meet in a single orthocenter.
Gauss was concerned with John Napier's "Pentagramma mirificum" – a certain spherical pentagram – for several decades; he approached it from various points of view, and gradually gained a full understanding of its geometric, algebraic, and analytic aspects. In particular, in 1843 he stated and proved several theorems connecting elliptic functions, Napier spherical pentagons, and Poncelet pentagons in the plane.
Furthermore, he contributed a solution to the problem of constructing the largest-area ellipse inside a given quadrilateral, and discovered a surprising result about the computation of area of pentagons.
== Sciences ==
=== Astronomy ===
On 1 January 1801, Italian astronomer Giuseppe Piazzi discovered a new celestial object, presumed it to be the long searched planet between Mars and Jupiter according to the so-called Titius–Bode law, and named it Ceres. He could track it only for a short time until it disappeared behind the glare of the Sun. The mathematical tools of the time were not sufficient to predict the location of its reappearance from the few data available. Gauss tackled the problem and predicted a position for possible rediscovery in December 1801. This turned out to be accurate within a half-degree when Franz Xaver von Zach on 7 and 31 December at Gotha, and independently Heinrich Olbers on 1 and 2 January in Bremen, identified the object near the predicted position.
Gauss's method leads to an equation of the eighth degree, of which one solution, the Earth's orbit, is known. The solution sought is then separated from the remaining six based on physical conditions. In this work, Gauss used comprehensive approximation methods which he created for that purpose.
The discovery of Ceres led Gauss to the theory of the motion of planetoids disturbed by large planets, eventually published in 1809 as Theoria motus corporum coelestium in sectionibus conicis solem ambientum. It introduced the Gaussian gravitational constant.
Since the new asteroids had been discovered, Gauss occupied himself with the perturbations of their orbital elements. Firstly he examined Ceres with analytical methods similar to those of Laplace, but his favorite object was Pallas, because of its great eccentricity and orbital inclination, whereby Laplace's method did not work. Gauss used his own tools: the arithmetic–geometric mean, the hypergeometric function, and his method of interpolation. He found an orbital resonance with Jupiter in proportion 18:7 in 1812; Gauss gave this result as cipher, and gave the explicit meaning only in letters to Olbers and Bessel. After long years of work, he finished it in 1816 without a result that seemed sufficient to him. This marked the end of his activities in theoretical astronomy.
One fruit of Gauss's research on Pallas perturbations was the Determinatio Attractionis... (1818) on a method of theoretical astronomy that later became known as the "elliptic ring method". It introduced an averaging conception in which a planet in orbit is replaced by a fictitious ring with mass density proportional to the time the planet takes to follow the corresponding orbital arcs. Gauss presents the method of evaluating the gravitational attraction of such an elliptic ring, which includes several steps; one of them involves a direct application of the arithmetic-geometric mean (AGM) algorithm to calculate an elliptic integral.
Even after Gauss's contributions to theoretical astronomy came to an end, more practical activities in observational astronomy continued and occupied him during his entire career. As early as 1799, Gauss dealt with the determination of longitude by use of the lunar parallax, for which he developed more convenient formulas than those were in common use. After appointment as director of observatory he attached importance to the fundamental astronomical constants in correspondence with Bessel. Gauss himself provided tables of nutation and aberration, solar coordinates, and refraction. He made many contributions to spherical geometry, and in this context solved some practical problems about navigation by stars. He published a great number of observations, mainly on minor planets and comets; his last observation was the solar eclipse of 28 July 1851.
=== Chronology ===
Gauss's first publication following his doctoral thesis dealt with the determination of the date of Easter (1800), an elementary mathematical topic. Gauss aimed to present a convenient algorithm for people without any knowledge of ecclesiastical or even astronomical chronology, and thus avoided the usual terms of golden number, epact, solar cycle, domenical letter, and any religious connotations. This choice of topic likely had historical grounds. The replacement of the Julian calendar by the Gregorian calendar had caused confusion in the Holy Roman Empire since the 16th century and was not finished in Germany until 1700, when the difference of eleven days was deleted. Even after this, Easter fell on different dates in Protestant and Catholic territories, until this difference was abolished by agreement in 1776. In the Protestant states, such as the Duchy of Brunswick, the Easter of 1777, five weeks before Gauss's birth, was the first one calculated in the new manner.
=== Error theory ===
Gauss likely used the method of least squares to minimize the impact of measurement error when calculating the orbit of Ceres. The method was published first by Adrien-Marie Legendre in 1805, but Gauss claimed in Theoria motus (1809) that he had been using it since 1794 or 1795. In the history of statistics, this disagreement is called the "priority dispute over the discovery of the method of least squares". Gauss proved that the method has the lowest sampling variance within the class of linear unbiased estimators under the assumption of normally distributed errors (Gauss–Markov theorem), in the two-part paper Theoria combinationis observationum erroribus minimis obnoxiae (1823).
In the first paper he proved Gauss's inequality (a Chebyshev-type inequality) for unimodal distributions, and stated without proof another inequality for moments of the fourth order (a special case of the Gauss-Winckler inequality). He derived lower and upper bounds for the variance of the sample variance. In the second paper, Gauss described recursive least squares methods, which he discovered. Gauss's work on the theory of errors was extended in several directions by the geodesist Friedrich Robert Helmert to the Gauss-Helmert model.
Gauss also contributed to problems in probability theory that are not directly concerned with the theory of errors. One example appears as a diary note where he tried to describe the asymptotic distribution of entries in the continued fraction expansion of a random number uniformly distributed in (0,1). He derived this distribution, now known as the Gauss-Kuzmin distribution, as a by-product of the discovery of the ergodicity of the Gauss map for continued fractions. Gauss's solution is the first-ever result in the metrical theory of continued fractions.
=== Geodesy ===
Gauss was busy with geodetic problems since 1799 when he helped Karl Ludwig von Lecoq with calculations during his survey in Westphalia. Beginning in 1804, he taught himself some practical geodesy in Brunswick and Göttingen.
Since 1816, Gauss's former student Heinrich Christian Schumacher, then professor in Copenhagen, but living in Altona (Holstein) near Hamburg as head of an observatory, carried out a triangulation of the Jutland peninsula from Skagen in the north to Lauenburg in the south. This project was the basis for map production but also aimed at determining the geodetic arc between the terminal sites. Data from geodetic arcs were used to determine the dimensions of the earth geoid, and long arc distances brought more precise results. Schumacher asked Gauss to continue this work further to the south in the Kingdom of Hanover; Gauss agreed after a short time of hesitation. Finally, in May 1820, King George IV gave the order to Gauss.
An arc measurement needs a precise astronomical determination of at least two points in the network. Gauss and Schumacher used the coincidence that both observatories in Göttingen and Altona, in the garden of Schumacher's house, lay nearly in the same longitude. The latitude was measured with both their instruments and a zenith sector of Ramsden that was transported to both observatories.
Gauss and Schumacher had already determined some angles between Lüneburg, Hamburg, and Lauenburg for the geodetic connection in October 1818. During the summers of 1821 until 1825 Gauss directed the triangulation work personally, from Thuringia in the south to the river Elbe in the north. The triangle between Hoher Hagen, Großer Inselsberg in the Thuringian Forest, and Brocken in the Harz mountains was the largest one Gauss had ever measured with a maximum size of 107 km (66.5 miles). In the thinly populated Lüneburg Heath without significant natural summits or artificial buildings, he had difficulties finding suitable triangulation points; sometimes cutting lanes through the vegetation was necessary.
For pointing signals, Gauss invented a new instrument with movable mirrors and a small telescope that reflects the sunbeams to the triangulation points, and named it heliotrope. Another suitable construction for the same purpose was a sextant with an additional mirror which he named vice heliotrope. Gauss was assisted by soldiers of the Hanoverian army, among them his eldest son Joseph. Gauss took part in the baseline measurement (Braak Base Line) of Schumacher in the village of Braak near Hamburg in 1820, and used the result for the evaluation of the Hanoverian triangulation.
An additional result was a better value for the flattening of the approximative Earth ellipsoid. Gauss developed the universal transverse Mercator projection of the ellipsoidal shaped Earth (what he named conform projection) for representing geodetical data in plane charts.
When the arc measurement was finished, Gauss began the enlargement of the triangulation to the west to get a survey of the whole Kingdom of Hanover with a Royal decree from 25 March 1828. The practical work was directed by three army officers, among them Lieutenant Joseph Gauss. The complete data evaluation laid in the hands of Gauss, who applied his mathematical inventions such as the method of least squares and the elimination method to it. The project was finished in 1844, and Gauss sent a final report of the project to the government; his method of projection was not edited until 1866.
In 1828, when studying differences in latitude, Gauss first defined a physical approximation for the figure of the Earth as the surface everywhere perpendicular to the direction of gravity; later his doctoral student Johann Benedict Listing called this the geoid.
=== Magnetism and telegraphy ===
==== Geomagnetism ====
Gauss had been interested in magnetism since 1803. After Alexander von Humboldt visited Göttingen in 1826, both scientists began intensive research on geomagnetism, partly independently, partly in productive cooperation. In 1828, Gauss was Humboldt's guest during the conference of the Society of German Natural Scientists and Physicians in Berlin, where he got acquainted with the physicist Wilhelm Weber.
When Weber got the chair for physics in Göttingen as successor of Johann Tobias Mayer by Gauss's recommendation in 1831, both of them started a fruitful collaboration, leading to a new knowledge of magnetism with a representation for the unit of magnetism in terms of mass, charge, and time. They founded the Magnetic Association (German: Magnetischer Verein), an international working group of several observatories, which carried out measurements of Earth's magnetic field in many regions of the world using equivalent methods at arranged dates in the years 1836 to 1841.
In 1836, Humboldt suggested the establishment of a worldwide net of geomagnetic stations in the British dominions with a letter to the Duke of Sussex, then president of the Royal Society; he proposed that magnetic measures should be taken under standardized conditions using his methods. Together with other instigators, this led to a global program known as "Magnetical crusade" under the direction of Edward Sabine. The dates, times, and intervals of observations were determined in advance, the Göttingen mean time was used as the standard. 61 stations on all five continents participated in this global program. Gauss and Weber founded a series for publication of the results, six volumes were edited between 1837 and 1843. Weber's departure to Leipzig in 1843 as late effect of the Göttingen Seven affair marked the end of Magnetic Association activity.
Following Humboldt's example, Gauss ordered a magnetic observatory to be built in the garden of the observatory, but the scientists differed over instrumental equipment; Gauss preferred stationary instruments, which he thought to give more precise results, whereas Humboldt was accustomed to movable instruments. Gauss was interested in the temporal and spatial variation of magnetic declination, inclination, and intensity and differentiated, unlike Humboldt, between "horizontal" and "vertical" intensity. Together with Weber, he developed methods of measuring the components of the intensity of the magnetic field and constructed a suitable magnetometer to measure absolute values of the strength of the Earth's magnetic field, not more relative ones that depended on the apparatus. The precision of the magnetometer was about ten times higher than that of previous instruments. With this work, Gauss was the first to derive a non-mechanical quantity by basic mechanical quantities.
Gauss carried out a General Theory of Terrestrial Magnetism (1839), in what he believed to describe the nature of magnetic force; according to Felix Klein, this work is a presentation of observations by use of spherical harmonics rather than a physical theory. The theory predicted the existence of exactly two magnetic poles on the Earth, thus Hansteen's idea of four magnetic poles became obsolete, and the data allowed to determine their location with rather good precision.
Gauss influenced the beginning of geophysics in Russia, when Adolph Theodor Kupffer, one of his former students, founded a magnetic observatory in St. Petersburg, following the example of the observatory in Göttingen, and similarly, Ivan Simonov in Kazan.
==== Electromagnetism ====
The discoveries of Hans Christian Ørsted on electromagnetism and Michael Faraday on electromagnetic induction drew Gauss's attention to these matters. Gauss and Weber found rules for branched electric circuits, which were later found independently and first published by Gustav Kirchhoff and named after him as Kirchhoff's circuit laws, and made inquiries into electromagnetism. They constructed the first electromechanical telegraph in 1833, and Weber himself connected the observatory with the institute for physics in the town centre of Göttingen, but they made no further commercial use of this invention.
Gauss's main theoretical interests in electromagnetism were reflected in his attempts to formulate quantitive laws governing electromagnetic induction. In notebooks from these years, he recorded several innovative formulations; he discovered the vector potential function, independently rediscovered by Franz Ernst Neumann in 1845, and in January 1835 he wrote down an "induction law" equivalent to Faraday's law, which stated that the electromotive force at a given point in space is equal to the instantaneous rate of change (with respect to time) of this function.
Gauss tried to find a unifying law for long-distance effects of electrostatics, electrodynamics, electromagnetism, and induction, comparable to Newton's law of gravitation, but his attempt ended in a "tragic failure".
=== Potential theory ===
Since Isaac Newton had shown theoretically that the Earth and rotating stars assume non-spherical shapes, the problem of attraction of ellipsoids gained importance in mathematical astronomy. In his first publication on potential theory, the "Theoria attractionis..." (1813), Gauss provided a closed-form expression to the gravitational attraction of a homogeneous triaxial ellipsoid at every point in space. In contrast to previous research of Maclaurin, Laplace and Lagrange, Gauss's new solution treated the attraction more directly in the form of an elliptic integral. In the process, he also proved and applied some special cases of the so-called Gauss's theorem in vector analysis.
In the General theorems concerning the attractive and repulsive forces acting in reciprocal proportions of quadratic distances (1840) Gauss gave a basic theory of magnetic potential, based on Lagrange, Laplace, and Poisson; it seems rather unlikely that he knew the previous works of George Green on this subject. However, Gauss could never give any reasons for magnetism, nor a theory of magnetism similar to Newton's work on gravitation, that enabled scientists to predict geomagnetic effects in the future.
=== Optics ===
Gauss's calculations enabled instrument maker Johann Georg Repsold in Hamburg to construct a new achromatic lens system in 1810. A main problem, among other difficulties, was that the refractive index and dispersion of the glass used were not precisely known. In a short article from 1817 Gauss dealt with the problem of removal of chromatic aberration in double lenses, and computed adjustments of the shape and coefficients of refraction required to minimize it. His work was noted by the optician Carl August von Steinheil, who in 1860 introduced the achromatic Steinheil doublet, partly based on Gauss's calculations. Many results in geometrical optics are scattered in Gauss's correspondences and hand notes.
In the Dioptrical Investigations (1840), Gauss gave the first systematic analysis of the formation of images under a paraxial approximation (Gaussian optics). He characterized optical systems under a paraxial approximation only by its cardinal points, and he derived the Gaussian lens formula, applicable without restrictions in respect to the thickness of the lenses.
=== Mechanics ===
Gauss's first work in mechanics concerned the earth's rotation. When his university friend Benzenberg carried out experiments to determine the deviation of falling masses from the perpendicular in 1802, what today is known as the Coriolis force, he asked Gauss for a theory-based calculation of the values for comparison with the experimental ones. Gauss elaborated a system of fundamental equations for the motion, and the results corresponded sufficiently with Benzenberg's data, who added Gauss's considerations as an appendix to his book on falling experiments.
After Foucault had demonstrated the earth's rotation by his pendulum experiment in public in 1851, Gerling questioned Gauss for further explanations. This instigated Gauss to design a new apparatus for demonstration with a much shorter length of pendulum than Foucault's one. The oscillations were observed with a reading telescope, with a vertical scale and a mirror fastened at the pendulum. It is described in the Gauss–Gerling correspondence and Weber made some experiments with this apparatus in 1853, but no data were published.
Gauss's principle of least constraint of 1829 was established as a general concept to overcome the division of mechanics into statics and dynamics, combining D'Alembert's principle with Lagrange's principle of virtual work, and showing analogies to the method of least squares.
=== Metrology ===
In 1828, Gauss was appointed as head of the board for weights and measures of the Kingdom of Hanover. He created standards for length and measure. Gauss himself took care of the time-consuming measures and gave detailed orders for the mechanical construction. In the correspondence with Schumacher, who was also working on this matter, he described new ideas for high-precision scales. He submitted the final reports on the Hanoverian foot and pound to the government in 1841. This work achieved international importance due to an 1836 law that connected the Hanoverian measures with the English ones.
== Honours and awards ==
Gauss first became member of a scientific society, the Russian Academy of Sciences, in 1802. Further memberships (corresponding, foreign or full) were awarded by the Academy of Sciences in Göttingen (1802/ 1807), the French Academy of Sciences (1804/ 1820), the Royal Society of London (1804), the Royal Prussian Academy in Berlin (1810), the National Academy of Science in Verona (1810), the Royal Society of Edinburgh (1820), the Bavarian Academy of Sciences of Munich (1820), the Royal Danish Academy in Copenhagen (1821), the Royal Astronomical Society in London (1821), the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences (1821), the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in Boston (1822), the Royal Bohemian Society of Sciences in Prague (1833), the Royal Academy of Science, Letters and Fine Arts of Belgium (1841/1845), the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala (1843), the Royal Irish Academy in Dublin (1843), the Royal Institute of the Netherlands (1845/ 1851), the Spanish Royal Academy of Sciences in Madrid (1850), the Russian Geographical Society (1851), the Imperial Academy of Sciences in Vienna (1848), the American Philosophical Society (1853), the Cambridge Philosophical Society, and the Royal Hollandish Society of Sciences in Haarlem.
Both the University of Kazan and the Philosophy Faculty of the University of Prague appointed him honorary member in 1848.
Gauss received the Lalande Prize from the French Academy of Science in 1809 for the theory of planets and the means of determining their orbits from only three observations, the Danish Academy of Science prize in 1823 for his memoir on conformal projection, and the Copley Medal from the Royal Society in 1838 for "his inventions and mathematical researches in magnetism".
Gauss was appointed Knight of the French Legion of Honour in 1837, and became one of the first members of the Prussian Order Pour le Merite (Civil class) when it was established in 1842. He received the Order of the Crown of Westphalia (1810), the Danish Order of the Dannebrog (1817), the Hanoverian Royal Guelphic Order (1815), the Swedish Order of the Polar Star (1844), the Order of Henry the Lion (1849), and the Bavarian Maximilian Order for Science and Art (1853).
The Kings of Hanover appointed him the honorary titles "Hofrath" (1816) and "Geheimer Hofrath" (1845). In 1949, on the occasion of his golden doctor degree jubilee, he received honorary citizenship of both Brunswick and Göttingen. Soon after his death a medal was issued by order of King George V of Hanover with the back inscription dedicated "to the Prince of Mathematicians".
The "Gauss-Gesellschaft Göttingen" ("Göttingen Gauss Society") was founded in 1964 for research on the life and work of Carl Friedrich Gauss and related persons. It publishes the Mitteilungen der Gauss-Gesellschaft (Communications of the Gauss Society).
== Names and commemorations ==
List of things named after Carl Friedrich Gauss
== Selected writings ==
=== Mathematics and astronomy ===
1799: Demonstratio nova theorematis omnem functionem algebraicam rationalem integram unius variabilis in factores reales primi vel secundi gradus resolvi posse [New proof of the theorem that every integral algebraic function of one variable can be resolved into real factors of the first or second degree]. Helmstedt: C. G. Fleckeisen. (Doctoral thesis on the fundamental theorem of algebra, University of Helmstedt) Original book
1816: "Demonstratio nova altera theorematis omnem functionem algebraicam rationalem integram unius variabilis in factores reales primi vel secundi gradus resolvi posse". Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. Comm. Class. Math. 3: 107–134. Original
1816: "Theorematis de resolubilitate functionum algebraicarum integrarum in factores reales demonstratio tertia". Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. Comm. Class. Math. 3: 135–142. Original
1850: "Beiträge zur Theorie der algebraischen Gleichungen". Abhandlungen der Königlichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen. 4: 34–35. Original (Lecture from 1849)
Die vier Gauss'schen Beweise für die Zerlegung ganzer algebraischer Funktionen in reelle Faktoren ersten und zweiten Grades. (1799–1849) [The four Gaussian proofs of the fundamental theorem of algebra]. Translated by Netto. Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann. 1890. (German)
1800: "Berechnung des Osterfestes" [Calculation of Easter]. Monatliche Correspondenz zur Beförderung der Erd- und Himmelskunde (in German). 2: 121–130. Original
1801: Disquisitiones Arithmeticae. Leipzig: Gerh. Fleischer jun.
Gauss, Carl Friedrich (1986). Disquisitiones Arithmeticae & other papers on number theory. Translated by Clarke, Arthur A. (2nd, corrected ed.). New York: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-7560-0. ISBN 978-0-387-96254-2. (translated from the second German edition, Göttingen 1860)
1802: "Berechnung des jüdischen Osterfestes" [Calculation of Jewish Easter]. Monatliche Correspondenz zur Beförderung der Erd- und Himmelskunde (in German). 5: 435–437. Original
1804: "Über die Grenzen der geocentrischen Oerter der Planeten" [On the limits of the geocentric places of the planets]. Monatliche Correspondenz zur Beförderung der Erd- und Himmelskunde (in German). 10: 171–193. Original (on the Zodiacus)
1808: "Theorematis arithmetici demonstratio nova". Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis. Comm. Math. 16: 69–74. Original (Introduces Gauss's lemma, uses it in the third proof of quadratic reciprocity)
1808: Methodus peculiaris elevationem poli determinandi (in Latin). Göttingen.
1809: Theoria motus corporum coelestium in sectionibus conicis solem ambientium (in Latin). Hamburg: Friedrich Perthes & Johann Heinrich Besser. Original book
Theory of the Motion of Heavenly Bodies Moving about the Sun in Conic Sections. Translated by Davis, Charles Henry. Little, Brown & Co. 1857.
Theory of the motion of the celestial bodies moving around the Sun in conic sections. Reprint of the 1809 original. (Theoria motus corporum coelestium in sectionibus conicis solem ambientium.) (Latin). Cambridge Library Collection - Mathematics. Cambridge University Press. 2011. ISBN 978-1-108-14311-0. Zbl 1234.01016.
1811: "Disquisitio de elementis ellipticis Palladis ex oppositionibus annorum 1803, 1804, 1805, 1806, 1807, 1808, 1809". Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. Comm. Math. 1: 1–26. Original (from 1810) (Orbit of Pallas)
1811: "Summatio quarundam serierum singularium". Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. Comm. Class. Math. 1: 1–40. Original (from 1808) (Determination of the sign of the quadratic Gauss sum, uses this to give the fourth proof of quadratic reciprocity)
1813: "Disquisitiones generales circa seriem infinitam
1
+
α
β
γ
.1
+
etc.
{\displaystyle 1+{\frac {\alpha \beta }{\gamma .1}}+{\mbox{etc.}}}
". Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. Comm. Class. Math. 2: 1–42. Original (from 1812, contains the Gauss's continued fraction)
1816: "Methodus nova integralium valores per approximationem inveniendi". Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. Comm. Class. Math. 3: 39–76. Original (from 1814)
1818: "Theorematis fundamentalis in doctrina de residuis quadraticis demonstrationes et ampliationes novae". Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. Comm. Class. Math. 4: 3–20. Original (from 1817) (Fifth and sixth proofs of quadratic reciprocity)
1818: "Determinatio attractionis, quam in punctum positionis datae exerceret planeta, si eius massa per totamorbitam, ratione temporis, quo singulae partes describuntur, uniformiter esset dispertita". Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. Comm. Class. Math. 4: 21–48. Original (Only reference to the – mostly unpublished – work on the algorithm of the arithmetic-geometric mean.)
1823: "Theoria combinationis observationum erroribus minimis obnoxiae. Pars Prior". Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. Comm. Class. Math. 5: 33–62. Original (from 1821)
1823: "Theoria combinationis observationum erroribus minimis obnoxiae. Pars Posterior". Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. Comm. Class. Math. 5: 63–90. Original
1825: "Allgemeine Auflösung der Aufgabe die Theile einer gegebnen Fläche auf einer andern gegebnen Fläche so abzubilden dass die Abbildung dem Abgebildeten in den kleinsten Theilen ähnlich wird". Astronomische Abhandlungen. 3. Altona. (Prize winning essay from 1822 on conformal mapping)
1828: Bestimmung des Breitenunterschiedes zwischen den Sternwarten von Göttingen und Altona durch Beobachtungen am Ramsdenschen Zenithsector [Determination of the Difference in Latitude between the Observatories of Göttingen and Altona by Observations with Ramsden's Zenith sector] (in German). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht. 1828. Original book
1828: Gauss, Carl Friedrich (1828). "Supplementum theoriae combinationis observationum erroribus minimis obnoxiae". Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. Comm. Class. Math. 6: 57–98. Bibcode:1828stco.book.....G. (from 1826)
Gauss, Carl Friedrich; Stewart, G. W. (1995). Theory of the Combination of Observations Least Subject to Errors. Part One, Part Two, Supplement (Classics in Applied Mathematics). Translated by G. W. Stewart. Philadelphia: Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics. doi:10.1137/1.9781611971248. ISBN 978-0-89871-347-3. (Three essays concerning the calculation of probabilities as the basis of the Gaussian law of error propagation)
1828: "Disquisitiones generales circa superficies curvas". Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. Comm. Class. Math. 6: 99–146. Original (from 1827)
General Investigations of Curved Surfaces (PDF). Translated by J. C. Morehead and A. M. Hiltebeitel. The Princeton University Library. 1902.
1828: "Theoria residuorum biquadraticorum, Commentatio prima". Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. Comm. Class. Math. 6: 27–56. Original (from 1825)
1832: "Theoria residuorum biquadraticorum, Commentatio secunda". Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. Comm. Class. Math. 7: 89–148. Original (from 1831) (Introduces the Gaussian integers, states (without proof) the law of biquadratic reciprocity, proves the supplementary law for 1 + i)
1845: "Untersuchungen über Gegenstände der Höheren Geodäsie. Erste Abhandlung". Abhandlungen der Königlichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften in Göttingen. Zweiter Band, von den Jahren 1842–1844: 3–46. Original (from 1843)
1847: "Untersuchungen über Gegenstände der Höheren Geodäsie. Zweite Abhandlung". Abhandlungen der Königlichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften in Göttingen. Dritter Band, von den Jahren 1845–1847: 3–44. Original (from 1846)
1848: Gauss (1848). "Schreiben des Herrn Geheimen Hofrathes Gauss an den Herausgeber" [Letter of Mr. Secret Councillor of the Court Gauss to the editor]. Astronomische Nachrichten (in German). 27: 1–3. Bibcode:1848AN.....27....1G. doi:10.1002/asna.18480270102. Original
1903: Wissenschaftliches Tagebuch (Klein, Felix, ed. (1903). "Gauß' wissenschaftliches Tagebuch 1796–1814". Mathematische Annalen (in Latin and German). 57: 1–34. doi:10.1007/BF01449013. S2CID 119641638.) Original book (from 1847, on the Zodiacus)
Jeremy Gray (1984). "A commentary on Gauss's mathematical diary, 1796–1814". Expositiones Mathematicae. 2: 97–130.
=== Physics ===
1804: Fundamentalgleichungen für die Bewegung schwerer Körper auf der Erde ( in original book: Benzenberg, Johann Friedrich. Versuche über das Gesetz des Falls, über den Widerstand der Luft und über die Umdrehung der Erde [Experiments on the Law of falling Bodies, on the Resistance of Air, and of the Rotation of the Earth]. Dortmund: Gebrüder Mallinckrodt. pp. 363–371. Original)
1813: "Theoria attractionis corporum sphaeroidicorum ellipticorum homogeneorum methodo nova tractata". Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. Comm. Class. Math. 2: 1–24. Original (contains Gauss's theorem of vector analysis)
1817: "Ueber die achromatischen Doppelobjective besonders in Rücksicht der vollkommnern Aufhebung der Farbenzerstreuung" [On achromatic double lenses with special regard to a more complete dispersion of colours]. Zeitschrift für Astronomie und verwandte Wissenschaften (in German). IV: 345–351.
1829: "Über ein neues allgemeines Grundgesetz der Mechanik" [On a new General Fundamental Law of Mechanics]. Journal für die reine und angewandte Mathematik. 1829 (4): 232–235. 1829. doi:10.1515/crll.1829.4.232. S2CID 199545985.
1830: "Principia generalia theoriae figurae fluidorum in statu aequilibrii". Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. 7: 39–88. Original (from 1829)
1841: "Intensitas vis magneticae terrestris ad mensuram absolutam revocata". Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. 8: 3–44. Original (from 1832)
The Intensity of the Earth's Magnetic Force Reduced to Absolute Measurement. Translated by Susan P. Johnson.
1836: Erdmagnetismus und Magnetometer (Original book: H.C. Schumacher (ed.). Jahrbuch für 1836 (in German). Vol. 1836. Tübingen: J.G.Cotta'sche Buchhandlung. pp. 1–47.)
1840: Allgemeine Lehrsätze in Beziehung auf die im verkehrten Verhältnis des Quadrats der Entfernung wirkenden Anziehungs- und Abstoßungskräfte (Original book: Allgemeine Lehrsätze in Beziehung auf die im verkehrten Verhältnis des Quadrats der Entfernung wirkenden Anziehungs- und Abstoßungskräfte [General Theorems concerning the attractive and repulsive Forces acting in reciprocal Proportions of quadratic Distances] (in German). Leipzig: Weidmannsche Buchhandlung. 1840.
1843: "Dioptrische Untersuchungen" [Dioptrical Investigations]. Abhandlungen der Königlichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften in Göttingen (in German). Erster Band: 1–34. Original (from 1840)
==== Together with Wilhelm Weber ====
1837–1839: Weber, Wilhelm Eduard; Gauss, Carl Friedrich. Resultate aus den Beobachtungen des magnetischen Vereins im Jahre 1836–1838 (in German). Göttingen: Dieterichsche Buchhandlung. pp. 6 v.
1840–1843: Weber, Wilhelm Eduard; Gauss, Carl Friedrich. Resultate aus den Beobachtungen des magnetischen Vereins im Jahre 1839–1841 (in German). Leipzig: Weidmannsche Verlagsbuchhandlung. pp. 6 v.
1840: Weber, Wilhelm Eduard; Gauss, Carl Friedrich. Atlas des Erdmagnetismus nach den Elementen der Theorie entworfen. Supplement zu den Resultaten aus den Beobachtungen des magnetischen Vereins (in German). Leipzig: Weidmannsche Verlagsbuchhandlung. pp. 6 v.
=== Collected works ===
Königlich Preußische Akademie der Wissenschaften, ed. (1863–1933). Carl Friedrich Gauss. Werke (in Latin and German). Vol. 1–12. Göttingen: (diverse publishers). (includes unpublished literary estate)
=== Correspondence ===
Königlich Preußische Akademie der Wissenschaften, ed. (1880). Briefwechsel zwischen Gauss und Bessel (in German). Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann. (letters from December 1804 to August 1844)
Schoenberg, Erich; Perlick, Alfons (1955). Unbekannte Briefe von C. F. Gauß und Fr. W. Bessel. Abhandlungen der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Math.-nat. Klasse, Neue Folge, No. 71 (in German). Munich: Verlag der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. pp. 5–21. (letters to Boguslawski from February 1835 to January 1848)
Schwemin, Friedhelm, ed. (2014). Der Briefwechsel zwischen Carl Friedrich Gauß und Johann Elert Bode. Acta Historica Astronomica (in German). Vol. 53. Leipzig: Akademische Verlaganstalt. ISBN 978-3-944913-43-8. (letters from February 1802 to October 1826)
Franz Schmidt, Paul Stäckel, ed. (1899). Briefwechsel zwischen Carl Friedrich Gauss und Wolfgang Bolyai (in German). Leipzig: B.G. Teubner. (letters from September 1797 to February 1853; added letters of other correspondents)
Axel Wittmann, ed. (2018). Obgleich und indeßen. Der Briefwechsel zwischen Carl Friedrich Gauss und Johann Franz Encke (in German). Remagen: Verlag Kessel. ISBN 978-3945941379. (letters from June 1810 to June 1854)
Clemens Schaefer, ed. (1927). Briefwechsel zwischen Carl Friedrich Gauss und Christian Ludwig Gerling (in German). Berlin: Otto Elsner. (letters from June 1810 to June 1854)
Karl Christian Bruhns, ed. (1877). Briefe zwischen A. v. Humboldt und Gauss (in German). Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann. (letters from July 1807 to December 1854; added letters of other correspondents)
Reich, Karin; Roussanova, Elena (2018). Karl Kreil und der Erdmagnetismus. Seine Korrespondenz mit Carl Friedrich Gauß im historischen Kontext. Veröffentlichungen der Kommission für Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften, Mathematik und Medizin, No. 68 (in German). Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. (letters from 1835 to 1843)
Gerardy, Theo, ed. (1959). Briefwechsel zwischen Carl Friedrich Gauß und Carl Ludwig von Lecoq. Abhandlungen der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen, Mathematisch-Physikalische Klasse, No. 4 (in German). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. pp. 37–63. (letters from February 1799 to September 1800)
Forbes, Eric G. (1971). "The Correspondence between Carl Friedrich Gauss and the Rev. Nevil Maskelyne (1802–05)". Annals of Science. 27 (3): 213–237. doi:10.1080/00033797100203767.
Cunningham, Clifford (2004). "Discovery of the Missing Correspondence between Carl Friedrich Gauss and the Rev. Nevil Maskelyne (1802–05)". Annals of Science. 61 (4): 469–481. doi:10.1080/00033790310001660164.
Carl Schilling, ed. (1900). Briefwechsel zwischen Olbers und Gauss: Erste Abtheilung. Wilhelm Olbers. Sein Leben und seine Werke. Zweiter Band (in German). Berlin: Julius Springer. (letters from January 1802 to October 1819)
Carl Schilling, ed. (1909). Briefwechsel zwischen Olbers und Gauss: Zweite Abtheilung. Wilhelm Olbers. Sein Leben und seine Werke. Zweiter Band (in German). Berlin: Julius Springer. (letters from January 1820 to May 1839; added letters of other correspondents)
Christian August Friedrich Peters, ed. (1860–1865). Briefwechsel zwischen C. F. Gauss und H. C. Schumacher (in German). Altona: Gustav Esch.
Volumes 1+2 (letters from April 1808 to March 1836)
Volumes 3+4 (letters from March 1836 to April 1845)
Volumes 5+6 (letters from April 1845 to November 1850)
Poser, Hans, ed. (1987). Briefwechsel zwischen Carl Friedrich Gauß und Eberhard August Zimmermann. Abhandlungen der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen, Mathematisch-Physikalische Klasse, Folge 3, No. 39 (in German). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. ISBN 978-3525821169. (letters from 1795 to 1815)
The Göttingen Academy of Sciences and Humanities provides a complete collection of the known letters from and to Carl Friedrich Gauss that is accessible online. The literary estate is kept and provided by the Göttingen State and University Library. Written materials from Carl Friedrich Gauss and family members can also be found in the municipal archive of Brunswick.
== References ==
=== Notes ===
=== Citations ===
=== Sources ===
== Further reading ==
== External links == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barack_Obama#Legislative_career | Barack Obama | Barack Hussein Obama II (born August 4, 1961) is an American politician who served as the 44th president of the United States from 2009 to 2017. A member of the Democratic Party, he was the first African American president. Obama previously served as a U.S. senator representing Illinois from 2005 to 2008 and as an Illinois state senator from 1997 to 2004.
Born in Honolulu, Hawaii, Obama graduated from Columbia University in 1983 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in political science and later worked as a community organizer in Chicago. In 1988, Obama enrolled in Harvard Law School, where he was the first black president of the Harvard Law Review. He became a civil rights attorney and an academic, teaching constitutional law at the University of Chicago Law School from 1992 to 2004. In 1996, Obama was elected to represent the 13th district in the Illinois Senate, a position he held until 2004, when he successfully ran for the U.S. Senate. In the 2008 presidential election, after a close primary campaign against Hillary Clinton, he was nominated by the Democratic Party for president. Obama selected Joe Biden as his running mate and defeated Republican nominee John McCain and his running mate Sarah Palin.
Obama was awarded the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize for efforts in international diplomacy, a decision which drew both criticism and praise. During his first term, his administration responded to the 2008 financial crisis with measures including the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 to address the Great Recession; a partial extension of the Bush tax cuts; legislation to reform health care; and the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, a major financial regulation reform bill. Obama also appointed Supreme Court justices Sonia Sotomayor and Elena Kagan, the former being the first Hispanic American on the Supreme Court. Obama also oversaw the end of the Iraq War and ordered Operation Neptune Spear, the raid that killed Osama bin Laden, who was responsible for the September 11 attacks. He downplayed Bush's counterinsurgency model by expanding air strikes and making extensive use of special forces, while encouraging greater reliance on host-government militaries. Obama also ordered the 2011 military intervention in Libya to implement United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973, contributing to the overthrow of Muammar Gaddafi.
Obama defeated Republican opponent Mitt Romney and his running mate Paul Ryan in the 2012 presidential election. In his second term, Obama advocated for gun control in the wake of the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting. He took steps to combat climate change by signing the Paris Agreement on climate change and an executive order to limit carbon emissions, and presided over the implementation of the Affordable Care Act and other legislation passed in his first term. Obama initiated sanctions against Russia following its invasion in Ukraine and again after Russian interference in the 2016 U.S. elections. He also ordered military intervention in Iraq in response to gains made by ISIL following the 2011 withdrawal from Iraq, negotiated the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (a nuclear agreement with Iran), and normalized relations with Cuba. The number of American soldiers in Afghanistan decreased during Obama's second term, though U.S. soldiers remained in the country throughout his presidency. Obama promoted inclusion for LGBT Americans, becoming the first sitting U.S. president to publicly support same-sex marriage.
Obama left office in 2017 with high approval ratings both within the United States and among foreign advisories. He continues to reside in Washington, D.C., and remains politically active, campaigning for candidates in various American elections, including in Biden's successful presidential bid in the 2020 presidential election. Outside of politics, Obama has published three books: Dreams from My Father (1995), The Audacity of Hope (2006), and A Promised Land (2020). His presidential library began construction in the South Side of Chicago in 2021. Historians and political scientists rank Obama highly in historical rankings of U.S. presidents.
== Early life and career ==
Barack Obama was born on August 4, 1961, at Kapiolani Medical Center for Women and Children in Honolulu, Hawaii. He is the only president born outside the contiguous 48 states. He was born to an 18-year-old American mother and a 27-year-old Kenyan father. His mother, Ann Dunham (1942–1995), was born in Wichita, Kansas, and was of English, Welsh, German, Swiss, and Irish descent. In 2007 it was discovered her great-great-grandfather Falmouth Kearney emigrated from the village of Moneygall, Ireland to the U.S. in 1850. In July 2012, Ancestry.com found a strong likelihood that Dunham was descended from John Punch, an enslaved African man who lived in the Colony of Virginia during the seventeenth century. Obama has described the ancestors of his grandparents as Scotch-Irish mostly. Obama's father, Barack Obama Sr. (1934–1982), was a married Luo Kenyan from Nyang'oma Kogelo. His last name, Obama, was derived from his Luo descent. Obama's parents met in 1960 in a Russian language class at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa, where his father was a foreign student on a scholarship. The couple married in Wailuku, Hawaii, on February 2, 1961, six months before Obama was born.
In late August 1961, a few weeks after he was born, Barack and his mother moved to the University of Washington in Seattle, where they lived for a year. During that time, Barack's father completed his undergraduate degree in economics in Hawaii, graduating in June 1962. He left to attend graduate school on a scholarship at Harvard University, where he earned a Master of Arts in economics. Obama's parents divorced in March 1964. Obama Sr. returned to Kenya in 1964, where he married for a third time and worked for the Kenyan government as the senior economic analyst in the Ministry of Finance. He visited his son in Hawaii only once, at Christmas 1971, before he was killed in an automobile accident in 1982, when Obama was 21 years old. Recalling his early childhood, Obama said: "That my father looked nothing like the people around me—that he was black as pitch, my mother white as milk—barely registered in my mind." He described his struggles as a young adult to reconcile social perceptions of his multiracial heritage.
In 1963, Dunham met Lolo Soetoro at the University of Hawaiʻi; he was an Indonesian East–West Center graduate student in geography. The couple married on Molokai on March 15, 1965. After two one-year extensions of his J-1 visa, Lolo returned to Indonesia in 1966. His wife and stepson followed sixteen months later in 1967. The family initially lived in the Menteng Dalam neighborhood in the Tebet district of South Jakarta. From 1970, they lived in a wealthier neighborhood in the Menteng district of Central Jakarta.
=== Education ===
When he was six years old, Obama and his mother had moved to Indonesia to join his stepfather. From age six to ten, he was registered in school as "Barry" and attended local Indonesian-language schools: Sekolah Dasar Katolik Santo Fransiskus Asisi (St. Francis of Assisi Catholic Elementary School) for two years and Sekolah Dasar Negeri Menteng 01 (State Elementary School Menteng 01) for one and a half years, supplemented by English-language Calvert School homeschooling by his mother. As a result of his four years in Jakarta, he was able to speak Indonesian fluently as a child. During his time in Indonesia, Obama's stepfather taught him to be resilient and gave him "a pretty hardheaded assessment of how the world works".
In 1971, Obama returned to Honolulu to live with his maternal grandparents, Madelyn and Stanley Dunham. He attended Punahou School—a private college preparatory school—with the aid of a scholarship from fifth grade until he graduated from high school in 1979. In high school, Obama continued to use the nickname "Barry" which he kept until making a visit to Kenya in 1980. Obama lived with his mother and half-sister, Maya Soetoro, in Hawaii for three years from 1972 to 1975 while his mother was a graduate student in anthropology at the University of Hawaii. Obama chose to stay in Hawaii when his mother and half-sister returned to Indonesia in 1975, so his mother could begin anthropology field work. His mother spent most of the next two decades in Indonesia, divorcing Lolo Soetoro in 1980 and earning a PhD degree in 1992, before dying in 1995 in Hawaii following unsuccessful treatment for ovarian and uterine cancer.
Of his years in Honolulu, Obama wrote: "The opportunity that Hawaii offered — to experience a variety of cultures in a climate of mutual respect — became an integral part of my world view, and a basis for the values that I hold most dear." Obama has also written and talked about using alcohol, marijuana, and cocaine during his teenage years to "push questions of who I was out of my mind". Obama was also a member of the "Choom Gang" (the slang term for smoking marijuana), a self-named group of friends who spent time together and smoked marijuana.
College and research jobs
After graduating from high school in 1979, Obama moved to Los Angeles to attend Occidental College on a full scholarship. In February 1981, Obama made his first public speech, calling for Occidental to participate in the disinvestment from South Africa in response to that nation's policy of apartheid. In mid-1981, Obama traveled to Indonesia to visit his mother and half-sister Maya and visited the families of college friends in Pakistan for three weeks. Later in 1981, he transferred to Columbia University in New York City as a junior, where he majored in political science with a specialty in international relations and in English literature and lived off-campus on West 109th Street. He graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1983 and a 3.7 GPA. After graduating, Obama worked for about a year at the Business International Corporation, where he was a financial researcher and writer, then as a project coordinator for the New York Public Interest Research Group on the City College of New York campus for three months in 1985.
Community organizer and Harvard Law School
Two years after graduating from Columbia, Obama moved from New York to Chicago when he was hired as director of the Developing Communities Project, a faith-based community organization originally comprising eight Catholic parishes in Roseland, West Pullman, and Riverdale on Chicago's South Side. He worked there as a community organizer from June 1985 to May 1988. He helped set up a job training program, a college preparatory tutoring program, and a tenants' rights organization in Altgeld Gardens. Obama also worked as a consultant and instructor for the Gamaliel Foundation, a community organizing institute. In mid-1988, he traveled for the first time in Europe for three weeks and then for five weeks in Kenya, where he met many of his paternal relatives for the first time.
Despite being offered a full scholarship to Northwestern University School of Law, Obama enrolled at Harvard Law School in the fall of 1988, living in nearby Somerville, Massachusetts. He was selected as an editor of the Harvard Law Review at the end of his first year, president of the journal in his second year, and research assistant to the constitutional scholar Laurence Tribe while at Harvard. During his summers, he returned to Chicago, where he worked as a summer associate at the law firms of Sidley Austin in 1989 and Hopkins & Sutter in 1990. Obama's election as the first black president of the Harvard Law Review gained national media attention and led to a publishing contract and advance for a book about race relations, which evolved into a personal memoir. The manuscript was published in mid-1995 as Dreams from My Father. Obama graduated from Harvard Law in 1991 with a Juris Doctor magna cum laude.
University of Chicago Law School
In 1991, Obama accepted a two-year position as Visiting Law and Government Fellow at the University of Chicago Law School to work on his first book. He then taught constitutional law at the University of Chicago Law School for twelve years, first as a lecturer from 1992 to 1996, and then as a senior lecturer from 1996 to 2004.
From April to October 1992, Obama directed Illinois's Project Vote, a voter registration campaign with ten staffers and seven hundred volunteer registrars; it achieved its goal of registering 150,000 of 400,000 unregistered African Americans in the state, leading Crain's Chicago Business to name Obama to its 1993 list of "40 under Forty" powers to be.
=== Family and personal life ===
In a 2006 interview, Obama highlighted the diversity of his extended family: "It's like a little mini-United Nations," he said. "I've got relatives who look like Bernie Mac, and I've got relatives who look like Margaret Thatcher." Obama has a half-sister with whom he was raised (Maya Soetoro-Ng) and seven other half-siblings from his Kenyan father's family, six of them living. Obama's mother was survived by her Kansas-born mother, Madelyn Dunham, until her death on November 2, 2008, two days before his election to the presidency. Obama also has roots in Ireland; he met with his Irish cousins in Moneygall in May 2011. In Dreams from My Father, Obama ties his mother's family history to possible Native American ancestors and distant relatives of Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War. He also shares distant ancestors in common with George W. Bush and Dick Cheney, among others.
Obama lived with anthropologist Sheila Miyoshi Jager while he was a community organizer in Chicago in the 1980s. He proposed to her twice, but both Jager and her parents turned him down. The relationship was not made public until May 2017, several months after his presidency had ended.
In June 1989, Obama met Michelle Robinson when he was employed at Sidley Austin. Robinson was assigned for three months as Obama's adviser at the firm, and she joined him at several group social functions but declined his initial requests to date. They began dating later that summer, became engaged in 1991, and were married on October 3, 1992. After suffering a miscarriage, Michelle underwent in vitro fertilization to conceive their children. The couple's first daughter, Malia Ann, was born in 1998, followed by a second daughter, Natasha ("Sasha"), in 2001. The Obama daughters attended the University of Chicago Laboratory Schools. When they moved to Washington, D.C., in January 2009, the girls started at the Sidwell Friends School. The Obamas had two Portuguese Water Dogs; the first, a male named Bo, was a gift from Senator Ted Kennedy. In 2013, Bo was joined by Sunny, a female. Bo died of cancer on May 8, 2021.
Obama is a supporter of the Chicago White Sox, and he threw out the first pitch at the 2005 ALCS when he was still a senator. In 2009, he threw out the ceremonial first pitch at the All-Star Game while wearing a White Sox jacket. He is also primarily a Chicago Bears football fan in the NFL, but in his childhood and adolescence was a fan of the Pittsburgh Steelers and rooted for them ahead of their victory in Super Bowl XLIII 12 days after he took office as president. In 2011, Obama invited the 1985 Chicago Bears to the White House; the team had not visited the White House after their Super Bowl win in 1986 due to the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster. He plays basketball, a sport he participated in as a member of his high school's varsity team, and he is left-handed.
In 2005, the Obama family applied the proceeds of a book deal and moved from a Hyde Park, Chicago condominium to a $1.6 million house (equivalent to $2.6 million in 2024) in neighboring Kenwood, Chicago. The purchase of an adjacent lot—and sale of part of it to Obama by the wife of developer, campaign donor and friend Tony Rezko—attracted media attention because of Rezko's subsequent indictment and conviction on political corruption charges that were unrelated to Obama.
In December 2007, Money Magazine estimated Obama's net worth at $1.3 million (equivalent to $2 million in 2024). Their 2009 tax return showed a household income of $5.5 million—up from about $4.2 million in 2007 and $1.6 million in 2005—mostly from sales of his books. On his 2010 income of $1.7 million, he gave 14 percent to non-profit organizations, including $131,000 to Fisher House Foundation, a charity assisting wounded veterans' families, allowing them to reside near where the veteran is receiving medical treatments. Per his 2012 financial disclosure, Obama may be worth as much as $10 million.
=== Religious views ===
Obama is a Protestant Christian whose religious views developed in his adult life. He wrote in The Audacity of Hope that he "was not raised in a religious household." He described his mother, raised by non-religious parents, as being detached from religion, yet "in many ways the most spiritually awakened person ... I have ever known", and "a lonely witness for secular humanism." He described his father as a "confirmed atheist" by the time his parents met, and his stepfather as "a man who saw religion as not particularly useful." Obama explained how, through working with black churches as a community organizer while in his twenties, he came to understand "the power of the African-American religious tradition to spur social change."
In January 2008, Obama told Christianity Today: "I am a Christian, and I am a devout Christian. I believe in the redemptive death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. I believe that faith gives me a path to be cleansed of sin and have eternal life." On September 27, 2010, Obama released a statement commenting on his religious views, saying:
I'm a Christian by choice. My family didn't—frankly, they weren't folks who went to church every week. And my mother was one of the most spiritual people I knew, but she didn't raise me in the church. So I came to my Christian faith later in life, and it was because the precepts of Jesus Christ spoke to me in terms of the kind of life that I would want to lead—being my brothers' and sisters' keeper, treating others as they would treat me.
Obama met Trinity United Church of Christ pastor Jeremiah Wright in October 1987 and became a member of Trinity in 1992. During Obama's first presidential campaign in May 2008, he resigned from Trinity after some of Wright's statements were criticized. Since moving to Washington, D.C., in 2009, the Obama family has attended several Protestant churches, including Shiloh Baptist Church and St. John's Episcopal Church, as well as Evergreen Chapel at Camp David, but the members of the family do not attend church on a regular basis.
In 2016, Obama said that he gets inspiration from a few items that remind him "of all the different people I've met along the way", adding: "I carry these around all the time. I'm not that superstitious, so it's not like I think I necessarily have to have them on me at all times." The items, "a whole bowl full", include rosary beads given to him by Pope Francis, a figurine of the Hindu deity Hanuman, a Coptic cross from Ethiopia, a small Buddha statue given by a monk, and a metal poker chip that used to be the lucky charm of a motorcyclist in Iowa.
== Legal career ==
From 1994 to 2002, Obama served on the boards of directors of the Woods Fund of Chicago—which in 1985 had been the first foundation to fund the Developing Communities Project—and of the Joyce Foundation. He served on the board of directors of the Chicago Annenberg Challenge from 1995 to 2002, as founding president and chairman of the board of directors from 1995 to 1999. Obama's law license became inactive in 2007.
== Legislative career ==
=== Illinois Senate (1997–2004) ===
Obama was elected to the Illinois Senate in 1996, succeeding Democratic state senator Alice Palmer from Illinois's 13th District, which, at that time, spanned Chicago South Side neighborhoods from Hyde Park–Kenwood south to South Shore and west to Chicago Lawn. Once elected, Obama gained bipartisan support for legislation that reformed ethics and health care laws. He sponsored a law that increased tax credits for low-income workers, negotiated welfare reform, and promoted increased subsidies for childcare. In 2001, as co-chairman of the bipartisan Joint Committee on Administrative Rules, Obama supported Republican governor George Ryan's payday loan regulations and predatory mortgage lending regulations aimed at averting home foreclosures.
He was reelected to the Illinois Senate in 1998, defeating Republican Yesse Yehudah in the general election, and was re-elected again in 2002. In 2000, he lost a Democratic primary race for Illinois's 1st congressional district in the United States House of Representatives to four-term incumbent Bobby Rush by a margin of two to one.
In January 2003, Obama became chairman of the Illinois Senate's Health and Human Services Committee when Democrats, after a decade in the minority, regained a majority. He sponsored and led unanimous, bipartisan passage of legislation to monitor racial profiling by requiring police to record the race of drivers they detained, and legislation making Illinois the first state to mandate videotaping of homicide interrogations. During his 2004 general election campaign for the U.S. Senate, police representatives credited Obama for his active engagement with police organizations in enacting death penalty reforms. Obama resigned from the Illinois Senate in November 2004 following his election to the U.S. Senate.
=== 2004 U.S. Senate campaign in Illinois ===
In May 2002, Obama commissioned a poll to assess his prospects in a 2004 U.S. Senate race. He created a campaign committee, began raising funds, and lined up political media consultant David Axelrod by August 2002. Obama formally announced his candidacy in January 2003.
Obama was an early opponent of the George W. Bush administration's 2003 invasion of Iraq. On October 2, 2002, the day President Bush and Congress agreed on the joint resolution authorizing the Iraq War, Obama addressed the first high-profile Chicago anti-Iraq War rally, and spoke out against the war. He addressed another anti-war rally in March 2003 and told the crowd "it's not too late" to stop the war.
Decisions by Republican incumbent Peter Fitzgerald and his Democratic predecessor Carol Moseley Braun not to participate in the election resulted in wide-open Democratic and Republican primary contests involving 15 candidates. In the March 2004 primary election, Obama won in an unexpected landslide—which overnight made him a rising star within the national Democratic Party, started speculation about a presidential future, and led to the reissue of his memoir, Dreams from My Father. In July 2004, Obama delivered the keynote address at the 2004 Democratic National Convention, seen by nine million viewers. His speech was well received and elevated his status within the Democratic Party.
Obama's expected opponent in the general election, Republican primary winner Jack Ryan, withdrew from the race in June 2004. Six weeks later, Alan Keyes accepted the Republican nomination to replace Ryan. In the November 2004 general election, Obama won with 70 percent of the vote, the largest margin of victory for a Senate candidate in Illinois history. He took 92 of the state's 102 counties, including several where Democrats traditionally do not perform well.
=== U.S. Senate (2005–2008) ===
Obama was sworn in as a senator on January 3, 2005, becoming the only Senate member of the Congressional Black Caucus. He introduced two initiatives that bore his name: Lugar–Obama, which expanded the Nunn–Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction concept to conventional weapons; and the Federal Funding Accountability and Transparency Act of 2006, which authorized the establishment of USAspending.gov, a web search engine on federal spending. On June 3, 2008, Senator Obama—along with Senators Tom Carper, Tom Coburn, and John McCain—introduced follow-up legislation: Strengthening Transparency and Accountability in Federal Spending Act of 2008. He also cosponsored the Secure America and Orderly Immigration Act.
In December 2006, President Bush signed into law the Democratic Republic of the Congo Relief, Security, and Democracy Promotion Act, marking the first federal legislation to be enacted with Obama as its primary sponsor. In January 2007, Obama and Senator Feingold introduced a corporate jet provision to the Honest Leadership and Open Government Act, which was signed into law in September 2007.
Later in 2007, Obama sponsored an amendment to the Defense Authorization Act to add safeguards for personality-disorder military discharges. This amendment passed the full Senate in the spring of 2008. He sponsored the Iran Sanctions Enabling Act supporting divestment of state pension funds from Iran's oil and gas industry, which was never enacted but later incorporated in the Comprehensive Iran Sanctions, Accountability, and Divestment Act of 2010; and co-sponsored legislation to reduce risks of nuclear terrorism. Obama also sponsored a Senate amendment to the State Children's Health Insurance Program, providing one year of job protection for family members caring for soldiers with combat-related injuries.
Obama held assignments on the Senate Committees for Foreign Relations, Environment and Public Works, and Veterans' Affairs through December 2006. In January 2007, he left the Environment and Public Works committee and took additional assignments with Health, Education, Labor and Pensions and Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs. He also became Chairman of the Senate's subcommittee on European Affairs. As a member of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, Obama made official trips to Eastern Europe, the Middle East, Central Asia, and Africa. He met with Mahmoud Abbas before Abbas became President of the Palestinian National Authority and gave a speech at the University of Nairobi in which he condemned corruption within the Kenyan government. Obama resigned his Senate seat on November 16, 2008, to focus on his transition period for the presidency.
== Presidential campaigns ==
=== 2008 presidential candidacy ===
On February 10, 2007, Obama announced his candidacy for President of the United States in front of the Old State Capitol building in Springfield, Illinois. The choice of the announcement site was viewed as symbolic, as it was also where Abraham Lincoln delivered his "House Divided" speech in 1858. Obama emphasized issues of rapidly ending the Iraq War, increasing energy independence, and reforming the health care system.
Numerous candidates entered the Democratic Party presidential primaries. The field narrowed to Obama and Senator Hillary Clinton after early contests, with the race remaining close throughout the primary process, but Obama gained a steady lead in pledged delegates due to better long-range planning, superior fundraising, dominant organizing in caucus states, and better exploitation of delegate allocation rules.
On June 2, 2008, Obama had received enough votes to clinch his nomination. After an initial hesitation to concede, on June 7, Clinton ended her campaign and endorsed Obama. On August 23, 2008, Obama announced his selection of Delaware senator Joe Biden as his vice presidential running mate. Obama selected Biden from a field speculated to include former Indiana governor and senator Evan Bayh and Virginia governor Tim Kaine. At the Democratic National Convention in Denver, Colorado, Hillary Clinton called for her supporters to endorse Obama, and she and Bill Clinton gave convention speeches in his support. Obama delivered his acceptance speech at Invesco Field at Mile High stadium to a crowd of about eighty-four thousand; the speech was viewed by over three million people worldwide. During both the primary process and the general election, Obama's campaign set numerous fundraising records, particularly in the quantity of small donations. On June 19, 2008, Obama became the first major-party presidential candidate to turn down public financing in the general election since the system was created in 1976.
John McCain was nominated as the Republican candidate, and he selected Sarah Palin as his running mate. Obama and McCain engaged in three presidential debates in September and October 2008. On November 4, Obama won the presidency with 365 electoral votes to 173 received by McCain. Obama won 52.9 percent of the popular vote to McCain's 45.7 percent. He became the first African-American to be elected president. Obama delivered his victory speech before hundreds of thousands of supporters in Chicago's Grant Park. He is one of the three United States senators moved directly from the U.S. Senate to the White House, the others being Warren G. Harding and John F. Kennedy.
=== 2012 presidential candidacy ===
On April 4, 2011, Obama filed election papers with the Federal Election Commission and then announced his reelection campaign for 2012 in a video titled "It Begins with Us" that he posted on his website. As the incumbent president, he ran virtually unopposed in the Democratic Party presidential primaries, and on April 3, 2012, Obama secured the 2778 convention delegates needed to win the Democratic nomination. At the Democratic National Convention in Charlotte, North Carolina, Obama and Joe Biden were formally nominated by former president Bill Clinton as the Democratic Party candidates for president and vice president in the general election. Their main opponents were Republicans Mitt Romney, the former governor of Massachusetts, and Representative Paul Ryan of Wisconsin.
On November 6, 2012, Obama won 332 electoral votes, exceeding the 270 required for him to be reelected as president. With 51.1 percent of the popular vote, Obama became the first Democratic president since Franklin D. Roosevelt to win the majority of the popular vote twice. Obama addressed supporters and volunteers at Chicago's McCormick Place after his reelection and said: "Tonight you voted for action, not politics as usual. You elected us to focus on your jobs, not ours. And in the coming weeks and months, I am looking forward to reaching out and working with leaders of both parties."
== Presidency (2009–2017) ==
=== First 100 days ===
The inauguration of Barack Obama as the 44th president took place on January 20, 2009. In his first few days in office, Obama issued executive orders and presidential memoranda directing the U.S. military to develop plans to withdraw troops from Iraq. He ordered the closing of the Guantanamo Bay detention camp, but Congress prevented the closure by refusing to appropriate the required funds and preventing moving any Guantanamo detainee. Obama reduced the secrecy given to presidential records. He also revoked President George W. Bush's restoration of President Ronald Reagan's Mexico City policy which prohibited federal aid to international family planning organizations that perform or provide counseling about abortion.
=== Domestic policy ===
The first bill signed into law by Obama was the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009, relaxing the statute of limitations for equal-pay lawsuits. Five days later, he signed the reauthorization of the State Children's Health Insurance Program to cover an additional four million uninsured children. In March 2009, Obama reversed a Bush-era policy that had limited funding of embryonic stem cell research and pledged to develop "strict guidelines" on the research.
Obama appointed two women to serve on the Supreme Court in the first two years of his presidency. He nominated Sonia Sotomayor on May 26, 2009, to replace retiring associate justice David Souter. She was confirmed on August 6, 2009, becoming the first Supreme Court Justice of Hispanic descent. Obama nominated Elena Kagan on May 10, 2010, to replace retiring Associate Justice John Paul Stevens. She was confirmed on August 5, 2010, bringing the number of women sitting simultaneously on the Court to three for the first time in American history.
On March 11, 2009, Obama created the White House Council on Women and Girls, which formed part of the Office of Intergovernmental Affairs, having been established by Executive Order 13506 with a broad mandate to advise him on issues relating to the welfare of American women and girls. The council was chaired by Senior Advisor to the President Valerie Jarrett. Obama also established the White House Task Force to Protect Students from Sexual Assault through a government memorandum on January 22, 2014, with a broad mandate to advise him on issues relating to sexual assault on college and university campuses throughout the United States. The co-chairs of the Task Force were Vice President Joe Biden and Jarrett. The Task Force was a development out of the White House Council on Women and Girls and Office of the Vice President of the United States, and prior to that the 1994 Violence Against Women Act first drafted by Biden.
In July 2009, Obama launched the Priority Enforcement Program, an immigration enforcement program that had been pioneered by George W. Bush, and the Secure Communities fingerprinting and immigration status data-sharing program.
In a major space policy speech in April 2010, Obama announced a planned change in direction at NASA, the U.S. space agency. He ended plans for a return of human spaceflight to the moon and development of the Ares I rocket, Ares V rocket and Constellation program, in favor of funding earth science projects, a new rocket type, research and development for an eventual crewed mission to Mars, and ongoing missions to the International Space Station.
On January 16, 2013, one month after the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting, Obama signed 23 executive orders and outlined a series of sweeping proposals regarding gun control. He urged Congress to reintroduce an expired ban on military-style assault weapons, such as those used in several recent mass shootings, impose limits on ammunition magazines to 10 rounds, introduce background checks on all gun sales, pass a ban on possession and sale of armor-piercing bullets, introduce harsher penalties for gun-traffickers, especially unlicensed dealers who buy arms for criminals and approving the appointment of the head of the federal Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives for the first time since 2006. On January 5, 2016, Obama announced new executive actions extending background check requirements to more gun sellers. In a 2016 editorial in The New York Times, Obama compared the struggle for what he termed "common-sense gun reform" to women's suffrage and other civil rights movements in American history.
In 2011, Obama signed a four-year renewal of the Patriot Act. Following the 2013 global surveillance disclosures by whistleblower Edward Snowden, Obama condemned the leak as unpatriotic, but called for increased restrictions on the National Security Agency (NSA) to address violations of privacy. Obama continued and expanded surveillance programs set up by George W. Bush, while implementing some reforms. He supported legislation that would have limited the NSA's ability to collect phone records in bulk under a single program and supported bringing more transparency to the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court (FISC).
==== Racial issues ====
In his speeches as president, Obama did not make more overt references to race relations than his predecessors, but according to one study, he implemented stronger policy action on behalf of African-Americans than any president since the Nixon era.
Following Obama's election, many pondered the existence of a "post-racial America". However, lingering racial tensions quickly became apparent, and many African-Americans expressed outrage over what they saw as an intense racial animosity directed at Obama. The acquittal of George Zimmerman following the killing of Trayvon Martin sparked national outrage, leading to Obama giving a speech in which he said that "Trayvon Martin could have been me 35 years ago." The shooting of Michael Brown in Ferguson, Missouri, sparked a wave of protests. These and other events led to the birth of the Black Lives Matter movement, which campaigns against violence and systemic racism toward black people. Though Obama entered office reluctant to talk about race, by 2014 he began openly discussing the disadvantages faced by many members of minority groups.
Several incidents during Obama's presidency generated disapproval from the African-American community and with law enforcement, and Obama sought to build trust between law enforcement officials and civil rights activists, with mixed results. Some in law enforcement criticized Obama's condemnation of racial bias after incidents in which police action led to the death of African-American men, while some racial justice activists criticized Obama's expressions of empathy for the police. In a March 2016 Gallup poll, nearly one third of Americans said they worried "a great deal" about race relations, a higher figure than in any previous Gallup poll since 2001.
==== LGBT rights ====
On October 8, 2009, Obama signed the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act, a measure that expanded the 1969 United States federal hate-crime law to include crimes motivated by a victim's actual or perceived gender, sexual orientation, gender identity, or disability. On October 30, 2009, Obama lifted the ban on travel to the United States by those infected with HIV. The lifting of the ban was celebrated by Immigration Equality. On December 22, 2010, Obama signed the Don't Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act of 2010, which fulfilled a promise made in the 2008 presidential campaign to end the don't ask, don't tell policy of 1993 that had prevented gay and lesbian people from serving openly in the United States Armed Forces. In 2016, the Pentagon ended the policy that barred transgender people from serving openly in the military.
===== Same-sex marriage =====
As a candidate for the Illinois state senate in 1996, Obama stated he favored legalizing same-sex marriage. During his Senate run in 2004, he said he supported civil unions and domestic partnerships for same-sex partners but opposed same-sex marriages. In 2008, he reaffirmed this position by stating "I believe marriage is between a man and a woman. I am not in favor of gay marriage." On May 9, 2012, shortly after the official launch of his campaign for re-election as president, Obama said his views had evolved, and he publicly affirmed his personal support for the legalization of same-sex marriage, becoming the first sitting U.S. president to do so. During his second inaugural address on January 21, 2013, Obama became the first U.S. president in office to call for full equality for gay Americans, and the first to mention gay rights or the word "gay" in an inaugural address. In 2013, the Obama administration filed briefs that urged the Supreme Court to rule in favor of same-sex couples in the cases of Hollingsworth v. Perry (regarding same-sex marriage) and United States v. Windsor (regarding the Defense of Marriage Act).
==== Economic policy ====
On February 17, 2009, Obama signed the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, a $787 billion (equivalent to $1153 billion in 2024) economic stimulus package aimed at helping the economy recover from the deepening worldwide recession. The act includes increased federal spending for health care, infrastructure, education, various tax breaks and incentives, and direct assistance to individuals. In March 2009, Obama's Treasury Secretary, Timothy Geithner, took further steps to manage the 2008 financial crisis, including introducing the Public–Private Investment Program for Legacy Assets, which contains provisions for buying up to $2 trillion in depreciated real estate assets.
Obama intervened in the troubled automotive industry in March 2009, renewing loans for General Motors (GM) and Chrysler to continue operations while reorganizing. Over the following months the White House set terms for both firms' bankruptcies, including the sale of Chrysler to Italian automaker Fiat and a reorganization of GM giving the U.S. government a temporary 60 percent equity stake in the company. In June 2009, dissatisfied with the pace of economic stimulus, Obama called on his cabinet to accelerate the investment. He signed into law the Car Allowance Rebate System, known colloquially as "Cash for Clunkers", which temporarily boosted the economy.
The Bush and Obama administrations authorized spending and loan guarantees from the Federal Reserve and the Department of the Treasury. These guarantees totaled about $11.5 trillion, but only $3 trillion had been spent by the end of November 2009. On August 2, 2011, after a lengthy congressional debate over whether to raise the nation's debt limit, Obama signed the bipartisan Budget Control Act of 2011. The legislation enforced limits on discretionary spending until 2021, established a procedure to increase the debt limit, created a Congressional Joint Select Committee on Deficit Reduction to propose further deficit reduction with a stated goal of achieving at least $1.5 trillion in budgetary savings over 10 years, and established automatic procedures for reducing spending by as much as $1.2 trillion if legislation originating with the new joint select committee did not achieve such savings. By passing the legislation, Congress was able to prevent a U.S. government default on its obligations.
The unemployment rate rose in 2009, reaching a peak in October at 10.0 percent and averaging 10.0 percent in the fourth quarter. Following a decrease to 9.7 percent in the first quarter of 2010, the unemployment rate fell to 9.6 percent in the second quarter, where it remained for the rest of the year. Between February and December 2010, employment rose by 0.8 percent, which was less than the average of 1.9 percent experienced during comparable periods in the past four employment recoveries. By November 2012, the unemployment rate fell to 7.7 percent, decreasing to 6.7 percent in the last month of 2013. During 2014, the unemployment rate continued to decline, falling to 6.3 percent in the first quarter. GDP growth returned in the third quarter of 2009, expanding at a rate of 1.6 percent, followed by a 5.0 percent increase in the fourth quarter. Growth continued in 2010, posting an increase of 3.7 percent in the first quarter, with lesser gains throughout the rest of the year. In July 2010, the Federal Reserve noted that economic activity continued to increase, but its pace had slowed, and chairman Ben Bernanke said the economic outlook was "unusually uncertain". Overall, the economy expanded at a rate of 2.9 percent in 2010.
The Congressional Budget Office (CBO) and a broad range of economists credit Obama's stimulus plan for economic growth. The CBO released a report stating that the stimulus bill increased employment by 1–2.1 million, while conceding that "it is impossible to determine how many of the reported jobs would have existed in the absence of the stimulus package." Although an April 2010, survey of members of the National Association for Business Economics showed an increase in job creation (over a similar January survey) for the first time in two years, 73 percent of 68 respondents believed the stimulus bill has had no impact on employment. The economy of the United States has grown faster than the other original NATO members by a wider margin under President Obama than it has anytime since the end of World War II. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development credits the much faster growth in the United States to the stimulus plan of the U.S. and the austerity measures in the European Union.
Within a month of the 2010 midterm elections, Obama announced a compromise deal with the Congressional Republican leadership that included a temporary, two-year extension of the 2001 and 2003 income tax rates, a one-year payroll tax reduction, continuation of unemployment benefits, and a new rate and exemption amount for estate taxes. The compromise overcame opposition from some in both parties, and the resulting $858 billion (equivalent to $1.2 trillion in 2024) Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of 2010 passed with bipartisan majorities in both houses of Congress before Obama signed it on December 17, 2010.
In December 2013, Obama declared that growing income inequality is a "defining challenge of our time" and called on Congress to bolster the safety net and raise wages. This came on the heels of the nationwide strikes of fast-food workers and Pope Francis' criticism of inequality and trickle-down economics. Obama urged Congress to ratify a 12-nation free trade pact called the Trans-Pacific Partnership.
==== Environmental policy ====
On April 20, 2010, an explosion destroyed an offshore drilling rig at the Macondo Prospect in the Gulf of Mexico, causing a major sustained oil leak. Obama visited the Gulf, announced a federal investigation, and formed a bipartisan commission to recommend new safety standards, after a review by Secretary of the Interior Ken Salazar and concurrent Congressional hearings. He then announced a six-month moratorium on new deepwater drilling permits and leases, pending regulatory review. As multiple efforts by BP failed, some in the media and public expressed confusion and criticism over various aspects of the incident, and stated a desire for more involvement by Obama and the federal government. Prior to the oil spill, on March 31, 2010, Obama ended a ban on oil and gas drilling along the majority of the East Coast of the United States and along the coast of northern Alaska in an effort to win support for an energy and climate bill and to reduce foreign imports of oil and gas.
In July 2013, Obama expressed reservations and said he "would reject the Keystone XL pipeline if it increased carbon pollution [or] greenhouse emissions." On February 24, 2015, Obama vetoed a bill that would have authorized the pipeline. It was the third veto of Obama's presidency and his first major veto.
In December 2016, Obama permanently banned new offshore oil and gas drilling in most United States-owned waters in the Atlantic and Arctic Oceans using the 1953 Outer Continental Shelf Act.
Obama emphasized the conservation of federal lands during his term in office. He used his power under the Antiquities Act to create 25 new national monuments during his presidency and expand four others, protecting a total of 553,000,000 acres (224,000,000 ha) of federal lands and waters, more than any other U.S. president.
==== Health care reform ====
Obama called for Congress to pass legislation reforming health care in the United States, a key campaign promise and a top legislative goal. He proposed an expansion of health insurance coverage to cover the uninsured, cap premium increases, and allow people to retain their coverage when they leave or change jobs. His proposal was to spend $900 billion over ten years and include a government insurance plan, also known as the public option, to compete with the corporate insurance sector as a main component to lowering costs and improving quality of health care. It would also make it illegal for insurers to drop sick people or deny them coverage for pre-existing conditions, and require every American to carry health coverage. The plan also includes medical spending cuts and taxes on insurance companies that offer expensive plans.
On July 14, 2009, House Democratic leaders introduced a 1,017-page plan for overhauling the U.S. health care system, which Obama wanted Congress to approve by the end of 2009. After public debate during the Congressional summer recess of 2009, Obama delivered a speech to a joint session of Congress on September 9 where he addressed concerns over the proposals. In March 2009, Obama lifted a ban on using federal funds for stem cell research.
On November 7, 2009, a health care bill featuring the public option was passed in the House. On December 24, 2009, the Senate passed its own bill—without a public option—on a party-line vote of 60–39. On March 21, 2010, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA, colloquially "Obamacare") passed by the Senate in December was passed in the House by a vote of 219 to 212. Obama signed the bill into law on March 23, 2010.
The ACA includes health-related provisions, most of which took effect in 2014, including expanding Medicaid eligibility for people making up to 133 percent of the federal poverty level (FPL) starting in 2014, subsidizing insurance premiums for people making up to 400 percent of the FPL ($88,000 for family of four in 2010) so their maximum "out-of-pocket" payment for annual premiums will be from 2 percent to 9.5 percent of income, providing incentives for businesses to provide health care benefits, prohibiting denial of coverage and denial of claims based on pre-existing conditions, establishing health insurance exchanges, prohibiting annual coverage caps, and support for medical research. According to White House and CBO figures, the maximum share of income that enrollees would have to pay would vary depending on their income relative to the federal poverty level.
The costs of these provisions are offset by taxes, fees, and cost-saving measures, such as new Medicare taxes for those in high-income brackets, taxes on indoor tanning, cuts to the Medicare Advantage program in favor of traditional Medicare, and fees on medical devices and pharmaceutical companies; there is also a tax penalty for those who do not obtain health insurance, unless they are exempt due to low income or other reasons. In March 2010, the CBO estimated that the net effect of both laws will be a reduction in the federal deficit by $143 billion over the first decade.
The law faced several legal challenges, primarily based on the argument that an individual mandate requiring Americans to buy health insurance was unconstitutional. On June 28, 2012, the Supreme Court ruled by a 5–4 vote in National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius that the mandate was constitutional under the U.S. Congress's taxing authority. In Burwell v. Hobby Lobby the Court ruled that "closely-held" for-profit corporations could be exempt on religious grounds under the Religious Freedom Restoration Act from regulations adopted under the ACA that would have required them to pay for insurance that covered certain contraceptives. In June 2015, the Court ruled 6–3 in King v. Burwell that subsidies to help individuals and families purchase health insurance were authorized for those doing so on both the federal exchange and state exchanges, not only those purchasing plans "established by the State", as the statute reads.
=== Foreign policy ===
In February and March 2009, Vice President Joe Biden and Secretary of State Hillary Clinton made separate overseas trips to announce a "new era" in U.S. foreign relations with Russia and Europe, using the terms "break" and "reset" to signal major changes from the policies of the preceding administration. Obama attempted to reach out to Arab leaders by granting his first interview to an Arab satellite TV network, Al Arabiya. On March 19, Obama continued his outreach to the Muslim world, releasing a New Year's video message to the people and government of Iran. On June 4, 2009, Obama delivered a speech at Cairo University in Egypt calling for "A New Beginning" in relations between the Islamic world and the United States and promoting Middle East peace. On June 26, 2009, Obama condemned the Iranian government's actions towards protesters following Iran's 2009 presidential election.
In 2011, Obama ordered a drone strike in Yemen which targeted and killed Anwar al-Awlaki, an American imam suspected of being a leading Al-Qaeda organizer. al-Awlaki became the first U.S. citizen to be targeted and killed by a U.S. drone strike. The Department of Justice released a memo justifying al-Awlaki's death as a lawful act of war, while civil liberties advocates described it as a violation of al-Awlaki's constitutional right to due process. The killing led to significant controversy. His teenage son and young daughter, also Americans, were later killed in separate U.S. military actions, although they were not targeted specifically.
In March 2015, Obama declared that he had authorized U.S. forces to provide logistical and intelligence support to the Saudis in their military intervention in Yemen, establishing a "Joint Planning Cell" with Saudi Arabia. In 2016, the Obama administration proposed a series of arms deals with Saudi Arabia worth $115 billion. Obama halted the sale of guided munition technology to Saudi Arabia after Saudi warplanes targeted a funeral in Yemen's capital Sanaa, killing more than 140 people.
In September 2016 Obama was snubbed by Xi Jinping and the Chinese Communist Party as he descended from Air Force One to the tarmac of Hangzhou International Airport for the 2016 G20 Hangzhou summit without the usual red carpet welcome.
==== War in Iraq ====
On February 27, 2009, Obama announced that combat operations in Iraq would end within 18 months. The Obama administration scheduled the withdrawal of combat troops to be completed by August 2010, decreasing troop's levels from 142,000 while leaving a transitional force of about 50,000 in Iraq until the end of 2011. On August 19, 2010, the last U.S. combat brigade exited Iraq. Remaining troops transitioned from combat operations to counter-terrorism and the training, equipping, and advising of Iraqi security forces. On August 31, 2010, Obama announced that the United States combat mission in Iraq was over. On October 21, 2011, President Obama announced that all U.S. troops would leave Iraq in time to be "home for the holidays."
In June 2014, following the capture of Mosul by ISIL, Obama sent 275 troops to provide support and security for U.S. personnel and the U.S. Embassy in Baghdad. ISIS continued to gain ground and to commit widespread massacres and ethnic cleansing. In August 2014, during the Sinjar massacre, Obama ordered a campaign of U.S. airstrikes against ISIL. By the end of 2014, 3,100 American ground troops were committed to the conflict and 16,000 sorties were flown over the battlefield, primarily by U.S. Air Force and Navy pilots. In early 2015, with the addition of the "Panther Brigade" of the 82nd Airborne Division the number of U.S. ground troops in Iraq increased to 4,400, and by July American-led coalition air forces counted 44,000 sorties over the battlefield.
==== Afghanistan and Pakistan ====
In his election campaign, Obama called the war in Iraq a "dangerous distraction" and that emphasis should instead be put on the war in Afghanistan, the region he cites as being most likely where an attack against the United States could be launched again. Early in his presidency, Obama moved to bolster U.S. troop strength in Afghanistan. He announced an increase in U.S. troop levels to 17,000 military personnel in February 2009 to "stabilize a deteriorating situation in Afghanistan", an area he said had not received the "strategic attention, direction and resources it urgently requires." He replaced the military commander in Afghanistan, General David D. McKiernan, with former Special Forces commander Lt. Gen. Stanley A. McChrystal in May 2009, indicating that McChrystal's Special Forces experience would facilitate the use of counterinsurgency tactics in the war. On December 1, 2009, Obama announced the deployment of an additional 30,000 military personnel to Afghanistan and proposed to begin troop withdrawals 18 months from that date; this took place in July 2011. David Petraeus replaced McChrystal in June 2010, after McChrystal's staff criticized White House personnel in a magazine article. In February 2013, Obama said the U.S. military would reduce the troop level in Afghanistan from 68,000 to 34,000 U.S. troops by February 2014. In October 2015, the White House announced a plan to keep U.S. Forces in Afghanistan indefinitely in light of the deteriorating security situation.
Regarding neighboring Pakistan, Obama called its tribal border region the "greatest threat" to the security of Afghanistan and Americans, saying that he "cannot tolerate a terrorist sanctuary." In the same speech, Obama claimed that the U.S. "cannot succeed in Afghanistan or secure our homeland unless we change our Pakistan policy."
===== Death of Osama bin Laden =====
Starting with information received from Central Intelligence Agency operatives in July 2010, the CIA developed intelligence over the next several months that determined what they believed to be the hideout of Osama bin Laden. He was living in seclusion in a large compound in Abbottabad, Pakistan, a suburban area 35 miles (56 km) from Islamabad. CIA head Leon Panetta reported this intelligence to President Obama in March 2011. Meeting with his national security advisers over the course of the next six weeks, Obama rejected a plan to bomb the compound, and authorized a "surgical raid" to be conducted by United States Navy SEALs. The operation took place on May 1, 2011, and resulted in the shooting death of bin Laden and the seizure of papers, computer drives and disks from the compound. DNA testing was one of five methods used to positively identify bin Laden's corpse, which was buried at sea several hours later. Within minutes of the President's announcement from Washington, DC, late in the evening on May 1, there were spontaneous celebrations around the country as crowds gathered outside the White House, and at New York City's Ground Zero and Times Square. Reaction to the announcement was positive across party lines, including from former presidents Bill Clinton and George W. Bush.
==== Relations with Cuba ====
Since the spring of 2013, secret meetings were conducted between the United States and Cuba in the neutral locations of Canada and Vatican City. The Vatican first became involved in 2013 when Pope Francis advised the U.S. and Cuba to exchange prisoners as a gesture of goodwill. On December 10, 2013, Cuban President Raúl Castro, in a significant public moment, greeted and shook hands with Obama at the Nelson Mandela memorial service in Johannesburg.
In December 2014, after the secret meetings, it was announced that Obama, with Pope Francis as an intermediary, had negotiated a restoration of relations with Cuba, after nearly sixty years of détente. Popularly dubbed the Cuban Thaw, The New Republic deemed the Cuban Thaw to be "Obama's finest foreign policy achievement." On July 1, 2015, President Obama announced that formal diplomatic relations between Cuba and the United States would resume, and embassies would be opened in Washington and Havana. The countries' respective "interests sections" in one another's capitals were upgraded to embassies on July 20 and August 13, 2015, respectively. Obama visited Havana, Cuba for two days in March 2016, becoming the first sitting U.S. president to arrive since Calvin Coolidge in 1928.
==== Israel ====
During the initial years of the Obama administration, the U.S. increased military cooperation with Israel, including increased military aid, re-establishment of the U.S.–Israeli Joint Political Military Group and the Defense Policy Advisory Group, and an increase in visits among high-level military officials of both countries. The Obama administration asked Congress to allocate money toward funding the Iron Dome program in response to the waves of Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel. In March 2010, Obama took a public stance against plans by the government of Israeli prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu to continue building Jewish housing projects in predominantly Arab neighborhoods of East Jerusalem. In 2011, the United States vetoed a Security Council resolution condemning Israeli settlements, with the United States being the only nation to do so. Obama supports the two-state solution to the Arab–Israeli conflict based on the 1967 borders with land swaps.
In 2013, Jeffrey Goldberg reported that, in Obama's view, "with each new settlement announcement, Netanyahu is moving his country down a path toward near-total isolation." In 2014, Obama likened the Zionist movement to the civil rights movement in the United States. He said both movements seek to bring justice and equal rights to historically persecuted peoples, explaining: "To me, being pro-Israel and pro-Jewish is part and parcel with the values that I've been fighting for since I was politically conscious and started getting involved in politics." Obama expressed support for Israel's right to defend itself during the 2014 Israel–Gaza conflict. In 2015, Obama was harshly criticized by Israel for advocating and signing the Iran Nuclear Deal; Israeli prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu, who had advocated the U.S. congress to oppose it, said the deal was "dangerous" and "bad."
On December 23, 2016, under the Obama administration, the United States abstained from United Nations Security Council Resolution 2334, which condemned Israeli settlement building in the occupied Palestinian territories as a violation of international law, effectively allowing it to pass. Netanyahu strongly criticized the Obama administration's actions, and the Israeli government withdrew its annual dues from the organization, which totaled $6 million, on January 6, 2017. On January 5, 2017, the United States House of Representatives voted 342–80 to condemn the UN Resolution.
==== Libya ====
In February 2011, protests in Libya began against long-time dictator Muammar Gaddafi as part of the Arab Spring. They soon turned violent. In March, as forces loyal to Gaddafi advanced on rebels across Libya, calls for a no-fly zone came from around the world, including Europe, the Arab League, and a resolution passed unanimously by the U.S. Senate. In response to the passage of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973 on March 17, the Foreign Minister of Libya Moussa Koussa announced a ceasefire. However Gaddafi's forces continued to attack the rebels.
On March 19, a multinational coalition led by France and the United Kingdom with Italian and U.S. support, approved by Obama, took part in air strikes to destroy the Libyan government's air defense capabilities to protect civilians and enforce a no-fly-zone, including the use of Tomahawk missiles, B-2 Spirits, and fighter jets. Six days later, on March 25, by unanimous vote of all its 28 members, NATO took over leadership of the effort, dubbed Operation Unified Protector. Some members of Congress questioned whether Obama had the constitutional authority to order military action in addition to questioning its cost, structure and aftermath. In 2016 Obama said "Our coalition could have and should have done more to fill a vacuum left behind" and that it was "a mess". He has stated that the lack of preparation surrounding the days following the government's overthrow was the "worst mistake" of his presidency.
==== Syrian civil war ====
On August 18, 2011, several months after the start of the Syrian civil war, Obama issued a written statement that said: "The time has come for President Assad to step aside." This stance was reaffirmed in November 2015. In 2012, Obama authorized multiple programs run by the CIA and the Pentagon to train anti-Assad rebels. The Pentagon-run program was later found to have failed and was formally abandoned in October 2015.
In the wake of a chemical weapons attack in Syria, formally blamed by the Obama administration on the Assad government, Obama chose not to enforce the "red line" he had pledged and, rather than authorize the promised military action against Assad, went along with the Russia-brokered deal that led to Assad giving up chemical weapons; however attacks with chlorine gas continued. In 2014, Obama authorized an air campaign aimed primarily at ISIL.
==== Iran nuclear talks ====
On October 1, 2009, the Obama administration went ahead with a Bush administration program, increasing nuclear weapons production. The "Complex Modernization" initiative expanded two existing nuclear sites to produce new bomb parts. In November 2013, the Obama administration opened negotiations with Iran to prevent it from acquiring nuclear weapons, which included an interim agreement. Negotiations took two years with numerous delays, with a deal being announced on July 14, 2015. The deal titled the "Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action" saw sanctions removed in exchange for measures that would prevent Iran from producing nuclear weapons. While Obama hailed the agreement as being a step towards a more hopeful world, the deal drew strong criticism from Republican and conservative quarters, and from Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu. In addition, the transfer of $1.7 billion in cash to Iran shortly after the deal was announced was criticized by the Republican party. The Obama administration said that the payment in cash was because of the "effectiveness of U.S. and international sanctions." In order to advance the deal, the Obama administration shielded Hezbollah from the Drug Enforcement Administration's Project Cassandra investigation regarding drug smuggling and from the Central Intelligence Agency.
On a side note, the very same year, in December 2015, Obama started a $348 billion worth program to back the biggest U.S. buildup of nuclear arms since Ronald Reagan left the White House.
==== Russia ====
In March 2010, an agreement was reached with the administration of Russian President Dmitry Medvedev to replace the 1991 Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty with a new pact reducing the number of long-range nuclear weapons in the arsenals of both countries by about a third. Obama and Medvedev signed the New START treaty in April 2010, and the U.S. Senate ratified it in December 2010. In December 2011, Obama instructed agencies to consider LGBT rights when issuing financial aid to foreign countries. In August 2013, he criticized Russia's law that discriminates against homosexual people, but he stopped short of advocating a boycott of the upcoming 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, Russia.
After Russia's invasion of Crimea in 2014, military intervention in Syria in 2015, and the interference in the 2016 U.S. presidential election, George Robertson, a former UK defense secretary and NATO secretary-general, said Obama had "allowed Putin to jump back on the world stage and test the resolve of the West", adding that the legacy of this disaster would last.
== Post-presidency (2017–present) ==
Obama's presidency ended on January 20, 2017, upon the inauguration of his successor, Donald Trump. The family moved to a house they rented in Kalorama, Washington, D.C. On March 2, the John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum awarded the Profile in Courage Award to Obama "for his enduring commitment to democratic ideals and elevating the standard of political courage." His first public appearance since leaving the office was a seminar at the University of Chicago on April 24, where he appealed for a new generation to participate in politics. On September 7, Obama partnered with former presidents Jimmy Carter, George H. W. Bush, Bill Clinton, and George W. Bush to work with One America Appeal to help the victims of Hurricane Harvey and Hurricane Irma in the Gulf Coast and Texas communities. From October 31 to November 1, Obama hosted the inaugural summit of the Obama Foundation, which he intended to be the central focus of his post-presidency and part of his ambitions for his subsequent activities following his presidency to be more consequential than his time in office.
Barack and Michelle Obama signed a deal on May 22, 2018, to produce docu-series, documentaries and features for Netflix under the Obamas' newly formed production company, Higher Ground Productions. Higher Ground's first film, American Factory, won the Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature in 2020. On October 24, a pipe bomb addressed to Obama was intercepted by the Secret Service. It was one of several pipe-bombs that had been mailed out to Democratic lawmakers and officials. In 2019, Barack and Michelle Obama bought a home on Martha's Vineyard from Wyc Grousbeck. On October 29, Obama criticized "wokeness" and call-out culture at the Obama Foundation's annual summit.
Obama was reluctant to make an endorsement in the 2020 Democratic presidential primaries because he wanted to position himself to unify the party, regardless of the nominee. On April 14, 2020, Obama endorsed his former vice president, Joe Biden, the presumptive nominee, for president in the presidential election, stating that he has "all the qualities we need in a president right now." In May, Obama criticized President Trump for his handling of the COVID-19 pandemic, calling his response to the crisis "an absolute chaotic disaster", and stating that the consequences of the Trump presidency have been "our worst impulses unleashed, our proud reputation around the world badly diminished, and our democratic institutions threatened like never before." On November 17, Obama's presidential memoir, A Promised Land, was released.
Obama and his wife attended the inauguration of Joe Biden in January 2021.
In February 2021, Obama and musician Bruce Springsteen started a podcast called Renegades: Born in the USA where the two talk about "their backgrounds, music and their 'enduring love of America.'" Later that year, Regina Hicks had signed a deal with Netflix, in a venture with his and Michelle's Higher Ground to develop comedy projects.
On March 4, 2022, Obama won an Audio Publishers Association (APA) Award in the best narration by the author category for the narration of his memoir A Promised Land. On April 5, Obama visited the White House for the first time since leaving office, in an event celebrating the 12th annual anniversary of the signing of the Affordable Care Act. In June, it was announced that the Obamas and their podcast production company, Higher Ground, signed a multi-year deal with Audible. In September, Obama visited the White House to unveil his and Michelle's official White House portraits. Around the same time, he won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Narrator for his narration in the Netflix documentary series Our Great National Parks.
In 2022, Obama opposed expanding the Supreme Court beyond the present nine Justices.
In March 2023, Obama traveled to Australia as a part of his speaking tour of the country. During the trip, Obama met with Australian prime minister Anthony Albanese and visited Melbourne for the first time. Obama was reportedly paid more than $1 million for two speeches.
In October 2023, during the Gaza war, Obama declared that Israel must dismantle Hamas in the wake of the Hamas-led attack on Israel. Weeks later, Obama warned Israel that its actions could "harden Palestinian attitudes for generations" and weaken international support for Israel; any military strategy that ignored the war's human costs "could ultimately backfire."
In July 2024, Obama expressed concerns about Biden's campaign viability after his critically maligned debate performance against former president Trump. On July 21, Biden withdrew his candidacy and swiftly endorsed Vice President Harris right after to run as the Democratic nominee. Obama endorsed Harris alongside his wife Michelle five days later and delivered a speech at the 2024 Democratic National Convention formally endorsing her. He joined Harris on the campaign trail in October, traveling to various swing states and emphasizing her record as a prosecutor, senator, and vice president and advocating for increased voter turnout, and his criticisms of Donald Trump and the Republican Party were widely reported by various media outlets. After Trump was declared the winner of the election on November 6, Obama and Michelle congratulated him and Vice President–elect JD Vance while praising the Harris campaign and calling on liberal voters to continue supporting democracy and human rights.
Obama attended the second inauguration of Donald Trump in January 2025.
== Cultural and political image ==
Obama's family history, upbringing, and Ivy League education differ markedly from those of African-American politicians who rose to prominence in the 1960s through their involvement in the civil rights movement. Expressing puzzlement over questions about whether he is "black enough", Obama told an August 2007 meeting of the National Association of Black Journalists that "we're still locked in this notion that if you appeal to white folks then there must be something wrong." Obama acknowledged his youthful image in an October 2007 campaign speech, remarking: "I wouldn't be here if, time and again, the torch had not been passed to a new generation." Obama has frequently been referred to as an exceptional orator. During his pre-inauguration transition period and continuing into his presidency, Obama delivered a series of weekly video addresses on YouTube.
=== Job approval ===
According to the Gallup Organization, Obama began his presidency with a 68 percent approval rating, the fifth highest for a president following their swearing in. His ratings remained above the majority level until November 2009 and by August 2010 his approval was in the low 40s, a trend similar to Ronald Reagan's and Bill Clinton's first years in office. Following the death of Osama bin Laden on May 2, 2011, Obama experienced a small poll bounce and steadily maintained 50–53 percent approval for about a month, until his approval numbers dropped back to the low 40s.
His approval rating fell to 38 percent on several occasions in late 2011 before recovering in mid-2012 with polls showing an average approval of 50 percent. After his second inauguration in 2013, Obama's approval ratings remained stable around 52 percent before declining for the rest of the year and eventually bottoming out at 39 percent in December. In polling conducted before the 2014 midterm elections, Obama's approval ratings were at their lowest with his disapproval rating reaching a high of 57 percent. His approval rating continued to lag throughout most of 2015 but began to reach the high 40s by the end of the year. According to Gallup, Obama's approval rating reached 50 percent in March 2016, a level unseen since May 2013. In polling conducted January 16–19, 2017, Obama's final approval rating was 59 percent, which placed him on par with George H. W. Bush and Dwight D. Eisenhower, whose final Gallup ratings also measured in the high 50s.
Obama has maintained relatively positive public perceptions after his presidency. In Gallup's retrospective approval polls of former presidents, Obama garnered a 63 percent approval rating in 2018 and again in 2023, ranking him the fourth most popular president since World War II.
=== Foreign perceptions ===
Polls showed strong support for Obama in other countries both before and during his presidency. In a February 2009 poll conducted in Western Europe and the U.S. by Harris Interactive for France 24 and the International Herald Tribune, Obama was rated as the most respected world leader, as well as the most powerful. In a similar poll conducted by Harris in May 2009, Obama was rated as the most popular world leader, as well as the one figure most people would pin their hopes on for pulling the world out of the economic downturn.
On October 9, 2009—only nine months into his first term—the Norwegian Nobel Committee announced that Obama had won the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize "for his extraordinary efforts to strengthen international diplomacy and cooperation between peoples", which drew a mixture of praise and criticism from world leaders and media figures. He became the fourth U.S. president to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, and the third to become a Nobel laureate while in office. He himself called it a "call to action" and remarked: "I do not view it as a recognition of my own accomplishments but rather an affirmation of American leadership on behalf of aspirations held by people in all nations".
== Legacy and recognition ==
Obama has been described as one of the most effective campaigners in American history (his 2008 campaign being particularly highlighted) as well as one of the most talented political orators of the 21st century. Historian Julian Zelizer credits Obama with "a keen sense of how the institutions of government work and the ways that his team could design policy proposals." Zeitzer notes Obama's policy successes included the economic stimulus package which ended the Great Recession and the Dodd-Frank financial and consumer protection reforms, as well as the Affordable Care Act. Zeitzer also notes the Democratic Party lost power and numbers of elected officials during Obama's term, saying that the consensus among historians is that Obama "turned out to be a very effective policymaker but not a tremendously successful party builder." Zeitzer calls this the "defining paradox of Obama's presidency".
The Brookings Institution noted that Obama passed "only one major legislative achievement (Obamacare)—and a fragile one at that—the legacy of Obama's presidency mainly rests on its tremendous symbolic importance and the fate of a patchwork of executive actions." David W. Wise noted that Obama fell short "in areas many Progressives hold dear", including the continuation of drone strikes, not going after big banks during the Great Recession, and failing to strengthen his coalition before pushing for Obamacare. Wise called Obama's legacy that of "a disappointingly conventional president".
Obama's most significant accomplishment is generally considered to be the Affordable Care Act (ACA), provisions of which went into effect from 2010 to 2020. Many attempts by Senate Republicans to repeal the ACA, including a "skinny repeal", have thus far failed. However, in 2017, the penalty for violating the individual mandate was repealed effective 2019. Together with the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act amendment, it represents the U.S. healthcare system's most significant regulatory overhaul and expansion of coverage since the passage of Medicare and Medicaid in 1965.
Many commentators credit Obama with averting a threatened depression and pulling the economy back from the Great Recession. According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, the Obama administration created 11.3 million jobs from the month after his first inauguration to the end of his second term. In 2010, Obama signed into effect the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act. Passed as a response to the 2008 financial crisis, it brought the most significant changes to financial regulation in the United States since the regulatory reform that followed the Great Depression under Democratic President Franklin D. Roosevelt.
In 2009, Obama signed into law the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2010, which contained in it the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act, the first addition to existing federal hate crime law in the United States since Democratic President Bill Clinton signed into law the Church Arson Prevention Act of 1996. The act expanded existing federal hate crime laws in the United States, and made it a federal crime to assault people based on sexual orientation, gender identity, or disability.
As president, Obama advanced LGBT rights. In 2010, he signed the Don't Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act, which brought an end to "don't ask, don't tell" policy in the U.S. armed forces that banned open service from LGBT people; the law went into effect the following year. In 2016, his administration brought an end to the ban on transgender people serving openly in the U.S. armed forces. A Gallup poll, taken in the final days of Obama's term, showed that 68 percent of Americans believed the U.S. had made progress on LGBT rights during Obama's eight years in office.
Obama substantially escalated the use of drone strikes against suspected militants and terrorists associated with al-Qaeda and the Taliban. In 2016, the last year of his presidency, the U.S. dropped 26,171 bombs on seven different countries. Obama left about 8,400 U.S. troops in Afghanistan, 5,262 in Iraq, 503 in Syria, 133 in Pakistan, 106 in Somalia, seven in Yemen, and two in Libya at the end of his presidency.
According to Pew Research Center and United States Bureau of Justice Statistics, from December 31, 2009, to December 31, 2015, inmates sentenced in U.S. federal custody declined by five percent. This is the largest decline in sentenced inmates in U.S. federal custody of any president since Jimmy Carter. By contrast, the federal prison population increased significantly under presidents Ronald Reagan, George H. W. Bush, Bill Clinton, and George W. Bush.
Human Rights Watch (HRW) called Obama's human rights record "mixed", adding that "he has often treated human rights as a secondary interest—nice to support when the cost was not too high, but nothing like a top priority he championed."
Obama left office in January 2017 with a 60 percent approval rating. He gained 10 spots from the same survey in 2015 from the Brookings Institution that ranked him the 18th-greatest American president. In Gallup's 2018 job approval poll for the past 10 U.S. presidents, he received a 63 percent approval rating.
=== Presidential library ===
The Barack Obama Presidential Center is Obama's planned presidential library. It will be hosted by the University of Chicago and located in Jackson Park on the South Side of Chicago.
=== Awards and honors ===
Obama received the Norwegian Nobel Committee's Nobel Peace Prize in 2009, The Shoah Foundation Institute for Visual History and Education's Ambassador of Humanity Award in 2014, the John F. Kennedy Profile in Courage Award in 2017, and the Robert F. Kennedy Center for Justice and Human Rights Ripple of Hope Award in 2018. He was named TIME Magazine's Time Person of the Year in 2008 and 2012. He also received two Grammy Awards for Best Spoken Word Album for Dreams from My Father (2006), and The Audacity of Hope (2008) as well as three Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Narrator for Our Great National Parks (2022), Working: What We Do All Day (2023), and Our Oceans (2025). He also won two Children's and Family Emmy Awards. In 2024 he became the first and so far only President from the Democratic Party to win the Sylvanus Thayer Award.
=== Eponymy ===
== Bibliography ==
== See also ==
=== Politics ===
DREAM Act – American legislative proposal on immigration
Fraud Enforcement and Recovery Act of 2009 – American federal law
Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 – Legislation changing US immigration law
IRS targeting controversy – 2013 American tax administration scandal
Middle Class Tax Relief and Job Creation Act of 2012
National Broadband Plan (United States) – Strategic plan to improve internet access
Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy – Program office of the U.S. Department of Energy
Social policy of the Barack Obama administration
SPEECH Act – 2010 U.S. law limiting foreign defamation cases
Stay with It
White House Office of Energy and Climate Change Policy – U.S. government entity
=== Other ===
Roberts Court – Period of the US Supreme Court since 2005
Speeches of Barack Obama
=== Lists ===
Assassination threats against Barack Obama
List of African-American United States senators
List of Barack Obama 2008 presidential campaign endorsements
List of Barack Obama 2012 presidential campaign endorsements
List of federal political scandals, 2009–17
List of people granted executive clemency by Barack Obama
List of presidents of the United States
List of presidents of the United States by previous experience
List of things named after Barack Obama
== Notes ==
== References ==
=== Bibliography ===
== Further reading ==
== External links ==
=== Official ===
Official website of The Obama Foundation
Official website of the Barack Obama Presidential Library
Official website of Organizing for Action
White House biography
=== Other ===
Column archive at The Huffington Post
Barack Obama on Twitter
United States Congress. "Barack Obama (id: O000167)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress.
Appearances on C-SPAN
Barack Obama at IMDb
Barack Obama collected news and commentary at The New York Times
Barack Obama articles in the archive of the Chicago Tribune
Works by Barack Obama at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Barack Obama at the Internet Archive
Works by Barack Obama at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
Barack Obama on Nobelprize.org
Barack Obama at Politifact |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Dialect_Society#List_of_Words_of_the_Year | American Dialect Society | The American Dialect Society (ADS), founded in 1889, is a learned society "dedicated to the study of the English language in North America, and of other languages, or dialects of other languages, influencing it or influenced by it." The Society publishes the academic journal American Speech.
Since its foundation, dialectologists in English-speaking North America have affiliated themselves with the American Dialect Society, an association which in its first constitution defined its objective as "the investigation of the spoken English of the United States and Canada" (Constitution, 1890). Over the years, its objective has remained essentially the same, only expanded to encompass "the English language in North America, together with other languages or dialects of other languages influencing it or influenced by it" (Fundamentals, 1991).
== History ==
The organization was founded as part of an effort to create a comprehensive American dialect dictionary, a near century-long undertaking that culminated in the publication of the Dictionary of American Regional English. In 1889, when Joseph Wright began editing the English Dialect Dictionary, a group of American philologists founded the American Dialect Society with the ultimate purpose of producing a similar work for the United States.
Members of the Society began to collect material, much of which was published in the Society's journal Dialect Notes, but little was done toward compiling a dictionary recording nationwide usage until Frederic G. Cassidy was appointed Chief Editor in 1963. The first volume of the Dictionary of American Regional English, covering the letters A-C, was published in 1985. The other major project of the Society is the Linguistic Atlas of the United States and Canada.
== Membership ==
The Society has never had more than a few hundred active members. With so few scholars advancing the enterprise, the developments in the field came slowly. Members of the organization include "linguists, lexicographers, etymologists, grammarians, historians, researchers, writers, authors, editors, professors, university students, and independent scholars." Its activities include a mailing list, which deals chiefly with American English but also carries some discussion of other issues of linguistic interest.
== Word of the Year ==
Since 1991, the American Dialect Society has designated one or more words or terms to be the word of the year. The New York Times stated that the American Dialect Society "probably started" the "word-of-the-year ritual". However, the "Gesellschaft für deutsche Sprache" (GfdS) has announced a word of the year since 1977.
Special votes that they've made:
Word of the 20th Century: jazz
Word of the Past Millennium: she
Word of the Decade (1990–1999): web
Word of the Decade (2000–2009): Google (verb)
Word of the Decade (2010–2019): they (singular)
The society also selects words in other categories that vary from year to year, such as "most original", "most unnecessary", "most outrageous", or "most likely to succeed" (see: Word of the year).
A number of words chosen by the ADS are also on the lists of Merriam-Webster's Words of the Year.
=== List of Words of the Year ===
== See also ==
American English
Language planning
Language Report from Oxford University Press
Lists of Merriam-Webster's Words of the Year
Neologism
Word formation
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Lerer, Seth (2007). Inventing English: A Portable History of the Language. New York, New York: Columbia University Press. p. 195.
Mencken, H.L. (2006). The American Language: An Inquiry into the Development of English in the United States. Alfred A. Knopf.
Metcalf, Allan A. (2002). Predicting New Words: The Secrets of Their Success. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin Company. p. 188. ISBN 9780618130061.
Sheidlower, Jesse (January 11, 2005). "Linguists Gone Wild! Why "wardrobe malfunction" wasn't the word of the year". Slate Magazine. The Slate Group, LLC.
Wolfram, Walt; Natalie Schilling-Estes (2006). American English: Dialects and Variation. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing. p. 24.
== External links ==
Official website
American Dialect Society, information page at Duke University Press
Publication of the American Dialect Society, archive articles at Duke University Press
American Dialect Society, information page at American Council of Learned Societies (ACLS)
American Dialect Society, news page at Dictionary Society of North America
American Dialect Society Collection, at Library of Congress
American Dialect Society, publications listed with timeline at WorldCat, from participation in the Online Computer Library Center
Creator: American Dialect Society, at website of Internet Archive |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himachal_Pradesh#:~:text=Himachal%20Pradesh%20is%20also%20known,'Land%20of%20the%20Brave'. | Himachal Pradesh | Himachal Pradesh (Hindi: Himācal Pradeś, pronounced [ɦɪˈmäːtʃəl pɾəˈd̪eːʃ]; Sanskrit: himācāl prādes; lit. "Snow-laden Mountain Province") is a state in the northern part of India. Situated in the Western Himalayas, it is one of the 13 mountain states and is characterised by an extreme landscape featuring several peaks and extensive river systems. Himachal Pradesh is the northernmost state of India and shares borders with the union territories of Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh to the north, and the states of Punjab to the west, Haryana to the southwest, Uttarakhand to the southeast and a very narrow border with Uttar Pradesh to the south. The state also shares an international border to the east with the Tibet Autonomous Region in China. Himachal Pradesh is also known as Dev Bhoomi, meaning 'Land of Gods' and Veer Bhoomi which means 'Land of the Brave'.
The predominantly mountainous region comprising the present-day Himachal Pradesh has been inhabited since pre-historic times, having witnessed multiple waves of human migrations from other areas. Through its history, the region was mostly ruled by local kingdoms, some of which accepted the suzerainty of larger empires. Prior to India's independence from the British, Himachal comprised the hilly regions of the Punjab Province of British India. After independence, many of the hilly territories were organised as the Chief Commissioner's province of Himachal Pradesh, which later became a Union Territory. In 1966, hilly areas of the neighbouring Punjab state were merged into Himachal and it was ultimately granted full statehood in 1971.
Himachal Pradesh is spread across valleys with many perennial rivers flowing through them. Agriculture, horticulture, hydropower, and tourism are important constituents of the state's economy. The hilly state is almost universally electrified, with 99.5% of households having electricity as of 2016. The state was declared India's second open-defecation-free state in 2016. According to a survey of CMS-India Corruption Study in 2017, Himachal Pradesh is India's least corrupt state.
Himachal Pradesh is divided into 12 districts.
== Etymology ==
The name of the state is a reference to its setting: Himachal means "snowy slopes" (Sanskrit: hima, meaning "snow"; acala/achala, meaning "slopes", or "land", or "abode"). Himachal Pradesh (ɦɪˈmaːtʃəl pɾəˈdeːʃ; literally "snow-laden province"). Himachal refers to being in the "aanchal" of the Himalayas hence; sheltered by the Himalayas or by the snow. It means "the land in the lap of the snowy Himalayas". Pradesh means "state". Himachal was referenced by Diwakar Datt Sharma, a Sanskrit scholar, after independence, when "Jan Gan Man" was revealed publicly by Pt. Nehru from Gurudev Tagore's diary. The word was added in the national anthem of India, "Jan Gan Man", by Gurudev Rabindranath Tagore when he was writing and composing it. Later, after the independence of India, Punjab province was divided and the name was given, officially to the mountain state as Himachal Pradesh.
== History ==
=== Early history ===
Tribes such as the Koli, Hali, Dagi, Dhaugri, Dasa, Khasa, Kanaura, and Kirata inhabited the region from the prehistoric era. The foothills of the modern state of Himachal Pradesh were inhabited by people from the Indus valley civilisation, which flourished between 2250 and 1750 BCE. The Kols and Mundas are believed to be the original inhabitants to the hills of present-day Himachal Pradesh, followed by the Bhotas and Kiratas.
During the Vedic period, several small republics known as Janapada existed which were later conquered by the Gupta Empire. After a brief period of supremacy by King Harshavardhana, the region was divided into several local powers headed by chieftains, including some Rajput principalities. These kingdoms enjoyed a large degree of independence and were invaded by Delhi Sultanate several times. Mahmud Ghaznavi conquered Kangra at the beginning of the 11th century. Timur and Sikander Lodi also marched through the lower hills of the state, captured several forts, and fought many battles. Several hill states acknowledged Mughal suzerainty and paid regular tribute to the Mughals.
The Kingdom of Gorkha conquered many kingdoms and came to power in Nepal in 1768. They consolidated their military power and began to expand their territory. Gradually, the Kingdom of Nepal annexed Sirmour and Shimla. Under the leadership of Amar Singh Thapa, the Nepali army laid siege to Kangra. They managed to defeat Sansar Chand Katoch, the ruler of Kangra, in 1806 with the help of many provincial chiefs. However, the Nepali army could not capture Kangra fort which came under Maharaja Ranjit Singh in 1809. After the defeat, they expanded towards the south of the state. However, Raja Ram Singh, Raja of Siba State, captured the fort of Siba from the remnants of Lahore Darbar in Samvat 1846, during the First Anglo-Sikh War.
They came into direct conflict with the British along the tarai belt, after which the British expelled them from the provinces of the Satluj. The British gradually emerged as the paramount power in the region. In the revolt of 1857, or first Indian war of independence, arising from several grievances against the British, the people of the hill states were not as politically active as were those in other parts of the country. They and their rulers, except Bushahr, remained more or less inactive. Some, including the rulers of Chamba, Bilaspur, Bhagal and Dhami, rendered help to the British government during the revolt.
The British territories came under the British Crown after Queen Victoria's proclamation of 1858. The states of Chamba, Mandi and Bilaspur made good progress in many fields during the British rule. During World War I, virtually all rulers of the hill states remained loyal and contributed to the British war effort, both in the form of men and materials. Among these were the states of Kangra, Jaswan, Datarpur, Guler, Rajgarh, Nurpur, Chamba, Suket, Mandi, and Bilaspur.
=== Partition and post-independence ===
After independence, the Chief Commissioner's Province of Himachal Pradesh was organised on 15 April 1948 as a result of the integration of 30 petty princely states (including feudal princes and zaildars) in the promontories of the western Himalayas. These were known as the Simla Hills States and four Punjab southern hill states under the Himachal Pradesh (Administration) Order, 1948 under Sections 3 and 4 of the Extra-Provincial Jurisdiction Act, 1947 (later renamed as the Foreign Jurisdiction Act, 1947 vide A.O. of 1950). The State of Bilaspur was merged into Himachal Pradesh on 1 July 1954 by the Himachal Pradesh and Bilaspur (New State) Act, 1954.
Himachal became a Part 'C' state on 26 January 1950 when the Constitution of India came into effect and the Lieutenant Governor was appointed. The Legislative Assembly was elected in 1952. In July 1954, following the passage of The Himachal Pradesh and Bilaspur (New State) Act, 1954 by an act of Parliament, Bilaspur State was dissolved and incorporated into the State of Himachal Pradesh as Bilaspur district. Himachal Pradesh became a union territory on 1 November 1956. Some areas of the Punjab State, namely, Simla, Kangra, Kullu and Lahul and Spiti Districts, Lohara, Amb and Una Kanungo circles, some areas of Santokhgarh Kanungo circle and some other specified area of Una Tehsil of Hoshiarpur District, as well as Kandaghat and Nalagarh Tehsils of erstwhile PEPSU State, besides some parts of Dhar Kalan Kanungo circle of Pathankot District—were merged with Himachal Pradesh on 1 November 1966 on the enactment by Parliament of the Punjab Reorganisation Act, 1966. On 18 December 1970, the State of Himachal Pradesh Act was passed by Parliament, and the new state came into being on 25 January 1971. Himachal became the 18th state of the Indian Union with Dr. Yashwant Singh Parmar as its first chief minister.
== Geography ==
Himachal is in the western Himalayas situated between 30°22′N and 33°12′N latitude and 75°47′E and 79°04′E longitude. Covering an area of 55,673 square kilometres (21,495 sq mi), it is a mountainous state. The Zanskar range runs in the northeastern part of the state and the great Himalayan range run through the eastern and northern parts, while the Dhauladhar and the Pir Panjal ranges of the lesser Himalayas, and their valleys, form much of the core regions. The outer Himalayas, or the Shiwalik range, form southern and western Himachal Pradesh. At 6,816 m, Reo Purgyil is the highest mountain peak in the state of Himachal Pradesh.
The drainage system of Himachal is composed of both rivers and glaciers. Himalayan rivers criss-cross the entire mountain chain. Himachal Pradesh provides water to both the Indus and Ganges basins. The drainage systems of the region are the Chandra Bhaga or the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas, the Sutlej, and the Yamuna. These rivers are perennial and are fed by snow and rainfall. They are protected by an extensive cover of natural vegetation. Four of the five Punjab rivers flow through Himachal Pradesh, three of them originating in the state. These rivers run through a maze of valleys separated by the mountain ranges of the state. The Satluj Valley is formed by the Satluj river entering the state near Shipki La, while the Spiti and Baspa Valleys are formed by the river's two major tributaries in the state. The Beas river flows though the Kullu and the Kangra Valleys, with tributary Parvati forming the Parvati Valley. The Chenab river, formed by the confluence of the Chandra and Bhaga, forms much of the northern regions of Lahaul and Pangi, and the Ravi river flows principally through Chamba. The Pabbar and Giri rivers in the southeast are part of the Yamuna basin.
Due to extreme variation in elevation, great variation occurs in the climatic conditions of Himachal Pradesh. The climate varies from hot and humid subtropical in the southern tracts to, with more elevation, cold, alpine, and glacial in the northern and eastern mountain ranges. The state's winter capital, Dharamsala receives very heavy rainfall, while areas like Lahaul and Spiti are cold and almost rainless. Broadly, Himachal experiences three seasons: summer, winter, and rainy season. Summer lasts from mid-April until the end of June and most parts become very hot (except in the alpine zone which experiences a mild summer) with the average temperature ranging from 28 to 32 °C (82 to 90 °F). Winter lasts from late November until mid-March. Snowfall is common in alpine tracts. Pollution is affecting the climate of almost all the states of India. Due to steps taken by governments to prevent pollution, Himachal Pradesh has become the first smoke-free state in India which means cooking in the entire state is free of traditional chulhas.
In a statement on 29 March 2025, Town and Country Planning Minister, Rajesh Dharmani, highlighted the state government's policy of sustainable development, citing the "Green Himachal vision" and ongoing efforts to meet sustainable development goals.
=== Flora and fauna ===
Himachal Pradesh is one of the states that lies in the Indian Himalayan Region (IHR), one of the richest reservoirs of biological diversity in the world. As of 2002, the IHR is undergoing large scale irrational extraction of wild, medicinal herbs, thus endangering many of its high-value gene stock. To address this, a workshop on 'Endangered Medicinal Plant Species in Himachal Pradesh' was held in 2002 and the conference was attended by forty experts from diverse disciplines.
According to 2003 Forest Survey of India report, legally defined forest areas constitute 66.52% of the area of Himachal Pradesh. Vegetation in the state is dictated by elevation and precipitation. The state is endowed with a high diversity of medicinal and aromatic plants. Lahaul-Spiti region of the state, being a cold desert, supports unique plants of medicinal value including Ferula jaeschkeana, Hyoscyamus niger, Lancea tibetica, and Saussurea bracteata.
Himachal is also said to be the fruit bowl of the country, with widespread orchards. Meadows and pastures are also seen clinging to steep slopes. After the winter season, the hillsides and orchards bloom with wild flowers, white gladiolas, carnations, marigolds, roses, chrysanthemums, tulips and lilies are carefully cultivated. Himachal Pradesh Horticultural Produce Marketing and Processing Corporation Ltd. (HPMC) is a state body that markets fresh and processed fruits.
Himachal Pradesh has around 463 birds, and Tragopan melanocephalus is the state bird of Himanchal Pradesh 77 mammalian, 44 reptile and 80 fish species. Himachal Pradesh has currently five National Parks. Great Himalayan National Park, which is the oldest and largest National park in the state, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Pin Valley National Park, Inderkilla, Khirganga and Simbalbara are the other national Parks located in the state. The state also has 30 wildlife sanctuaries and 3 conservation reserves. The state bird of Himachal Pradesh is the Western tragopan, locally known as the jujurana. It is one of the rarest living pheasants in the world. The state animal is the snow leopard, which is even rarer to find than the jujurana.
== Government ==
The Legislative Assembly of Himachal Pradesh has no pre-constitution history. The State itself is a post-independence creation. It came into being as a centrally administered territory on 15 April 1948 from the integration of thirty erstwhile princely states.
Himachal Pradesh is governed through a parliamentary system of representative democracy, a feature the state shares with other Indian states. Universal suffrage is granted to residents. The legislature consists of elected members and special office bearers such as the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker who are elected by the members. Assembly meetings are presided over by the Speaker or the Deputy Speaker in the Speaker's absence. The judiciary is composed of the Himachal Pradesh High Court and a system of lower courts.
Executive authority is vested in the Council of Ministers headed by the Chief Minister, although the titular head of government is the Governor. The governor is the head of state appointed by the President of India. The leader of the party or coalition with a majority in the Legislative Assembly is appointed as the Chief Minister by the governor, and the Council of Ministers are appointed by the governor on the advice of the Chief Minister. The Council of Ministers reports to the Legislative Assembly. The Assembly is unicameral with 68 Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLA). Terms of office run for five years, unless the Assembly is dissolved prior to the completion of the term. Auxiliary authorities known as panchayats, for which local body elections are regularly held, govern local affairs.
In the assembly elections held in November 2022, the Indian National Congress secured an absolute majority, winning 40 of the 68 seats while the BJP won only 25 of the 68 seats. Sukhvinder Singh Sukhu was sworn in as Himachal Pradesh's 15th Chief Minister in Shimla on 11 December 2022. Mukesh Agnihotri was sworn in as his deputy the same day.
== Administrative divisions ==
The state of Himachal Pradesh is divided into 12 districts which are grouped into three divisions, Shimla, Kangra and Mandi. The districts are further divided into 73 subdivisions, 78 blocks and 172 Tehsils.
== Economy ==
Planning in Himachal Pradesh started in 1951 along with the rest of India with the implementation of the first five-year plan. The First Plan allocated ₹52.7 million to Himachal Pradesh. More than 50% of this expenditure was incurred on transport and communication; while the power sector got a share of just 4.6%, though it had steadily increased to 7% by the Third Plan. Expenditure on agriculture and allied activities increased from 14.4% in the First Plan to 32% in the Third Plan, showing a progressive decline afterwards from 24% in the Fourth Plan to less than 10% in the Tenth Plan. Expenditure on energy sector was 24.2% of the total in the Tenth Plan.
The total GDP for 2005–06 was estimated at ₹254 billion as against ₹230 billion in the year 2004–05, showing an increase of 10.5%. The GDP for fiscal 2015–16 was estimated at ₹1.110 trillion, which increased to ₹1.247 trillion in 2016–17, recording growth of 6.8%. The per capita income increased from ₹130,067 in 2015–16 to ₹147,277 in 2016–17. The state government's advance estimates for fiscal 2017–18 stated the total GDP and per capita income as ₹1.359 trillion and ₹158,462, respectively. As of 2018, Himachal is the 22nd-largest state economy in India with ₹1.52 lakh crore (US$18 billion) in gross domestic product and has the 13th-highest per capita income (₹160,000 (US$1,900)) among the states and union territories of India.
Himachal Pradesh also ranks as the second-best performing state in the country on human development indicators after Kerala. One of the Indian government's key initiatives to tackle unemployment is the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA). The participation of women in the NREGA has been observed to vary across different regions of the nation. As of the year 2009–2010, Himachal Pradesh joined the category of high female participation, recording a 46% share of NREGS (National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme) workdays for women. This was a drastic increase from the 13% that was recorded in 2006–2007.
=== Agriculture ===
Agriculture accounts for 9.4% of the net state domestic product. It is the main source of income and employment in Himachal. About 90% of the population in Himachal depends directly upon agriculture, which provides direct employment to 62% of total workers of state. The main cereals grown include wheat, maize, rice and barley with major cropping systems being maize-wheat, rice-wheat and maize-potato-wheat. Pulses, fruits, vegetables and oilseeds are among the other crops grown in the state. Centuries-old traditional Kuhl irrigation system is prevalent in the Kangra valley, though in recent years these Kuhls have come under threat from hydroprojects on small streams in the valley. Land husbandry initiatives such as the Mid-Himalayan Watershed Development Project, which includes the Himachal Pradesh Reforestation Project (HPRP), the world's largest clean development mechanism (CDM) undertaking, have improved agricultural yields and productivity, and raised rural household incomes.
Apple is the principal cash crop of the state grown principally in the districts of Shimla, Kinnaur, Kullu, Mandi, Chamba and some parts of Sirmaur and Lahaul-Spiti with an average annual production of five lakh tonnes and per hectare production of 8 to 10 tonnes. The apple cultivation constitute 49 per cent of the total area under fruit crops and 85% of total fruit production in the state with an estimated economy of ₹3500 crore. Apples from Himachal are exported to other Indian states and even other countries. In 2011–12, the total area under apple cultivation was 104,000 hectares, increased from 90,347 hectares in 2000–01. According to the provisional estimates of Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare, the annual apple production in Himachal for fiscal 2015–16 stood at 753,000 tonnes, making it India's second-largest apple-producing state after Jammu and Kashmir. The state is also among the leading producers of other fruits such as apricots, cherries, peaches, pears, plums and strawberries in India.
Kangra tea is grown in the Kangra valley. Tea plantation began in 1849, and production peaked in the late 19th century with the tea becoming popular across the globe. Production dipped sharply after the 1905 Kangra earthquake and continues to decline. The tea received geographical indication status in 2005.
=== Industry ===
==== Pharma hub ====
Himachal Pradesh is renowned as Asia's pharmaceutical hub, housing a total of 652 pharmaceutical units. The state hosts a thriving ₹40,000 crore drug manufacturing industry.
=== Energy ===
Hydropower is one of the major sources of income generation for the state. The state has an abundance of hydropower resources because of the presence of various perennial rivers. Many high-capacity hydropower plants have been constructed which produce surplus electricity that is sold to other states, such as Delhi, Punjab and West Bengal. The income generated from exporting the electricity to other states is being provided as subsidy to the consumers in the state. The rich hydropower resources of Himachal have resulted in the state becoming almost universally electrified with around 94.8% houses receiving electricity as of 2001, as compared to the national average of 55.9%. Himachal's hydro-electric power production is, however, yet to be fully utilised. The identified hydroelectric potential for the state is 27,436 MW in five river basins while the hydroelectric capacity in 2016 was 10,351 MW.
== Tourism ==
Tourism in Himachal Pradesh is a major contributor to the state's economy and growth. The Himalayas attracts tourists from all over the world. Hill stations like Shimla, Manali, Dharamshala, Dalhousie, Chamba, Khajjiar, Kullu and Kasauli are popular destinations for both domestic and foreign tourists. The state has 5 Shakti Peeths - Chintpurni, Jwalamukhi Temple, Bajreshwari Mata Temple, Shri Chamunda Devi Mandir and Naina Devi Temple. The state also has many important Hindu pilgrimage sites with prominent temples like Baijnath Temple, Bhimakali Temple, Bijli Mahadev and Jakhoo Temple. Manimahesh Lake situated in the Bharmour region of Chamba district is the venue of an annual Hindu pilgrimage trek held in the month of August which attracts lakhs of devotees. The state is also referred to as "Dev Bhoomi" (literally meaning Abode of Gods) due to its mention as such in ancient Hindu texts and occurrence of a large number of historical temples in the state.
Himachal is also known for its adventure tourism activities like ice skating in Shimla, paragliding in Bir, Himachal Pradesh and Solang Valley, rafting in Kullu, skiing in Manali, boating in Bilaspur, fishing in Tirthan Valley, trekking and horse riding in different parts of the state. Shimla, the state's capital, is home to Asia's only natural ice-skating rink. The state has some of the highest mountain passes in the world - Rohtang Pass, Baralacha La, Kunzum La, Borasu Pass and Hamta Pass. Spiti Valley in Lahaul and Spiti District situated at an altitude of over 3000 metres with its picturesque landscapes is popular destination for adventure seekers. The region also has some of the oldest Buddhist monasteries in the world.
Himachal hosted the first Paragliding World Cup in India from 24 to 31 October in 2015. Bir Billing, the venue for the paragliding world cup, is known as the launching site of paragliding. It is 70 km from the tourist town of Mcleod Ganj and is located in the heart of Himachal in Kangra district. Bir Billing is the centre for aero sports in Himachal and considered as best for paragliding. While Bir, the paragliding capital of India, is the landing site for paragliding. It is also known for its tourist attractions including Buddhist monasteries, trekking to tribal villages and mountain biking. The village also hosts prominent cultural musical events like Bir Music Festival, aiming to primarily promote the tourism of Bir.
There are a variety of festivals celebrated by the locals of Himachal Pradesh who worship gods and goddesses. There are over 2000 villages in Himachal Pradesh which celebrate festivals such as Kullu Dussehra, Chamba's Minjar, Renuka ji Fair, Lohri, Halda, Phagli, Losar and Mandi Shivratri. There approximately 6000 temples in Himachal Pradesh with a known one being Bijli Mahadev. The temple is seen as a 20-meter structure built in stone which, according to locals, is known to attract lighting. They say that this is a way the Gods show their blessings.
The Great Himalayan National Park is found in the Kullu districts of Himachal Pradesh. It has an area of 620 km2 and ranging from an altitude of 1500 meters to 4500 meters and was created in 1984. There are various forest types found here such as Deodar, Himalayan Fir, Spruce, Oak and Alpine pastures. In the Great Himalayan National Park, there are a variety of animals found such as Snow leopard, Yak, Himalayan black bear, Western tragopan, Monal and Musk deer. This National Park is a trail to many hikers and trekkers too. Moreover, there are sanctuaries which are tourist spots such as Naina Devi and Gobind Sagar Sanctuary in the Una and Bilaspur districts with an area of 220 km2. There are animals such as Indian porcupine and giant flying squirrel found here. The Gobind Sagar Lake has fish species such as Mrigal, Silver carp, Katla, Mahaseer and Rohu are found here. Narkanda located in at an altitude of around 8850 feet is known for its apple orchards. It is located between the river valleys of Giri and Sutlej.
== Transport ==
=== Air ===
Himachal has three domestic airports in Kangra, Kullu and Shimla districts, respectively. The air routes connect the state with New Delhi and Chandigarh.
Kullu–Manali Airport is in Kullu district, around 10 kilometres (6 mi) from district headquarters Kullu.
Kangra Airport is in Kangra district, around 15 kilometres (9 mi) from district headquarters at Dharamshala, which is around 10 kilometres (6 mi) from Kangra
Shimla Airport is around 22 kilometres (14 mi) west of the Shimla city.
=== Railways ===
==== Broad-gauge lines ====
The only broad-gauge railway line in the whole state connects Amb Andaura–Una Himachal railway station to Nangal Dam in Punjab and runs all the way to Daulatpur, Himachal Pradesh. It is an electrified track since 1999. While a tiny portion of line adjacent to Kandrori(KNDI) station on either side on Pathankot-Jalandhar Section, under Ferozepur Division of Northern Railway also crosses into Himachal Pradesh, before venturing out to Punjab again.
Future constructions:
Una Himachal–Hamirpur rail project via Dhundla
Bhanupali (Punjab)–Bilaspur, Himachal Pradesh
Chandigarh–Baddi
==== Narrow-gauge lines ====
Himachal is known for its narrow-gauge railways. One is the Kalka-Shimla Railway, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and another is the Kangra Valley Railway. The total length of these two tracks is 259 kilometres (161 mi). The Kalka-Shimla Railway passes through many tunnels and bridges, while the Pathankot–Jogindernagar one meanders through a maze of hills and valleys. The total route length of the operational railway network in the state is 296.26 kilometres (184.09 mi).
=== Roads ===
Roads are the major mode of transport in Himachal Pradesh due to its hilly terrain. The state has road network of 28,208 kilometres (17,528 mi), including eight National Highways (NH) that constitute 1,234 kilometres (767 mi) and 19 State Highways with a total length of 1,625 kilometres (1,010 mi). Hamirpur district has the highest road density in the country. Some roads are closed during winter and monsoon seasons due to snow and landslides. The state-owned Himachal Road Transport Corporation with a fleet of over 3,100, operates bus services connecting important cities and towns with villages within the state and also on various interstate routes. In addition, around 5,000 private buses ply in the state.
== Demographics ==
=== Population ===
Himachal Pradesh has a total population of 6,864,602 including 3,481,873 males and 3,382,729 females according to the Census of India 2011. It has only 0.57 per cent of India's total population, recording a growth of 12.81 per cent. The child sex ratio increased from 896 in 2001 to 909 in 2011. The total fertility rate (TFR) per woman in 2015 stood at 1.7, one of the lowest in India.
The scheduled castes and scheduled tribes account for 25.19 per cent and 5.71 per cent of the population, respectively. The sex ratio stood at 972 females per 1,000 males, recording a marginal increase from 968 in 2001. The main caste groups in Himachal Pradesh are Brahmins, Rajputs, Kanets, Kulindas, Girths, Gurjars, Raos, Kolis, Hollis, Chamars, Drains, Rehars, Chanals, Lohars, Baris, Julahas, Dhakhis, Turis, and Batwals.
Caste-based discrimination in Himachal Pradesh has persisted alongside the state’s relatively high human-development indicators, particularly affecting Dalit communities in rural areas. Recent high-profile incidents have reignited public debate and led to calls for stronger enforcement of the SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act. A 12-year-old boy from a Scheduled Caste was found to have died by suicide (on 17 September 2025) in Limbra village, Rohru subdivision of Shimla district, after being locked overnight in a cowshed and harassed for allegedly entering an upper-caste woman’s house. The woman has been arrested under the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act.Field work in Himachal shows that “upper castes occupy land holdings which are mostly fertile, whereas the depressed castes have very less land and that too is usually unfertile.” Research further notes that both major parties in Himachal allocate tickets and mobilise voters with regard to caste, and specifically acknowledge dependence on Thakur or upper‐caste votes.
In the census, the state is placed 21st on the population chart, followed by Tripura at 22nd place. Kangra District was top-ranked with a population strength of 1,507,223 (21.98%), Mandi District 999,518 (14.58%), Shimla District 813,384 (11.86%), Solan District 576,670 (8.41%), Sirmaur District 530,164 (7.73%), Una District 521,057 (7.60%), Chamba District 518,844 (7.57%), Hamirpur district 454,293 (6.63%), Kullu District 437,474 (6.38%), Bilaspur district 382,056 (5.57%), Kinnaur District 84,298 (1.23%) and Lahaul Spiti 31,528 (0.46%).
The life expectancy at birth in Himachal Pradesh increased significantly from 52.6 years in the period from 1970 to 1975 (above the national average of 49.7 years) to 72.0 years for the period 2011–15 (above the national average of 68.3 years). The infant mortality rate stood at 40 in 2010, and the crude birth rate has declined from 37.3 in 1971 to 16.9 in 2010, below the national average of 26.5 in 1998. The crude death rate was 6.9 in 2010. Himachal Pradesh's literacy rate has almost doubled between 1981 and 2011 (see table to right). The state is one of the most literate states of India with a literacy rate of 83.78% as of 2011.
=== Languages ===
Hindi is the de jure official language of Himachal Pradesh and is spoken by the majority of the population as a lingua franca. Sanskrit is the additional official language of the state. Although mostly encountered in academic and symbolic contexts, the government of Himachal Pradesh is encouraging its wider study and use.
Most of the population, however, speaks natively one or another of the Western Pahari languages (locally also known as Himachali or just Pahari), a subgroup of the Indo-Aryan languages that includes Bhattiyali, Bilaspuri, Chambeali, Churahi, Gaddi, Hinduri, Kangri, Kullu, Mahasu Pahari, Mandeali, Pahari Kinnauri, Pangwali, and Sirmauri. Additional Indo-Aryan languages spoken include Punjabi (native to 4.4% of the population), Nepali (1.3%), Chinali, Lahul Lohar, and others. In parts of the state there are speakers of Tibeto-Burman languages like Kinnauri (1.2%), Tibetan (0.3%), Lahuli–Spiti languages (0.16%), Pattani (0.12%), Bhoti Kinnauri, Chitkuli Kinnauri, Bunan (or Gahri), Jangshung, Kanashi, Shumcho, Spiti Bhoti, Sunam, Tinani, and Tukpa.
=== Religion ===
Hinduism is the major religion in Himachal Pradesh. More than 95% of the total population adheres to the Hindu faith and majorly follows Shaivism and Shaktism traditions, the distribution of which is evenly spread throughout the state. Himachal Pradesh has the highest proportion of Hindu population among all the states and union territories in India.
Other religions that form a smaller percentage are Islam, Sikhism and Buddhism. Muslims are mainly concentrated in Sirmaur, Chamba, Una and Solan districts where they form 2.5-6.3% of the population. Sikhs mostly live in towns and cities and constitute 1.16% of the state population. The Buddhists, who constitute 1.15%, are mainly natives and tribals from Lahaul and Spiti, where they form a majority of 62%, and Kinnaur, where they form 21.5%.
== Culture ==
Himachal Pradesh was one of the few states that had remained largely untouched by external customs, largely due to its difficult terrain. With remarkable economic and social advancements, the state has changed rapidly. Himachal Pradesh is a multilingual state like other Indian states. Western Pahari languages also known as Himachali languages are widely spoken in the state. Some of the most commonly spoken Pahadi lects are Kangri, Mandyali, Kullvi, Chambeali, Bharmauri and Kinnauri.
Himachal is well known for its handicrafts. The carpets, leather works, Kullu shawls, Kangra paintings, Chamba Rumals, stoles, embroidered grass footwear (Pullan chappal), silver jewellery, metal ware, knitted woolen socks, Pattoo, basketry of cane and bamboo (Wicker and Rattan) and woodwork are among the notable ones. Of late, the demand for these handicrafts has increased within and outside the country.
Himachali caps of various colour bands are also well-known local art work, and are often treated as a symbol of the Himachali identity. The colour of the Himachali caps has been an indicator of political loyalties in the hill state for a long period of time with Congress party leaders like Virbhadra Singh donning caps with green band and the rival BJP leader Prem Kumar Dhumal wearing a cap with maroon band. The former has served six terms as the Chief Minister of the state while the latter is a two-time Chief Minister. Local music and dance also reflect the cultural identity of the state. Through their dance and music, the Himachali people entreat their gods during local festivals and other special occasions.
There are national and regional fairs and festivals, including temple fairs in nearly every region. The Kullu Dussehra, Minjar mela and Mahashivratri Mandi festival is nationally known. The day-to-day cuisine of Himachalis is similar to the rest of northern India with Punjabi and Tibetan influences. Lentils (Dāl), rice (chāwal or bhāț), vegetables (sabzī) and chapati (wheat flatbread) form the staple food of the local population. Non-vegetarian food is more widely accepted in Himachal Pradesh than elsewhere in India, partly due to the scarcity of fresh vegetables on the hilly terrain of the state.
Himachali specialities include Siddu, Babru, Khatta, Mhanee, Channa Madra, Patrode, Mah ki dal, Chamba-style fried fish, Kullu trout, Chha Gosht, Pahadi Chicken, Sepu Badi, Auriya Kaddu, Aloo palda, Pateer, Makki di roti, Sarson ka saag, Chamba Chukh (Chouck), Bhagjery, Chutney of Til, etc.
=== Notable people ===
== Education ==
At the time of Independence, Himachal Pradesh had a literacy rate of 8% – one of the lowest in the country. By 2011, the literacy rate surged to 82.8%, making Himachal one of the most-literate states in the country. There are over 10,000 primary schools, 1,000 secondary schools and more than 1,300 high schools in the state. In meeting the constitutional obligation to make primary education compulsory, Himachal became the first state in India to make elementary education accessible to every child. Himachal Pradesh is an exception to the nationwide gender bias in education levels. The state has a female literacy rate of around 76%. In addition, school enrolment and participation rates for girls are almost universal at the primary level. While higher levels of education do reflect a gender-based disparity, Himachal is still significantly ahead of other states at bridging the gap. The Hamirpur District in particular stands out for high literacy rates across all metrics of measurement.
The state government has played an instrumental role in the rise of literacy in the state by spending a significant proportion of the state's GDP on education. During the first six five-year plans, most of the development expenditure in the education sector was utilised in quantitative expansion, but after the seventh five-year-plan the state government switched emphasis on qualitative improvement and modernisation of education. To raise the number of the teaching staff at primary schools they appointed over 1000 teacher aids through the Vidya Upasak Yojna in 2001. The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan is another HP government initiative that not only aims for universal elementary education but also encourages communities to engage in the management of schools. The Rashtriya Madhayamic Shiksha Abhiyan launched in 2009, is a similar scheme but focuses on improving access to quality secondary education.
The standard of education in the state has reached a considerably high level as compared to other states in India with several reputed educational institutes for higher studies. The Baddi University of Emerging Sciences and Technologies, Indian Institute of Technology Mandi, Indian Institute of Management Sirmaur, Himachal Pradesh University in Shimla, Central University of Himachal Pradesh, Dharamsala, National Institute of Technology, Hamirpur, Indian Institute of Information Technology Una, Alakh Prakash Goyal University, Maharaja Agrasen University, Himachal Pradesh National Law University are some of the notable universities in the state. Indira Gandhi Medical College and Hospital in Shimla, Dr. Rajendra Prasad Government Medical College in Kangra, Rajiv Gandhi Government Post Graduate Ayurvedic College in Paprola and Homoeopathic Medical College & Hospital in Kumarhatti are the prominent medical institutes in the state. Besides these, there is a Government Dental College in Shimla which is the state's first recognised dental institute.
The state government has also decided to start three major nursing colleges to develop the healthcare system of the state. CSK Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishwavidyalya Palampur is one of the most renowned hill agriculture institutes in the world. Dr. Yashwant Singh Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry has earned a unique distinction in India for imparting teaching, research and extension education in horticulture, forestry and allied disciplines. Further, state-run Jawaharlal Nehru Government Engineering College was inaugurated in 2006 at Sundernagar.
Himachal Pradesh also hosts a campus of the fashion college, National Institute of Fashion Technology (NIFT) in Kangra.
== State profile ==
Source: Department of Information and Public Relations.
== See also ==
Outline of Himachal Pradesh
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
== External links ==
Government
The official site of Himachal Pradesh
The official tourism site of Himachal Pradesh, India
General information
Himachal Pradesh at the Encyclopædia Britannica
Geographic data related to Himachal Pradesh at OpenStreetMap |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Van_Meter | Tom Van Meter | Thomas A. Van Meter (April 22, 1943 – March 7, 1992) was a member of the Ohio General Assembly. He served in the Ohio Senate from 1973 to 1982, representing the 19th District. He also ran for the Republican nomination for governor in 1978, eventually losing to former Ohio Governor Jim Rhodes. He eventually returned to the General Assembly, serving in the Ohio House of Representatives for one term. He ran for the Republican nomination in 1982, finishing 3rd to Bud Brown.
He died of cancer in 1992.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1963_Italian_general_election | 1963 Italian general election | The 1963 Italian general election was held in Italy on 28 April 1963. It was the first election with a fixed number of MPs to be elected, as decided by the second Constitutional Reform in February 1963. It was also the first election which saw the Secretary of Christian Democracy to refuse the office of Prime Minister after the vote, at least for six months, preferring to provisionally maintain his more influent post at the head of the party: this fact confirmed the transformation of Italian political system into a particracy, the secretaries of the parties having become more powerful than the Parliament and the Government.
== Electoral system ==
The pure party-list proportional representation had traditionally become the electoral system for the Chamber of Deputies. Italian provinces were united in 32 constituencies, each electing a group of candidates. At constituency level, seats were divided between open lists using the largest remainder method with Imperiali quota. Remaining votes and seats were transferred at a national level, where they were divided using the Hare quota, and automatically distributed to best losers into the local lists.
For the Senate, 237 single-seat constituencies were established, even if the assembly had risen to 315 members. The candidates needed a landslide victory of two-thirds of votes to be elected, a goal which could be reached only by the German minorities in South Tirol. All remained votes and seats were grouped in party lists and regional constituencies, where a D'Hondt method was used: inside the lists, candidates with the best percentages were elected.
== Historical background ==
During the First Republic, the Christian Democracy slowly but steadily lost support, as society modernised and the traditional values at its ideological core became less appealing to the population. Various options of extending the parliamentary majority were considered, mainly an opening to the left (apertura a sinistra), i.e. to the Socialist party (PSI), which after the 1956 events in Hungary had moved from a position of total subordination to the Communists, to an independent position. Proponents of such a coalition proposed a series much-needed "structural reforms" that would modernize the country and create a modern social-democracy. In 1960, an attempt by the right wing of the Christian Democrats to incorporate the neo-fascist Italian Social Movement (MSI) in the Tambroni government led to violent and bloody riots (Genoa, Reggio Emilia), and was defeated.
Up until the Nineties, two types of governmental coalitions characterised the politics of post-war Italy. The first were “centrist” coalitions led by the Christian Democracy party together with smaller parties: the Social Democratic Party, the Republican Party, and the Liberal Party. The first democratic government (1947) excluded both communists and the socialists, which brought about the political period known as “centrist government,” which ruled over Italian politics from 1948 to 1963. The centre-left coalition (DC-PRI-PSDI-PSI) was the second type of coalition that characterised Italian politics, coming about in 1963 when the PSI (formerly the opposition party) went into government with the DC. This coalition lasted in parliament first for 12 years (from 1964 to 1976) and then with a revival in the Eighties that lasted until the start of the Nineties.
The Socialist Party entered government in 1963. During the first year of the new centre-left government, a wide range of measures were carried out which went some way towards the Socialist Party's requirements for governing in coalition with the Christian Democrats. These included taxation of real estate profits and of share dividends (designed to curb speculation), increases in pensions for various categories of workers, a law on school organisation (to provide for a unified secondary school with compulsory attendance up to the age of 14), the nationalisation of the electric-power industry, and significant wage rises for workers (including those in the newly nationalised electric-power industry), which led to a rise in consumer demand. Urged on by the PSI, the government also made brave attempts to tackle issues relating to welfare services, hospitals, the agrarian structure, urban development, education, and overall planning. For instance, during the Centre-Left Government's time in office, social security was extended to previously uncovered categories of the population. In addition, entrance to university by examination was abolished in 1965. Despite these important reforms, however, the reformist drive was soon lost, and the most important problems (including the mafia, social inequalities, inefficient state/social services, North/South imbalance) remained largely untackled.
== Parties and leaders ==
== Results ==
The election fell after the launch of the centre-left formula by the Christian Democracy, a coalition based upon the alliance with the Socialist Party which had left its alignment with the Soviet Union. Some rightist electors abandoned the DC for the Liberal Party, which was asking for a centre-right government and received votes also from the quarrelsome monarchist area. The majority party so decided to replace incumbent Premier Amintore Fanfani with a provisional administration led by impartial Speaker of the House, Giovanni Leone; however, when the congress of the PSI in autumn authorized a full engagement of the party into the government, Leone resigned and Aldo Moro, secretary of the DC and leader of the more leftist wing of the party, became the new Prime Minister and ruled Italy for more than four years, ever passing through two resolved political crisis caused even by the detachment of the left wing of the PSI, which created the PSIUP and returned to the alliance with the Communists, and by disagreements into the governmental coalition.
=== Chamber of Deputies ===
==== Results by constituency ====
=== Senate of the Republic ===
==== Results by constituency ====
== References ==
== External links ==
Italian Interior Ministry, Historical Archive of Elections (in Italian) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dev_Shumsher_Jung_Bahadur_Rana | Dev Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana | Sri Maharaja, Dev Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana (17 July 1862 – 20 February 1914) was the Prime Minister of Nepal for 114 days in 1901. He was also the King of Lamjung and Kaski.
== Family and early life ==
He was the fourth of 17 sons born to Chief of the Army Dhir Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana (a younger brother of the Rana dynasty founder Jung Bahadur Rana) and his third wife, Rani Nanda Kumari, daughter of Kazi Hemdal Singh Thapa (sister of Commanding Colonel Keshar Singh Shumsher Thapa).
His father and brothers had trouble maintaining a big family. The Shamshers were poorer than Jung and other cousins. To ease the burden on his father, Dev was adopted at a young age by his father's childless older brother, General Krishna Bahadur Kunwar Ranaji, and was raised by him and his wife.
As an adopted child of Krishna, the governor of Palpa, Dev had a lavish upbringing compared to his siblings. The only occasions he met his siblings were during festivities and family gatherings. He was closer to the sons of Jung and spent most of his time in their palace, Thapathali Durbar. He inherited his uncle's entire wealth as well as a share of his father's. Since he was much richer than his brothers, they envied him.
== Coup ==
In 1885, the Shamsher family, along with nephews of Jung Bahadur, murdered many of Jung's sons, took over Nepal in a military coup d'état, and brought in the rule of the Shamsher family (also known as the Satra Bhai (17 brothers) family). They murdered Sri 3 Maharaja Ranodip Singh and occupied the hereditary throne of Prime Minister. They later added Jung Bahadur to their name, though they were descended from Jung's younger brother Dhir Shamsher.
Dev felt guilty of what had transpired during the coup. He was held at gunpoint by General Dhoj Narsingh Rana but was forgiven and allowed to live. He asked for the exiled family members to return to Nepal. Dhoj adopted the son of Ranodip Singh (biological father was Badri Narsingh Rana), who had to flee to India with his family along with many of Jung's descendants.
Although the coup was plotted by the Shamsher brothers, Dev did not know about it. Due to his close relationship with the Jung family, the Shamshers did not believe that Dev would participate in the coup against the Jungs. On the night that the Shamshers attacked and killed the Jung Ranas, Dev was intoxicated and slept in the quarters of Ranabir Jung. He was mistaken for being a Jung and nearly killed, but was spared when one of the killers recognized him.
When the Shamshers killed and exiled the powerful Jung family and other rival Rana families, they took control of the Jungs' immense wealth.
== Accession ==
Dev became the Prime Minister of Nepal on 5 March 1901 (1957 Falgun 15). He claimed his heredity from his late brother Sri 3 Maharaja, Prime Minister Bir Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana (JBR), and received the "Laal Mohur", the official stamp of the King of Nepal from then-King Prithvi Bir Bikram Shah.
According to the traditions of the Rana family, relatives were appointed to high office.
Chandra Shumsher JBR became Chief of the Army
Bhim Shumsher JBR became Western Commanding General
Fathe Shamsher JBR became Eastern Commanding General
Jeet Shamsher JBR became Southern Commanding General
and Juddha Shumsher JBR became Northern Commanding General
Dev kept his brother Fathe Shamsher Jung Bahadur Rana as Hujuriya General (Chief of the Prime Minister's bodyguard) and his nephew General Gehendra Shamsher Jung Bahadur Rana in his post of spy-chief and head of police. Gahendra was one of the most powerful people at the time, placed his allies in all the high positions of the police force since the time of his father, Prime Minister Bir Shamsher JBR. Dev appointed his brother Sher Shamsher as the Chief of Staff to then-King Prithvi Bir Bikram Shah and built a palace for him. In the same year, Sher was appointed as the first director of Nepal's first national newspaper Gorkhapatra, which is still the government national daily.
His brothers' envy led them to overthrow him in 1901 when he had become Maharajah.
Dev was satisfied with the "Universal Education" (Aksharanka Shiksha) plan prepared by Jaya Prithvi Bahadur Singh, King of Bajhang. Dev remarked in Gorkhapatra, "If anyone wishes to satisfy the prime minister, it should be with the works like this, not flattery". The publication of Weekly Gorkhapatra started in May 1901 (B.S. 1958. Vaisakha 24). Within a short period of time the paper progressed well and started publishing bi-weekly, before becoming a daily issue due to its popularity.
An iron ore mine was constructed in Thosay during Dev's time. The Thosay bazaar is 15 km away north from Manthali, the headquarters of Ramechhap district. Iron from this area was used to manufacture weapons that were used in the war against Tibet. Trekkers pass through this Thosay bazaar on their way to Mt. Sagarmatha (Everest) (Gorkhapatra Daily, 16 January 2002).
During his short tenure, Dev Shamsher was known as "The Reformist" for his progressive policies: he proclaimed universal education, began to build schools, took steps to abolish slavery, and introduced several other social welfare schemes. He also made improvements to the arsenal at Nakkhu (south of Kathmandu). As a democratic person, he took the advice of his nephew General Gehendra Shumsher, established a parliament, and built a big hall in his Thapathali Durbar like his uncle, Jung Bahadur.
He proposed a system of universal public primary education, using Nepali as the language of instruction, and opened Durbar High School to children who were not members of the Rana clan. His call for reforms did not entirely disappear; a few Nepali-language primary schools in the Kathmandu Valley, the Hill Region, and the Tarai remained open, and the practice of admitting a few middle- and low-caste children to Durbar High School continued.
Dev was also responsible for introducing a campaign in Kathmandu, Bhaktapur, and Patan to fight corruption, as well as introducing a cannon shot at midday to let people know the time. He organized a ladies court like his late uncle Jung Bahadur, and was the first person to introduce Gorkhapatra (which is still the national daily newspaper) to Nepal. He made his "Sindure Yatra" royal proclamation eight times in cities like Kathmandu, Bhaktapur, Nagarkot, and Kakani. Sources claim that his lifestyle was lavish; in his short 4-month regime, he introduced gambling for two months, along with bhajan from 3-5 p.m. and silent movies from 8-10 p.m.
Unlike his predecessors, Dev, as a reformist, drew parallels with the Tokugawa shogunate and he likewise emulated the reforms of the Meiji Restoration of Japan. He also planned to send Nepali youths to Japan for higher studies. Wisteria, chrysanthemums, persimmons, and chestnuts were imported as seeds from Japan by one of the students who studied agriculture there.
He learned about the modernization programs of Japan since 1868, the famous Meiji Ishin, the government policy, and the Meiji Constitution, and realized Japan was becoming a powerful nation in economy and national security. Dev regarded Japan as his model, and was convinced by the ideas of a constitutional monarchy and the parliamentary system. He was unable to implement his plan during his rule, but the next prime minister, Chandra Shamsher, sent students to Japan in April 1902.
== Family life ==
His personal lifestyle was considered to be extravagant, even by Rana standards. He led the most flamboyant and lavish lifestyle out of all the Rana Maharajahs.
Dev Shamsher had 13 sons and 6 daughters. His four wives were Maharani Karma Kumari, Maharani Krishna Kumari, Maharani Sarada and Rani Ganesh Kumari.
== Deposition and exile ==
Dev was deposed by his brothers and exiled to Dhankuta as governor of East Nepal, before fleeing to Darjeeling, India, under the refuge of the British Raj. He was succeeded by his brother Chandra Shamsher.
Dev sent a message to the League of Nations informing them of his exile and the good work he had been doing in Nepal, but nothing came of it. Chandra made a special request to the British to look after Dev and to ensure a comfortable retirement to ensure that he would not interfere with Nepali matters. The British offered him a large plot of land in New Delhi (now Connaught Place), but he refused and chose to settle in Jharipani in Mussoorie instead, citing that he favored the cooler hills to the heat of New Delhi. He built a sprawling collection of grand buildings near Jharipani with huge gateways marking the entrances to what they had named the Fairlawn Palace which remained his residence until his death. The palace was later sold by his descendants and was abandoned. The ruins of the palace are still present and part of the estate has been developed for a school and residential purposes.
All of Dev's children were exiled to Mussorie with him, although they were allowed to travel back and forth to Nepal. They were only permitted to return when Juddha Shamsher became prime minister. Juddha, being very young, was raised by Dev's wife Karmakumari. Dev had agreed to the wishes of his dying father Dhir Shamsher to consider Juddha in the line of succession. The issue of Juddha mother Johar Kumari's caste remains a mystery and it is widely believed that she came from a no-caste Sanyasi (Giri-Puri-Bharati) background.
Both Dev and his wife supported Juddha and were crucial in ensuring he was in the line of succession. They have been referred to as his "foster parents", so when Juddha Shamsher eventually became Prime Minister of Nepal, he rescinded Dev's descendants' status as exiles. They were given back their palaces in Thapathali and large plots of land in the Banke and Bardiya districts of Nepal, where some of his descendants reside. They were given high-ranking military positions, and all of Dev's children and grandchildren were given allowances from the state. As a tribute to his foster mother, Juddha built a statue of her, which can be seen inside the zoo in Jawalakhel. It is the biggest statue of any female in the country. Many of Dev's descendants can now be found either in Thapathali in Kathmandu, the traditional home of the Ranas, or in Nepalgunj in western Nepal and in Dehradun in India.
== Ancestry ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_L%C3%B3pez_de_Santa_Anna | Antonio López de Santa Anna | Antonio de Padua María Severino López de Santa Anna y Pérez de Lebrón (21 February 1794 – 21 June 1876), often known as Santa Anna, was a Mexican general, politician, and caudillo who served as the 8th president of Mexico on multiple occasions between 1833 and 1855. He also served as vice president of Mexico from 1837 to 1839. He was a controversial and pivotal figure in Mexican politics during the 19th century, to the point that he has been called an "uncrowned monarch", and historians often refer to the three decades after Mexican independence as the "Age of Santa Anna".
Santa Anna was in charge of the garrison at Veracruz at the time Mexico won independence in 1821. He would go on to play a notable role in the fall of the First Mexican Empire, the fall of the First Mexican Republic, the promulgation of the Constitution of 1835, the establishment of the Centralist Republic of Mexico, the Texas Revolution, the Pastry War, the promulgation of the Constitution of 1843, and the Mexican–American War. He became well known in the United States due to his role in the Texas Revolution and in the Mexican–American War.
Throughout his political career, Santa Anna was known for switching sides in the recurring conflict between the Liberal Party and the Conservative Party. He managed to play a prominent role in both discarding the liberal Constitution of 1824 in 1835 and in restoring it in 1847. He came to power as a liberal twice in 1832 and in 1847 respectively, both times sharing power with the liberal statesman Valentín Gómez Farías, and both times Santa Anna overthrew Gómez Farías after switching sides to the conservatives. Santa Anna was also known for his ostentatious and dictatorial style of rule, making use of the military to dissolve Congress multiple times and referring to himself by the honorific title of His Most Serene Highness.
His intermittent periods of rule, which lasted from 1832 to 1853, witnessed the loss of Texas, a series of military failures during the Mexican–American War, and the ensuing Mexican Cession. His leadership in the war and his willingness to fight to the bitter end prolonged that conflict: "more than any other single person it was Santa Anna who denied Polk's dream of a short war." Even after the war was over, Santa Anna continued to cede national territory to the Americans through the Gadsden Purchase in 1853.
After he was overthrown and exiled in 1855 through the liberal Plan of Ayutla, Santa Anna began to fade into the background in Mexican politics even as the nation entered the decisive period of the Reform War, the Second French Intervention in Mexico, and the establishment of the Second Mexican Empire. An elderly Santa Anna was allowed to return to the nation by President Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada in 1874, and he died in relative obscurity in 1876.
Historians debate the exact number of his presidencies, as he would often share power and make use of puppet rulers; biographer Will Fowler gives the figure of six terms while the Texas State Historical Association claims five. Historian of Latin America, Alexander Dawson, counts eleven times that Santa Anna assumed the presidency, often for short periods. The University of Texas Libraries cites the same figure of eleven times, but adds Santa Anna was only president for six years due to short terms.
Santa Anna's legacy has subsequently come to be viewed as profoundly negative, with historians and many Mexicans ranking him as "the principal inhabitant even today of Mexico's black pantheon of those who failed the nation". He is considered one of the most unpopular and controversial Mexican presidents of the 19th century.
== Early life ==
Antonio de Padua María Severino López de Santa Anna y Pérez de Lebrón was born in Xalapa, Veracruz, Nueva España (New Spain), on 21 February 1794 into a respected Spanish family. He was named after his father, licenciado Antonio López de Santa Anna y Pérez (born 1761), a university graduate and a lawyer; his mother was Manuela Pérez de Lebrón y Cortés (died 1814).
Santa Anna's family prospered in Veracruz, where the merchant class dominated politics. His paternal uncle, Ángel López de Santa Anna, was a public clerk (escribano) and became aggrieved when the town council of Veracruz prevented him from moving to Mexico City to advance his career. Since the late 18th-century Bourbon Reforms, the Spanish crown had favored peninsular-born Spaniards over American-born; young Santa Anna's family was affected by the growing disgruntlement of creoles whose upward mobility was thwarted.
Santa Anna's mother favored her son's choice of a military career, supporting his desire to join the Spanish Army, rather than be a shopkeeper as his father preferred. His mother's friendly relationship with the intendant (governor) of Veracruz secured Santa Anna's military appointment despite the fact that he was underage. His parents' marriage produced seven children, four sisters and two brothers, and Santa Anna was close to his sister Francisca and brother Manuel, who also joined the army.
== Career ==
Santa Anna's origins on Mexico's eastern coast had important ramifications for his military career, as he had developed immunity from yellow fever, endemic to the region. The port of Veracruz and environs were known to be unhealthy for those not native to the region, so he had a personal strategic advantage against military officers from elsewhere. Being an officer in a time of war was a way that a provincial, middle-class man could vault from obscurity to a position of leadership. Santa Anna distinguished himself in battle, a path that led him to a national political career.
Santa Anna's provincial origins made him uncomfortable in the halls of power in Mexico City, which were dominated by cliques of elite men, and thus he frequently made retreats to his base in Veracruz. He cultivated contact with ordinary Mexican men and pursued entertainments such as cockfighting. Over his career, Santa Anna was a populist caudillo, a strongman wielding both military and political power, similar to others who emerged in the wake of Spanish American wars of independence.
=== War of Independence, 1810–1821 ===
Santa Anna's early military career during the Mexican War of Independence, which entailed fighting the insurgency before switching sides against the crown, presaged his many shifts in allegiance during his later political career. In June 1810, the 16-year-old Santa Anna joined the Fijo de Veracruz infantry regiment. In September of that year, secular cleric Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla sparked a spontaneous mass uprising in the Bajío, Mexico's rich agricultural area. Although some creole elites had chafed as their upward mobility had been thwarted by the Bourbon Reforms, the Hidalgo Revolt saw most creoles favoring continued crown rule. In particular, Santa Anna's family "saw themselves as aligned to the peninsular elite, whom they served, and were in turn recognized as belonging".
Initially, Santa Anna, like most creole military officers, fought for the crown against the mixed-raced insurgents for independence; his commanding officer was Colonel José Joaquín de Arredondo. In 1811 he was wounded in the left hand by an arrow while fighting in the town of Amoladeras, in the intendancy (administrative district) of San Luis Potosí. In 1813 he served in Texas against the Gutiérrez–Magee Expedition and at the Battle of Medina, in which he was cited for bravery. Santa Anna was promoted quickly; he became a second lieutenant in February 1812 and first lieutenant before the end of that year. During the initial rebellion, the young officer witnessed Arredondo's fierce counterinsurgency policy of mass executions. The early fighting against the rebels gave way to guerrilla warfare and a military stalemate.
When royalist officer Agustín de Iturbide switched sides in 1821 and allied with insurgent Vicente Guerrero, fighting for independence under the Plan of Iguala, Santa Anna also joined the fight for independence. Political developments in Spain, where liberals had ousted King Ferdinand VII and began implementing the Spanish liberal constitution of 1812, made many elites in Mexico reconsider their options.
=== Rebellion against the Mexican Empire of Iturbide, 1822–1823 ===
Iturbide, now Emperor Augustin I, rewarded Santa Anna with the command of the vital port of Veracruz, the gateway from the Gulf of Mexico to the rest of the nation and site of a customs house. However, Iturbide subsequently removed Santa Anna from the post, prompting Santa Anna to rise in rebellion in December 1822 against Iturbide. He already had significant power in his home region of Veracruz, and "he was well along the path to becoming the regional caudillo." Santa Anna claimed in his Plan of Veracruz that he rebelled because Iturbide had dissolved the Constituent Congress. He also promised to support free trade with Spain, an important principle for his home region of Veracruz.
Although Santa Anna's initial rebellion was important, Iturbide had loyal military men who were able to hold their own against the rebels in Veracruz. However, former insurgent leaders Guerrero and Nicolás Bravo, who had supported Iturbide's Plan de Iguala, returned to their base in southern Mexico and raised a rebellion against Iturbide. The commander of imperial forces in Veracruz, who had fought against the rebels, changed sides and joined the rebels. The new coalition proclaimed the Plan of Casa Mata, which called for the end of the monarchy, restoration of the Constituent Congress, and creation of a republic and a federal system.
No longer the main player in the movement against Iturbide or the creation of new political arrangements, Santa Anna sought to regain his position as a leader and marched forces to Tampico, then to San Luis Potosí, proclaiming his role as the "protector of the federation". Representatives from San Luis Potosí and other north-central regions, such as Michoacán, Querétaro, and Guanajuato, met to decide their own position towards the federation. Santa Anna pledged his military forces to the protection of these key areas. "He attempted, in other words, to co-opt the movement, the first of many examples in his long career where he placed himself as the head of a generalized movement so it would become an instrument of his advancement."
=== Santa Anna and the early Mexican Republic ===
In May 1823, following Iturbide's abdication as emperor in March, Santa Anna was sent to command in Yucatán. At the time, Yucatán's capital of Mérida and the port city of Campeche were in conflict. Yucatán's closest trade partner was Cuba, a Spanish colony. Santa Anna took it upon himself to plan a landing force from Yucatán in Cuba, which he envisioned would result in Cuban colonists welcoming their "liberators", most especially himself. One thousand Mexicans were already on ships to sail to Cuba when word came that the Spanish were reinforcing their colony, so the invasion was called off.
Former insurgent general Guadalupe Victoria, a liberal federalist, became the first president of the Mexican republic in 1824, following the creation of the constitution of 1824. Victoria came to the presidency with little factional conflict, and served out his entire four-year term. However, the election of 1828 was quite different, with considerable political conflict in which Santa Anna became involved.
Even before the election, there was unrest in Mexico, with some conservatives affiliated with the Scottish Rite Freemasons plotting rebellion. The so-called Montaño rebellion in December 1827 called for the prohibition of secret societies, implicitly meaning liberal York Rite Freemasons, and the expulsion of U.S. diplomat Joel Roberts Poinsett, a promoter of federal republicanism. Although Santa Anna was believed to be a supporter of the Scottish Rite conservatives, and Santa Anna was himself a member of the Scottish Rite, in the Montaño rebellion he eventually threw his support to the liberals. In his home state of Veracruz, the governor had thrown his support to the rebels, and in the aftermath of the rebellion's failure, Santa Anna as vice-governor stepped into the governorship.
In the 1828 election, Santa Anna supported Guerrero, who was a candidate for the presidency. Another important liberal, Lorenzo de Zavala, also supported Guerrero. However, conservative Manuel Gómez Pedraza won the indirect elections for the presidency, with Guerrero coming in second. Even before all the votes had been counted, Santa Anna raised a rebellion and called for the nullification of the election results, as well for a new law expelling Spanish nationals who he believed to have been in league with the conservatives. The rebellion initially had few supporters, although southern Mexican leader Juan Álvarez soon joined Santa Anna, while Zavala, under threat of arrest by the conservative Senate, fled to the mountains and organized his own rebellion. Zavala brought the fighting into Mexico City, with his supporters seizing an armory, the Acordada. President-elect Gómez Pedraza resigned and soon after went into exile, clearing the way for Guerrero to assume office. Santa Anna gained prominence for his role in Gómez Pedraza's ouster, and was lauded as a defender of federalism and democracy.
In 1829, Spain made a final attempt to retake Mexico, invading Tampico with a force of 2,600 troops. Santa Anna marched against the Barradas Expedition with a much smaller force and defeated the Spaniards, many of whom were suffering from yellow fever. The defeat of the Spanish Army not only firmly established Santa Anna as a national hero but also consolidated the independence of the new Mexican republic. From this point forward, Santa Anna styled himself the "Victor of Tampico" and the "Savior of the Patria". His main act of self-promotion was to call himself the "Napoleon of the West".
Three months later, in December 1829, Vice-president Anastasio Bustamante, a conservative, mounted a successful coup d'etat against President Guerrero, who left Mexico City to lead a counter-rebellion in the south. Guerrero was captured and executed after a summary trial in 1831, which shocked the nation. In 1832, Santa Anna seized the customs revenues from Veracruz and declared himself in rebellion against Bustamante. The bloody conflict ended with Santa Anna forcing the resignation of Bustamante's cabinet, and an agreement was brokered for new elections in 1833.
=== "Absentee President", 1833–1835 ===
Santa Anna was elected president on 1 April 1833, but while he desired the title, he was not interested in governing. According to Mexican historian Enrique Krauze, "It annoyed him and bored him, and perhaps frightened him." A biographer of Santa Anna describes his role during this period as the "absentee president". Vice-president Valentín Gómez Farías took over the responsibility of governing the nation while Santa Anna retired to Manga de Clavo, his hacienda in Veracruz. Gómez Farías was a moderate, but he had a radical liberal congress with which to contend, perhaps a reason that Santa Anna left executive power to him.
Mexico was faced with an empty treasury and an 11 million peso debt incurred by the Bustamante government. Gómez Farías could not cut back on the bloated expenditures on the army and sought other revenues. Taking a chapter out of the late Bourbon Reforms, he targeted the Roman Catholic Church. Anticlericalism was a tenet of Mexican liberalism, and the church had supported Bustamante's government, so targeting that institution was a logical move. Tithing (a 10% tax on agricultural production) was abolished as a legal obligation, and church property and finances were seized. The church's role in education was reduced and the Royal and Pontifical University of Mexico closed. All this caused concern among Mexican conservatives.
Gómez Farías sought to extend these reforms to the frontier province of Alta California, promoting legislation to secularize the Franciscan missions there. In 1833 he organized the Híjar-Padrés colony to bolster non-mission civilian settlement, as well as defend the province against perceived Russian colonial ambitions from the trading post at Fort Ross. However, for liberal intellectual and Catholic priest José María Luis Mora, selling church property was the key to "transforming Mexico into a liberal, progressive nation of small landowners." Sale of nonessential church property would bring in much-needed revenue to the treasury. The army was also targeted for reform, since it was the largest single expenditure in the national budget. On Santa Anna's suggestion, the number of battalions was to be reduced as well as the number of generals and brigadiers.
The government soon issued a law, the Ley del Caso, which called for the arrest of 51 politicians, including Bustamante, for holding "unpatriotic" beliefs and their expulsion from the country. Gómez Farías claimed that Santa Anna was the driving force for the law, which evidence seems to support. With increasing resistance from the church as well as the army, the Plan of Cuernavaca was issued, likely orchestrated by former general and governor of the Federal District, José María Tornel. The plan called for repeal of the Ley del Caso; discouraged tolerance of the influence of Masonic lodges, where politics was pursued in secrecy; declared void the laws passed by Congress and the local legislatures in favor of the reforms; requested the protection of Santa Anna to fulfill the plan and recognize him as the only authority; removed from office deputies and officials who carried out enforcement of the reform laws and decrees; and provided military force to support Gómez Farías in implementing the plan.
As opinion turned against the reforms, Santa Anna was persuaded to return to the presidency and Gómez Farías resigned. This set the stage for conservatives to reshape Mexico's government from a federalist republic to a unitary central republic.
=== Central Republic, 1835 ===
For conservatives, the liberal reform of Gómez Farías was radical and threatened the power of the elites. Santa Anna's actions in allowing this first reform (followed by a more sweeping one in 1855) might have been a test case for liberalism. At this point, Santa Anna was a liberal; by giving the moderate Gómez Farías responsibility for the reforms, he could have plausible deniability and closely monitor the reaction to a comprehensive attack on the special privileges of the army and the church, as well as confiscation of church wealth, enacted by Congress.
In May 1834, Santa Anna ordered the disarmament of the civic militia and urged Congress to abolish the controversial Ley del Caso. On 12 June he dissolved Congress and announced his decision to adopt the Plan of Cuernavaca, forming a new Catholic, centralist and conservative government. Santa Anna brokered a deal where, in exchange for preserving the privileges of the church and the army, the church promised a monthly donation to the government of 30,000–40,000 pesos. "The santanistas [supporters of Santa Anna] succeeded in achieving what the radicals had failed to do: forcing the Church to assist the republic's daily fiscal needs with its funds and properties."
On 4 January 1835, Santa Anna returned to his hacienda, placing Miguel Barragán as acting president. He soon replaced the 1824 constitution with the new document known as the "Siete Leyes" ("The Seven Laws"). Santa Anna did not involve himself with the conservative effort to replace the federalist constitution with a unitary central government, seemingly uneasy with their political path. "Although he has been blamed for the change to centralism, he was not actually present during any of the deliberations that led to the abolition of the federalist charter or the elaboration of the 1836 Constitution."
Several states openly rebelled against the changes, including Alta California, Nuevo México, Tabasco, Sonora, Coahuila y Tejas, San Luis Potosí, Querétaro, Durango, Guanajuato, Michoacán, Yucatán, Jalisco, Nuevo León, Tamaulipas, and Zacatecas. Several of these states formed their own governments: the Republic of the Rio Grande, the Republic of Yucatán, and the Republic of Texas. Their fierce resistance was possibly fueled by Santa Anna's reprisals committed against his defeated enemies. The New York Post editorialized that "had Santa Anna treated the vanquished with moderation and generosity, it would have been difficult if not impossible to awaken that general sympathy for the people of Texas which now impels so many adventurous and ardent spirits to throng to the aid of their brethren."
The Zacatecas militia, the largest and best supplied of the Mexican states, led by Francisco García Salinas, was well armed with .753 caliber British 'Brown Bess' muskets and Baker .61 rifles. But, after two hours of combat on 12 May 1835, Santa Anna's "Army of Operations" defeated the Zacatecan militia and took almost 3,000 prisoners. He allowed his army to loot Zacatecas City for forty-eight hours. After conquering Zacatecas, he planned to move on to Coahuila y Tejas to quell the rebellion there, which was being supported by settlers from the United States.
=== Texas Revolution 1835–1836 ===
In 1835, Santa Anna repealed the Mexican constitution, which ultimately led to the beginning of the Texas Revolution. His reasoning for the repeal was that American settlers in Texas were not paying taxes or tariffs, claiming they were not recipients of any services provided by the Mexican government; as a result, new settlers were not allowed there. The new policy was a response to the U.S. attempts to purchase Texas from Mexico. Like other states discontented with the central government, the Texas Department of the Mexican state of Coahuila y Tejas rebelled in late 1835 and declared itself independent on 2 March 1836. The northeastern part of the state had been settled by numerous American immigrants. Moses Austin, the father of Stephen F. Austin, had his party accepted by Spanish authorities in exchange for defense against foreign threats. However, Mexico had declared independence from Spain before the elder Austin died.
Santa Anna marched north to bring Texas back under Mexican control by a brutal show of force. His expedition posed challenges of manpower, logistics, supply and strategy far beyond what he was prepared for, and it ended in disaster. To fund, organize and equip his army, Santa Anna relied, as he often did, on forcing wealthy men to "loan" him funds. He recruited hastily, sweeping up many derelicts and ex-convicts, as well as Indians who could not understand Spanish commands.
Having expected tropical weather, Santa Anna's army suffered from cold, a lack of proper clothing and food shortages. Stretching a supply line far longer than ever before, there were not enough horses, mules, cattle and wagons available, resulting in units never having enough food, fuel, or feed. The medical facilities were minimal and poorly supplied. Morale sank as soldiers realized there were not enough chaplains to properly bury their bodies. Hostile Indians picked off stragglers and foragers. Waterborne sicknesses spread quickly when the men were forced to drink any water they could find on the trail. The officers proved to be mostly incompetent, yet the highly insulated and rigid hierarchy of the army meant that Santa Anna was kept ignorant of these problems.
Santa Anna's forces killed 189 Texan defenders at the Battle of the Alamo on 6 March 1836, and executed more than 342 Texan prisoners at the Goliad Massacre on 27 March 1836. However, his forces suffered unexpectedly heavy casualties. In an 1874 letter, Santa Anna asserted that killing the defenders of Alamo was his only option, stressing that Texan commander William B. Travis was to blame for the degree of violence during the battle. Santa Anna believed that Travis was disrespectful towards him, and that if he had spared the Texans, it would have allowed Sam Houston to establish a dominant position that could threaten him later.
The Mexican victory at the Alamo bought time for Houston and his Texas forces. During the siege, the Texian Navy had more time to plunder ports along the Gulf of Mexico, and the Texian Army gained more experience and weaponry. Despite Houston's lack of ability to maintain strict control of the Army, they completely routed Santa Anna's much larger army at the Battle of San Jacinto on 21 April 1836. The day after the battle, a small Texan force led by James Austin Sylvester captured Santa Anna near a marsh; the general had hastily dressed himself in a dead Mexican dragoon's uniform but was quickly recognized.
After three weeks in captivity, Texas President David G. Burnet and Santa Anna signed the Treaties of Velasco stating that "in his official character as chief of the Mexican nation, he acknowledged the full, entire, and perfect Independence of the Republic of Texas." In exchange, Burnet and the Texas government guaranteed Santa Anna's safety and transport to Veracruz. Meanwhile, in Mexico City, a new government declared that Santa Anna was no longer president and that the Treaties were null and void. While Santa Anna was held captive in Texas, Poinsett offered a harsh assessment of his situation: "Say to General Santa Anna that when I remember how ardent an advocate he was of liberty ten years ago, I have no sympathy for him now, that he has gotten what he deserves." Santa Anna replied: "Say to Mr. Poinsett that it is very true that I threw up my cap for liberty with great ardor, and perfect sincerity, but very soon found the folly of it. A hundred years to come my people will not be fit for liberty. They do not know what it is, unenlightened as they are, and under the influence of Catholic clergy, a despotism is a proper government for them, but there is no reason why it should not be a wise and virtuous one."
=== Redemption, dictatorship, and exile ===
After some time in exile, and after meeting U.S. President Andrew Jackson in 1837, Santa Anna was allowed to return to Mexico. He was transported aboard the USS Pioneer to retire to his hacienda in Veracruz. There he wrote a manifesto in which he reflected on his experiences and decision-making in Texas.
In 1838, Santa Anna found a chance for redemption from the loss of Texas. After Mexico rejected demands for financial compensation for losses suffered by its citizens, France sent forces that landed in Veracruz in the Pastry War. The Mexican government gave Santa Anna control of the army and ordered him to defend the nation by any means necessary. Santa Anna engaged the French at Veracruz but was forced to retreat after a failed assault, sustaining injuries in his left leg and hand by cannon fire. His shattered ankle required amputation of much of his leg, which he ordered buried with full military honors. Despite Mexico's final capitulation to French demands, Santa Anna used his war service and visible sacrifice to the nation to re-enter Mexican politics.
Soon after, with Bustamante's presidency descending into chaos, supporters asked Santa Anna to take control of the provisional government. Santa Anna was made president for the fifth time, taking over a nation with an empty treasury. The war with France had weakened the country, and the people were discontented. Also, a rebel army led by Generals José de Urrea and José Antonio Mexía, was marching towards Mexico City in opposition to Santa Anna. Commanding the army, Santa Anna crushed the rebellion in Puebla.
Santa Anna ruled in a more dictatorial fashion than during his first administration. His government banned anti-Santanista newspapers and jailed dissidents to suppress opposition. In 1842, he directed a military expedition into Texas. The action inflicted numerous casualties with no political gain, but Texans began to be persuaded of the potential benefits of annexation by the more powerful U.S.
Following the 1842 elections, at which a new Congress was elected which opposed his rule, Santa Anna attempted to restore the treasury by raising taxes. Several Mexican states stopped dealing with the central government in response, and Yucatán and Laredo declared themselves independent republics. With resentment growing, Santa Anna stepped down and fled Mexico City in December 1844. The buried leg he left behind in the capital was dug up by a mob and dragged through the streets until nothing was left of it. Fearing for his life, Santa Anna tried to elude capture, but in January 1845 he was apprehended by a group of Native Americans near Xico. They turned him over to authorities, and he was imprisoned. Santa Anna's life was ultimately spared, but he was exiled to Cuba.
=== Mexican–American War, 1846–1848 ===
In 1846, following American victories at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma in the Mexican-American War, President Mariano Paredes was removed from office, with the new government seeking to reinstate the constitution of 1824, with Santa Anna again assuming the presidency. Santa Anna, who had been in exile for only a year, returned to Mexico on 6 August 1846, two days after Paredes' ouster. He wrote to the new government stating he had no aspirations to the presidency but would eagerly use his military experience in the new conflict with the U.S.
U.S. President James K. Polk had hoped to acquire territory in the north by purchase or force, but the Mexican government was not willing to yield. In a gambit to change the dynamic, Polk sent agents to secretly meet with the exiled Santa Anna. They thought they had extracted a promise from him that they would lift a blockade of the Mexican coast to allow him to return and that he would broker a deal. Once back in Mexico at the head of an army, however, Santa Anna reneged on the deal and took up arms against the U.S. invasion.
With no path now for a quick resolution to the conflict in the north, Polk authorized an invasion to take Mexico City, redirecting the bulk of General Zachary Taylor's troops to General Winfield Scott's army. Santa Anna mobilized troops and artillery and rapidly marched north. His forces outnumbered Taylor's, but his troops were exhausted, ill-clothed, hungry and equipped with inferior weapons when the two armies clashed at the Battle of Buena Vista on 22–23 February 1847. Hard fighting over two days brought an inconclusive result, with Santa Anna withdrawing from the field of battle overnight just as complete victory was at hand, taking war trophies such as cannons and battle flags as evidence of his victory. With Scott's army landing at Veracruz, Santa Anna's home ground, he rapidly moved southward to engage with the invaders and protect the capital. For the Mexicans it would have been better if Scott could have been prevented from leaving the Gulf Coast, but they could not prevent Scott's march on Xalapa. Santa Anna set defenses at Cerro Gordo. U.S. forces outflanked him and against strong odds defeated his army.
With that battle, the way was clear for Scott's forces to advance further onto Mexico City. Santa Anna's aim was to protect the capital at all costs and waged defensive warfare, placing strong defenses on the most direct road into the city at El Peñon, which Scott then avoided. Battles at Contreras, Churubusco, and Molino del Rey were lost. At Contreras, Mexican General Gabriel Valencia, an old political and military rival of Santa Anna's, did not recognize his authority as supreme commander and disobeyed his orders as to where his troops should be placed. Valencia's Army of the North was routed. The Battle for Mexico City and the Battle of Chapultepec, like the others, were hard fought losses, and American forces took the capital. "Despite his many faults as a tactician and his overbearing political ambition, Santa Anna was committed to fighting to the bitter end. His actions would prolong the war for at least a year, and more than any other single person it was Santa Anna who denied Polk's dream of a short war."
Perhaps Santa Anna's most personal and ignominious incident in the war was the capture during the Battle of Cerro Gordo of his prosthetic cork leg, which remains as a war trophy in the U.S. held by the Illinois State Military Museum but no longer on display. A second leg, a peg, was also captured by the 4th Illinois and was reportedly used by the soldiers as a baseball bat; it is displayed at the home of Illinois Governor Richard J. Oglesby (who served in the regiment) in Decatur. Santa Anna had a replacement leg made which is displayed at the Museo Nacional de Historia in Mexico City.
The prosthetic leg later played a role in international politics. As relations between the U.S. and Mexico warmed during the run-up to World War II, Illinois was rumored to be ready to return the prosthetic to Mexico and, in 1942, a bill was introduced in the state legislature. The Association of Limb Manufacturers wanted to be part of the repatriation ceremonies. The state passed a non-binding resolution to return the prosthetic, but the National Guard denied the transfer. As of 2025 the leg still resided in the Illinois State Military Museum in Springfield.
=== President for the last time, 1853–1855 ===
Following Mexico's defeat in 1848, Santa Anna went into exile in Kingston, Jamaica. Two years later, he moved to Turbaco in New Granada (now Colombia). In April 1853, he was invited to return to Mexico by conservatives who had overthrown a weak liberal government, initiated under the Plan de Hospicio, drawn up by the clerics in the cathedral chapter of Guadalajara. Usually, revolts were fomented by military officers; this one was fomented by churchmen. Santa Anna was elected president on 17 March 1853. He honored his promises to the church, revoking a decree denying protection for the fulfillment of monastic vows, a reform promulgated twenty years earlier by Gómez Farías. The Jesuits, who had been expelled from Spanish realms by the crown in 1767, were allowed to return to Mexico ostensibly to educate poorer classes, and much of their property, which the crown had confiscated and sold, was restored to them.
Although he gave himself exalted titles, Santa Anna's situation was quite vulnerable. He declared himself dictator-for-life with the title "Most Serene Highness". His full title in this final period of power was "Hero [benemérito] of the nation, General of Division, Grand Master of the National and Distinguished Order of Guadalupe, Grand Cross of the Royal and Distinguished Spanish Order of Carlos III, and President of the Mexican Republic." The reality was that this administration was no more successful than his earlier ones, dependent on loans from moneylenders and support from conservative elites, the church, and the army.
A major miscalculation was Santa Anna's sale of territory to the U.S. in what became known as the Gadsden Purchase. La Mesilla, the land in northwest Mexico that the U.S. wanted, was much easier terrain for the building of a transcontinental railway in the U.S. The purchase money for the land was supposedly to go to Mexico's empty treasury. Santa Anna was unwilling to wait until the final transaction went through and the boundary line established, wanting access to the money immediately. He bargained with American bankers to get immediate cash, while they gained the right to the revenue when the sale closed. Santa Anna's short-sighted deal netted the Mexican government only $250,000 against credit of $650,000 going to the bankers. James Gadsden thought the amount was likely much higher. A group of liberals including Alvarez, Benito Juárez, and Ignacio Comonfort overthrew Santa Anna under the Plan of Ayutla, which called for his removal from office. He went into exile yet again in 1855.
By the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo the United States paid Mexico only $15 million for the land, which became known as the Mexican Cession.
== Personal life ==
Santa Anna married twice, both times to wealthy young women. At neither wedding ceremony did he appear, legally empowering his future father-in-law to serve as a proxy at his first wedding and a friend at his second. One assessment of the two marriages is that they were arranged marriages of convenience, bringing considerable wealth to Santa Anna and that his lack of attendance at the ceremonies "appears to confirm that he was purely interested in the financial aspect o[f] the alliance."
In 1825, Santa Anna married Inés García, the daughter of wealthy Spanish parents in Veracruz, and the couple had four children: María de Guadalupe, María del Carmen, Manuel, and Antonio López de Santa Anna y García. By 1825, Santa Anna had distinguished himself as a military man, joining the movement for independence. When Iturbide lost support, Santa Anna had been in the forefront of leaders seeking to oust him. Although his family was of modest means, Santa Anna was of good creole lineage; the García family may well have seen a match between their young daughter and the up-and-coming Santa Anna as advantageous. Inés' dowry allowed Santa Anna to purchase the first of his haciendas, Manga de Clavo, in Veracruz.
The first Spanish ambassador to Mexico and his wife, Fanny Calderón de la Barca, visited with Inés at Manga de Clavo, where they were well-received with a breakfast banquet. Calderón de la Barca observed that "After breakfast, the Señora having dispatched an officer for her cigar-case, which was gold with a diamond latch, offered me a cigar, which I having declined, she lighted her own, a little paper 'cigarette', and the gentlemen followed her good example."
Two months after the death of his wife Inés in 1844, the 50-year-old Santa Anna married 16-year-old María de los Dolores de Tosta. The couple rarely lived together; De Tosta resided primarily in Mexico City, and Santa Anna's political and military activities took him around the country. They had no children, leading biographer Will Fowler to speculate that either the marriage was primarily platonic or De Tosta was infertile.
Several women claimed to have borne Santa Anna natural children. In his will, he acknowledged and made provisions for four: Paula, María de la Merced, Petra, and José López de Santa Anna. Biographers have identified three more: Pedro López de Santa Anna, and Ángel and Augustina Rosa López de Santa Anna.
== Later years and death ==
From 1855 to 1874, Santa Anna lived in exile in Cuba, the United States, Colombia, and Saint Thomas. He had left Mexico because of his unpopularity with the Mexican people after his defeat in 1848. Santa Anna participated in gambling and businesses with the hopes that he would become rich. During his many years in exile, he was a passionate fan of the sport of cockfighting; he had many roosters that he entered into competitions and would have his roosters compete with cocks from all over the world.
In the 1850s, Santa Anna traveled to New York City with a shipment of chicle, which he intended to sell for use in making carriage wheels. He attempted but was unsuccessful in convincing U.S. wheel manufacturers that this substance could be more useful in tires than the materials they were originally using. Although he introduced chewing gum to the U.S., Santa Anna did not make any money from the product. Thomas Adams, the American assigned to aid Santa Anna while he was in the U.S., experimented with chicle in an attempt to use it as a substitute for rubber. He bought one ton of the substance from Santa Anna, but his experiments proved unsuccessful. Instead, Adams helped to found the chewing gum industry with a product that he called "chiclets".
In 1865, Santa Anna attempted to return to Mexico and offer his services during the French invasion, seeking once again to play the role as the country's defender and savior, only to be refused by Juárez. Later that year a schooner owned by Gilbert Thompson, son-in-law of Daniel Tompkins, brought Santa Anna to his home in Staten Island, where he tried to raise money for an army to return and take over Mexico City.
In 1874, Santa Anna took advantage of a general amnesty issued by President Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada and returned to Mexico, by then crippled and almost blind from cataracts. He died at his home in Mexico City on 21 June 1876 at age 82. Santa Anna was buried with full military honors in a glass coffin in Panteón del Tepeyac Cemetery.
== Legacy ==
Santa Anna was highly controversial at the time and ever since. In the 2007 biography by Will Fowler, he was depicted as, "a liberal, a Republican, an army man, a hero, a revolutionary, a regional strongman, but never a politician. He presented himself as a mediator who was both anti-party and anti-politics in the decades when the new country of Mexico was wracked by factional infighting. He was always more willing to lead an army than to lead his country".
But as a military leader, Gates Brown, a historian at the U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, considers Santa Anna among history's worst for his mistakes in two wars which cost Mexico much of its territory. In the Texas Revolution, time was on his side at the Alamo since he knew the defenders were not being reinforced and would eventually have to surrender. Brown writes that he should have waited and built a logistical base at San Antonio to support further operations. Instead, he opted to attack after less than two weeks, losing more men than the defenders did, a large proportion of them experienced veterans. "He had sacrificed a third of his force", Brown writes, "to take a garrison that had to fall, with or without this assault." Outrage over the executions of Texans there and at Goliad built far more popular support for the rebellion than the Texans had themselves managed. Santa Anna's defeat and capture at San Jacinto was also abetted by his mistaken belief that Houston would not attack with a smaller force and troops as tired as his own.
Later, in the Mexican-American War, Santa Anna's decision to march newly recruited and inexperienced troops across 385 kilometres (239 mi) of desert in wintertime without stopping to resupply, in hopes of ending the war with a quick defeat of Zachary Taylor's forces, contributed to the much greater Mexican casualty count at Buena Vista. At Cerro Gordo he dismissed suggestions from Manuel Robles Pezuela, one of his officers, that he reinforce the Atalaya hill's defenses, believing the terrain made that unnecessary. The U.S. attack up that hill the next day, combined with a flanking maneuver, cost Mexico its only chance to halt General Winfield Scott's advance on Mexico City before the outskirts of the city itself.
== Santa Anna; A Texas Folk Legend ==
Historians have noted that Antonio López de Santa Anna became such a prominent figure in Tejano folk memory not only because of his role in the Texas Revolution but, more notably, The Battle of the Alamo, as well as how later generations would reshape his image to serve cultural and political narratives. Texas educators, writers, and public officials throughout the nineteenth and twentieth century contributed to portraying Santa Anna as the central antagonist in the broader story of how Texas gained independence. Historian, Will Fowler, claims that this retrospective framing of Santa Anna is what contributes to his often exaggerated personal influence, in turn, transforming Santa Anna into a symbol of Mexican autocracy rather than a complex political figure navigating the internal instability of Mexico during the nineteenth century.
In his dissertation, Inventing the Alamo, Stephen Oleszek, argues that Santa Anna’s rise as a Texas Folk legend, or villain some might say, was closely related to the myth-making and storytelling process that surrounds The Alamo. Oleszek explains that in early Texas, memorial associations and historians sought to establish a distinct hero-villain identity between Texas and Mexico in order to promote unity amongst Anglo-Americans and to justify the memorialization of the Texas Revolution. More specifically, Santa Anna was viewed as the embodiment of despotism, as opposed to figures such as William B. Travis and James Bowie who were perceived as heroic and brave defenders of The Alamo.This theme has been ingrained throughout textbooks, media, and behind the meaning of the popular saying, "Remember the Alamo!" which has been passing down a much more simplified narrative for generations of Texans.
In more recent publishing, specifically "Santa Anna in Texas: A Mexican American Viewpoint," challenges these ideas by shedding light on the military and political aspect that would influence Santa Anna’s campaign strategies while attempting to suppress the uprising of the Texas army in 1836. Presley also touches on the note that Mexican perspectives on Santa Anna were actually divided, and in most cases, did not quite align with the narrative of the Mexican politician being quite the villain that Texas history makes him out to be. In the twenty first century, historians now emphasize the importance of taking into consideration the difference between cultural memory and historical events that are built around Santa Anna’s reputation which arose from being just a historical figure into what would later be a Battle of the Alamo legend known for his infamous acts in the Texas Revolution.
== ==
== In popular culture ==
He features in several 19th-century-origin British sea shanties, including one frequently known as "Santianna", "Santy Anno", or many other names, which has been frequently recorded by many folk musicians.
He is played by Rubén Padilla (Mexican actor, not to be confused with the homonymous American athlete) in the John Wayne film The Alamo.
Fox animated series King of the Hill season 2 episode 18 "The Final Shinsult" largely revolves around Santa Anna's prosthetic leg.
In the 1998 film The Mask of Zorro, Santa Anna is mentioned and is portrayed by Joaquim de Almeida in an alternate ending.
He is played by Emilio Echevarría in the 2004 film The Alamo.
He is played by J. Carrol Naish in the 1955 film The Last Command.
He appears in 2025's Civilization VII as one of Mexico's special Revolucionario Units.
== See also ==
History of democracy in Mexico
List of heads of state of Mexico
== References ==
== Sources ==
== Further reading ==
== External links ==
Santa Anna Letters on the Portal to Texas History
Antonio López de Santa Anna in A Continent Divided: The U.S. – Mexico War, Center for Greater Southwestern Studies, the University of Texas at Arlington
The Handbook of Texas Online: Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna
Benson Latin American Collection – Antonio López de Santa Anna Collection
Sketch of Santa Anna from A pictorial history of Texas, from the earliest visits of European adventurers to A.D. 1879, hosted by the Portal to Texas History.
Archontology.org, Home » Nations » Mexico » Heads of State » LÓPEZ de SANTA ANNA, Antonio
Texas Prisoners in Mexico 3 August 1843 From Texas Tides |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tilpat_(1669) | Battle of Tilpat (1669) | The Battle of Tilpat was fought between Jats and Mughal Subahdars on 12 May 1669. Gokula Jat burnt the city of Saidabad near Mathura which caused Mughal commander Abdul Nabi Khan to attack the village of Sūra. Abdul Nabi was wounded and killed. Aurangzeb sent Hassan Ali Khan to fight the rebels. Gokula Jat was captured alive during the battle and immediately sent to Delhi.
== Background ==
Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb enforced the jizya tax on non-Muslims despite opposition, reportedly pleased when Hindus, unable to pay, converted to Islam. In April 1665, he set customs duties at 2.5% for Muslim merchants and 5% for Hindu merchants. In May 1667, the duty was removed for Muslims but kept at 5% for Hindus. Aurangzeb offered rewards, government posts, release from prison, and favorable property dispute rulings to encourage conversions to Islam. In 1671, he ordered the replacement of Hindu head-clerks and accountants with Muslims, though later allowed Hindus to hold half these positions. In 1668, Hindu religious fairs were banned, and in March 1695, Hindus except the Rajputs were prohibited from riding in palanquins, on elephants, or on fine horses, and from carrying weapons. These measures caused significant unrest. Discontented Hindus in regions like Rajasthan, Bundelkhand, Malwa, and Khandesh resisted temple destruction, demolished converted mosques, and halted calls to prayer in some areas. Jizya collectors were attacked and expelled in certain regions. In early 1669, the Jat peasantry of Mathura, led by Gokla of Tilpat. They killed the faujdar, ‘Abd-un-Nabi, sacked the pargana of Sadabad, and caused disorder in the neighboring Agra district.
== Battle ==
In 1669, the emperor Aurangzeb sent a strong army under Radandaz Khan to end a rebellion in the Mathura district and appointed officers such as Saf Shikan Khan and Hasan Ali Khan to control the area. Despite these efforts, the region remained chaotic throughout the year. In September, a peace offer was made to the rebel leader Gokula Jat, stating that if he returned all his stolen goods, he would be pardoned—but this plan failed. By November, the situation had worsened to the point where the emperor had to leave Delhi to address the crisis. On 4 December, Hasan Ali Khan attacked several rebel villages, including Rewarah, Chandar-kaha, and Sarkhud. The villagers fought hard until midday; when they could no longer hold out, many chose to kill their own women and then launched a desperate final attack on the Mughal soldiers. Although the Mughal side suffered significant losses, about 300 rebels were killed and 250 men and women were captured. During this campaign, the emperor also sent 200 horsemen to protect villagers' crops and ensure that his soldiers did not mistreat the local people or take any children.Hasan Ali Khan, accompanied by his lieutenant Shaikh Razi-ud-din from Bhagalpur defeated Gokla. Gokla's rebel force, estimated at 20,000 strong and mostly composed of Jats and determined peasants, encountered the imperial army about 20 miles from Tilpat. After a long and bloody fight, the rebels, despite their brave charge, were overwhelmed by the superior discipline and artillery of the Mughal forces and fled to Tilpat. The city was besieged for three days before it was finally taken by force. The battle was very costly: around 4,000 Mughal soldiers and 5,000 rebels were killed, and 7,000 people—including Gokla and his family—were captured. Gokla was brutally executed by having his limbs cut off one by one on a public platform in Agra; his family was forced to convert to Islam, and his followers were imprisoned. Meanwhile, innocent people caught up in the fighting were released after proper inquiries, and the elderly and children were handed over to a court eunuch for care.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy_Graham | Billy Graham | William Franklin Graham Jr. (; November 7, 1918 – February 21, 2018) was an American evangelist, ordained Southern Baptist minister, and civil rights advocate, whose broadcasts and world tours featuring live sermons became well known in the mid-to-late 20th century. Throughout his career, spanning over six decades, Graham rose to prominence as an evangelical Christian figure in the United States and abroad.
According to a biographer, Graham was considered "among the most influential Christian leaders" of the 20th century. Beginning in the late 1940s and early 1950s, Graham became known for filling stadiums and other massive venues around the world where he preached live sermons; these were often broadcast via radio and television with some continuing to be seen into the 21st century. During his six decades on television, Graham hosted his annual "crusades", evangelistic live-campaigns, from 1947 until his retirement in 2005. He also hosted the radio show Hour of Decision from 1950 to 1954. He repudiated racial segregation, at a time of intense racial strife in the United States, insisting on racial integration for all of his revivals and crusades, as early as 1953. He also later invited Martin Luther King Jr. to preach jointly at a revival in New York City in 1957. In addition to his religious aims, he helped shape the worldview of a huge number of people who came from different backgrounds, leading them to find a relationship between the Bible and contemporary secular viewpoints. According to his website, Graham spoke to live audiences consisting of at least 210 million people, in more than 185 countries and territories, through various meetings, including BMS World Mission and Global Mission events.
Graham was close to US presidents Dwight D. Eisenhower, Lyndon B. Johnson (one of his closest friends), and Richard Nixon. He was also lifelong friends with Robert Schuller, another televangelist and the founding pastor of the Crystal Cathedral, whom Graham talked into starting his own television ministry. Graham's evangelism was appreciated by mainline Protestant denominations, as he encouraged mainline Protestants, who were converted to his evangelical message, to remain within or return to their mainline churches. Despite early suspicions and apprehension on his part towards Catholicism—common among contemporaneous evangelical Protestants—Graham eventually developed amicable ties with many American Catholic Church figures, later encouraging unity between Catholics and Protestants.
Graham operated a variety of media and publishing outlets; according to his staff, more than 3.2 million people have responded to the invitation at Billy Graham Crusades to "accept Jesus Christ as their personal savior". Graham's lifetime audience, including radio and television broadcasts, likely surpassed billions of people. As a result of his crusades, Graham preached the gospel to more people, live and in-person, than anyone in the history of Christianity. Graham was on Gallup's list of most admired men and women a record 61 times. Grant Wacker wrote that, by the mid-1960s, he had become the "Great Legitimator", saying: "By then his presence conferred status on presidents, acceptability on wars, shame on racial prejudice, desirability on decency, dishonor on indecency, and prestige on civic events."
== Early life ==
William Franklin Graham Jr. was born on November 7, 1918, in the downstairs bedroom of a farmhouse near Charlotte, North Carolina. Of Scots-Irish descent, he was the eldest of four children born to Morrow (née Coffey) and dairy farmer William Franklin Graham Sr. Graham was raised on the family dairy farm with his two younger sisters Catherine Morrow and Jean and younger brother Melvin Thomas. When he was nine years old, the family moved about 75 yards (69 m) from their white frame house to a newly built red brick house. He was raised by his parents in the Associate Reformed Presbyterian Church. Graham attended the Sharon Grammar School. He started to read books from an early age and loved to read novels for boys, especially Tarzan. Like Tarzan, he would hang on the trees and gave the popular Tarzan yell. According to his father, that yelling led him to become a minister. Graham was 15 when Prohibition ended in December 1933, and his father forced him and his sister Catherine to drink beer until they became sick. This created such an aversion that the two siblings avoided alcohol and drugs for the rest of their lives.
Graham was turned down for membership in a local youth group for being "too worldly". Albert McMakin, who worked on the Graham farm, persuaded him to go see evangelist Mordecai Ham. According to his autobiography, Graham was 16 when he was converted during a series of revival meetings that Ham led in Charlotte in 1934.
After graduating from Sharon High School in May 1936, Graham attended Bob Jones College. After one semester, he found that the coursework and rules were too legalistic. He was almost expelled, but Bob Jones Sr. warned him not to throw his life away: "At best, all you could amount to would be a poor country Baptist preacher somewhere out in the sticks... You have a voice that pulls. God can use that voice of yours. He can use it mightily."
In 1937, Graham transferred to the Florida Bible Institute in Temple Terrace, Florida. While still a student, Graham preached his first sermon at Bostwick Baptist Church near Palatka, Florida. In his autobiography, Graham wrote of receiving his calling on the 18th green of the Temple Terrace Golf and Country Club, which was adjacent to the institute's campus. Reverend Billy Graham Memorial Park was later established on the Hillsborough River, directly east of the 18th green and across from where Graham often paddled a canoe to a small island in the river, where he would practice preaching to the birds, alligators, and cypress stumps. In 1939, Graham was ordained by a group of Southern Baptist clergy at Peniel Baptist Church in Palatka, Florida. In 1940, he graduated with a Bachelor of Theology degree.
Graham then enrolled in Wheaton College in Wheaton, Illinois. During his time there, he decided to accept the Bible as the infallible word of God. Henrietta Mears of the First Presbyterian Church of Hollywood in California was instrumental in helping Graham wrestle with the issue. He settled it at Forest Home Christian Camp (now called Forest Home Ministries) southeast of the Big Bear Lake area in southern California. While attending Wheaton, Graham was invited to preach one Sunday in 1941 at the United Gospel Tabernacle church. After that, the congregation repeatedly asked Graham to preach at their church and later asked him to become the pastor of their church. After Graham prayed and sought advice from his friend Dr. Edman, Graham became their church's pastor.
In June 1943, Graham graduated from Wheaton College with a degree in anthropology. That same year, Robert Van Kampen, treasurer of the National Gideon Association, invited Graham to preach at Western Springs Baptist Church, and Graham accepted the opportunity on the spot. While there, his friend Torrey Johnson, pastor of the Midwest Bible Church in Chicago, told Graham that his radio program, Songs in the Night, was about to be canceled due to lack of funding. Consulting with the members of his church in Western Springs, Graham decided to take over Johnson's program with financial support from his congregation. Launching the new radio program on January 2, 1944, still called Songs in the Night, Graham recruited the bass-baritone George Beverly Shea as his director of radio ministry.
With World War II underway, Graham applied to become a chaplain in the United States Army. After he was initially turned down for being underweight, Graham was awarded a commission as a Second Lieutenant, but came down with a severe case of mumps in October 1944 before he could begin chaplain training at Harvard Divinity School and was bedridden for six weeks. Due to his illness and the fact that the war was expected to end soon, he was discharged from the army. After a period of recuperation in Florida, he was hired as the first full-time evangelist of the new Youth for Christ (YFC), co-founded by Torrey Johnson and the Canadian evangelist Charles Templeton. In his first year as a YFC evangelist, Graham spoke in 47 US states. He traveled extensively as an evangelist in the United States and Europe in the immediate post-war era, making his first overseas trip in 1946.
In 1948, in a Modesto, California hotel room, Graham and his evangelistic team established the Modesto Manifesto: a code of ethics for life and work to protect against accusations of financial, sexual, and power abuse. The code includes rules for collecting offerings in churches, working only with churches supportive of cooperative evangelism, using official crowd estimates at outdoor events, and a commitment to never be alone with a woman other than his wife (which become known as the "Billy Graham rule").
Graham was 29 when he became president of Northwestern Bible College in Minneapolis in 1948. He was the youngest president of a college or university in the country, and held the position for four years before he resigned in 1952. While serving in this position, Charles Templeton urged him to apply to Princeton Theological Seminary for an advanced theological degree after he himself had done so, but Graham declined and continued in his position as president of Northwestern Bible College.
=== Crusades ===
The first Billy Graham Crusade was held on September 13–21, 1947, at the Civic Auditorium in Grand Rapids, Michigan, and was attended by 6,000 people. Graham was 28 years old then, and would rent a large venue (such as a stadium, park, or even a street); as the crowds became larger, he arranged for a group of up to 5,000 people to sing in a choir. He would preach the gospel and invite individuals to come forward (a practice begun by Dwight L. Moody); such people were called "inquirers" and were given the chance to speak one-on-one with a counselor to clarify questions and pray together. The inquirers were often given a copy of the Gospel of John or a Bible study booklet.
In 1949, Graham scheduled a series of revival meetings in Los Angeles, for which he erected circus tents in a parking lot. He attracted national media coverage, especially in the conservative Hearst chain of newspapers, although Hearst and Graham never met. The crusade event ran for eight weeks–five weeks longer than originally planned. Graham became a national figure, with heavy coverage from the wire services and national magazines. Pianist Rudy Atwood, who played for the tent meetings, wrote that they "rocketed Billy Graham into national prominence, and resulted in the conversion of a number of show-business personalities".
In 1953, Graham was offered a five-year, $1 million contract from NBC to appear on television opposite Arthur Godfrey, but he had prior commitments and turned-down the offer to continue his live touring revivals. Graham held crusades in London that lasted 12 weeks, and a New York City crusade at Madison Square Garden, in 1957, ran nightly for 16 weeks. At a 1973 rally, attended by 100,000 people, in Durban, South Africa—the first large mixed-race event in apartheid South Africa—Graham openly declared that "apartheid is a sin". In Moscow, Russia, in 1992, one-quarter of the 155,000 people in Graham's audience went forward at his call. During his crusades, he frequently used the altar call song, "Just As I Am". In 1995, during the Global Mission event, he preached a sermon at Estadio Hiram Bithorn in San Juan, Puerto Rico, that was transmitted by satellite to 185 countries and translated into 116 languages.
By the time of his last crusade in 2005 in New York City, he had preached 417 live crusades, including 226 in the US and 195 abroad.
==== Student ministry ====
Graham spoke at InterVarsity Christian Fellowship's Urbana Student Missions Conference at least nine times – in 1948, 1957, 1961, 1964, 1976, 1979, 1981, 1984, and 1987.
At each Urbana conference, he challenged the thousands of attendees to make a commitment to follow Jesus Christ for the rest of their lives. He often quoted a six-word phrase that was reportedly written in the Bible of William Whiting Borden, the son of a wealthy silver magnate: "No reserves, no retreat, no regrets". Borden had died in Egypt on his way to the mission field.
Graham also held evangelistic meetings on a number of college campuses: at the University of Minnesota during InterVarsity's "Year of Evangelism" in 1950–51, a 4-day mission at Yale University in 1957, and a week-long series of meetings at the University of North Carolina's Carmichael Auditorium in September 1982.
In 1955, he was invited by Cambridge University students to lead the mission at the university; the mission was arranged by the Cambridge Inter-Collegiate Christian Union, with London pastor-theologian John Stott serving as Graham's chief assistant. This invitation was greeted with much disapproval in the correspondence columns of The Times.
==== Evangelistic association ====
In 1950, Graham founded the Billy Graham Evangelistic Association (BGEA) with its headquarters in Minneapolis. The association relocated to Charlotte, North Carolina, in 2003, and maintains a number of international offices, such as in Hong Kong, Tokyo, and Buenos Aires. BGEA ministries have included:
Hour of Decision, a weekly radio program broadcast around the world for 66 years (1950–2016)
Mission television specials broadcast in almost every market in the US and Canada
A syndicated newspaper column, My Answer, carried by newspapers across the United States and distributed by Tribune Content Agency
Decision magazine, the official publication of the association
Christianity Today, started in 1956 with Carl F. H. Henry as its first editor
Passageway.org, the website for a youth discipleship program created by BGEA
World Wide Pictures, which has produced and distributed more than 130 films
In April 2013, the Billy Graham Evangelistic Association started "My Hope With Billy Graham", the largest outreach in its history. It encouraged church members to spread the gospel in small group meetings, after showing a video message by Graham. "The idea is for Christians to follow the example of the disciple Matthew in the New Testament and spread the gospel in their own homes." "The Cross" video is the main program in the My Hope America series, and was also broadcast the week of Graham's 95th birthday.
==== Civil rights movement ====
Graham's early crusades were segregated, but he began adjusting his approach in the 1950s. During a 1953 rally in Chattanooga, Tennessee, Graham tore down the ropes that organizers had erected to segregate the audience into racial sections. In his memoirs, he recounted that he told two ushers to leave the barriers down "or you can go on and have the revival without me." During a sermon held at Vanderbilt University in Nashville on August 23, 1954, he warned a white audience, "Three-fifths of the world is not white. They are rising all over the world. We have been proud and thought we were better than any other race, any other people. Ladies and gentlemen, I want to tell you that we are going to stumble into hell because of our pride."
In 1957, Graham's stance towards integration became more publicly shown when he allowed black ministers Thomas Kilgore and Gardner C. Taylor to serve as members of his New York Crusade's executive committee. He also invited Martin Luther King Jr., whom he first met during the Montgomery bus boycott in 1955, to join him in the pulpit at his 16-week revival in New York City, where 2.3 million gathered at Madison Square Garden, Yankee Stadium, and Times Square to hear them. Graham recalled in his autobiography that during this time, he and King developed a close friendship and that he was eventually one of the few people who referred to King as "Mike", a nickname which King asked only his closest friends to call him. Following King's assassination in 1968, Graham mourned that the US had lost "a social leader and a prophet". In private, Graham advised King and other members of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC).
Despite their friendship, tensions between Graham and King emerged in 1958, when the sponsoring committee of a crusade that took place in San Antonio, Texas, on July 25 arranged for Graham to be introduced by that state's segregationist governor, Price Daniel. On July 23, King sent a letter to Graham and informed him that allowing Daniel to speak at a crusade which occurred the night before the state's Democratic Primary "can well be interpreted as your endorsement of racial segregation and discrimination." Graham's advisor, Grady Wilson, replied to King that "even though we do not see eye to eye with him on every issue, we still love him in Christ." Though Graham's appearance with Daniel dashed King's hopes of holding joint crusades with Graham in the Deep South, the two remained friends; the next year King told a Canadian television audience that Graham had taken a "very strong stance against segregation." Graham and King would also come to differ on the Vietnam War. After King's "Beyond Vietnam" speech denouncing US intervention in Vietnam, Graham castigated him and others for their criticism of US foreign policy.
By the middle of 1960, King and Graham traveled together to the Tenth Baptist World Congress of the Baptist World Alliance. In 1963, Graham posted bail for King to be released from jail during the Birmingham (Alabama) campaign, according to Michael Long, and the King Center acknowledged that Graham had bailed King out of jail during the Albany Movement, although historian Steven Miller told CNN he could not find any proof of the incident. Graham held integrated crusades in Birmingham on Easter of 1964, in the aftermath of the bombing of the Sixteenth Street Baptist Church, and toured Alabama again in the wake of the violence that accompanied the first Selma to Montgomery march in 1965.
Following Graham's death, former SCLC official and future Atlanta politician Andrew Young (who spoke alongside Coretta Scott King at Graham's 1994 crusade in Atlanta), acknowledged his friendship with Graham and stated that Graham did in fact travel with King to the 1965 European Baptist Convention. Young also claimed that Graham had often invited King to his crusades in the Northern states. Former Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) leader and future United States Congressman John Lewis also credited Graham as a major inspiration for his activism. Lewis described Graham as a "saint" and someone who "taught us how to live and who taught us how to die".
Graham's faith prompted his maturing view of race and segregation. He told a member of the Ku Klux Klan that integration was necessary, primarily for religious reasons. "There is no scriptural basis for segregation," Graham argued. "The ground at the foot of the cross is level, and it touches my heart when I see whites standing shoulder to shoulder with blacks at the cross."
==== Lausanne Movement ====
The friendship between Graham and John Stott led to a further partnership in the Lausanne Movement, of which Graham was a founder. It built on Graham's 1966 World Congress on Evangelism in Berlin. In collaboration with Christianity Today, Graham convened what Time magazine described as "a formidable forum, possibly the widest–ranging meeting of Christians ever held" with 2,700 participants from 150 nations gathering for the International Congress on World Evangelization. Women were represented by Millie Dienert, who chaired the prayer committee. This took place in Lausanne, Switzerland (July 16–25, 1974), and the movement which ensued took its name from the host city. Its purpose was to strengthen the global church for world evangelization, and to engage ideological and sociological trends which bore on this. Graham invited Stott to be chief architect of the Lausanne Covenant, which issued from the Congress and which, according to Graham: "helped challenge and unite evangelical Christians in the great task of world evangelization." The movement remains a significant fruit of Graham's legacy, with a presence in nearly every nation.
== Multiple roles ==
Graham played multiple roles that reinforced each other. Grant Wacker identified eight major roles that he played: preacher, icon, Southerner, entrepreneur, architect (bridge builder), pilgrim, pastor, and his widely recognized status as America's Protestant patriarch, which was on a par with Martin Luther King and Pope John Paul II.
He served as a trustee of the International Mission Board in the late 1950s and trustee of the SBC's Radio and Television Commission in the late 1960s.
Graham deliberately reached into the secular world as a bridge builder. For example, as an entrepreneur he built his own pavilion for the 1964 New York World's Fair. He appeared as a guest on a 1969 Woody Allen television special, in which he joined the comedian in a witty exchange on theological matters. During the Cold War, Graham became the first evangelist of note to speak behind the Iron Curtain, addressing large crowds in countries throughout Eastern Europe and in the Soviet Union, calling for peace. During the apartheid era, Graham consistently refused to visit South Africa until its government allowed integrated seating for audiences. During his first crusade there in 1973, he openly denounced apartheid. Graham also corresponded with imprisoned South African leader Nelson Mandela during the latter's 27-year imprisonment.
In 1984, he led a series of summer meetings—Mission England—in the United Kingdom, and he used outdoor football (soccer) fields for his venues.
Graham was interested in fostering evangelism around the world. In 1983, 1986 and 2000 he sponsored, organized and paid for massive training conferences for Christian evangelists; this was, at the time, the largest representation of nations ever held. Over 157 nations were gathered in 2000 at the RAI Convention Center in Amsterdam, the Netherlands. At one revival in Seoul, South Korea, Graham attracted more than one million people to a single service. He appeared in China in 1988; for his wife, Ruth, this was a homecoming, since she had been born in China to missionary parents. He appeared in North Korea in 1992.
On October 15, 1989, Graham received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. He was the only person functioning as a minister who received a star in that capacity.
On September 22, 1991, Graham held his largest event in North America on the Great Lawn of Manhattan's Central Park. City officials estimated that more than 250,000 were in attendance. In 1998, Graham spoke to a crowd of scientists and philosophers at the Technology, Entertainment, Design Conference.
On September 14, 2001 (only three days after the World Trade Center attacks), Graham was invited to lead a service at Washington National Cathedral; the service was attended by President George W. Bush and past and present leaders. He also spoke at the memorial service following the Oklahoma City bombing in 1995. On June 24–26, 2005, Graham began what he said would be his last North American crusade: three days at Flushing Meadows–Corona Park in the borough of Queens, New York City. On the weekend of March 11–12, 2006, Graham held the "Festival of Hope" with his son, Franklin Graham. The festival was held in New Orleans, which was recovering from Hurricane Katrina.
Graham prepared one last sermon, "My Hope America", which was released on DVD and played around America and possibly worldwide between November 7–10, 2013. November 7 was Graham's 95th birthday, and he hoped to cause a revival.
== Later life ==
Graham said that his planned retirement was a result of his failing health; he had suffered from hydrocephalus from 1992 on. In August 2005, Graham appeared at the groundbreaking for his library in Charlotte, North Carolina. Then 86, he used a walker during the ceremony. On July 9, 2006, he spoke at the Metro Maryland Franklin Graham Festival, held in Baltimore, Maryland, at Oriole Park at Camden Yards.
In April 2010, Graham was 91 and experiencing substantial vision, hearing, and balance loss when he made a rare public appearance at the re-dedication of the renovated Billy Graham Library.
There was controversy within his family over Graham's proposed burial place. He announced in June 2007 that he and his wife would be buried alongside each other at the Billy Graham Library in his hometown of Charlotte. Graham's younger son Ned argued with older son Franklin about whether burial at a library would be appropriate. Ruth Graham had said that she wanted to be buried in the mountains at the Billy Graham Training Center at The Cove near Asheville, North Carolina, where she had lived for many years; Ned supported his mother's choice. Novelist Patricia Cornwell, a family friend, also opposed burial at the library, calling it a tourist attraction. Franklin wanted his parents to be buried at the library site. When Ruth Graham died, it was announced that they would be buried at the library site.
In 2011, when asked if he would have done things differently, he said he would have spent more time at home with his family, studied more, and preached less. Additionally, he said he would have participated in fewer conferences. He also said he had a habit of advising evangelists to save their time and avoid having too many commitments.
== Politics ==
After his close relationships with Lyndon B. Johnson and Richard Nixon, Graham tried to avoid explicit partisanship. Bailey says: "He declined to sign or endorse political statements, and he distanced himself from the Christian right ... His early years of fierce opposition to communism gave way to pleas for military disarmament and attention to AIDS, poverty and environmental threats."
Graham was a lifelong registered member of the Democratic Party. In 1960, he opposed the candidacy of John F. Kennedy, fearing that Kennedy, as a Catholic, would be bound to follow the Pope. Graham worked "behind the scenes" to encourage influential Protestant ministers to speak out against Kennedy. During the 1960 campaign, Graham met with a conference of Protestant ministers in Montreux, Switzerland, to discuss their mobilization of congregations to defeat Kennedy. According to the PBS Frontline program, God in America, Graham organized a meeting of hundreds of Protestant ministers in Washington, D.C., in September 1960 for this purpose; the meeting was led by Norman Vincent Peale. This was shortly before Kennedy's speech in Houston, Texas, on the separation of church and state; the speech was considered to be successful in meeting the concerns of many voters. After his election, Kennedy invited Graham to play golf in Palm Beach, Florida, after which Graham acknowledged Kennedy's election as an opportunity for Catholics and Protestants to come closer together. After they had discussed Jesus Christ at that meeting, the two remained in touch, meeting for the last time at a National Day of Prayer meeting in February 1963. In his autobiography, Graham claimed to have felt an "inner foreboding" in the week before Kennedy's assassination, and to have tried to contact him to say, "Don't go to Texas!"
Graham opposed the large majority of abortions, but supported it as a legal option in a very narrow range of circumstances: rape, incest, and the life of the mother. The Billy Graham Evangelistic Association states that "Life is sacred, and we must seek to protect all human life: the unborn, the child, the adult, and the aged."
Graham leaned toward the Republicans during the presidency of Richard Nixon, whom he had met and befriended as vice president under Dwight D. Eisenhower. He did not completely ally himself with the later religious right, saying that Jesus did not have a political party. He gave his support to various political candidates over the years.
In 2007, Graham explained his refusal to join Jerry Falwell's Moral Majority in 1979, saying: "I'm for morality, but morality goes beyond sex to human freedom and social justice. We as clergy know so very little to speak with authority on the Panama Canal or superiority of armaments. Evangelists cannot be closely identified with any particular party or person. We have to stand in the middle to preach to all people, right and left. I haven't been faithful to my own advice in the past. I will be in the future."
According to a 2006 Newsweek interview, "For Graham, politics is a secondary to the Gospel ... When Newsweek asked Graham whether ministers – whether they think of themselves as evangelists, pastors or a bit of both – should spend time engaged with politics, he replied: 'You know, I think in a way that has to be up to the individual as he feels led of the Lord. A lot of things that I commented on years ago would not have been of the Lord, I'm sure, but I think you have some – like communism, or segregation, on which I think you have a responsibility to speak out.'"
In 2011, although grateful to have met politicians who have spiritual needs like everyone else, he said he sometimes crossed the line and would have preferred to avoid politics.
In 2012, Graham endorsed the Republican presidential candidate, Mitt Romney. Shortly after, apparently to accommodate Romney, who is a Mormon, references to Mormonism as a religious cult ("A cult is any group which teaches doctrines or beliefs that deviate from the biblical message of the Christian faith.") were removed from Graham's website. Observers have questioned whether the support of Republican and religious right politics on issues such as same-sex marriage coming from Graham – who stopped speaking in public or to reporters – in fact reflects the views of his son, Franklin, head of the BGEA. Franklin denied this, and said that he would continue to act as his father's spokesperson rather than allowing press conferences. In 2016, according to his son Franklin, Graham voted for Donald Trump. This statement has been disputed by other children and grandchildren of Billy Graham, who argue that he was too ill to vote (even absentee), and who reiterated that Billy Graham's stated greatest regret in life was becoming involved in partisan politics.
=== Pastor to presidents ===
Graham had a personal audience with many sitting US presidents, from Harry S. Truman to Barack Obama – 12 consecutive presidents. After meeting with Truman in 1950, Graham told the press he had urged the president to counter communism in North Korea. Truman disliked him and did not speak with him for years after that meeting. Later he always treated his conversations with presidents as confidential.
Truman made his contempt for Graham public. He wrote about Graham in his 1974 autobiography Plain Speaking: "But now we've got just this one evangelist, this Billy Graham, and he's gone off the beam. He's ... well, I hadn't ought to say this, but he's one of those counterfeits I was telling you about. He claims he's a friend of all the presidents, but he was never a friend of mine when I was President. I just don't go for people like that. All he's interested in is getting his name in the paper."
Graham became a regular visitor during the tenure of Dwight D. Eisenhower. He purportedly urged him to intervene with federal troops in the case of the Little Rock Nine to gain admission of black students to public schools. House Speaker Sam Rayburn persuaded Congress to allow Graham to conduct the first religious service on the steps of the Capitol building in 1952. Eisenhower asked for Graham while on his deathbed.
Graham met and became a close friend of Vice President Richard Nixon, and supported Nixon, a Quaker, for the 1960 presidential election. He convened an August strategy session of evangelical leaders in Montreux, Switzerland, to plan how best to oppose Nixon's Roman Catholic opponent, Senator John F. Kennedy. Though a registered Democrat, Graham also maintained firm support of aggression against the foreign threat of communism and strongly sympathized with Nixon's views regarding American foreign policy. Thus, he was more sympathetic to Republican administrations.
On December 16, 1963, U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson, who was impressed by the way Graham had praised the work of his great-grandfather, George Washington Baines, invited Graham to the White House to receive spiritual counseling. After this visit, Johnson frequently called on Graham for more spiritual counseling as well as companionship. As Graham recalled to his biographer Frady, "I almost used the White House as a hotel when Johnson was President. He was always trying to keep me there. He just never wanted me to leave."
In contrast with his more limited access with Truman, Eisenhower, and Kennedy, Graham would not only visit the White House private quarters but would also at times kneel at Johnson's bedside and pray with him whenever the President requested him to do so. Graham once recalled "I have never had many people do that." In addition to his White House visits, Graham visited Johnson at Camp David and occasionally met with the President when he retreated to his private ranch in Stonewall, Texas. Johnson was also the first sitting president to attend one of Graham's crusades, in Houston, Texas, in 1965.
During the 1964 United States presidential election, supporters of Republican nominee Barry Goldwater sent an estimated 2 million telegrams to Graham's hometown of Montreat, North Carolina, and sought the preacher's endorsement. Supportive of Johnson's domestic policies, and hoping to preserve his friendship with the president, Graham resisted pressure to endorse Goldwater and stayed neutral in the election. Following Johnson's election victory, Graham's role as the main White House pastor was solidified. At one point, Johnson even considered making Graham a member of his cabinet and grooming him to be his successor, though Graham insisted he had no political ambitions and wished to remain a preacher. Graham's biographer David Aikman acknowledged that the preacher was closer to Johnson than any other president he had ever known. In February 2025, the BGEA stated that Graham was in fact "probably closer to Johnson than to any other president."
He spent the last night of Johnson's presidency in the White House, and he stayed for the first night of Nixon's. After Nixon's victorious 1968 presidential campaign, Graham became an adviser, regularly visiting the White House and leading the president's private worship services. In a meeting they had with Golda Meir, Nixon offered Graham the ambassadorship to Israel, but he declined the offer.
In 1970, Nixon appeared at a Graham revival in East Tennessee, which they thought safe politically. It drew one of the largest crowds in Tennessee of protesters against the Vietnam War. Nixon was the first president to give a speech from an evangelist's platform. Their friendship became strained in 1973 when Graham rebuked Nixon for his post-Watergate behavior and the profanity heard on the Watergate tapes. They eventually reconciled after Nixon's resignation.
Graham officiated at one presidential burial and one presidential funeral. He presided over the graveside services of President Lyndon B. Johnson in 1973 and took part in eulogizing the former president. Graham officiated at the funeral services of former First Lady Pat Nixon in 1993, and the death and state funeral of Richard Nixon in 1994. During the Monica Lewinsky scandal, Graham asserted that he believed President Bill Clinton to be "a spiritual person". He was unable to attend the state funeral of Ronald Reagan on June 11, 2004, as he was recovering from hip replacement surgery. This was mentioned by George W. Bush in his eulogy.
On April 25, 2010, President Barack Obama visited Graham at his home in Montreat, North Carolina, where they "had a private prayer".
=== Relationship with Queen Elizabeth II ===
Graham had a friendly relationship with Queen Elizabeth II and was frequently invited by the Royal Family to special events. They first met in 1955, and Graham preached at Windsor Chapel at the Queen's invitation during the following year. Their friendly relationship may have been because they shared a traditional approach to the practical aspects of the Christian faith.
=== Foreign policy views ===
Graham was outspoken against communism and supported the American Cold War policy, including the Vietnam War. In a secret letter from April 15, 1969, made public twenty years later, Graham encouraged Nixon to bomb the dikes in North Vietnam if the peace talks in Paris should fail. This action would "destroy the economy of North Vietnam" and, by Nixon's estimate, would have killed a million people.
In 1982, Graham preached in the Soviet Union and attended a wreath-laying ceremony to honor the war dead of World War II, when the Soviets were American allies in the fight against Nazism. He voiced fear of a second holocaust, not against Jews, but "a nuclear holocaust" and advised that "our greatest contribution to world peace is to live with Christ every day."
In a 1999 speech, Graham discussed his relationship with the late North Korean leader Kim Il Sung, praising him as a "different kind of communist" and "one of the great fighters for freedom in his country against the Japanese". Graham went on to note that although he had never met Kim's son and then-current North Korean leader Kim Jong Il, he had "exchanged gifts with him".
== Controversial views ==
=== Discussion of Jews with President Nixon ===
During the Watergate affair, there were suggestions that Graham had expressed antisemitic opinions in private discussions with Richard Nixon; he denied this, stressing his efforts to build bridges to the Jewish community. In 2002, the controversy was renewed when declassified "Richard Nixon tapes" confirmed remarks made by Graham to Nixon three decades earlier. Captured on the tapes, Graham agreed with Nixon that Jews control the American media, calling it a "stranglehold" during a 1972 conversation with Nixon, and suggesting that if Nixon was re-elected that they might be able to do something about it.
When the tapes were made public, Graham apologized and said, "Although I have no memory of the occasion, I deeply regret comments I apparently made in an Oval Office conversation with President Nixon ... some 30 years ago. ... They do not reflect my views and I sincerely apologize for any offense caused by the remarks." According to Newsweek magazine, "[T]he shock of the revelation was magnified because of Graham's longtime support of Israel and his refusal to join in calls for conversion of the Jews."
In 2009, more Nixon tapes were released, in which Graham is heard in a 1973 conversation with Nixon referring to a group of Jewish journalists as "the synagogue of Satan". A spokesman for Graham said that Graham has never been an antisemite and that the comparison (in accord with the context of the quotation in the Book of Revelation) was directed specifically at those claiming to be Jews but not holding to traditional Jewish values.
=== Ecumenism ===
After a 1957 crusade in New York, some more fundamentalist Protestant Christians criticized Graham for his ecumenism, even calling him "Antichrist".
Graham expressed inclusivist views, suggesting that people without explicit faith in Jesus can be saved. In a 1997 interview with Robert Schuller, Graham said:
I think that everybody that loves or knows Christ, whether they are conscious of it or not, they are members of the body of Christ ... [God] is calling people out of the world for his name, whether they come from the Muslim world, or the Buddhist world or the non-believing world, they are members of the Body of Christ because they have been called by God. They may not know the name of Jesus but they know in their hearts that they need something they do not have, and they turn to the only light they have, and I think that they are saved and they are going to be with us in heaven.
Iain Murray, writing from a conservative Protestant standpoint, argues that "Graham's concessions are sad words from one who once spoke on the basis of biblical certainties."
=== Views on women ===
In 1970, Graham stated that feminism was "an echo of our overall philosophy of permissiveness" and that women did not want to be "competitive juggernauts pitted against male chauvinists". He further stated that the role of wife, mother, and homemaker was the destiny of "real womanhood" according to the Judeo-Christian ethic. Graham's assertions, published in the Ladies' Home Journal, elicited letters of protest, and were offered as rebuttal to the establishment of "The New Feminism" section of the publication that had been added following a sit-in protest at the Journal offices demanding female representation on the staff of the publication.
Graham's daughter Bunny recounted her father denying her and her sisters higher education. As reported in The Washington Post:
Bunny remembers being groomed for the life of wife, homemaker, and mother. "There was never an idea of a career for us", she said. "I wanted to go to nursing school – Wheaton had a five-year program – but Daddy said no. No reason, no explanation, just 'No.' It wasn't confrontational and he wasn't angry, but when he decided, that was the end of it." She added, "He has forgotten that. Mother has not."
Graham's daughter Anne is a Christian minister, leading a Christian ministry organization known as AnGeL Ministries.
Graham talked his future wife, Ruth, into abandoning her ambition to evangelize in Tibet in favor of staying in the United States to marry him – and that to do otherwise would be "to thwart God's obvious will". After Ruth agreed to marry him, Graham cited the Bible for claiming authority over her, saying, "then I'll do the leading and you do the following". According to her obituary, Ruth was active in Christian ministry after they married, often teaching Sunday School. Her obituary states that in addition to his two sons, all three of Graham's daughters would become Christian ministers as well.
=== Views on homosexuality ===
Graham regarded homosexuality as a sin, and in 1974 described it as "a sinister form of perversion". In 1993, he said that he thought AIDS might be a "judgment" from God, but two weeks later he retracted the remark, saying: "I don't believe that, and I don't know why I said it." Graham opposed same-sex marriage, stating that "I believe the home and marriage is the foundation of our society and must be protected." Graham's obituary noted that his stated position was that he did not want to talk about homosexuality as a political issue. Corky Siemaszko, writing for NBC News, noted that after the 1993 incident, Graham "largely steered clear of the subject". However, Graham appeared to take a more tolerant approach to the issue of homosexuality when he appeared on the May 2, 1997, episode of 20/20, stating: "I think that the Bible teaches that homosexuality is a sin, but the Bible also teaches that pride is a sin, jealously is a sin, and hate is a sin, evil thoughts are a sin, and so I don't think that homosexuality should be chosen as the overwhelming sin that we are doing today."
In 2012, Graham and his son, Franklin, publicly endorsed North Carolina Amendment 1, a measure to ban same-sex marriage in the state. They both condemned President Obama's public declaration of support for same-sex marriage later that year.
== Awards and honors ==
Graham was frequently honored by surveys, including "Greatest Living American", and consistently ranked among the most admired persons in the United States and the world. He appeared most frequently on Gallup's list of most admired people. On the day of his death, Graham had been on Gallup's Top 10 "Most Admired Man" list 61 times, and held the highest rank of any person since the list began in 1948.
In 1967, he was the first Protestant to receive an honorary degree from Belmont Abbey College, a Roman Catholic school. In 1983, he was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by US President Ronald Reagan.
Graham received the Big Brother of the Year Award for his work on behalf of children. He was cited by the George Washington Carver Memorial Institute for his contributions to race relations. He received the Templeton Foundation Prize for Progress in Religion and the Sylvanus Thayer Award for his commitment to "Duty, Honor, Country". The "Billy Graham Children's Health Center" in Asheville is named after and funded by Graham.
In 1999, the Gospel Music Association inducted Graham into the Gospel Music Hall of Fame to recognize his contributions to Christian music artists such as Michael W. Smith, dc Talk, Amy Grant, Jars of Clay, and others who performed at the Billy Graham Crusades. Graham was the first non-musician inducted, and had also helped to revitalize interest in hymns and create new favorite songs. Singer Michael W. Smith was active in Billy Graham Crusades as well as Samaritan's Purse. Smith sang "Just As I Am" in a tribute to Graham at the 44th GMA Dove Awards. He also sang it at the memorial service honoring Graham at the United States Capitol rotunda on February 28, 2018.
In 2000, former First Lady Nancy Reagan presented the Ronald Reagan Freedom Award to Graham. Graham was a friend of the Reagans for years.
In 2001, Queen Elizabeth II awarded him an honorary knighthood. The honor was presented to him by Sir Christopher Meyer, British Ambassador to the US at the British Embassy in Washington DC on December 6, 2001.
A professorial chair is named after him at the Alabama Baptist-affiliated Samford University, the Billy Graham Professor of Evangelism and Church Growth. His alma mater, Wheaton College, has an archive of his papers at the Billy Graham Center. The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary has the Billy Graham School of Missions, Evangelism and Ministry. Graham received 20 honorary degrees and refused at least that many more. In San Francisco, California, the Bill Graham Civic Auditorium is sometimes erroneously called the "Billy Graham Civic Auditorium" and incorrectly considered to be named in his honor, but it is actually named after the rock and roll promoter Bill Graham.
On May 31, 2007, the $27 million Billy Graham Library was officially dedicated in Charlotte. Former presidents Jimmy Carter, George H. W. Bush, and Bill Clinton appeared to celebrate with Graham. A highway in Charlotte bears Graham's name, as does I-240 near Graham's home in Asheville.
As Graham's final crusade approached in 2005, his friend Pat Boone chose to create a song in honor of Graham, which he co-wrote and produced with David Pack and Billy Dean, who digitally combined studio recordings of various artists into what has been called a "'We Are the World'-type" production. Titled "Thank You Billy Graham", the song's video was introduced by Bono, and included Faith Hill, MxPx, John Ford Coley, John Elefante, Mike Herrera, Michael McDonald, Jeffrey Osborne, LeAnn Rimes, Kenny Rogers, Connie Smith, Michael Tait, and other singers, with brief narration by Larry King. It was directed by Brian Lockwood, as a tribute album. In 2013, the album My Hope: Songs Inspired by the Message and Mission of Billy Graham was recorded by Amy Grant, Kari Jobe, Newsboys, Matthew West, tobyMac, and other music artists with new songs to honor Graham during his My Hope America with Billy Graham outreach and the publication of his book The Reason for My Hope: Salvation. Other songs written to honor Graham include "Hero of the Faith" written by Eddie Carswell of NewSong, which became a hit, "Billy, You're My Hero" by Greg Hitchcock, "Billy Graham" by The Swirling Eddies, "Billy Graham's Bible" by Joe Nichols, "Billy Frank" by Randy Stonehill, and an original song titled "Just as I Am" by Fernando Ortega.
The movie Billy: The Early Years officially premiered in theaters on October 10, 2008, less than one month before Graham's 90th birthday. Graham did not comment on the film, but his son Franklin released a critical statement on August 18, 2008, noting that the Billy Graham Evangelistic Association "has not collaborated with nor does it endorse the movie". Graham's eldest daughter, Gigi, praised the film and was hired as a consultant to help promote it.
=== Honorary doctorates ===
He has received several honorary doctorates.
1948: Doctor of Divinity, Newcastle University
1948: Doctor of Humanities, Bob Jones University
1950: Doctor of Laws, Houghton University
1954: Doctor of Divinity, Baylor University
1956: Doctor of Letters, Wheaton College
1967: Doctor of Humane Letters, Belmont Abbey College
1973: Doctor of Humane Letters, Jacksonville University
1981: Doctor of Theology, Christian Theological Seminary (Warsaw, Poland)
1981: Doctor of Theology, Reformed Theological Academy (Debrecan, Hungary)
1985: Doctor of Christianity, Dallas Baptist University
1990: Doctor of Humanities, Hong Kong Baptist University
1996: Doctor of Divinity, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
=== Other honors ===
== Personal life ==
=== Family ===
On August 13, 1943, Graham married Wheaton classmate Ruth Bell, whose parents were Presbyterian missionaries in China. Her father, L. Nelson Bell, was a general surgeon. Ruth died on June 14, 2007, at age 87. The couple were married for almost 64 years.
Graham and his wife had five children together. Virginia (Gigi) Leftwich Graham Tchividjian (b. 1945), an inspirational speaker and author; Anne Graham Lotz (b. 1948), leader of AnGeL ministries; Ruth Graham (b. 1950), founder and president of Ruth Graham & Friends and leader of conferences throughout the US and Canada; Franklin Graham (b. 1952), president and CEO of the Billy Graham Evangelistic Association and president and CEO of international relief organization Samaritan's Purse; and Nelson Edman Graham (b. 1958), a pastor who runs East Gates Ministries International, which distributes Christian literature in China.
At the time of his death at age 99 in 2018, Graham was survived by 5 children, 19 grandchildren (including Tullian Tchividjian and Will Graham), 41 great-grandchildren, and 6 great-great-grandchildren.
=== Church ===
In 1953, he became a member of the First Baptist Church Dallas, although he never lived in the state of Texas. In 2008, he changed his membership to the First Baptist Church of Spartanburg, South Carolina, about a 1.5-hour drive from his home in Montreat, North Carolina.
== Death ==
Graham died of natural causes on February 21, 2018, at his home in Montreat, North Carolina, at the age of 99.
On February 28 and March 1, 2018, Graham became the fourth private citizen in United States history to lie in honor at the United States Capitol rotunda in Washington, D.C. He is the first religious leader to be so honored. At the ceremony, Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell and Speaker of the House Paul Ryan called Graham "America's pastor". President Donald Trump said Graham was "an ambassador for Christ". In addition, televangelist Jim Bakker paid respect to Graham, stating he was the greatest preacher since Jesus. He also said that Graham visited him in prison.
A private funeral service was held on March 2, 2018. Graham was buried beside his wife at the foot of the cross-shaped brick walkway in the Prayer Garden, on the northeast side of the Billy Graham Library in Charlotte, North Carolina. Graham's pine plywood casket was handcrafted in 2006 by convicted murderers at the Louisiana State Penitentiary, and topped with a wooden cross that was nailed to it by the prisoners.
He is honored with a commemoration on the liturgical calendar of the Anglican Church in North America on February 21.
On May 16, 2024, a bronze statue of Graham was unveiled in the U.S. Capitol by House Speaker Mike Johnson.
== Media portrayals ==
Man in the 5th Dimension (1964): short biographical film featuring Graham.
Billy: The Early Years (2008): Played by actor Armie Hammer.
The Crown (2017): "Vergangenheit", Season 2 Episode 6. Played by actor Paul Sparks.
Unbroken: Path to Redemption (2018): Played by his grandson Will Graham.
== Works ==
Graham's My Answer advice column appeared in newspapers for more than 60 years as of 2017.
=== Books ===
Graham authored the following books, many of which have become bestsellers. In the 1970s, The Jesus Generation sold 200,000 copies in the first two weeks after its publication. Angels: God's Secret Agents had sales of a million copies within 90 days after release; How to Be Born Again was said to have made publishing history with its first printing of 800,000 copies.
== Notes ==
== Bibliography ==
Aikman, David (2007). Billy Graham: His Life and Influence. Nashville: Thomas Nelson. ASIN B008JM5FE2. short biography
Aikman, David (2010). "Lyndon B. Johnson". Billy Graham: His Life and Influence. Thomas Nelson. ISBN 978-1-4185-8432-0. 2010 edition
Long, Michael G., ed. (2008). The Legacy of Billy Graham: Critical Reflections on America's Greatest Evangelist. ASIN B002LE87N0. scholarly essays
Miller, Steven P. (2009). Billy Graham and the Rise of the Republican South. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-4151-8.
Schier, H. Edward (2013). "Civil Rights Movement". The Battle of the Three Wills: As It Relates to Good & Evil. Author House. ISBN 978-1-4817-5876-5.
== Further reading ==
== External links ==
Billy Graham Evangelistic Association
Billy Graham Archive and Research Center
Billy Graham Center at Wheaton College
Billy Graham Resources, Wheaton College Archives & Special Collections
Billy Graham on American Experience, PBS
Billy Graham at TED
Appearances on C-SPAN
Billy Graham at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BraviSEAmo!#Music | BraviSEAmo! | BraviSEAmo! (ブラヴィッシーモ! Buravisshiimo!) was a nighttime water show at Tokyo DisneySea. The show featured water, pyrotechnic, and firework effects and was performed on the lagoon of the Mediterranean Harbor. The show was directed by Yves Pépin from ECA2 and used little dialogue, instead featuring an orchestral score by Gavin Greenaway. BraviSEAmo! replaced Tokyo DisneySea's earlier nighttime show DisneySea Symphony, and was replaced by a new version of Fantasmic! in 2011. The show ran from July 17, 2004 to November 13, 2010 and was sponsored by NTT DoCoMo throughout its run.
== Synopsis ==
The show begins with the lights around Mediterranean Harbor darkening, and a pre-show musical portion plays while mist blows across the lagoon. As the pre-show ends, a horn call is heard, and spotlights form a large pentagram in the sky. Mickey Mouse then enters in an aquatic chariot pulled by sea horses. Mickey is dressed as a sea prince, with a flowing robe, a crown of large golden tasseled feathers, and a trident. After sailing around the lagoon, Mickey welcomes the audience "to this world of magic," sending fireworks out of his trident as low-level fireworks blanket the water in sparks. He asks if the audience wonders how such a mysterious place exists, and if they want to know the story "that only the Sea and Wind know." Mickey and chariot exit as a Male Narrator describes the story. In the far distant past, a Water Spirit and a Fire Spirit lived in this place, but each inhabited its own world without ever seeing the other's face. The story, and show, tell of their first meeting.
Fountains then begin to spray on the lagoon from stationary barges, forming water patterns in time with the gentle music of the Water Spirit Bellisea. This proceeds for several minutes until the music fades. It is replaced by the wordless female voice of Bellisea, who appears on the water in the form of a woman made from flowing water. Bellisea moves through the lagoon on a barge, her appearance created by water spraying from a metal scaffold to form her arms, hair, and skirt from water. After reaching the far end of the lagoon, the music fades and Bellisea disappears into slumber.
An aggressive drumbeat and thunder sound ring out as fireworks launch from Mount Prometheus, the volcano located adjacent to Mediterranean Harbor. Plumes of fire then shoot from the lagoon as the music speeds in intensity. The sound of male chanting, representing the voice of the Fire Spirit Prometeo, rings out as he emerges from under the water in the form of a mechanical phoenix. Fire burns on the lagoon in a rune-like shape, and flames shoot from Prometeo's wings. After remaining on the water for a moment, Prometo begins to retire.
It is then that Bellisea, reawakening, starts to sing from her end of the lagoon. Prometeo, taking notice, looks over to her. Bellisea continues to sing, and Prometeo joins, their voices harmonizing. Bellisea starts to move toward him, water streaming from her barge as fire flickers in unison from Prometeo's wings. As they come closer together, the fountains around the lagoon erupt, the music peaks, and symbolically, the two spirits fall in love. The show then enters its climax as the two spirits, 'swept away' by love, take on the aspects of one another. Prometeo's fiery wings change to curtains of sparks and his body sparkles with blue lights, and Bellisea launches fireworks from her barge. More fireworks shoot from Mount Prometheus, and low-level fireworks blanket the lagoon as Mickey, from off stage, exclaims "Bravissimo! Ha ha!" In a final blaze of fireworks and flurry of music, the show ends. Immediately following, the ending song "Swept Away" plays as Bellisea and Prometeo remain on the water, before finally vanishing from sight.
== Development ==
Although BraviSEAmo! was not the first nighttime show performed at Tokyo DisneySea, initial planning for the show began in 2002, the year after the park opened. Concept development began when Oriental Land Company show producer Koichi Sasamoto and his staff contacted French event designer ECA2 and Yves Pépin to brainstorm ideas. Sasamoto had previously produced shows for Tokyo Disneyland, while Pépin and its company ECA2 was known for creating the Eiffel Tower Millennium Show and Magical Sentosa show for the Sentosa Musical Fountain in Singapore; he subsequently went on to design a similar water show, Songs of the Sea, also for Sentosa. On the Walt Disney Creative Entertainment end, John Haupt served as the producer, while Thomas Tryon was the production manager. BraviSEAmo! was envisioned as being a summation of the entire Tokyo DisneySea. After deciding on the elemental love story concept, Sasamoto's team went to France to work out the practical effects details. Bruno Corsini of Marseille, who previously worked on the 2004 Summer Olympics opening ceremony, served as the lighting designer, while French-based Barbizon Lighting supplied the majority of the lighting equipment. Troy Starr, also of Barbizon, was the systems integrator. Christophe Berthonneau of Groupe F Pyrotechnie designed the fireworks for the show and provided 40 flame-throwers that were integrated into the Prometeo design.
Sasamoto's team then moved to Valencia, Spain where they visited a fireworks factory and built and tested a full-scale Prometeo prototype. It was at this stage of development that the flame-throwers were calibrated and the firework launchers were tested. After completing testing, Sasamoto returned to Japan and oversaw construction of the show-use Prometeo, which was manufactured by a firm specializing in precision machinery. After manufacturing, the show-use Prometeo was tested for 2 months in water conditions and installed in a 6-meter deep pit, which was constructed in the Mediterranean Harbor lagoon. The crucial difficulties worked out at this stage were ensuring that the electronics, flame-throwers, and fireworks could function even when underwater. Corsini also traveled to Japan, where he spent 1 month working out the lighting with the Japanese staff. Due to the park remaining open during this time, testing the light and water controls, as well as training the crew to use them, was conducted after the park closed each night at 11 pm. The size of the show-use Prometeo was 14 meters tall and 32 meters wide; the show-use Bellisea was 11 meters tall. The final development and production cost of BraviSEAmo! was 3 billion yen (nearly $37 million in 2011 dollars).
The BraviSEAmo! project and development included several technical firsts for Disney Parks shows. It was the first to use a Global Positioning System (GPS), which was used to track the four fountain barges and correctly locate them in the lagoon to ensure the fountains and pyrotechnic effects would be launched from their proper locations. The GPS was also used on the two largest show barges, the Mickey Chariot barge and the Bellisea barge, to help the operators correctly place them and hit marks in the lagoon. It was also the first to use a wireless LAN to handle all show communications, including lighting, fountain, and pyrotechnic controls. Wired Ethernet equipped with antennae were used for the land-based lighting dimmers, and standard Ethernet ports located around the lagoon were used for lighting programming positions. The use of wireless LAN was made possible by the lack of competing radio frequencies at the Tokyo Disney Resort.
The complex show lighting was run using DMX512 communication protocols. The Prometeo lighting rig consisted of 3,000 waterproof Japanese-made LEDs and 250 Birket Strobe-Brik strobe lights, as well as 2 narrow spot PAR lamps for Prometeo's eyes. Because the Prometeo rig had to remain underwater all day, the strobe controllers were all encased in stainless steel, and the strobe cables were waterproof. A total of 14 strobe controllers (eight 32-channel, two 16-channel, and four 8-channel) were used in all. The shore-based lighting equipment consisted of 42 Halto/Griven Rainbows, 42 Griven Everest CYM MSD700 fixtures, 10 Space Cannon Ireos Pro VHT 7 kW color-changing fixtures, Coemar NAT 2.5 kW and 4 kW fixtures using Tempest Lighting outdoor enclosures, 380 Pace PARs, 130 Hydrel waterproof PAR64s with custom dichroic color filters, and Aqua Signal marine floodlights. Electrol Engineering D625dx dimmers were used. The show was controlled using a High End Systems' Wholehog III console.
== Production ==
Daily preparation for each performance of BraviSEAmo! began at 1 am with 16 pyrotechnicians starting installation of the 850 fireworks used in the show. Pyrotechnic installation concluded at 12 pm. A total of 60 crew were trained for work on the show, of which 40 were actively involved in each performance. Each of the 4 fountain barges had a driver, while the Chariot and Bellisea barges each had a driver and a spotter. BraviSEAmo! was held once daily at 7:25 pm.
== Music ==
The score of BraviSEAmo! was composed, orchestrated, and conducted by Gavin Greenaway. Greenaway had previously composed the music for the Disney fireworks show IllumiNations: Reflections of Earth and parade Tapestry of Nations, both performed at Epcot. The score was recorded at Paramount Scoring Stage M in Hollywood, California by Tom Vicari. Bellisea's vocals were performed by singer Lisbeth Scott, known for her numerous film score performances. The theme song "Swept Away" was composed by Greenaway, with lyrics by Donna Elaine Miller, and was sung by Miller and Rick Logan. The vocals of the main show and "Swept Away" were recorded and mixed at the O'Henry Sound Studios in Burbank, California by Vicari. The score was mastered by Bob Katz at Digital Domain Mastering in Altamonte Springs, Florida.
While the dialogue of BraviSEAmo! is in Japanese, the ending song "Swept Away" was performed in English. A Japanese-language version was also created but was only used during the Tokyo DisneySea Season of Hearts promotional period, from February 14 to March 14, 2007. The alternate Japanese version was included on the BraviSEAmo! Complete album released in 2007.
== References ==
== External links ==
ECA2 Official Website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marina_Ratner | Marina Ratner | Marina Evseevna Ratner (Russian: Мари́на Евсе́евна Ра́тнер; October 30, 1938 – July 7, 2017) was a professor of mathematics at the University of California, Berkeley who worked in ergodic theory. Around 1990, she proved a group of major theorems concerning unipotent flows on homogeneous spaces, known as Ratner's theorems. Ratner was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1992, awarded the Ostrowski Prize in 1993 and elected to the National Academy of Sciences the same year. In 1994, she was awarded the John J. Carty Award from the National Academy of Sciences.
== Early life ==
Ratner was born October 30, 1938 in Moscow, Russian SFSR. Her father was a plant physiologist and professor, and her mother was a chemist. Her family suffered from discrimination and antisemitism because they were Jewish. Ratner's mother was fired from work in the 1940s for writing to her mother in Israel, then considered an enemy of the Soviet state.
Ratner gained an interest in mathematics in her fifth grade. She was able to go to Moscow State University because the university had limited discrimination against Jewish applicants as the Khrushchev era began.
From 1956 to 1961, Ratner studied mathematics and physics at Moscow State University. Here, she became interested in probability theory, inspired by A.N. Kolmogorov and his group.
== Career ==
After graduation, Ratner spent four years working in Kolmogorov's applied statistics group. Following this, she returned to Moscow State university for graduate studies under Yakov G. Sinai, also a student of Kolmogorov. She completed her PhD thesis, titled "Geodesic Flows on Unit Tangent Bundles of Compact Surfaces of Negative Curvature", in 1969. During this time, Ratner studied the aforementioned geodesic flows as well as a special class of flows called Anosov flows. After earning her doctorate, she worked at the High Technical Engineering School in Moscow until she lost her job in 1970 due to applying for an emigration visa to Israel.
In 1971 Ratner emigrated from the Soviet Union to Israel and she taught at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem from 1971 until 1975. She continued to study geodesic flows, extending her results to higher dimensions. Ratner also proved that the trajectory of Anosov flows exhibited the Bernoulli property of randomness. She began to work with Rufus Bowen at Berkeley, who was studying similar Axiom A flows, and eventually was invited to join him as a professor in 1975. Ratner then emigrated to the United States and became a professor of mathematics at Berkeley, with "some controversy" following within the department. Ratner studied horocycle flows, proving that they are "loosely Bernoulli", and their Cartesian squares are not. In the early 1980s she described how rigidity applied to horocycle flows, and this led to her work on the Raghunathan conjecture.
During the 1980s Ratner published proofs of conjectures dealing with unipotent flows on quotients of Lie groups made by S. G. Dani and M. S. Raghunathan. During this time she proved a property now named after her, showing that two unipotent flow trajectories that remain together for a period of time will remain close for a much longer time.
Much of Ratner's work focused on dynamical systems, especially over homogeneous spaces. Her results were abstract and had extensive consequences for different fields within math. In particular, a wide array of research in number theory has proceeded from her results.
== Personal life ==
Before earning her doctorate, Ratner had a daughter, Anna, from a brief marriage.
Ratner moved to Israel with her parents in the early 1970s. Her sister Judith remained in the Soviet Union, and lost her job as a research metallurgist in 1973 due to her family's emigration. When Ratner later moved to the U.S., her parents stayed in Israel. Judith applied to leave the Soviet Union in 1977 along with her husband, but they were denied permission and faced persecution because they were Jewish. Judith's family eventually received permission to leave in 1987.
Marina Ratner died July 7, 2017, at the age of 78.
== Honors and legacy ==
In 1992, Ratner was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and in 1993, the National Academy of Sciences. Ratner also won the Ostrowski prize in 1993. For her theorems on unipotent flows and other work, she won the John J. Carty Award for the Advancement of Science in 1994. Also that year, she became the third woman plenary speaker at International Congress of Mathematicians, and Ingrid Daubechies followed her at the same conference. Emmy Noether and Karen Uhlenbeck had been the only other women to speak there for decades. Ratner's talk was titled Interactions between ergodic theory, Lie groups and number theory. In 2004, Ratner won the Donald Sterling Noyce Prize for Excellence in Undergraduate Teaching.
In 2013, Ratner received an honorary doctorate from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, and they hosted a conference about her work.
Some mathematicians claim that Ratner would have won the Fields Medal, the most prestigious prize in mathematics, if her work had been completed by the age of 40, as required by the prize. Elon Lindenstrauss and Maryam Mirzakhani won the Fields Medal for work that grew out of Ratner's results. Her discoveries influenced many fields of mathematics, including geometry, dynamics, diophantine approximation, ergodic theory, and Lie group theory.
== Selected publications ==
Ratner, Marina (1990). "Strict measure rigidity for unipotent subgroups of solvable groups". Inventiones Mathematicae. 101 (1): 449–482. Bibcode:1990InMat.101..449R. doi:10.1007/BF01231511. ISSN 0020-9910. S2CID 120179569.
Ratner, Marina (1990). "On measure rigidity of unipotent subgroups of semisimple groups". Acta Mathematica. 165: 229–309. doi:10.1007/BF02391906. ISSN 0001-5962.
Ratner, Marina (1995). "Interactions Between Ergodic Theory, Lie Groups, and Number Theory". Proceedings of the International Congress of Mathematicians. pp. 157–182. doi:10.1007/978-3-0348-9078-6_13. ISBN 978-3-0348-9897-3.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conalia_melanops | Conalia melanops | Conalia melanops is a species of tumbling flower beetle in the family Mordellidae, found in North America.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patricia_Bullrich | Patricia Bullrich | Patricia Bullrich (Latin American Spanish: [paˈtɾisja ˈβulritʃ] ; born 11 June 1956) is an Argentine politician. She currently serves as a National Senator for the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires since December 2025, representing La Libertad Avanza. She previously served as the Minister of National Security from 2023 to 2025 under president Javier Milei and from 2015 to 2019 under president Mauricio Macri. She was the chairwoman of the Republican Proposal until 2025.
She was born in Buenos Aires, part of the Pueyrredón family. Bullrich graduated from the University of Palermo, and as a young woman she was involved with the Peronist Youth. She married Marcelo Langieri, secretary of Rodolfo Galimberti; Galimberti was a leader of the Montoneros guerrilla and her brother-in-law. They went into exile in 1977, during the Dirty War, and she returned in 1982, after the Falklands War. She was elected deputy for the Justicialist Party in 1993. She left the party and started her own, but could not secure a re-election. She joined the cabinet of president Fernando De la Rúa in 2001.
Following the election of Mauricio Macri to the presidency in the 2015 Argentine general election, she became the Minister of Security. She placed regulations against roadblocks from piqueteros, and opposed the secessionist organization Resistencia Ancestral Mapuche. Leading the "hawk" sector of the Juntos por el Cambio coalition, she was appointed its president in 2020. She ran for the 2023 Argentine primary and general elections. She won the primaries against Horacio Rodríguez Larreta, but ended third in the general elections behind Sergio Massa and Javier Milei. She supported Milei on the ballotage with Massa. After Milei was elected President, he chose Bullrich to serve again as Minister of Security.
On November 30, 2025, Bullrich resigned from her post as Minister of National Security after she was sworn in as a Senator in the Argentine Senate.
== Early life ==
Bullrich was born on 11 June 1956 in Buenos Aires, daughter of Alejandro Bullrich, a cardiologist, and Julieta Luro Pueyrredon. She belongs to two wealthy families on each of her parents' sides. On her mother's side, she belongs to the Pueyrredón family, a traditional lineage of Spanish, French, and Irish descent whose members featured prominently in the early years of Argentine Independence (such as Juan Martín de Pueyrredón and Honorio Pueyrredon). On her father's side, she descends from Adolfo Bullrich, a businessman and politician of German ancestry, who served as Mayor of Buenos Aires from 1898 to 1902. Although it was a wealthy family, Alejandro and Julieta divorced, and Patricia adjusted to a simpler lifestyle when her mother got a job as publicist.
She became politically engaged from an early age, abandoning a potential career in field hockey to dedicate herself fully to political activism. She also worked at the Cheburger fast food joint and became a member of the food workers' union, encouraging coworkers to unionise as well.
She is the cousin of the singer-songwriter Fabiana Cantilo, and introduced her to Argentine rock. In the TV program "Almorzando con Mirtha Legrand" Cantilo explained that their mothers were close as siblings, and that Bullrich invited her to a concert of the band Pescado Rabioso, led by Luis Alberto Spinetta. This was the first concert that Fabiana Cantilo had attended, years before becoming a rock singer herself. Patricia skipped school classes one day to attend the music competition TV program "Si lo sabe cante", where she sang the song "El extraño de pelo largo" of La Joven Guardia. She was defeated in the competition.
=== Peronist Youth years ===
Patricia's grandmother, daughter of Honorio Pueyrredon, took her to meet Ricardo Balbín, leader of the Radical Civic Union (UCR). The meeting had the opposite effect than expected, as there was a huge generation gap between them. Rather than make her embrace the ideas of the UCR, supportive of liberal democracy, she rejected Balbín and chose Peronism instead, which proposed far-left politics at the time. She joined the Peronist Youth (JP), the youth wing of the Peronist movement, aged 17. On 20 June 1973, she joined the procession to Ezeiza to bear witness to Juan Perón's return to Argentina following his 18-year exile, but left before the Ezeiza Massacre took place that same day.
She was also present at the Plaza de Mayo on the International Workers' Day of 1974, when Perón, who had once again become president of Argentina, expelled the Montoneros and the left-wing youth groups from the celebrations. Although both the Peronist unions and guerrillas such as Montoneros had worked together against the Argentine Revolution dictatorship, they had begun a dispute over their political clout on the new democratic government; with the aforementioned expulsion Perón openly sided with the unions. Bullrich herself was a member of the Montoneros under the nom-de-guerre of "Cali", and active in the Columna Norte subgroup commanded by Rodolfo Galimberti. Galimberti was Bullrich's brother-in-law, as he was married to Bullrich's sister, Julieta. Bullrich has denied being a Montoneros member, and maintains that she was just a member of the JP.
Perón died in 1974 and the Dirty War, an armed conflict between the Montoneros and the military, worsened: the guerrillas resumed the tactics used years before to attempt to remove the current authorities from power. In 1975, Bullrich was arrested for spray-painting political messages on the entrance of the University of Buenos Aires Faculty of Philosophy and Letters, and spent six months in prison. Upon being released, she dropped out of her sociology degree at the University of Buenos Aires and enrolled at the Universidad de Belgrano to study law. She also rejoined the Columna Norte. By the end of 1975, she started dating Marcelo Langieri, secretary of Galimberti. The 1976 coup d'état established a military dictatorship, the National Reorganization Process, that continued the armed conflict against the Montoneros. Montoneros organized an attack on 4 September 1976, that intended to kill a manager of the Sudamtex textile firm. On her way to participate, Bullrich felt that she was being followed and fled. The military had abducted one of the masterminds of the plan and learned about the attack, which allowed them to surprise the Montoneros and kill the whole unit. In January 1977, Galimberti and Bullrich attached an improvised explosive device to the car of Pepe Noguer, mayor of San Isidro. The device exploded, injuring the daughter and the daughter-in-law of the mayor, Ana María Noguer and Hortensia M. de Noguer.
Patricia Bullrich went into exile in 1977 with her partner Marcelo Langieri, first settling in Brazil, and later in Mexico, Spain and France. She was still a member of Montoneros living abroad, until Galimberti cut ties with the organization in 1979. She returned briefly to Argentina in that year, to give birth to her son Francisco.
== Political career ==
Bullrich returned to the country after the 1982 Falklands War. She had conflicts with Dante Gullo over the reorganization of the JP, thinking that it should have its own political leaders rather than follow the older ones. Peronism lost the 1983 Argentine general election, so she joined the internal faction of Antonio Cafiero that sought to renew the party. Peronism returned to power in 1989 when Carlos Menem won the 1989 Argentine general election. She was elected deputy for the Justicialist Party (PJ) in 1993, alongside Erman González. She proposed over two hundred bills, including the Art University law, the Cinema law, and the Leasing Contract law. In 1995, she was named the Legislator of the Year.
Patricia Bullrich left the PJ in 1996 and started New Leadership alongside Gustavo Béliz. She had disagreements with him because she thought that he managed the party unilaterally, without making her part of the decisions. She left the party as a result and, after briefly considering joining the Frepaso, she started another party. Initially named Cambio 97, it was soon renamed "Unión por Todos" (UPT) as the Cambio 97 name had already been registered. The new party did not get enough votes to allow her to be reelected as deputy in the 1997 Argentine legislative election. She then worked for the Buenos Aires Province on security matters, assisting the municipality of Hurlingham. She resigned in 1998, because of conflicts with León Arslanián, minister of justice of the province.
In 1999, the UPT became part of the Alliance for Work, Justice and Education, which took Fernando de la Rúa to the Presidency. Bullrich was appointed to office in the Department of Criminal Policy and Penitentiary Matters. In 2001, she was made a cabinet minister, as Secretary of Labour, Employment and Human Resources and, later that year, as Secretary of Social Security. In 2001 she announced a cut of 13% on retirement wages above $574, 16% of all retirees, which would reduce the deficit by 68.6 millions of pesos.
De la Rúa resigned, and eventually the governor of Buenos Aires Eduardo Duhalde was appointed president by the Congress. Bullrich relaunched the UPT in 2002, aiming for the 2003 presidential elections. The party platform announced reforms on labor and education. The UPT did not take part in the elections, supporting instead Ricardo López Murphy of the Recreate for Growth party, who ended in the third place. Both parties united in the alliance "Unión para Recrear Buenos Aires", proposing Bullrich for mayor of Buenos Aires. She ended in the fourth place, with 9.76% of the vote.
The UPT joined forces with the Support for an Egalitarian Republic (ARI) and created the Civic Coalition to run for the 2007 Argentine general election, with Elisa Carrió as a candidate for president. Bullrich ran instead for deputy for Buenos Aires. Her centrist politics and polemical history as a government minister, however, contributed to the disenchantment of a group of left-wing members of ARI who left the Civic Coalition.
=== Minister of Security (2015–2019) ===
Mauricio Macri was elected president in 2015 and Patricia Bullrich was appointed Minister of Security. Within the first days, three criminals convicted for torturing and killing three pharmaceutical businessmen escaped from a high-security prison, leading to a nation-wide operation to recapture them. Bullrich announced on 9 January that the three criminals had been captured, but, in reality, only one had been captured. She tendered her resignation to Macri because of the mistake, but Macri rejected it. The other two criminals were captured a few days later.
Bullrich proposed a protocol to remove roadblocks caused by piqueteros. Such blocks should be announced in advance, restrict only part of the roads, and last for a short time. They should cease if ordered so by the police, and those who commit violent actions shall be detained. This protocol was approved by a meeting of the ministers of security of all provinces of Argentina. Horacio Rodríguez Larreta, chief of government of the Buenos Aires city, and María Eugenia Vidal, governor of the Buenos Aires province, refused to endorse it, as they thought that doing so could prove controversial. Instead, they preferred to negotiate and stay on good terms with organizations of piqueteros such as the Evita Movement. Larreta also explained that the city does not need to endorse the protocols because it already has regulations for roadblocks.
Resistencia Ancestral Mapuche (RAM) and the Coordinadora Arauco-Malleco (CAM), two Mapuche organizations that normally operate in Patagonia, expanded their attacks to the city of Buenos Aires. Their goal is to create a Mapuche nation, seceding from Argentina and Chile. Bullrich said that "We won't allow an autonomous mapuche republic inside Argentina; that's the logic of their request, the denial of the Argentine state, the anarchist logic. Our resolution is total and absolute in not allowing a group that uses violence as a way of action in Argentina." Facundo Jones Huala, leader of RAM, claimed to be a political prisoner, and that the RAM only acts in self-defense on lands that used to belong to them. Bullrich organized a joint command with the ministers of security of the Neuquén, Río Negro and Chubut provinces against the RAM, and delivered a report of the actions taken against the organization, including 96 lawsuits, 2 of them for murder.
The Argentine National Gendarmerie forced a group of Mapuche demonstrators to cease a roadblock next to the Chubut River, and the demonstrator Santiago Maldonado went missing after that. The case became a national scandal, with the Gendarmerie (by extension their political authorities, Bullrich and Macri) being accused of an enforced disappearance. Bullrich gave her full support to the Gendarmerie. Maldonado was found dead some months later, drowned in the Chubut river. Bullrich said "The whole world saw what happened with Maldonado. He stayed in the same place where he drowned, without being seen or touched by anyone. Neither the Gendarmerie nor our government would have made a person disappear".
A tourist was stabbed ten times by thieves, who then ran away. The policeman Luis Chocobar shot one of the thieves, claiming that the thief made a movement suggesting he was about to fire a gun. However, a video released by Telefe Noticias showed that the criminal had his back to him. Bullrich, however, pointed out that the video was edited and did not show the exact moment of the gunshot. Bullrich and Macri supported the actions of Chocobar, on the grounds that it would be a right of self-defense, while human rights organizations considered it a case of police brutality. Chocobar was sentenced for homicide four years later.
=== Presidential candidate ===
The 2021 Argentine legislative election resulted in a victory for Juntos por el Cambio (JXC), with the libertarian party La Libertad Avanza (LLA) led by Javier Milei, emerging as a significant third party. Bullrich, who was appointed president of the PRO in 2020, maintained a positive relationship with Milei, and at one point considered forming an alliance for the 2023 Argentine general election. However, Milei ultimately decided to run independently with his own party.
There was an expectation that Mauricio Macri would run for president once again, as even in defeat he had gotten 41% of the vote in 2019 and his image had improved since then. However, he declined to do so, so the party had primary elections between Bullrich and Horacio Rodríguez Larreta. They represented the "hawks" and "doves" of the party. Macri did not openly side with any of them. Bullrich chose the former legislator Luis Petri, from the UCR, as the candidate for vice-president. Petri had lost the primary elections for governor of Mendoza to Alfredo Cornejo a short time before. She chose him because he was young, sided with the "hawks", and was not from Buenos Aires; and also because he worked with her during her time as minister of security. As Petri was from the UCR, Bullrich would secure the support of the radicals that were not pleased with the leadership of Gerardo Morales (who supported Larreta), and with the whole party if Larreta was defeated in the primaries. Other politicians briefly considered to run for vice-president under her were Carlos Melconian, Maximiliano Abad, Luis Naidenoff, and Ricardo López Murphy.
Carlos Melconian was proposed instead as Bullrich's potential minister of economy. In contrast with Milei, who proposed a full dollarization of the economy, Melconian proposed instead a bimonetary economy, where both the Argentine peso and the United States dollar would be legal tender. Before implementing it, the fiscal deficit would be eliminated, the by-laws of the Central Bank would be amended to prohibit money creation, and the restrictions on the use of US dollars would be removed. She also proposed the creation of a maximum security prison named after former president Cristina Kirchner.
The primary elections ended with a decisive victory of Bullrich over Larreta. Once the primaries were concluded, the candidates took part in the presidential debates, explaining their positions and proposals over several topics. Bullrich promised to end inflation, and to end the roadblocks caused by piqueteros.
Although the primary elections ended with the three main candidates, Bullrich, Milei and Peronist Sergio Massa in a close tie, Massa got ahead in the general election and won with 36% of the vote, followed by Milei with 30%. As a result, both candidates went to a third ballotage election. Bullrich did not take part in it, as JXC ended in third place, but both candidates sought to get the support of her voters. Massa made a speech about institutional stability and public security, usual topics of the UCR and PRO respectively, and Milei focused on the need to join forces against Kirchnerism. On 25 October 2023, Bullrich officially endorsed Javier Milei for the runoff election. She did not ask the other parties within JXC, the UCR and the CC, for their opinion, as they have conflicting views over Milei. Both of them met the Wednesday after the elections to negotiate this support, alongside Macri. Milei announced the alliance on his X account, with an AI image of an embrace between a lion and a duck. Milei associates himself with imagery of lions, and "pato" ("duck") is a common nickname in Spanish for people named "Patricia".
=== Minister of Security (since 2023) ===
In December 2023, Patricia Bullrich returned to government as security minister in president Javier Milei's Cabinet. Bullrich immediately issued a protocol to deal with demonstrations and roadblocks made by piqueteros. The Workers' Party made an habeas corpus request to prevent the protocol from coming into force, which judge Gustavo Pierretti rejected. Several groups of Piqueteros called for a massive demonstration on 20 December, a week after the inauguration of Javier Milei. The government announced that demonstrators who committed crimes during demonstrations, such as roadblocks or vandalism, would lose their welfare payments, and provided a phone number to denounce piquetero leaders who would be coercing people to take part in such demonstrations. The demonstration had very little attendance, and the phone calls were used to start 660 criminal complaints. The policies were kept for all later protests. The welfare aid that was outsourced to piquetero organizations returned to the direct state control, and social leaders that worked at the ministry of Social Development despite the conflict of interest were fired. Several audits also revealed that several social organizations that used to control the outsourced welfare aid only used a fraction of it for such a purpose. All this decreased the power of piqueteros, and protests and demonstrations rapidly decreased in size.
The city of Rosario had ongoing problems with narcotics trafficking cartels, who had moved beyond the illegal drug trade into other illicit activities, such as extortion and contract killing. Bullrich announced the "Plan Bandera" ("Flag plan") with governor of Santa Fe Province Maximiliano Pullaro to deal with the problem. One of the initial actions was to enforce stricter conditions at the local prisons, as several crime bosses were already jailed but managed to control the criminal operations nonetheless. The national government installed mobile phone jammers at those prisons, which led to death threats against Pullaro and his family. Bullrich provided a report of the results of the operation six months later: homicides decreased by 73%, they detained 400 people linked to drug trade, 118 kilograms of cocaine and dope, 50,000 parts of synthetic drugs, 900 kilograms of ammonia, 57,005,062 pesos, 18,050 US dollars and 70 weapons.
Bullrich stayed president of PRO despite being a minister of a government for another party. Initially, both PRO and LLA were allies, but as both parties began to drift apart she sided with Milei's party instead of PRO. Both parties ran for the 2025 legislative elections on their own after the failure of the negotiations to create an electoral alliance. Bullrich took part in electoral parades of LLA, and encouraged politicians close to her move to the party. In May 2025 she formally left the PRO and joined LLA.
== Political positions ==
Patricia Bullrich was a member of Peronist guerrillas in her youth, but grew critical of them as an adult. She described the ideas held by those organizations as an improvised blend of nationalism, Christianity and socialism. She explained that back then she thought that she was taking part in a revolution and that the people would eventually get used to it, but eventually realized that revolutions rarely have a positive outcome. She also thinks that she deluded herself by thinking that Peronism had goals that were not its actual goals. She started to have doubts over her allegiance to the guerrillas when she found out that Montoneros had killed the priest Carlos Mugica, and the aide of Perón José Ignacio Rucci. She realized that Montoneros and the People's Revolutionary Army killed people, even if they had not said so openly, and that she was helping that even if from a passive role.
In her book Yo Propongo, written during the presidency of Cristina Kirchner, Bullrich talks about populism and authoritarianism. She considers that democracy in Argentina has been weakened by a dominant-party system coupled with the dismantling of the lead party, which led to a system where only the president has authority, the party is an extension of the president's will, and government and state lost any meaningful difference. She considers that political polarization grew beyond only politics and engulfed other areas as well, such as academics and unions. She also pointed out that the Kirchners may want to organize a set of controlled media to advance a "narrative" that is positive towards their policies and hostile against the opposition. She also considers that this style of government was used by the Kirchners to advance policies that are long outdated in the rest of the world, and to conceal its negative results. In contrast, she proposes to dismantle in politics the dominant-party system, and in economics to advance a sustainable capitalist model.
In relation to the severity of law enforcement, she supports a hardline policy against crime, rejecting the policies of Kirchnerism that grant too many rights to criminals and place rigid controls and obstacles on police work. Although those policies are largely a reaction against the policies of the military dictatorship, Bullrich says that "Argentina must leave the past and look to the future". In particular, she had conflicting views with Sabina Frederic, minister of security of Alberto Fernández, over the use of taser guns, as Frederic restricted the police of the Argentine Federal Police from using either those or regular guns. When she was appointed minister of security by Javier Milei, she said "True change is possible if the law is applied in every corner of the country, equally for everyone and without privileges. Argentina needs order. We will be relentless against crime and we will wage a relentless fight against drug trafficking. It's simple: whoever does something, pays for it".
Patricia Bullrich supported abortion during the debate in 2018 for a bill that would make it legal. She said that it did not make sense that only the woman could go to jail for it. However, she also supported a clause for conscientious objection to abortion from medics that may refuse to do it, and to set a minimum age higher than in the proposed bill. The bill was not approved, and was proposed again in 2020. That time, Bullrich refused to comment her personal opinion on abortion, and considered instead that the country had more pressing economic and societal priorities. For similar reasons, she did not agree with the proposal of Javier Milei to celebrate a referendum to abolish the bill approved in 2020: she said that it would halt the whole country for a couple of months, and that the priority was to solve the economic crisis.
== Electoral history ==
=== Executive ===
=== Legislative ===
== Written books ==
Memorias de la acción. Conversaciones con Albino Gómez
El desafío argentino. Razones éticas y prácticas para el cambio.
Yo propongo.
Desarticulación y hegemonía.
Guerra sin cuartel: Terminar con la inseguridad en la Argentina.
De un día para otro: medidas para cambiar de verdad en las primeras 24 horas de gobierno.
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official site |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morris_Villarroel | Morris Villarroel | Morris Villarroel (born 1978 or 1979) is a Spanish professor of animal psychology at the Technical University of Madrid. He is also a lifelogger who, since 2010, has been writing what he is currently doing, his location, the food he has eaten, the time he wakes up and his ideas on paper notebooks at 15 to 30 minute intervals every day.
== Logging ==
Since February 2010, Villarroel has been lifelogging. He does this by writing what he is currently doing and where he is located in a notebook, at intervals from about 15 to 30 minutes. He also logs the times he wakes up, the food he eats, and his ideas. He also records his movements with a fitness tracker. An example of a log entry he wrote is "I woke up at 05:45 in a hotel in Sweden. My hind leg muscles were hurting a bit." Once the notebooks fill up, he indexes them in a spreadsheet, with categories and keywords. In 2019 he estimated that he spends about an hour a day writing in his notebook.
He originally planned to do it for 10 years, as an experiment, but once 10 years was over, he decided to continue. He started logging his life with the idea that it could improve his memory and time management skills, and give him a clearer record of what he had done in his life. He has said that it makes him feel like he has lived a longer life, and says that it improves his emotional regulation. As of December 2019 he had filled up 307 notebooks.
In April 2014 Villaroel started wearing a camera on his chest that automatically took photographs every 30 seconds, totalling about 1,200 per day. He wore it for most of the day, but took it off in private moments such as in the bedroom. Some examples of memories he has captured includes when his father died, and when his son was born. He said that while some people could be uncomfortable around the camera, most were supportive of it. He stopped using it after a few years due to difficulty keeping track of the amount of photos it took.
== Personal life ==
Both of Villarroel's parents are psychologists. Villarroel is married, and has five children.
== Selected works ==
Sañudo, C; Macie, E.S; Olleta, J.L; Villarroel, M; Panea, B; Albertı́, P (2004). "The effects of slaughter weight, breed type and ageing time on beef meat quality using two different texture devices". Meat Science. 66 (4): 925–932. doi:10.1016/j.meatsci.2003.08.005. ISSN 0309-1740. PMID 22061026.
Miranda-de la Lama, G.C.; Villarroel, M.; María, G.A. (2014). "Livestock transport from the perspective of the pre-slaughter logistic chain: a review". Meat Science. 98 (1): 9–20. doi:10.1016/j.meatsci.2014.04.005. ISSN 0309-1740. PMID 24824530.
König, Bettina; Janker, Judith; Reinhardt, Tilman; Villarroel, Morris; Junge, Ranka (2018). "Analysis of aquaponics as an emerging technological innovation system". Journal of Cleaner Production. 180: 232–243. Bibcode:2018JCPro.180..232K. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.01.037. ISSN 0959-6526.
== See also ==
Quantified self
Robert Shields
== References ==
== External links ==
2014 talk by Villarroel on Vimeo |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sole_survivors_of_aviation_accidents_and_incidents | List of sole survivors of aviation accidents and incidents | Presented below is a list of aviation accidents and incidents with a sole survivor, when the event involved 10 or more people on board. Within this list, "sole survivor" refers to a person who survived an air accident in which all other aircraft occupants died as a direct consequence of the accident. Specific criteria are outlined below.
== History ==
The earliest known instance of an incident with 10 or more people on board that had a sole survivor was a New Jersey sightseeing flight on 17 March 1929, which crashed into a sand-filled freight car in an unsuccessful forced landing due to engine failure. The pilot was thrown out on impact and suffered serious injuries; the crash killed all 13 in the cabin and another person in the cockpit.
The most recent aviation accident with a sole survivor is Air India Flight 171, which crashed on 12 June 2025. This accident also has the most fatalities of any sole survivor crash.
== List ==
The below table lists known aviation accidents and incidents with a sole survivor, when such events are consistent with the following criteria:
The incident involved 10 or more people on board, per official accident reports or other reliably sourced accounts of the incident.
Excluded are incidents with an initial sole survivor who later died, possibly in another location, due to injuries sustained during the event.
When the incident was a collision of two aircraft, on the ground or during flight;
Excluded are instances in which there were, in total, multiple survivors.
Excluded are instances in which all occupants of one aircraft died and the sole occupant of the opposing aircraft survived.
Excluded are incidents involving heavy bombers during World War II, which frequently had 10 or more crew members.
"Nationality" refers to the country of the sole survivor, and "Age" refers to the age of the sole survivor at the time that the event occurred. In some instances, details about the sole survivor are unknown or were not disclosed.
== See also ==
Aviation accidents and incidents
== Notes ==
== Bibliography ==
Darby, Paul; Johnes, Martin; Mellor, Gavin (2005). Soccer and disaster (2005 ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7146-8289-1. Total pages: 193
Williamson, Ronald M. (2000). Naval Air Station Jacksonville, Florida, 1940–2000: An Illustrated History (2000 ed.). Turner Publishing Company. ISBN 978-1-56311-730-5. Total pages: 200
Congressional Record (2003 ed.). Washington, D.C.: United States Government Publishing Office. 2003. Total pages: 15,591
== References ==
== Further reading ==
"Top 100 accidents with lone survivors". aviation-safety.net. Archived from the original on 5 December 2013 – via Wayback Machine. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gani_Fawehinmi | Gani Fawehinmi | Chief Abdul-Ganiyu "Gani" Oyesola Fawehinmi , , SAN (22 April 1938 – 5 September 2009), was a Nigerian author, publisher, philanthropist, social critic, human and civil rights lawyer, and politician.
He held the chieftaincy title of the Lamofin of Ondo.
== Early life ==
He was born into the family of Saheed and Munirat Fawehinmi of Ondo, in Ondo State. His father, Chief Saheed Tugbobo Fawehinmi, the Seriki Musulumi of Ondo, was a successful timber trader, philanthropist, civic activist and Muslim chieftain of the Yoruba people. He was reported to be a follower of Ajao, who brought Islam to Ondo City, southwestern Nigeria. Chief Saheed Tugbobo Fawehinmi died on 5 February 1963 at the age of 89 years.
Fawehinmi's grandfather was the late Chief Lisa Alujanu Fawehinmi of Ondo, who engaged in several successful battles for and on behalf of the Ondo people in the nineteenth century. Hence, the appellation the 'Alujanun', which means spirit. He died at the age of 92.
== Education ==
Fawehinmi had his early education at Ansar-Ud-Deen Primary School, Iyemaja, Ondo State from 1947 to 1953 and his secondary school education at Victory College Ikare, a Christian School from 1954 to 1958, under the leadership of the Late Rev. Akinrele where he sat for and passed his West African School Certificate Examination in 1958. While in college, he was popularly known as "Nation" because of his passionate interest in national, legal and political affairs. He was an avid reader of Daily Times and West African Pilot, the most popular newspapers in Nigeria at that time. He then worked briefly as a law clerk in the High Court of Lagos until 1961. Gani enrolled at the Holborn College of Law- University of London to read law in 1961. While at University, his father died. He completed his academic degree in London with a measure of difficulty due to lack of funds. This involved doing various menial jobs in London, while in London, he was acquainted with books of revolutionary or radical figures such as Fidel Castro, Winston Churchill, David Ben-Gurion, Mahatma Gandhi, Mao Tse Tsung and Karl Marx. He returned to Nigeria in 1964 and was called to the bar the following year. He then worked briefly at the law firm of his brother, the late Hon. Justice Rasheed Olabamidele Fawehinmi before branching out on his own.
== Law career ==
Fawehinmi gained prominence when he took on the case of a factory worker, Bala Abashe who alleged that the Secretary to the government of Benue-Plateau State, Andrew Obeya had an affair with his wife. Abashe then sued Obeya for assault and damages for adultery. Fawehinmi took on the case as a pro bono lawyer for Abashe while the state government stood behind their official. Efforts were made for Fawehinmi to drop the case, when that failed, Obeya was forced to resign. However, Fawehinmi was detained for nine months. The publicity of the case improved the exposure of his law practice.
From 1971 to 1973, he was the national publicity secretary of the Nigerian Bar Association. However, in 1981, Fawehinmi was queried by a disciplinary committee and told to explain himself within fourteen days why he was touting himself through advertisements in a weekly publication contrary to the ethics of the bar. In the case, Legal Practitioners Disciplinary Committee (LPDC) v. Chief Gani Fawehinmi (1985), the Supreme Court upheld the Appeal Court judgement rendering the LPDC's proceedings against Fawehinmi ineffective on the basis that the constitution of the LPDC with the Attorney-General as chairman made him accuser, prosecutor and judge at the same time which breached the principles of natural justice and therefore Fawehinmi's right to fair hearing. The judgement led to an amendment of the Legal Practitioners' Act 1975. Fawehinmi later ran afoul of an NBA directive. In 1984, when the Buhari administration enacted the Recovery of Public Property decree, the NBA under the presidency of Bola Ajibola directed its members not to represent any of client in a military tribunal. Fawehinmi flouted the directive because he believed the accused should be made to disgorge any money stolen as a result his name was placed in NBA's dishonour roll.
In 1994, he and other notable Nigerians formed the National Conscience Party. He later contested the 2003 presidential election under its platform.
Fawehinmi was elevated to the rank of Senior Advocate of Nigeria (SAN), the highest legal title in Nigeria, in September 2001.
== Dele Giwa ==
In 1986, while Chief Gani Fawehinmi was Dele Giwa's lawyer, the latter was killed in a bomb blast under suspicious circumstances.
As a result of his activism, Fawehinmi was arrested, detained and charged to court several times. His international passport was seized on many occasions and his residence and law chambers were searched several times. He was beaten up time after time and was deported from one part of the country to another to prevent him from being able to effectively reach out to the masses among whom he was popular. His books were confiscated by the Federal Military Government and his library at Surulere, a suburb of Lagos, were set ablaze. His law chambers at Anthony Village, Lagos State, were invaded by persons suspected to be agents of the government. The guards were shot and two were seriously injured.
In the process of his crusades for the rule of law, the hopes and aspirations of the poor and the oppressed, he fought many battles against military dictatorship as a result of which he had been arrested several times by the military governments and their numerous security agents. He was detained in several police cells and prisons between 1969 and 1996.
His supporters have called him "the scourge of sphygmomanometer with which the blood pressure of dictators is gauged, the veritable conscience of the nation and the champion of the interests and causes of the masses". Many Nigerians also referred to him as "the people's president".
== Gani Fawehinmi Library ==
Gani Fawehinmi Library was established in 1965 at no.116 Denton Street, Ebute Meta Lagos, when the founder established his chamber. The library was moved to No. 28 Sabiu Ajose Crescent, Surulere, Lagos. In 1978, the library moved from Surulere to No 35 Adeniran Ajao Road Ajao Estate, Anthony Village Lagos, between 2009 and 2012. The Library moved to its present and permanent site at Gani Fawehinmi Library and Gallery at Otunba Jobi-Fele Way in the Central Business District, Alausa, Ikeja, Lagos, Nigeria.
Gani Fawehinmi Library is reported to be the largest library in Nigeria. It housed over one million collections on books and non-books materials on various subject ranging from law, politics, biographies, religion, and social sciences, and almanacs and encyclopedias. It also has an archive with collection of newspaper and magazines from the early 1970s onwards. Some of these newspapers are not available in any other library in Nigeria.
The library has more than 400 bibliographic materials and a gallery dedicated to its founder, Fawehinmi.
== Awards ==
On 11 June 1993, Fawehinmi was awarded the biennial Bruno Kreisky Prize. This prize, named in honour of Bruno Kreisky, is awarded to international figures who advance human rights causes. In 1998, he received the International Bar Association's 'Bernard Simmons Award' in recognition of his human-rights and pro-democracy work.
In 2018, Fawehinmi was posthumously awarded the Grand Commander of the Order of the Niger, Nigeria's second highest honour.
== Death ==
Fawehinmi died of lung cancer in the early hours of 5 September 2009, after a prolonged illness. He was 71 years old. He was buried on 15 September 2009, in his home town of Ondo City, Nigeria. Fawehinmi died a disappointed man, because of the state of his country at the time of his death, he refused the highest honour accorded him by his country on his death bed.
== Rejection of national award ==
In 2008, Fawehinmi rejected one of Nigeria's highest national honours, the Order of the Federal Republic (OFR) in protest against many years of misrule since the country's independence.
== Gani Fawehinmi park ==
In 2010, a park in Ojota, Lagos, was named after him by the Lagos State Government.
== Hospital ==
Gani Fawehinmi Health Diagnostic Center Ondo City.
== References ==
== External links ==
Gani Fawehinmi – Daily Telegraph obituary
Gani Fawehinmi at 234Next
The Independent UK Article
Gani Fawehinmi Obituary |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleister_Crowley#:~:text=At%20the%20age%20of%208,whom%20Crowley%20considered%20a%20sadist. | Aleister Crowley | Aleister Crowley ( AL-ist-ər KROH-lee; born Edward Alexander Crowley; 12 October 1875 – 1 December 1947) was an English occultist, ceremonial magician, poet, novelist, mountaineer, and painter. He founded the religion of Thelema, identifying himself as the prophet entrusted with guiding humanity into the Æon of Horus in the early 20th century. As a prolific writer, he published widely over the course of his life.
Born to a wealthy family in Royal Leamington Spa, Warwickshire, Crowley rejected his parents' fundamentalist Christian Plymouth Brethren faith to pursue an interest in Western esotericism. He was educated at Trinity College at the University of Cambridge, where he focused his attention upon mountaineering and poetry, resulting in several publications. Some biographers allege that here he was recruited into a British intelligence agency, further suggesting that he remained a spy throughout his life. In 1898, he joined the esoteric Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, where he was trained in ceremonial magic by Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers and Allan Bennett. He went mountaineering in Mexico with Oscar Eckenstein, before studying Hindu and Buddhist practices in India. In 1904, he married Rose Edith Kelly, and they honeymooned in Cairo, Egypt, where Crowley wrote down The Book of the Law—a sacred text that serves as the basis for Thelema, which he said had been dictated to him by a supernatural entity named Aiwass. The Book announced the start of the Æon of Horus and declared that its followers should "Do what thou wilt": seek to align themselves with their True Will via the practice of ceremonial magic.
After the unsuccessful 1905 Kanchenjunga expedition and a visit to India and China, Crowley returned to Britain, where he attracted attention as a prolific author of poetry, novels, and occult literature. In 1907, he and George Cecil Jones co-founded an esoteric order—the A∴A∴, through which they propagated Thelema. After spending time in Algeria, in 1912 he was initiated into another esoteric order, the German-based Ordo Templi Orientis (O.T.O.); he rose to become the leader of its British branch, which he reformulated in accordance with Thelema. Through O.T.O., Thelemite groups were established in Britain, Australia, and North America. Crowley spent the First World War in the United States, where he took up painting, and campaigned for the German war effort against Britain. His biographers later revealed that he had infiltrated the pro-German movement to assist the British intelligence services. In 1920, he established the Abbey of Thelema, a religious commune in Cefalù, Sicily, where he lived with various followers. His libertine lifestyle led to denunciations in the British press, and the Italian government evicted him in 1923. He divided the following two decades between France, Germany, and England, and continued to promote Thelema until his death.
Crowley gained widespread notoriety during his lifetime, being a drug user, a bisexual, and an individualist social critic. Crowley has remained a highly influential figure over western esotericism and the counterculture of the 1960s, and he continues to be considered a prophet in Thelema. He is the subject of various biographies and academic studies.
== Early life ==
=== Youth ===
Crowley was born Edward Alexander Crowley at 30 Clarendon Square in Royal Leamington Spa, Warwickshire, England, on 12 October 1875. His father, Edward Crowley (1829–1887), was trained as an engineer, but his share in a lucrative family brewing business, Crowley's Alton Ales, allowed him to retire before his son was born. His mother, Emily Bertha Bishop (1848–1917), came from a Devonshire-Somerset family and had a strained relationship with her son; she described him as "the Beast", a name that he revelled in. The couple had been married at London's Kensington Registry Office in November 1874, and were evangelical Christians. Crowley's father was born a Quaker, but converted to the Exclusive Brethren, a faction of a Christian fundamentalist group known as the Plymouth Brethren; Emily likewise converted upon marriage. Crowley's father was particularly devout, spending his time as a travelling preacher for the sect and reading a chapter from the Bible to his wife and son after breakfast every day. Following the death of their baby daughter in 1880, in 1881 the Crowleys moved to Redhill, Surrey. At the age of 8, Crowley was sent to H. T. Habershon's evangelical Christian boarding school in Hastings, and then to Ebor preparatory school in Cambridge, run by the Reverend Henry d'Arcy Champney, whom Crowley considered a sadist.
In March 1887, when Crowley was eleven years old, his father died of tongue cancer. Crowley described this as a turning point in his life, and he always maintained an admiration of his father, describing him as "my hero and my friend". Inheriting a third of his father's wealth, he began misbehaving at school and was harshly punished by Champney; Crowley's family removed him from the school when he developed albuminuria. He then attended Malvern College and Tonbridge School, both of which he despised and left after a few terms. He became increasingly sceptical of Christianity, pointing out Biblical inconsistencies to his religious teachers, and went against the Christian morality of his upbringing by smoking, masturbating, and having sex with prostitutes from whom he contracted gonorrhea. Sent to live with a Brethren tutor in Eastbourne, he undertook chemistry courses at Eastbourne College. Crowley developed interests in chess, poetry, and mountain climbing, and in 1894 climbed Beachy Head before visiting the Alps and joining the Scottish Mountaineering Club. The following year he returned to the Bernese Alps, climbing the Eiger, Trift, Jungfrau, Mönch, and Wetterhorn.
=== Cambridge University: 1895–1898 ===
Having adopted the name of Aleister over Edward, in October 1895 Crowley began a three-year course at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was entered for the Moral Science Tripos studying philosophy. With approval from his personal tutor, he changed to English literature, which was not then part of the curriculum offered. Crowley spent much of his time at university engaged in his pastimes, becoming president of the chess club and practising the game for two hours a day; he briefly considered a professional career as a chess player. Crowley also embraced his love of literature and poetry, particularly the works of Richard Francis Burton and Percy Bysshe Shelley. Many of his own poems appeared in student publications such as The Granta, Cambridge Magazine, and Cantab. He continued his mountaineering, going on holiday to the Alps to climb every year from 1894 to 1898, often with his friend Oscar Eckenstein, and in 1897 he made the first ascent of the Mönch without a guide. These feats led to his recognition in the Alpine mountaineering community.
Crowley had his first significant mystical experience while on holiday in Stockholm in December 1896. Several biographers, including Lawrence Sutin, Richard Kaczynski, and Tobias Churton, believed that this was the result of Crowley's first same-sex sexual experience, which enabled him to recognize his bisexuality. At Cambridge, Crowley maintained a vigorous sex life with women—largely with female prostitutes, from one of whom he caught syphilis—but eventually he took part in same-sex activities, despite their illegality. In October 1897, Crowley met Herbert Charles Pollitt, president of the Cambridge University Footlights Dramatic Club, and the two entered into a relationship. They broke apart because Pollitt did not share Crowley's increasing interest in Western esotericism, a break-up that Crowley regretted for many years.
In 1897, Crowley travelled to Saint Petersburg, Russia, later saying that he was trying to learn Russian, because he was considering a future diplomatic career there. In October 1897, a brief illness triggered considerations of mortality and "the futility of all human endeavour", and he abandoned all thoughts of a diplomatic career in favour of pursuing an interest in the occult.
In March 1898, he obtained A. E. Waite's The Book of Black Magic and of Pacts and Karl von Eckartshausen's The Cloud upon the Sanctuary, furthering his occult interests. That same year, Leonard Smithers, a publisher who Crowley met through Pollitt, published 100 copies of Crowley's poem Aceldama: A Place to Bury Strangers In, but it was not a particular success. That same year, Crowley published a string of other poems, including White Stains, a Decadent collection of erotic poetry that was printed abroad lest its publication be prohibited by the British authorities. In July 1898, he left Cambridge without a degree, despite a "first class" showing in his 1897 exams and consistent "second class honours" results before that.
=== The Golden Dawn: 1898–1899 ===
In August 1898, Crowley was in Zermatt, Switzerland, where he met the chemist Julian L. Baker, and the two began discussing their common interest in alchemy. Back in London, Baker introduced Crowley to George Cecil Jones, Baker's brother-in-law and a fellow member of the occult society known as the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, which was founded in 1888. Crowley was initiated into the Outer Order of the Golden Dawn on 18 November 1898 by the group's leader, Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers. The ceremony took place in the Golden Dawn's Isis-Urania Temple held at London's Mark Masons Hall, where Crowley took the magical motto and name "Frater Perdurabo", which he interpreted as "Brother I shall endure to the end".
Crowley moved into his own luxury flat at 67–69 Chancery Lane and soon invited a senior Golden Dawn member, Allan Bennett, to live with him as his personal magical tutor. Bennett taught Crowley more about ceremonial magic and the ritual use of drugs, and together they performed the rituals of the Goetia, until Bennett left for South Asia to study Buddhism. In November 1899, Crowley purchased Boleskine House in Foyers on the shore of Loch Ness in Scotland. He developed a love of Scottish culture, describing himself as the "Laird of Boleskine", and took to wearing traditional highland dress even during visits to London. He continued writing poetry, publishing Jezebel and Other Tragic Poems, Tales of Archais, Songs of the Spirit, Appeal to the American Republic, and Jephthah in 1898–99; most gained mixed reviews from literary critics, although Jephthah was considered a particular critical success.
Crowley soon progressed through the lower grades of the Golden Dawn, and was ready to enter the group's inner Second Order. He was unpopular in the group; his bisexuality and libertine lifestyle gained him a bad reputation, and he developed feuds with some of the members, including W. B. Yeats. When the Golden Dawn's London lodge refused to initiate Crowley into the Second Order, he visited Mathers in Paris, who personally admitted him into the Adeptus Minor Grade. A schism had developed between Mathers and the London members of the Golden Dawn, who were unhappy with his autocratic rule. Acting under Mathers' orders, Crowley—with the help of his mistress and fellow initiate Elaine Simpson—attempted to seize the Vault of the Adepts, a temple space at 36 Blythe Road in West Kensington, from the London lodge members. When the case was taken to court, the judge ruled in favour of the London lodge, as they had paid for the space's rent, leaving both Crowley and Mathers isolated from the group.
=== Mexico, India, Paris, and marriage: 1900–1903 ===
In 1900, Crowley travelled to Mexico via the United States, settling in Mexico City and starting a relationship with a local woman. Developing a love of the country, he continued experimenting with ceremonial magic, working with John Dee's Enochian invocations. He later said he had been initiated into Freemasonry while there, and he wrote a play based on Richard Wagner's opera Tannhäuser as well as a series of poems published as Oracles (1905). Eckenstein joined him later in 1900, and together they climbed several mountains, including Iztaccihuatl, Popocatepetl, and Colima, the latter of which they had to abandon owing to a volcanic eruption. Leaving Mexico, Crowley headed to San Francisco before sailing for Hawaii aboard the Nippon Maru. On the ship, he had a brief affair with a married woman named Mary Alice Rogers; saying he fell in love with her, he wrote a series of poems about the romance, published as Alice: An Adultery (1903).
Briefly stopping in Japan and Hong Kong, Crowley reached Ceylon, where he met with Allan Bennett, who was there studying Shaivism. The pair spent some time in Kandy before Bennett decided to become a Buddhist monk in the Theravada tradition, travelling to Burma to do so. Crowley decided to tour India, devoting himself to the Hindu practice of Rāja yoga, by which means he believed he had achieved the spiritual state of dhyana. He spent much of this time studying at the Meenakshi Temple in Madura. At this time he also wrote poetry which was published as The Sword of Song (1904). He contracted malaria, and had to recuperate from the disease in Calcutta and Rangoon. In 1902, he was joined in India by Eckenstein and several other mountaineers: Guy Knowles, H. Pfannl, V. Wesseley, and Jules Jacot-Guillarmod. Together, the Eckenstein-Crowley expedition attempted K2, which was never climbed before. On the journey, Crowley was afflicted with influenza, malaria, and snow blindness, and other expedition members were also struck with illness. They reached an altitude of 20,000 feet (6,100 m) before turning back.
Having arrived in Paris in November 1902, he socialized with his friend the painter Gerald Kelly, and through him became a fixture of the Parisian arts scene. Whilst there, Crowley wrote a series of poems on the work of an acquaintance, the sculptor Auguste Rodin. These poems were later published as Rodin in Rime (1907). One of those frequenting this milieu was W. Somerset Maugham, who after briefly meeting Crowley later used him as a model for the character of Oliver Haddo in his novel The Magician (1908). He returned to Boleskine in April 1903. In August, Crowley wed Gerald Kelly's sister Rose Edith Kelly in a "marriage of convenience" to prevent her from entering an arranged marriage; the marriage appalled the Kelly family and damaged his friendship with Gerald. Heading on a honeymoon to Paris, Cairo, and then Ceylon, Crowley fell in love with Rose and worked to prove his affections. While on his honeymoon, he wrote her a series of love poems, published as Rosa Mundi and other Love Songs (1906), as well as authoring the religious satire Why Jesus Wept (1904).
== Developing Thelema ==
=== Egypt and The Book of the Law: 1904 ===
In February 1904, Crowley and Rose arrived in Cairo. Pretending to be a prince and princess, they rented an apartment in which Crowley set up a temple room and began invoking ancient Egyptian deities, while studying Islamic mysticism and Arabic. According to Crowley's later account, Rose regularly became delirious and informed him "they are waiting for you." On 18 March, she explained that "they" were the god Horus, and on 20 March proclaimed that "the Equinox of the Gods has come". She led him to a nearby museum, where she showed him a seventh-century BCE mortuary stele known as the Stele of Ankh-ef-en-Khonsu; Crowley thought it important that the exhibit's number was 666, the Number of the Beast in Christian belief, and in later years termed the artefact the "Stele of Revealing".
According to Crowley's later statements, on 8 April he heard a disembodied voice identifying itself as that of Aiwass, the messenger of Horus, or Hoor-Paar-Kraat. Crowley said that he wrote down everything the voice told him over the course of the next three days, and titled it Liber AL vel Legis or The Book of the Law. The book proclaimed that humanity was entering a new Aeon, and that Crowley would serve as its prophet. It stated that a supreme moral law was to be introduced in this Aeon, "Do what thou wilt shall be the whole of the Law," and that people should learn to live in tune with their Will. This book, and the philosophy that it espoused, became the cornerstone of Thelema. Crowley said that at the time he was unsure what to do with The Book of the Law. Often resenting it, he said that he ignored the instructions which the text commanded him to perform, which included taking the Stele of Revealing from the museum, fortifying his own island, and translating the book into all the world's languages. According to his account, he instead sent typescripts of the work to several occultists he knew, putting the manuscript away and ignoring it.
=== Kanchenjunga and China: 1905–1906 ===
Returning to Boleskine, Crowley came to believe that Mathers was using magic against him, and the relationship between the two broke down. On 28 July 1905, Rose gave birth to Crowley's first child, a daughter named Lilith, and Crowley wrote the pornographic Snowdrops from a Curate's Garden to entertain his recuperating wife. He also founded a publishing company through which to publish his poetry, naming it the Society for the Propagation of Religious Truth in parody of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. Among its first publications were Crowley's Collected Works, edited by Ivor Back, an old friend of Crowley's who was both a practicing surgeon and an enthusiast of literature. His poetry often received strong reviews (either positive or negative), but never sold well. In an attempt to gain more publicity, he issued a reward of £100 for the best essay on his work. The winner of this was J. F. C. Fuller, a British Army officer and military historian, whose essay, The Star in the West (1907), heralded Crowley's poetry as some of the greatest ever written.
Crowley decided to climb Kanchenjunga in the Himalayas of Nepal, widely recognised as the world's most treacherous mountain. The collaboration between Jacot-Guillarmod, Charles Adolphe Reymond, Alexis Pache, and Alcesti C. Rigo de Righi, the expedition was marred by much argument between Crowley and the others, who thought that he was reckless. They eventually mutinied against Crowley's control, with the other climbers heading back down the mountain as nightfall approached despite Crowley's warnings that it was too dangerous. Subsequently, Pache and several porters were killed in an accident, something for which Crowley was widely blamed by the mountaineering community.
Spending time in Moharbhanj, where he took part in big-game hunting and wrote the homoerotic work The Scented Garden, Crowley met up with Rose and Lilith in Calcutta before being forced to leave India after non-lethally shooting two men who tried to mug him. Briefly visiting Bennett in Burma, Crowley and his family decided to tour Southern China, hiring porters and a nanny for the purpose. Crowley smoked opium throughout the journey, which took the family from Tengyueh through to Yungchang, Tali, Yunnanfu, and then Hanoi. On the way, he spent much time on spiritual and magical work, reciting the "Bornless Ritual", an invocation to his Holy Guardian Angel, on a daily basis.
While Rose and Lilith returned to Europe, Crowley headed to Shanghai to meet old friend Elaine Simpson, who was fascinated by The Book of the Law; together they performed rituals in an attempt to contact Aiwass. Crowley then sailed to Japan and Canada, before continuing to New York City, where he unsuccessfully solicited support for a second expedition up Kanchenjunga. Upon arrival in Britain, Crowley learned that his daughter Lilith had died of typhoid in Rangoon, something he later blamed on Rose's increasing alcoholism. Under emotional distress, his health began to suffer, and he underwent a series of surgical operations. He began short-lived romances with actress Vera "Lola" Neville (née Snepp) and author Ada Leverson, while Rose gave birth to Crowley's second daughter. Lola Zaza was born in 1906: either in late summer or in September or in the following winter. The child contracted bronchitis and almost died.
=== The A∴A∴ and The Holy Books of Thelema: 1907–1909 ===
With his old mentor George Cecil Jones, Crowley continued performing the Abramelin rituals at the Ashdown Park Hotel in Coulsdon, Surrey. Crowley believed that in doing so he attained samadhi, or union with the Godhead, thereby marking a turning point in his life. Making heavy use of hashish during these rituals, he wrote an essay on "The Psychology of Hashish" (1909) in which he championed the drug as an aid to mysticism. He also said he had been contacted once again by Aiwass in late October and November 1907, adding that Aiwass dictated two further texts to him, "Liber VII" and "Liber Cordis Cincti Serpente", both of which were later classified in the corpus of The Holy Books of Thelema. Crowley wrote down more Thelemic Holy Books during the last two months of the year, including "Liber LXVI", "Liber Arcanorum", "Liber Porta Lucis, Sub Figura X", "Liber Tau", "Liber Trigrammaton" and "Liber DCCCXIII vel Ararita", which he again said he had received from a preternatural source. Crowley stated that in June 1909, when the manuscript of The Book of the Law was rediscovered at Boleskine, he developed the opinion that Thelema represented objective truth.
Crowley's inheritance was running out. Trying to earn money, he was hired by George Montagu Bennett, the Earl of Tankerville, to help protect him from witchcraft; recognising Bennett's paranoia as being based in his cocaine addiction, Crowley took him on holiday to France and Morocco to recuperate. In 1907, he also began taking in paying students, whom he instructed in occult and magical practice. Victor Neuburg, whom Crowley met in February 1907, became his sexual partner and closest disciple; in 1908 the pair toured northern Spain before heading to Tangier, Morocco. The following year Neuburg stayed at Boleskine, where he and Crowley engaged in sadomasochism. Crowley continued to write prolifically, producing such works of poetry as Ambergris, Clouds Without Water, and Konx Om Pax, as well as his first attempt at an autobiography, The World's Tragedy. Recognizing the popularity of short horror stories, Crowley wrote his own, some of which were published, and he also published several articles in Vanity Fair, a magazine edited by his friend Frank Harris. He also wrote Liber 777, a book of magical and Qabalistic correspondences that borrowed from Mathers and Bennett.
In November 1907, Crowley and Jones decided to found an occult order to act as a successor to the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, being aided in doing so by Fuller. The result was the A∴A∴. The group's headquarters and temple were situated at 124 Victoria Street in central London, and their rites borrowed much from those of the Golden Dawn, but with an added Thelemic basis. Its earliest members included solicitor Richard Noel Warren, artist Austin Osman Spare, Horace Sheridan-Bickers, author George Raffalovich, Francis Henry Everard Joseph Feilding, engineer Herbert Edward Inman, Kenneth Ward, and Charles Stansfeld Jones. In March 1909, Crowley began production of a biannual periodical titled The Equinox. He billed this periodical, which was to become the "Official Organ" of the A∴A∴, as "The Review of Scientific Illuminism".
Crowley became increasingly frustrated with Rose's alcoholism, and in November 1909 he divorced her on the grounds of his own adultery. Lola was entrusted to Rose's care; the couple remained friends and Rose continued to live at Boleskine. Her alcoholism worsened, and as a result she was institutionalized in September 1911.
=== Algeria and the Rites of Eleusis: 1909–1911 ===
In November 1909, Crowley and Neuburg travelled to Algeria, touring the desert from El Arba to Aumale, Bou Saâda, and then Dā'leh Addin, with Crowley reciting the Quran to fortify himself against growing feelings of awe and dread. During the trip he invoked the thirty aethyrs of Enochian magic, with Neuburg recording the results, later published in The Equinox as The Vision and the Voice. Following a mountaintop sex magic ritual, Crowley also performed an evocation to the demon Choronzon involving blood sacrifice, and considered the results to be a watershed in his magical career. Returning to London in January 1910, Crowley found that Mathers was suing him for publishing Golden Dawn secrets in The Equinox; the court found in favour of Crowley. The case was widely reported in the press, with Crowley gaining wider fame. Crowley enjoyed this, and played up to the sensationalist stereotype of being a Satanist and advocate of human sacrifice, despite being neither.
The publicity attracted new members to the A∴A∴, among them Frank Bennett, James Bayley, Herbert Close, and James Windram. The Australian violinist Leila Waddell soon became Crowley's lover. Deciding to expand his teachings to a wider audience, Crowley developed the Rites of Artemis, a public performance of magic and symbolism featuring A∴A∴ members personifying various deities. It was first performed at the A∴A∴ headquarters, with attendees given a fruit punch containing peyote to enhance their experience. Various members of the press attended, and reported largely positively on it. In October and November 1910, Crowley decided to stage something similar, the Rites of Eleusis, at Caxton Hall, Westminster; this time press reviews were mixed. Crowley came under particular criticism from West de Wend Fenton, editor of The Looking Glass newspaper, who called him "one of the most blasphemous and cold-blooded villains of modern times". Fenton's articles suggested that Crowley and Jones were involved in homosexual activity; Crowley did not mind, but Jones unsuccessfully sued for libel. Fuller broke off his friendship and involvement with Crowley over the scandal, and Crowley and Neuburg returned to Algeria for further magical workings.
The Equinox continued publishing, and various books of literature and poetry were also published under its imprint, like Crowley's Ambergris, The Winged Beetle, and The Scented Garden, as well as Neuburg's The Triumph of Pan and Ethel Archer's The Whirlpool. In 1911, Crowley and Waddell holidayed in Montigny-sur-Loing, where he wrote prolifically, producing poems, short stories, plays, and 19 works on magic and mysticism, including the two final Holy Books of Thelema. In Paris, he met Mary Desti, who became his next "Scarlet Woman", with the two undertaking magical workings in St. Moritz; Crowley believed that one of the Secret Chiefs, Ab-ul-Diz, was speaking through her. Based on Desti's statements when in trance, Crowley wrote the two-volume Book 4 (1912–13) and at the time developed the spelling "magick" in reference to the paranormal phenomenon as a means of distinguishing it from the stage magic of illusionists.
=== Ordo Templi Orientis and the Paris Working: 1912–1914 ===
In early 1912, Crowley published The Book of Lies, a work of mysticism that biographer Lawrence Sutin described as "his greatest success in merging his talents as poet, scholar, and magus". The German occultist Theodor Reuss later accused him of publishing some of the secrets of his own occult order, Ordo Templi Orientis (O.T.O.), within The Book. Crowley convinced Reuss that the similarities were coincidental, and the two became friends. Reuss appointed Crowley as head of O.T.O's British branch, the Mysteria Mystica Maxima (MMM), and at a ceremony in Berlin Crowley adopted the magical name of Baphomet and was proclaimed "X° Supreme Rex and Sovereign Grand Master General of Ireland, Iona, and all the Britons". With Reuss' permission, Crowley set about advertising the MMM and re-writing many O.T.O. rituals, which were then based largely on Freemasonry; his incorporation of Thelemite elements proved controversial in the group. Fascinated by O.T.O's emphasis on sex magic, Crowley devised a magical working based on anal sex and incorporated it into the syllabus for those O.T.O. members who were initiated into the eleventh degree.
In March 1913, Crowley acted as producer for The Ragged Ragtime Girls, a group of female violinists led by Waddell, as they performed at London's Old Tivoli theatre. They subsequently performed in Moscow for six weeks, where Crowley had a sadomasochistic relationship with the Hungarian Anny Ringler. In Moscow, Crowley continued to write plays and poetry, including "Hymn to Pan", and the Gnostic Mass, a Thelemic ritual that became a key part of O.T.O. liturgy. Churton suggested that Crowley had travelled to Moscow on the orders of British intelligence to spy on revolutionary elements in the city. In January 1914, Crowley and Neuburg settled into an apartment in Paris, where the former was involved in the controversy surrounding Jacob Epstein's new monument to Oscar Wilde. Together Crowley and Neuburg performed the six-week "Paris Working", a period of intense ritual involving strong drug use in which they invoked the gods Mercury and Jupiter. As part of the ritual, the couple performed acts of sex magic together, at times being joined by journalist Walter Duranty. Inspired by the results of the Working, Crowley wrote Liber Agapé, a treatise on sex magic. Following the Paris Working, Neuburg began to distance himself from Crowley, resulting in an argument in which Crowley cursed him.
=== United States: 1914–1919 ===
By 1914, Crowley was living a hand-to-mouth existence, relying largely on donations from A∴A∴ members and dues payments made to O.T.O. In May, he transferred ownership of Boleskine House to the MMM for financial reasons, and in July he went mountaineering in the Swiss Alps. During this time the First World War broke out. After recuperating from a bout of phlebitis, Crowley set sail for the United States aboard the RMS Lusitania in October 1914. Arriving in New York City, he moved into a hotel and began earning money writing for the American edition of Vanity Fair and undertaking freelance work for the famed astrologer Evangeline Adams. In the city, he continued experimenting with sex magic, through the use of masturbation, female prostitutes, and male clients of a Turkish bathhouse; all of these encounters were documented in his diaries.
Professing to be of Irish ancestry and a supporter of Irish independence from Great Britain, Crowley began to espouse support for Germany in their war against Britain. He became involved in New York's pro-German movement, and in January 1915 pro-German propagandist George Sylvester Viereck employed him as a writer for his propagandist paper, The Fatherland, which was dedicated to keeping the US neutral in the conflict. In later years, detractors denounced Crowley as a traitor to Britain for this action.
Crowley entered into a relationship with Jeanne Robert Foster, with whom he toured the West Coast. In Vancouver, headquarters of the North American O.T.O., he met with Charles Stansfeld Jones and Wilfred Talbot Smith to discuss the propagation of Thelema on the continent. In Detroit he experimented with peyote at Parke-Davis, then visited Seattle, San Francisco, Santa Cruz, Los Angeles, San Diego, Tijuana, and the Grand Canyon, before returning to New York. There he befriended Ananda Coomaraswamy and his wife Alice Richardson; Crowley and Richardson performed sex magic in April 1916, following which she became pregnant and then miscarried. Later that year he took a "magical retirement" to a cabin by Lake Pasquaney owned by Evangeline Adams. There, he made heavy use of drugs and undertook a ritual after which he proclaimed himself "Master Therion". He also wrote several short stories based on James George Frazer's The Golden Bough and a work of literary criticism, The Gospel According to Bernard Shaw.
In December, he moved to New Orleans, his favourite US city, before spending February 1917 with evangelical Christian relatives in Titusville, Florida. Returning to New York City, he moved in with artist and A∴A∴ member Leon Engers Kennedy in May, learning of his mother's death. After the collapse of The Fatherland, Crowley continued his association with Viereck, who appointed him contributing editor of arts journal The International. Crowley used it to promote Thelema, but it soon ceased publication. He then moved to the studio apartment of Roddie Minor, who became his partner and Scarlet Woman. Through their rituals, which Crowley called "The Amalantrah Workings", he believed that they were contacted by a preternatural entity named Lam. The relationship soon ended.
In 1918, Crowley went on a magical retreat in the wilderness of Esopus Island on the Hudson River in upstate New York. Here, he began an adaptation of the Tao Te Ching, painted Thelemic slogans on the riverside cliffs, and—he later wrote—experienced past life memories of being Ge Xuan, Pope Alexander VI, Alessandro Cagliostro, and Éliphas Lévi. Back in New York City, he moved to Greenwich Village, where he took Leah Hirsig as his lover and next Scarlet Woman. He took up painting as a hobby, exhibiting his work at the Greenwich Village Liberal Club and attracting the attention of The Evening World. With the financial assistance of sympathetic Freemasons, Crowley revived The Equinox with the first issue of volume III, known as The Blue Equinox. He spent mid-1919 on a climbing holiday in Montauk, New York, before returning to London in December.
=== Abbey of Thelema: 1920–1923 ===
Now destitute and back in London, Crowley came under attack from the tabloid John Bull, which labelled him traitorous "scum" for his work with the German war effort; several friends aware of his intelligence work urged him to sue, but he decided not to. When he was suffering from asthma, a doctor prescribed him heroin, to which he soon became addicted. In January 1920, he moved to Paris, renting a house in Fontainebleau with Leah Hirsig; they were soon joined in a ménage à trois by Ninette Shumway, and also (in living arrangement) by Leah's newborn daughter Anne "Poupée" Leah. Crowley had ideas of forming a community of Thelemites, which he called the Abbey of Thelema after the Abbaye de Thélème in François Rabelais' satire Gargantua and Pantagruel. After consulting the I Ching, he chose Cefalù in Sicily as a location, and after arriving there, began renting the old Villa Santa Barbara as his Abbey on 2 April.
Moving to the commune with Hirsig, Shumway, and their children Hansi, Howard, and Poupée, Crowley described the scenario as "perfectly happy ... my idea of heaven." They wore robes, and performed rituals to the sun god Ra at set times during the day, also occasionally performing the Gnostic Mass; the rest of the day they were left to follow their own interests. Undertaking widespread correspondences, Crowley continued to paint, wrote a commentary on The Book of the Law, and revised the third part of Book 4. He offered a libertine education for the children, allowing them to play all day and witness acts of sex magic. He occasionally travelled to Palermo to visit rent boys and buy supplies, including drugs; his heroin addiction came to dominate his life, and cocaine began to erode his nasal cavity. There was no cleaning rota, and wild dogs and cats wandered throughout the building, which soon became unsanitary. Poupée died in October 1920, and Ninette gave birth to a daughter, Astarte Lulu Panthea, soon afterwards.
New followers continued to arrive at the Abbey to be taught by Crowley. Among them was film star Jane Wolfe, who arrived in July 1920, where she was initiated into the A∴A∴ and became Crowley's secretary. Another was Cecil Frederick Russell, who often argued with Crowley, disliking the same-sex sexual magic that he was required to perform, and left after a year. More conducive was the Australian Thelemite Frank Bennett, who also spent several months at the Abbey. In February 1922, Crowley returned to Paris for a retreat in an unsuccessful attempt to kick his heroin addiction. He then went to London in search of money, where he published articles in The English Review criticising the Dangerous Drugs Act 1920 and wrote a novel, The Diary of a Drug Fiend, completed in July. On publication, it received mixed reviews; he was lambasted by the Sunday Express, which called for its burning and used its influence to prevent further reprints.
Subsequently, a young Thelemite named Raoul Loveday moved to the Abbey with his wife Betty May; while Loveday was devoted to Crowley, May detested him and life at the commune. She later said that Loveday was made to drink the blood of a sacrificed cat, and that they were required to cut themselves with razors every time they used the pronoun "I". Loveday drank from a local polluted stream, soon developing a liver infection resulting in his death in February 1923. Returning to London, May told her story to the press. John Bull proclaimed Crowley "the wickedest man in the world" and "a man we'd like to hang", and although Crowley deemed many of their accusations against him to be slanderous, he was unable to afford the legal fees to sue them. As a result, John Bull continued its attack, with its stories being repeated in newspapers throughout Europe and in North America. The Fascist government of Benito Mussolini learned of Crowley's activities, and in April 1923 he was given a deportation notice forcing him to leave Italy; without him, the Abbey closed.
== Later life ==
=== Tunisia, Paris, and London: 1923–1929 ===
Crowley and Hirsig went to Tunis, where, dogged by continuing poor health, he unsuccessfully tried again to give up heroin, and began writing what he termed his "autohagiography", The Confessions of Aleister Crowley. They were joined in Tunis by the Thelemite Norman Mudd, who became Crowley's public relations consultant. Employing a local boy, Mohammad ben Brahim, as his servant, Crowley went with him on a retreat to Nefta, where they performed sex magic together. In January 1924, Crowley travelled to Nice, France, where he met with Frank Harris, underwent a series of nasal operations, and visited the Institute for the Harmonious Development of Man, developing a positive opinion of its founder George Gurdjieff. Destitute, he took on a wealthy student, Alexander Zu Zolar, before taking on another American follower, Dorothy Olsen. Crowley took Olsen back to Tunisia for a magical retreat in Nefta, where he also wrote To Man (1924), a declaration of his own status as a prophet entrusted with bringing Thelema to humanity. After spending the winter in Paris, in early 1925 Crowley and Olsen returned to Tunis, where he wrote The Heart of the Master (1938) as an account of a vision he experienced in a trance. In March Olsen became pregnant, and Hirsig was called to take care of her; she miscarried, following which Crowley took Olsen back to France. Hirsig later distanced herself from Crowley, who then denounced her.
According to Crowley, Reuss named him head of O.T.O. upon his death, but this was challenged by a leader of the German O.T.O., Heinrich Tränker. Tränker called the Hohenleuben Conference in Thuringia, Germany, which Crowley attended. There, prominent members like Karl Germer and Martha Küntzel championed Crowley's leadership, but other key figures like Albin Grau, Oskar Hopfer, and Henri Birven backed Tränker by opposing it, resulting in a split in O.T.O. Moving to Paris, where he broke with Olsen in 1926, Crowley went through a large number of lovers over the following years, with whom he experimented in sex magic. Throughout, he was dogged by poor health, largely caused by his heroin and cocaine addictions. In 1928, Crowley was introduced to Israel Regardie, a young Englishman, who embraced Thelema and became Crowley's secretary for the next three years. That year, Crowley also met Gerald Yorke, who began organising Crowley's finances but never became a Thelemite. He also befriended the journalist Tom Driberg; Driberg did not accept Thelema either. It was here that Crowley also published one of his most significant works, Magick in Theory and Practice, which received little attention at the time.
In December 1928 Crowley met the Nicaraguan Maria Teresa Sanchez (Maria Teresa Ferrari de Miramar). Crowley was deported from France by the authorities, who disliked his reputation and feared that he was a German agent. So that she could join him in Britain, Crowley married Sanchez in August 1929. Now based in London, Mandrake Press agreed to publish his autobiography in a limited edition six-volume set, also publishing his novel Moonchild and book of short stories The Stratagem. Mandrake went into liquidation in November 1930, before the entirety of Crowley's Confessions could be published. Mandrake's owner P. R. Stephensen meanwhile wrote The Legend of Aleister Crowley, an analysis of the media coverage surrounding him.
=== Berlin and London: 1930–1938 ===
In April 1930, Crowley moved to Berlin, where he took Hanni Jaegar as his magical partner; the relationship was troubled. In September he went to Lisbon in Portugal to meet the poet Fernando Pessoa. There, he decided to fake his own death, doing so with Pessoa's help at the Boca do Inferno rock formation. He then returned to Berlin, where he reappeared three weeks later at the opening of his art exhibition at the Gallery Neumann-Nierendorf. Crowley's paintings fitted with the fashion for German Expressionism; few of them sold, but the press reports were largely favourable. In August 1931, he took Bertha Busch as his new lover; they had a violent relationship, and often physically assaulted one another. He continued to have affairs with both men and women while in the city, and met with famous people like Aldous Huxley and Alfred Adler. After befriending him, in January 1932 he took the communist Gerald Hamilton as a lodger, through whom he was introduced to many figures within the Berlin far left; it is possible that he was operating as a spy for British intelligence at this time, monitoring the communist movement.
Crowley left Busch and returned to London, where he took Pearl Brooksmith as his new Scarlet Woman. Undergoing further nasal surgery, it was here in 1932 that he was invited to be guest of honour at Foyles' Literary Luncheon, also being invited by Harry Price to speak at the National Laboratory of Psychical Research. In need of money, he launched a series of court cases against people whom he believed to have libelled him, some of which proved successful. He gained much publicity for his lawsuit against Constable and Co for publishing Nina Hamnett's Laughing Torso (1932)—a book he alleged libelled him by referring to his occult practice as black magic—but lost the case. The court case added to Crowley's financial problems, and in February 1935 he was declared bankrupt. During the hearing, it was revealed that Crowley was spending three times his income for several years.
Crowley developed a friendship with Deidre Patricia Doherty; she offered to bear his child, who was born in May 1937. Named Randall Gair, Crowley nicknamed him Aleister Atatürk. He died in a car accident in 2002 at the age of 65. Crowley continued to socialize with friends, holding curry parties in which he cooked particularly spicy food for them. In 1936, he published his first book in six years, The Equinox of the Gods, which contained a facsimile of The Book of the Law and was considered to be volume III, number 3, of The Equinox periodical. The work sold well, resulting in a second print run. In 1937, he gave a series of public lectures on yoga in Soho. Crowley was now living largely off contributions supplied by O.T.O.'s Agape Lodge in California, led by rocket scientist Jack Parsons. Crowley was intrigued by the rise of Nazism in Germany, and influenced by his friend Martha Küntzel believed that Adolf Hitler might convert to Thelema; when the Nazis abolished the German O.T.O. and imprisoned Germer, who fled to the US, Crowley then lambasted Hitler as a black magician.
=== Second World War and death: 1939–1947 ===
When the Second World War broke out, Crowley wrote to the Naval Intelligence Division offering his services, but they declined. He associated with a variety of figures in Britain's intelligence community at the time, including Dennis Wheatley, Roald Dahl, Ian Fleming, and Maxwell Knight, and wrote that he originated the "V for Victory" sign first used by the BBC; this has never been proven. In 1940, his asthma worsened, and with his German-produced medication unavailable, he returned to using heroin, once again becoming addicted. As the Blitz hit London, Crowley relocated to Torquay, where he was briefly admitted to hospital with asthma, and entertained himself with visits to the local chess club. Tiring of Torquay, he returned to London, where he was visited by American Thelemite Grady McMurtry, to whom Crowley awarded the title of "Hymenaeus Alpha". He stipulated that though Germer would be his immediate successor, McMurty should succeed Germer as head of O.T.O. after the latter's death. With O.T.O. initiate Lady Frieda Harris, Crowley developed plans to produce a tarot card set, designed by him and painted by Harris. Accompanying this was a book, published in a limited edition as The Book of Thoth by Chiswick Press in 1944. To aid the war effort, he wrote a proclamation on the rights of humanity, "Liber OZ", and a poem for the liberation of France, Le Gauloise. Crowley's final publication during his lifetime was a book of poetry, Olla: An Anthology of Sixty Years of Song. Another of his projects, Aleister Explains Everything, was posthumously published as Magick Without Tears.
In April 1944 Crowley briefly moved to Aston Clinton in Buckinghamshire, where he was visited by the poet Nancy Cunard, before relocating to Hastings in Sussex, where he took up residence at the Netherwood boarding house. He took a young man named Kenneth Grant as his secretary, paying him in magical teaching rather than wages. He was also introduced to John Symonds, whom he appointed to be his literary executor; Symonds thought little of Crowley, later publishing unfavorable biographies of him. Corresponding with the illusionist Arnold Crowther, it was through him that Crowley was introduced to Gerald Gardner, the future founder of Gardnerian Wicca. They became friends, with Crowley authorising Gardner to revive Britain's ailing O.T.O. Another visitor was Eliza Marian Butler, who interviewed Crowley for her book The Myth of the Magus. Other friends and family also spent time with him, among them Doherty and Crowley's son Aleister Atatürk.
On 1 December 1947, Crowley died at Netherwood of chronic bronchitis aggravated by pleurisy and myocardial degeneration, aged 72. His funeral was held at Woodvale Crematorium, Brighton on 5 December; about a dozen people attended, and Louis Wilkinson read excerpts from the Gnostic Mass, The Book of the Law, and "Hymn to Pan". The funeral generated press controversy, and was labelled a Black Mass by the tabloids. Crowley's body was cremated; his ashes were sent to Karl Germer in the US, who buried them in his garden in Hampton, New Jersey.
== Beliefs and thought ==
Crowley's belief system, Thelema, has been described by scholars as a religion, and more specifically as both a new religious movement, and as a "magico-religious doctrine". Although holding The Book of the Law—which was composed in 1904—as its central text, Thelema took shape as a complete system in the years after 1904.
In his autobiography, Crowley wrote that his purpose in life was to "bring oriental wisdom to Europe and to restore paganism in a purer form", although what he meant by "paganism" was unclear. Crowley also wrote in the 4th Book of Magick about a great pagan Umbral fleet ruled by Ottovius that would be handed down to the great Spartan. The esoteric nature of this was also unclear. Crowley's thought was not always cohesive, and was influenced by a variety of sources, ranging from eastern religious movements and practices like Hindu yoga and Buddhism, scientific naturalism, and various currents within Western esotericism, among them ceremonial magic, alchemy, astrology, Rosicrucianism, Kabbalah, and the Tarot. He was steeped in the esoteric teachings he had learned from the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, although pushed further with his own interpretations and strategies than the Golden Dawn had done. Crowley incorporated concepts and terminology from South Asian religious traditions like yoga and Tantra into his Thelemic system, believing that there was a fundamental underlying resemblance between Western and Eastern spiritual systems. The historian Alex Owen noted that Crowley adhered to the "modus operandi" of the Decadent movement throughout his life.
Crowley believed that the twentieth century marked humanity's entry to the Aeon of Horus, a new era in which humans would take increasing control of their destiny. He believed that this Aeon follows on from the Aeon of Osiris, in which paternalistic religions like Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism dominated the world, and that this in turn had followed the Aeon of Isis, which was maternalistic and dominated by goddess worship. He believed that Thelema was the proper religion of the Aeon of Horus, and also deemed himself to be the prophet of this new Aeon. Thelema revolves around the idea that human beings each have their own True Will that they should discover and pursue, and that this exists in harmony with the Cosmic Will that pervades the universe. Crowley referred to this process of searching and discovery of one's True Will to be "the Great Work" or the attaining of the "knowledge and conversation of the Holy Guardian Angel". His favoured method of doing so was through the performance of the Abramelin operation, a ceremonial magic ritual obtained from a 17th-century grimoire. The moral code of "Do What Thou Wilt" is believed by Thelemites to be the religion's ethical law, although the historian of religion Marco Pasi noted that this was not anarchistic or libertarian in structure, as Crowley saw individuals as part of a wider societal organism.
=== Magick and theology ===
Crowley believed in the objective existence of magic, which he chose to spell as "Magick", which is an archaic spelling of the word. He provided various different definitions of this term over his career. In his book Magick in Theory and Practice, Crowley defined Magick as "the Science and Art of causing change to occur in conformity with Will". He also told his disciple Karl Germer that "Magick is getting into communication with individuals who exist on a higher plane than ours. Mysticism is the raising of oneself to their level." Crowley saw Magick as a third way between religion and science, giving The Equinox the subtitle of The Method of Science; the Aim of Religion. Within that journal, he expressed positive sentiments toward science and the scientific method, and urged magicians to keep detailed records of their magical experiments, having said: "The more scientific the record is, the better." His understanding of magic was also influenced by the work of the anthropologist James Frazer, in particular the belief that magic was a precursor to science in a cultural evolutionary framework. Unlike Frazer, however, Crowley did not see magic as a survival from the past that required eradication, but rather he believed that magic had to be adapted to suit the new age of science. In Crowley's alternative schema, old systems of magic had to decline (per Frazer's framework) so that science and magic could synthesize into magick, which would simultaneously accept the existence of the supernatural and an experimental method. Crowley deliberately adopted an exceptionally broad definition of magick that included almost all forms of technology as magick, adopting an instrumentalist definition of magic, science, and technology.
Sexuality played an important role in Crowley's ideas about magick and his practice of it, and has been described as being central to Thelema. He outlined three forms of sex magick—the autoerotic, homosexual, and heterosexual—and argued that such acts could be used to focus the magician's will onto a specific goal such as financial gain or personal creative success. For Crowley, sex was treated as a sacrament, with the consumption of sexual fluids interpreted as a Eucharist. This was often manifested as the Cakes of Light, a biscuit containing either menstrual blood or a mixture of semen and vaginal fluids. The Gnostic Mass is the central religious ceremony within Thelema.
Crowley's theological beliefs were not clear. The historian Ronald Hutton noted that some of Crowley's writings could be used to argue that he was an atheist, while some support the idea that he was a polytheist, and others would bolster the idea that he was a mystical monotheist. On the basis of the teachings in The Book of the Law, Crowley described a pantheon of three deities taken from the ancient Egyptian pantheon: Nuit, Hadit, and Ra-Hoor-Khuit. In 1928, he wrote that all true deities were derived from this trinity. Jason Josephson Storm has argued that Crowley built on 19th-century attempts to link early Christianity to pre-Christian religions, such as Frazer's Golden Bough, to synthesize Christian theology and Neopaganism while remaining critical of institutional and traditional Christianity.
Both during his life and after it, Crowley has been widely described as a Satanist, usually by detractors. Crowley stated he did not consider himself a Satanist, nor did he worship Satan, as he did not accept the Christian world view in which Satan was believed to exist. He nevertheless used Satanic imagery, for instance by describing himself as "the Beast 666" and referring to the Whore of Babylon in his work, while in later life he sent "Antichristmas cards" to his friends. In his writings, Crowley occasionally identified Aiwass as Satan and designated him as "Our Lord God the Devil" at one occasion. The scholar of religion Gordan Djurdjevic stated that Crowley "was emphatically not" a Satanist, "if for no other reason than simply because he did not identify himself as such". Crowley nevertheless expressed strong anti-Christian sentiment, stating that he hated Christianity "as Socialists hate soap", an animosity probably stemming from his experiences among the Plymouth Brethren. He was nevertheless influenced by the King James Bible, especially the Book of Revelation, the impact of which can be seen in his writings. He was also accused of advocating human sacrifice, largely because of a passage in Book 4 in which he stated that "A male child of perfect innocence and high intelligence is the most satisfactory victim" and added that he had sacrificed about 150 every year. This was a tongue-in-cheek reference to ejaculation, something not realized by his critics.
== Image and opinions ==
Crowley considered himself to be one of the outstanding figures of his time. The historian Ronald Hutton stated that in Crowley's youth, he was "a self-indulgent and flamboyant young man" who "set about a deliberate flouting and provocation of social and religious norms", while being shielded from an "outraged public opinion" by his inherited wealth. Hutton also described Crowley as having both an "unappeasable desire" to take control of any organisation that he belonged to, and "a tendency to quarrel savagely" with those who challenged him. Crowley biographer Martin Booth asserted that Crowley was "self-confident, brash, eccentric, egotistic, highly intelligent, arrogant, witty, wealthy, and, when it suited him, cruel". Similarly, Richard B. Spence noted that Crowley was "capable of immense physical and emotional cruelty". Biographer Lawrence Sutin noted that Crowley exhibited "courage, skill, dauntless energy, and remarkable focus of will" while at the same time showing a "blind arrogance, petty fits of bile, [and] contempt for the abilities of his fellow men". The Thelemite Lon Milo DuQuette noted that Crowley "was by no means perfect" and "often alienated those who loved him dearest."
=== Political opinions ===
Crowley enjoyed being outrageous and flouting conventional morality, with John Symonds noting that he "was in revolt against the moral and religious values of his time". Crowley's political thought was studied by the academic Marco Pasi, who noted that for Crowley, socio-political concerns were subordinate to metaphysical and spiritual ones. He was neither on the political left nor right but perhaps best categorized as a "conservative revolutionary" despite not being affiliated with the German-based movement of the same name. Pasi described Crowley's fascination with the extreme ideologies of Nazism and Marxism–Leninism, which aimed to violently overturn society: "What Crowley liked about Nazism and communism, or at least what made him curious about them, was the anti-Christian position and the revolutionary and socially subversive implications of these two movements. In their subversive powers, he saw the possibility of an annihilation of old religious traditions, and the creation of a void that Thelema, subsequently, would be able to fill." Crowley described democracy as an "imbecile and nauseating cult of weakness", and commented that The Book of the Law proclaimed that "there is the master and there is the slave; the noble and the serf; the 'lone wolf' and the herd". In this attitude, he was influenced by Social Darwinism and the work of Friedrich Nietzsche. Although he had contempt for most of the British aristocracy, he regarded himself as an aristocrat and styled himself as Laird Boleskine, once describing his ideology as "aristocratic communism".
Crowley was bisexual, but exhibited a preference for women, with his relationships with men being fewer and mostly in the early part of his life. In particular he was attracted to "exotic women", and said he had fallen in love on multiple occasions; Kaczynski stated that "when he loved, he did so with his whole being, but the passion was typically short-lived". Even in later life, Crowley was able to attract young bohemian women to be his lovers, largely due to his charisma. He applied the term "Scarlet Woman" to various female lovers whom he believed played an important role in his magical work. During homosexual acts, he usually played 'the passive role', which Booth believed "appealed to his masochistic side". An underlying theme in many of his writings is that spiritual enlightenment arises through transgressing socio-sexual norms.
Crowley advocated complete sexual freedom for both men and women. He argued that homosexual and bisexual people should not suppress their sexual orientation, commenting that a person "must not be ashamed or afraid of being homosexual if he happens to be so at heart; he must not attempt to violate his own true nature because of public opinion, or medieval morality, or religious prejudice which would wish he were otherwise." On other issues he adopted a more conservative attitude; he opposed abortion on moral grounds, believing that no woman following her True Will would ever desire one.
Biographer Lawrence Sutin stated that "blatant bigotry is a persistent minor element in Crowley's writings". Sutin thought Crowley "a spoiled scion of a wealthy Victorian family who embodied many of the worst John Bull racial and social prejudices of his upper-class contemporaries", noting that he "embodied the contradiction that writhed within many Western intellectuals of the time: deeply held racist viewpoints courtesy of society, coupled with a fascination with people of colour". Crowley is said to have insulted his close Jewish friend Victor Neuburg, using antisemitic slurs, and he had mixed opinions about Jewish people as a group. Although he praised their "sublime" poetry and stated that they exhibited "imagination, romance, loyalty, probity and humanity", he also thought that centuries of persecution had led some Jewish people to exhibit "avarice, servility, falseness, cunning and the rest". He was also known to praise various ethnic and cultural groups, for instance he thought that the Chinese people exhibited a "spiritual superiority" to the English, and praised Muslims for exhibiting "manliness, straightforwardness, subtlety, and self-respect".
Both critics of Crowley and adherents of Thelema have accused Crowley of sexism. Booth described Crowley as exhibiting a "general misogyny", something the biographer believed arose from Crowley's bad relationship with his mother. Sutin noted that Crowley "largely accepted the notion, implicitly embodied in Victorian sexology, of women as secondary social beings in terms of intellect and sensibility". The scholar of religion Manon Hedenborg White noted that some of Crowley's statements are "undoubtedly misogynist by contemporary standards", but characterized Crowley's attitude toward women as complex and multi-faceted. Crowley's comments on women's role varied dramatically within his written work, even that produced in similar periods. Crowley described women as "moral inferiors" who had to be treated with "firmness, kindness and justice", while also arguing that Thelema was essential to women's emancipation.
== Possible links to intelligence ==
Biographers Richard B. Spence and Tobias Churton have suggested that Crowley was a spy for the British secret services and that among other things he joined the Golden Dawn under their command to monitor the activities of Mathers, who was known to be a Carlist. Spence suggested that the conflict between Mathers and the London lodge for the temple was part of an intelligence operation to undermine Mathers' authority. Spence has suggested that the purpose of Crowley's trip to Mexico might have been to explore Mexican oil prospects for British intelligence. Spence has suggested that his trip to China was orchestrated as part of a British intelligence scheme to monitor the region's opium trade. Churton suggested that Crowley had travelled to Moscow on the orders of British intelligence to spy on revolutionary elements in the city.
Spence and Sutin both wrote that Crowley's pro-German work in the United States during World War I was actually a cover for him being a double agent for Britain, citing his hyperbolic articles in The Fatherland to make the German lobby appear ridiculous in the eyes of the American public. Spence also wrote that Crowley encouraged the German Navy to destroy the Lusitania, informing them that it would ensure the US stayed out of the war, while in reality hoping that it would bring the US into the war on Britain's side.
== Legacy and influence ==
Crowley has remained an influential figure, both amongst occultists and in popular culture, particularly that of Britain, but also of other parts of the world. In 2002, a BBC poll placed Crowley number 73 in a list of the 100 Greatest Britons. Richard Cavendish has written of him that "In native talent, penetrating intelligence and determination, Aleister Crowley was the best-equipped magician to emerge since the seventeenth century." The scholar of esotericism Egil Asprem described him as "one of the most well-known figures in modern occultism". The scholar of esotericism Wouter Hanegraaff asserted that Crowley was an extreme representation of "the dark side of the occult", adding that he was "the most notorious occultist magician of the twentieth century". The philosopher John Moore opined that Crowley stood out as a "Modern Master" when compared with other prominent occult figures like George Gurdjieff, P. D. Ouspensky, Rudolf Steiner, or Helena Blavatsky, also describing him as a "living embodiment" of Oswald Spengler's "Faustian Man". Biographer Tobias Churton considered Crowley "a pioneer of consciousness research". Hutton noted that Crowley had "an important place in the history of modern Western responses to Oriental spiritual traditions", while Sutin thought that he had made "distinctly original contributions" to the study of yoga in the West.
Thelema continued to develop and spread following Crowley's death. In 1969, O.T.O. was reactivated in California under the leadership of Grady Louis McMurtry; in 1985 its right to the title was unsuccessfully challenged in court by a rival group, the Society Ordo Templi Orientis, led by Brazilian Thelemite Marcelo Ramos Motta. Another American Thelemite is the filmmaker Kenneth Anger, who was influenced by Crowley's writings from a young age. In the United Kingdom, Kenneth Grant propagated a tradition known as Typhonian Thelema through his organisation, the Typhonian O.T.O., later renamed the Typhonian Order. Also in Britain, an occultist known as Amado Crowley claimed to be Crowley's son; this has been refuted by academic investigation. Amado argued that Thelema was a false religion created by Crowley to hide his true esoteric teachings, which Amado said he was propagating.
Several Western esoteric traditions other than Thelema were also influenced by Crowley, with Djurdjevic observing that "Crowley's influence on twentieth-century and contemporary esotericism has been enormous". Gerald Gardner, the founder of Gardnerian Wicca, used much of Crowley's published material when composing the Gardnerian ritual liturgy, and the Australian witch Rosaleen Norton was also heavily influenced by Crowley's ideas. More widely, Crowley became "a dominant figure" in the modern Pagan community. L. Ron Hubbard, the American founder of Scientology, was involved in Thelema in the early 1940s via Jack Parsons, and it has been argued that Crowley's ideas influenced some of Hubbard's work. The scholars of religion Asbjørn Dyrendel, James R. Lewis, and Jesper Petersen noted that despite the fact that Crowley was not a Satanist, he "in many ways embodies the pre-Satanist esoteric discourse on Satan and Satanism through his lifestyle and his philosophy", with his "image and ought" becoming an "important influence" on the later development of religious Satanism. For instance, two prominent figures in religious Satanism, Anton LaVey and Michael Aquino, were influenced by Crowley's work.
=== In popular culture ===
Crowley also had a wider influence in British popular culture. After his time in Cefalù, which brought him to public attention in Britain, various "literary Crowleys" appeared: characters in fiction based upon him. One of the earliest was the character of the poet Shelley Arabin in John Buchan's 1926 novel The Dancing Floor. In his novel The Devil Rides Out, the writer Dennis Wheatley used Crowley as a partial basis for the character of Damien Mocata, a portly bald defrocked priest who engages in black magic. The occultist Dion Fortune used Crowley as a basis for characters in her books The Secrets of Doctor Taverner (1926) and The Winged Bull (1935). Crowley was one of the inspirations for the character of Dr. Trelawney in Anthony Powell's A Dance to the Music of Time. He was included as one of the figures on the cover art of The Beatles' album Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band (1967), and his motto of "Do What Thou Wilt" was inscribed on the vinyl of Led Zeppelin's album Led Zeppelin III (1970). Led Zeppelin co-founder Jimmy Page bought Boleskine in 1971, and part of the band's film The Song Remains the Same was filmed in the grounds. He sold it in 1992. Though David Bowie makes but a fleeting reference to Crowley in the lyrics of his song "Quicksand" (1971), it has been suggested that the lyrics of Bowie's No. 1 hit single "Let's Dance" (1983) may substantially paraphrase Crowley's 1923 poem "Lyric of Love to Leah". Ozzy Osbourne and his lyricist Bob Daisley wrote a song titled "Mr. Crowley" (1980). A prophetic quote about the coming of the New Aeon borrowed from Crowley's work Magick in Theory and Practice (1911) has been featured as the opening introduction to the video game Blood Omen: Legacy of Kain (1996). Crowley began to receive scholarly attention from academics in the late 1990s.
== Bibliography ==
== Notes and references ==
=== Explanatory notes ===
=== Citations ===
=== Works cited ===
== Further reading ==
== External links ==
Works by Aleister Crowley at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Aleister Crowley at the Internet Archive
Works by Aleister Crowley at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
Aleister Crowley Collection at the Harry Ransom Center, University of Texas
"Aleister Crowley and the Abbey of Thelema in Cefalù" at WondersOfSicily.com, with photos
Perdurabo (Where is Aleister Crowley?) – film on the Abbey of Thelema by Carlos Atanes
Aleister Crowley at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dollywood#:~:text=The%20Showstreet%20area%20was%20added,from%20Rivertown%20Junction%20to%20Showstreet. | Dollywood | Dollywood is a theme park that is jointly owned by Herschend and country singer-songwriter Dolly Parton through her entertainment company, Dolly Parton Productions. It is located in the Knoxville metropolitan area in Pigeon Forge, Tennessee, near the gateway to The Great Smoky Mountains. Hosting nearly 3 million guests in a typical season from mid-March to the Christmas holidays, Dollywood is the biggest ticketed tourist attraction in Tennessee. It has won several international awards.
In addition to standard amusement park thrill rides, Dollywood features traditional crafts, food, and music of the Smoky Mountain area. The park hosts a number of concerts and musical events each year, including appearances by Dolly Parton and her family as well as other national and local musical acts.
The theme park is the anchor of Parton's 150-acre (61 ha) Dollywood amusement destination, which also includes the 35-acre (14 ha) sister water park Dollywood's Splash Country, the 20-acre (8.1 ha) Dollywood's DreamMore Resort and Spa, and the 5-acre (2.0 ha) Dolly Parton's Stampede Dinner Attraction.
== History ==
=== Rebel Railroad (1961-1963) ===
The park opened on June 10, 1961 as a small tourist attraction owned by the Robbins brothers from Blowing Rock, North Carolina. Named "Rebel Railroad", it included a steam train, general store, blacksmith shop, and saloon. With a theme inspired by the centennial of the Civil War, the train ride let visitors experience "attacks" by Union soldiers, train robbers, and Native Americans. The train and its riders were protected by Confederates who fought off the attacks. The park was modeled after the Robbins brothers' first successful theme park, Tweetsie Railroad in Blowing Rock.
=== Goldrush Junction (1964-1974) ===
For the 1964 season, the park was renamed "Goldrush Junction". A special announcement was made in the May 24, 1964, edition of Knoxville News Sentinel. As part of the name change the park switched to a wild west theme similar to its sister park Tweetsie Railroad.
In 1970, Art Modell – who also owned the Cleveland Browns football team – bought Goldrush Junction. The park retained the railroad and added an outdoor theater and the Robert F. Thomas Chapel.
=== Goldrush (1975-1976) ===
For the 1975 season, the park name was changed to "Goldrush". In April of 1976, Jack and Pete Herschend, owners of Silver Dollar City, bought Goldrush. The park continued to operate as Goldrush for the 1976 season.
=== Silver Dollar City (1977-1985) ===
In 1977, the Herschends renamed Goldrush to "Silver Dollar City Tennessee", making it a sister park to their original Silver Dollar City in Branson, Missouri. The Herschends spent about $1 million upgrading the park upon purchase and added other improvements over the years. Also in 1977, the train ride added two new steam locomotives, the #70 and the #71, plus the remains of engine #72 for spare parts, from the White Pass & Yukon Route Railroad.
=== Dollywood (1986-present) ===
In 1986, Dolly Parton, who grew up in the area, bought an interest in Silver Dollar City. As part of the deal, the park reopened for the 1986 season as "Dollywood". In 2010, Parton said she became involved with the operation because she "always thought that if I made it big or got successful at what I had started out to do, that I wanted to come back to my part of the country and do something great, something that would bring a lot of jobs into this area."
Dollywood has approximately 4,000 people on its payroll, making it the largest employer in the community. From 1986 to 2010, the park doubled in size to 150 acres (61 ha). On November 16, 2010, Dollywood earned the Liseberg Applause Award, which Dolly Parton accepted during a ceremony at IAAPA Attractions Expo 2010 in Orlando.
==== 1980s developments ====
On May 3, 1986, Silver Dollar City Tennessee reopened as Dollywood. The new Rivertown Junction area included Smoky Mountain River Rampage, a whitewater rafting ride; Back Porch Theater; Aunt Granny's Dixie Fixins' Restaurant; and Dolly's Tennessee Mountain Home, a replica of the cabin that was Parton's childhood home. Also new was "Rags to Riches: The Dolly Parton Story", a museum displaying articles and mementos from Dolly's life and career. "The Butter Churn" (a Trabant ride) was removed at the end of the season. Park attendance doubled to more than a million guests during the first season as Dollywood.
In 1987, the Daydream Ridge area opened and included the Mountain Slidewinder water toboggan ride, Mountain Dan's Burger House, Sweet Dreams Candy Shop, The Rainbow Factory blown glass shop, and Critter Creek Playground. Engine #70 was restored to operation. In 1988, the 1,739-seat Celebrity Theater, featuring the "Showcase of Stars" celebrity concert series, was constructed adjacent to the entrance of the park. Five new children's rides were added to the Fun Country area, including a Zamperla Balloon Race. The Dollywood Foundation was established to provide books and schools supplies to the children of Sevier County. Thunder Express, a steel mine train coaster, was built adjacent to Blazing Fury in 1989. The ride was relocated to the park from Six Flags Over Mid-America. The 1989 season was the last for the National Mountain Music Festival, which was a carryover from the Silver Dollar City years.
==== 1990s developments ====
In 1990, a 1924 antique Dentzel Carousel, originally built for Rocky Springs Park in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, was relocated to the park. Situated near the train depot, it took over the space previously occupied by the Silver Dollar Saloon. The 600-seat Gaslight Theater opened near the carousel. The Smoky Mountain Christmas Festival premiered in November, extending the park's operating season into December. Eagle Mountain Sanctuary, an outdoor aviary, was added in 1991 along with the Wings of America Theater, site of the Birds of Prey show, and the 300-seat Valley Theater.
The Showstreet area was added in 1992 and included the Showstreet Palace Theater, The Butterfly Emporium, The Backstage Restaurant, The Spotlight Bakery, Friendship Gardens, and WDLY-FM, a working radio station. To accommodate the expansion, the park's main entrance moved from Rivertown Junction to Showstreet. The Barnwood Theater was converted into Imagination Station, an interactive children's play area. Dollywood's annual attendance topped 2 million for the first time during the 1992 season.
In 1993, the Fun Country area was renovated and became The Country Fair with three new rides: The Wonder Wheel, a 60 ft (18 m) tall Ferris wheel; Twist and Shout, a scrambler ride; and Tennessee Twister, a tilt-a-whirl. The Balloon Race ride was relocated to the Daydream Ridge area to make room for the new attractions. Also new at the park was "Sunset Musicfest", a summer music festival. A year later, in 1994, the Gaslight Theater became the Heartsong Theater, named for the multi-media musical presentation that told the story of Dolly Parton's life. In 1995, the Jukebox Junction 1950s "Main Street" themed area was added and included Rockin' Roadway miniature car ride, The Pines Theater, Red's Diner, and Cas Walker's Music Store. The Sunset Musicfest did not return for the 1995 season.
The Dollywood Boulevard area was added in 1996 and included Thunder Road, a turbo-simulator ride based on the 1958 movie of the same name. Silver Screen Café, a 1950s cinema-themed restaurant, and Centerstage gift shop were also in the area. In 1997, the "U Pick Nick" children's show focused on themes from the Nickelodeon television network and played in Celebrity Theater. The Flooded Mine dark-ride was closed and demolished in October, and Silver Screen Cafe became DJ Platters in the Dollywood Boulevard area. Daredevil Falls, a new shoot the chutes flume ride, opened in the area formerly occupied by the Flooded Mine a year later in 1998. At the time, it was billed as "The Highest and Fastest Waterfall Ride in America" with its 62 ft (19 m) drop. Thunder Express was closed in September and sold to Magic Springs Theme Park in Arkansas. The antique carousel was removed at the end of the season and replaced with a new Chance Rides carousel.
In 1999, the Tennessee Tornado, a steel looping coaster, opened in the area formerly occupied by Thunder Express. Also new was the Southern Gospel Museum and Hall of Fame, while the Balloon Race ride was removed.
==== 2000s developments ====
The Daydream Ridge area was renovated and became Dreamland Forest, a children's mountain-themed interactive play area in 2000. The Festival of Nations international music festival premiered a year later in April 2001. Dolly's Splash Country, a new 25-acre (100,000 m2) water park opened adjacent to Dollywood's parking lot.
Dollywood Boulevard was renovated and became a new area, Adventures in Imagination, in 2002. Smoky Mountain Wilderness Adventure, a new simulator film, replaced Thunder Road, and a new Dolly museum called Chasing Rainbows opened in the building formerly occupied by DJ Platters. In 2003, summer children's festival KidsFest premiered, and Imagination Station was converted into Celebration Hall, a special events facility. It was also the final season for the "Showcase of Stars" celebrity concert series.
A new area of the park, Thunderhead Gap, opened with the Thunderhead wooden roller coaster in 2004. The construction of the new area opened up a new valley for park expansion. The Country Fair Falls log flume was demolished in November, and most of the other Country Fair rides, including the Swingamajig, Tennessee Twister, The Convoy, and The Barnstormer, were removed at the end of the season to free up space for newer rides that were added for the 2005 season. The new rides included Dizzy Disk, Amazing Flying Elephants, Lemon Twist, Shooting Star, Sky Rider, VeggieTales Sideshow Spin (children's roller coaster), Waltzing Swinger, Piggy Parade, Busy Bees, and Lucky Ducky. The National Southern Gospel & Harvest Celebration was also new in 2005.
In 2006, the Timber Tower ride, along with Lil' Loggers Landing, Beaver Creek, Beaver Creek Boat Float, and Lumberjack Lifts, opened in a new area adjacent to Thunderhead. The Barbeque & Bluegrass festival also premiered. The 2007 season included the addition of Mystery Mine, a Gerstlauer Eurofighter coaster with two vertical lifts hills and dark ride elements. The ride's climax featured fire effects in front of the riders, a 95-degree 85-foot (26 m) drop, a heartline roll, and a dive loop. The $17 million ($25.8 million in 2024 dollars) ride used an abandoned mine shaft theme. In 2008, River Battle, an interactive water raft ride, was built in a new section of the park called Wilderness Pass that connected the Timber Canyon and Craftsman's Valley areas. "Thunder Road" returned to the motion theater (Imagination Cinema) and replaced Smoky Mountain Wilderness Adventure. Della's Lye Soap shop moved from Craftsman's Valley to the Wilderness Pass area. A new exhibit housing the Wings of America show birds moved to its former location. The Polar Express 4-D Experience was shown in Imagination Cinema during the park's Smoky Mountain Christmas.
In 2009, Dollywood presented two new shows, "Imaginé" by Le Grand Cirque and "Sha-Kon-O-Hey! Land of Blue Smoke", which featured music written by Dolly Parton and told the story of the last family living in the Smoky Mountains at the time it became a national park. "Imaginé" headlined the park's Festival of Nations. "Thunder Road" was renamed "White Lightning" and then changed to a new attraction, Journey to the Center of the Earth: 4-D Adventure, based on the 2008 film. In 2009, an upcharge zipline attraction called SkyZip (owned by Skyline Eco-Adventures of Maui, Hawaii) opened at Dollywood, becoming the first multi-line zip line tour inside a theme park.
==== 2010s developments ====
The Adventure Mountain attraction opened at a cost of $5 million in the Wilderness Pass area in 2010. It included three distinct adventure courses, Geyser Gorge, Black Bear Cliff, and Rocky Top, that ranged from easy to expert with 100 different rope features, swinging beams, suspension bridges, flying islands, and floating stairs. Adventure trails ranged from a few inches above the ground to more than 26 feet (7.9 m) in the air. The area also included a scaled-down play area called Camp Teachittoomee for younger children. Also for the 2010 season, Dollywood brought back "Sha-Kon-O-Hey! Land of Blue Smoke" and changed its logo for the 25th anniversary.
In 2011, a new area called Owens Farm with a $5.5 million giant swing called Barnstormer replaced Dreamland Forest. The barnyard-themed area included a play area for younger guests. Christmas on Ice, a new ice skating Christmas show, premiered in DP's Celebrity Theater and headlined Smoky Mountain Christmas. Wild Eagle opened March 24, 2012, and was the first Bolliger & Mabillard Wing Coaster in the United States. It was also the biggest investment in Dollywood history. In 2012, the operator of SkyZip sued Dollywood, blaming the park for damaging the zip line network during its construction of Wild Eagle, but Dollywood blamed the damage on storms. Settling out of court, Dollywood took over SkyZip operations from Skyline Eco-Adventures, and closed the attraction in 2019. Timber Tower was dismantled before opening in 2012 due to a lawsuit with the ride manufacturer. Also in 2012, Dollywood dropped the VeggieTales name from Sideshow Spin, removing any mentions of the franchise from the ride altogether. In December of the very same year, the park announced that Adventure Mountain would be closed permanently following the 2012 season.
Dollywood dedicated 2013 to encouraging families to spend time together. New shows for the season included Cirque Shanghai, Mystic India, and One World Party as part of Festival of Nations along with more than 50 new international food items. The park also introduced "Great American Summer", a new summer festival that replaced KidsFest. It included the Great American Country Show, Gazillion Bubbles, The Little Engine Playhouse, and Salute to America. Dollywood extended its hours and added a nightly fireworks show. Smoky Mountain Christmas added a new show that was Dolly Parton's version of Charles Dickens' A Christmas Carol. Dollywood's slogan for the year was "Make Time for Happy!" Imagination Cinema became Dreamsong Theater and played Dolly's My People, a show about Dolly's family.
In 2014, FireChaser Express, a dual-launch family coaster, replaced Adventure Mountain in the Wilderness Pass area of the park. Dollywood's slogan was changed to "Love Every Moment", and Smoky Mountain Christmas added a Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer meet-and-greet called Holly Jolly Junction. Dollywood's DreamMore Resort and Spa opened adjacent to Dollywood's Splash Country in 2015. For the 30th anniversary of the park, the park redesigned the entrance for resort guests and added two new shows to Festival of Nations called "Rhythm of the Dance" and "Timber". Cas Walker's was demolished to make room for a new attraction, and six new shows were added to "Great American Summer" along with the revival of the Showcase of Stars concert series. Also new was Rock the Smokies, a Christian music festival, and Rudolph and friends returned to the Smoky Mountain Christmas festival.
In 2010, Parton said that she would like to open more Dollywood parks in the future. "We definitely want to expand with new things every year, eventually with a resort," she said. "We may eventually have Dollywoods in other parts of the country, where we can kind of be true to whatever's going on in that part of the world." On August 21, 2013, Parton announced Dollywood's DreamMore Resort and Spa, which opened on July 27, 2015.
Lightning Rod, a Rocky Mountain Construction wooden coaster, opened on June 13, 2016. It opened as the world's first launched wooden coaster as well as the fastest wooden coaster in the world. A year later, in 2017, a 200-foot (61 m) freefall ride called Drop Line, which replaced Timber Tower, opened along with a junior roller coaster called Whistle Punk Chaser. Two new seasonal events debuted, and Dollywood's Splash Country added the TailSpin Racer mat racer slide complex. Sideshow Spin and River Battle were removed.
In 2018, the former River Battle site was transformed into the Plaza at Wilderness Pass, a new open space with covered seating for relaxing and enjoying seasonal events. With the debut of the Spring Mix three-week music series, the 2018 "Season of Showstoppers" also marked the park's largest investment in entertainment in Dollywood's history. The 2018 Festival of Nations includes three headliners that are new to Dollywood: Flamenco Kings starring Los Vivancos (Pines Theater), National Dance Company of Siberia (Celebrity Theater), and Ladysmith Black Mambazo (Showstreet Palace Theater). The first Summer Celebration event includes various performances and attractions, including DRUMLine Live! in Celebrity Theater, a show that focuses on the musical styles of marching bands from Historically Black Colleges and Universities. It uses technology, including video screens and special effects, to enhance soul, R&B, country, and other types of music. Renovations included upgrades to Aunt Granny's and re-branding and renaming of two shops.
Work began in October 2017 on "Wildwood Grove", adding eleven new experiences to the park. Attractions include a suspended family coaster (Dragonflier), a restaurant (Till & Harvest), an indoor play area (Hidden Hollow), an outdoor splash pad (Wildwood Creek), a swinging boat ride (The Great Tree Swing), and a 50 ft tall tree with a canopy covered in butterflies (The Wildwood Tree). The $37 million 5-acre development, described as "a land built from Dolly Parton's dreams", opened May 10, 2019. It was part of a $300 million 6-year expansion project.
==== 2020s developments ====
In October 2019, it was announced that the park would add its first new festival in 14 years. Dollywood's Flower & Food Festival will feature 10 to 15 feet tall topiaries based on Dolly's songs like "Coat of Many Colors", photo opportunities, a rainbow sky over Showstreet, and food. The festival was to have commemorated the park's 35th season and run from May 8 to June 14, 2020, but was deferred to May 7 to June 13, 2021.
Dollywood filed plans in October 2019 for a new resort adjacent to Splash Country and DreamMore Resort. It is planned to feature a 310-room hotel, a 325-seat restaurant, and a conference space. The plans indicate the resort will create 100 jobs. In June 2021, Dollywood announced plans for a $500 million expansion of the complex, including more details about the planned hotel complex announced in 2019. The new resort, with the name revealed to be the HeartSong Lodge & Resort, will have 302 rooms, five floors of suites, a four-story atrium with a large central fireplace, and multiple shopping and culinary experiences. HeartSong Lodge is scheduled to open in 2023, along with campgrounds, three additional resorts, and a "record-breaking" attraction for the theme park.
During the 2022 off-season, a few changes were made to better the park and provide more space and improve efficiency. The Silver Dollar Mine tunnel, connecting the lower section of Craftsman's Valley and The Village, was removed. The area now provides a more open space for guests to walk through and also allow a chance to relax and enjoy the views of the passing Dollywood Express. Also, the parking complex was renovated to better utilize the lots at both Dollywood and Dollywood's Splash Country to provide a more efficient experience for guests as they enter the property. The principal change being the swapping of the guest traffic lanes with the tram lanes, which removes previous points of intersection between the two. The multi-property parking complex now employs a one-way circuit which eliminates the two-way traffic pattern of the old parking lot layout. Also, the addition of two extra parking toll booths (four attendants), as well as more staging lanes for the toll booths, will result in a reduction of time spent waiting to enter the property. Other projects throughout the Dollywood theme park property include the renovation of Iron Horse Pizza (formerly known as Victoria's Pizza) to include greater production capacity and more seating space for guests. The Emporium also received a complete makeover, providing a modern shopping experience as guests look to find unique Dollywood keepsakes. Also, as guests have continued to ask for more room to provide spacing in the park, two buildings were removed to allow for wider walkways — the former Eagle Shop (part of the second phase of the Craftsman's Valley widening project) and the former Christmas Cottage in Rivertown Junction.
On August 5, 2022, it was announced that a new roller coaster named Big Bear Mountain was under construction and opened on May 12, 2023. It is also the longest in the park's history.
== Areas ==
Dollywood is organized into 11 themed areas: Showstreet, Rivertown Junction, Craftsman's Valley, The Village, Country Fair, Timber Canyon, Wilderness Pass, Jukebox Junction, Owens Farm, Adventures in Imagination and Wildwood Grove reflect the historical eras and culture of East Tennessee, while Owens Farm and Adventures in Imagination explore Dolly Parton's life and imagination. Many attractions focus on the history and culture of the Southern Appalachian region.
=== Showstreet ===
Attractions include Showstreet Palace Theater and the Celebrity Theater.
=== Rivertown Junction ===
Attractions include Dolly's Tennessee Mountain Home, Back Porch Theater, and Smoky Mountain River Rampage whitewater rafting ride.
=== Craftsman's Valley ===
Attractions include Dollywood Grist Mill, Valley Theater, Eagle Mountain Sanctuary, Wings of America Theater, Robert F. Thomas Chapel, Calico Falls Schoolhouse, Tennessee Tornado coaster, Blazing Fury coaster, Daredevil Falls flume ride, and craft exhibits.
=== The Village ===
Attractions include the 3 ft (914 mm) narrow gauge Dollywood Express steam train, Imagination Playhouse, Village Carousel.
=== Country Fair ===
Rides include The Amazing Flying Elephants, Lemon Twist, Shooting Star, Sky Rider, The Waltzing Swinger, Piggy Parade, Busy Bees, Lucky Ducky, Dolly's Demolition Derby, and The Scrambler.
=== Timber Canyon ===
Attractions include the Mystery Mine coaster, the Thunderhead coaster, Drop Line, Whistle Punk Chaser, and Lumberjack Lifts.
=== Jukebox Junction ===
Attractions include the Rockin' Roadway car ride and Pines Theater. Also featured is Lightning Rod a high-speed lift wooden roller coaster.
=== Owens Farm ===
Attractions include Barnstormer, a barn and plane styled giant swing attraction. It also includes soft play areas and a splash pad.
=== The Dolly Parton Experience ===
Attractions include Behind the Seams and Song-teller Museums
=== Wilderness Pass ===
Attractions include The Plaza at Wilderness Pass, Wild Eagle – America's first winged coaster – and FireChaser Express, a dual-launch coaster that launches forward and backward.
=== Wildwood Grove ===
Opened in 2019; attractions include Dragonflier, a suspended family coaster; Big Bear Mountain, a family launched coaster; The Mad Mockingbird, a flying scooter ride; The Wildwood Tree, a 50-foot-tall (15 m) lighted tree; and Till & Harvest Food Hall, a Smoky Mountains-inspired restaurant. In 2023, Big Bear Mountain, a launching steel family roller coaster, was added.
== Festivals and annual events ==
Dollywood hosts six of the South's largest festivals between the months of March and December:
Running normally from mid-March to mid-April, Festival of Nations offers cultural events by performers from around the world. This festival has been retired since the COVID-19 pandemic and was replaced with The I Will Always Love You Festival, which started in 2023.
From late April until mid-May, the Barbeque & Bluegrass presented by Bush Brothers and Company is a bluegrass music and barbecue festival.
Starting in 2021 (originally 2020), and scheduled to run from mid-May and running until early June, is the Flower and Food Festival.
Summer Celebration (formerly Great American Summer) includes Night of Many Colors, a nightly fireworks display set to music; 3D Light and Drone Show, Night Experience, night performances and rides in the dark; and new shows, such as DRUMLine Live! and iLuminate.
Harvest Festival presented by Humana features Southern Gospel music, professional craftsmen, and Great Pumpkin LumiNights.
Smoky Mountain Christmas presented by Humana is a 13 time award winner of Golden Ticket's Best Christmas Event and features seven holiday performances, 5 million Christmas lights, Glacier Ridge (in which part of the park has frozen over), and a nightly parade.
== Rankings and awards ==
In 2010, Dollywood received the Applause Award, an honor presented biennially by the Liseberg amusement park in Gothenburg, Sweden. The award recognizes a theme park "whose management, operations, and creative accomplishments have inspired the industry with their foresight, originality, and sound business development."
In 2017, Dollywood won Golden Ticket awards from Amusement Today for Friendliest Park, Best Christmas Event, Best Food and Best Show.
In 2018, Dollywood received a Golden Ticket award from Amusement Today in the Best Food category, marking the park's fourth win in seven years. In addition to three dinner show options, more than 25 vendors serve meals and snacks, ranging from barbecue ribs, pizza, corn dogs, and pork rinds to cinnamon bread, funnel cakes, cotton candy, and banana pudding made using Dolly's recipe. The park also received Golden Tickets for Best Shows, Friendliest Park, and Best Christmas Event and was ranked the third best park in the world.
In the 2018 USA Today 10Best Readers' Choice Awards – awards voted on by the general public – Dollywood was ranked as the sixth Best Amusement Park in the U.S. Additionally, Dollywood's DreamMore Resort and Spa was ranked first in the Best Amusement Park Hotel category, and Aunt Granny's Restaurant was ranked first in the Best Amusement Park Restaurant category. Dollywood's DreamMore Resort and Spa, which opened in 2015, includes family-oriented amenities and provides direct access to the theme park. Aunt Granny's opened the first year the park operated as Dollywood. It uses an all-you-can-eat buffet format with comfort foods like chicken and dumplings, tacos, and steaks along with a salad bar and health-conscious choices.
Dreamland Drive-In was ranked third in the Best Amusement Park Entertainment category, and Dollywood's Splash Country was ranked sixth in the Best Outdoor Water Park category.
In 2019, Dollywood won Golden Ticket awards for Best Kids' Area, Best Guest Experience, and Best Christmas Event of 2018.
In 2019, Coaster101.com named Lightning Rod "Wooden Roller Coaster of the Decade".
In 2021, Dollywood's Smoky Mountain Christmas won the Golden Ticket Award for Best Christmas Event for the 13th straight year. In June of 2022, Tripadvisor named Dollywood the number one theme park in the U.S.
== See also ==
List of Dollywood attractions
List of Dollywood entertainment
List of amusement parks
List of amusement parks in the Americas
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Herschend
Dollywood at the Roller Coaster DataBase
Themepark Timelines
Dollywood Archived April 2, 2013, at the Wayback Machine at Pigeon Forge Department of Tourism |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snatch_Game | Snatch Game | Snatch Game is a comedy challenge recurring across the Drag Race television franchise and a fixture of the reality competition series. Since the second season of the original American RuPaul's Drag Race series in 2010, the challenge has returned for every subsequent season. Typically arranged as a parody of Match Game (known as Blankety Blank in the UK, Blankety Blanks in Australia, and Jogo dos Pontinhos in Brazil), the challenge is a test of the contestants' skills at celebrity impersonation and improvisational comedy.
The challenge similarly recurs on various spin-offs, including All Stars and Secret Celebrity Drag Race, as well as the international adaptations for Thai, British, Canadian, Dutch, Australian-New Zealand, Spanish, Italian, French, Philippine, Belgian, Swedish, Mexican, Brazilian, and German audiences.
Usually occurring midway through each Drag Race season, Snatch Game is widely considered among the most important and memorable challenges of the show and, in RuPaul's own words, separates "the basic bitches from the fierce-ass queens." Winners of the show are often amongst the top performers in the Snatch Game, though there are a few exceptions.
The drag queen contestants typically impersonate women, though several contestants choose male celebrities with sufficiently flamboyant public images to fit a drag aesthetic. Several contestants have chosen to impersonate other people directly associated with the show, such as other past or present contestants, Michelle Visage, or RuPaul. Queens cannot choose copyrighted characters, although some celebrity portrayals have been closely based on a specific screen performance.
The challenge often relies on special celebrity guests to participate in game play, who frequently double as the episode's guest judges. Other seasons feature the show's regular production team—Michelle Visage, Ross Mathews, Carson Kressley, Rhys Nicholson, or members of the Pit Crew—in lieu of outside guests.
Ginger Minj has won Snatch Game three times, the most of any queen in the franchise. Eight other queens have won Snatch Game twice: BenDeLaCreme, Baga Chipz, Jinkx Monsoon, Trinity the Tuck, Jimbo, Hannah Conda, Gottmik and Punani. Three queens have been eliminated twice for their Snatch Game performances: Gia Gunn, Onyx Unleashed and Cynthia Lee Fontaine.
== United States ==
Legend:
=== RuPaul's Drag Race ===
=== RuPaul's Drag Race All Stars ===
=== RuPaul's Drag Race Global All Stars ===
=== RuPaul's Secret Celebrity Drag Race ===
== International ==
Legend:
=== Canada's Drag Race ===
==== Canada's Drag Race: Canada vs. the World ====
=== Drag Race Belgique ===
=== Drag Race Brasil ===
=== Drag Race España ===
==== Drag Race España All Stars ====
=== Drag Race France ===
==== Drag Race France All Stars ====
=== Drag Race Germany ===
=== Drag Race Holland ===
=== Drag Race Italia ===
=== Drag Race México ===
Cristian Peralta won the Snatch Game challenge on the first season of Drag Race México for portraying Verónica Castro. Luna Lansman won on the second season for impersonating José José.
=== Drag Race Philippines ===
Xilhouete won the Snatch Game challenge for impersonating Vicki Belo on the first season of Drag Race Philippines. Captivating Katkat and Angel won on the second and third seasons for impersonating Joy Belmonte and Maria Clara, respectively.
==== Drag Race Philippines: Slaysian Royale ====
On the spin-off series Drag Race Philippines: Slaysian Royale, contestants impersonated celebrities in a version of Snatch Game called "Snatch Elections".
=== Drag Race Sverige ===
=== Drag Race Thailand ===
=== RuPaul's Drag Race Down Under ===
=== RuPaul's Drag Race UK ===
==== RuPaul's Drag Race: UK vs. the World ====
== Most frequent impersonations ==
Cardi B and Jennifer Coolidge are the most frequently impersonated celebrities, with Coolidge as the first celebrity to be simultaneously impersonated by two competing queens in the same Snatch Game followed only by Liberace. Both queens who impersonated Mariah Carey and two of the five queens who impersonated Cardi B were eliminated, making them the only choices of impersonation subject to lead to multiple contestants' eliminations. Both of the queens to impersonate Ariana Grande, Celine Dion, Ellen DeGeneres, Nancy Grace, and Rue McClanahan, respectively, and two of the three queens to impersonate Lady Gaga were up for elimination due to their performances, but only one queen was eliminated for each. Two of the four queens to impersonate Eartha Kitt, and two of the three queens to impersonate Cher and RuPaul, respectively, landed in the bottom, but none of them were eliminated. Three of the four queens to impersonate Liza Minnelli won the Snatch Game, making her the first impersonation subject to earn multiple queens a win, while Joan Rivers became the second following season 15 of RuPaul's Drag Race.
== Reception ==
Snatch Game is considered the signature challenge on the show. Kevin O'Keeffe from Into discusses that the challenge isn't only about the celebrity impersonation and RuPaul looks for accuracy, humor, and the idea of the character. He also states that the challenge tests a lot of different skills, such as the queens' ability to put on a different look from their signature one, and also their ability to be "funny on a dime". RuPaul states each year, as the challenge is introduced, that the cardinal rule of the challenge is to make him laugh.
Writing for Vulture, Bowen Yang and Matt Rogers state that "Snatch Game" is "the mother of all comedy challenges on a reality show" despite the varied results over the years. On a more critical reception of the challenge, Josh Lee, for PopBuzz, argues that while the annual challenge has given viewers some of the best moments from RuPaul's Drag Race, it is starting to feel stale overall. He comments that recent celebrity impersonations in the challenge have been lackluster and the show should adapt and retire "Snatch Game" in future seasons of the series.
== Notes ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Rugby_World_Cup#Match_officials | 2019 Rugby World Cup | The 2019 Rugby World Cup (Japanese: ラグビーワールドカップ2019) was the ninth edition of the Rugby World Cup, the quadrennial world championship for men's rugby union teams. It was hosted in Japan from 20 September to 2 November in 12 venues all across the country. The opening match was played at Ajinomoto Stadium in Chōfu, Tokyo, with the final match being held at International Stadium Yokohama in Yokohama. This was the first time that the tournament had taken place in Asia and outside the traditional Tier 1 rugby nations.
The tournament saw the first cancellation of matches at the Rugby World Cup with Typhoon Hagibis affecting three matches due to the expected impact on safety that the typhoon would have.
South Africa beat England 32−12 in the final to claim their third title, equalling New Zealand's record. In doing so, South Africa became the first team to win the title after losing a match in the pool stage. The defending champions, New Zealand, finished third after defeating Wales in the bronze final.
== Host country selection ==
The International Rugby Board (IRB) requested that any members wishing to host the 2015 Rugby World Cup and/or the 2019 event should indicate their interest by 15 August 2008, though no details had to be provided at that stage. A record 10 unions responded, with the 2019 tournament of interest to nine nations. Russia initially announced plans to bid for both events, but withdrew both in February 2009 in favour of what proved to be a successful bid for the 2013 Rugby World Cup Sevens. Australia withdrew from the bidding process on 6 May 2009.
The three potential hosts – Italy, Japan and South Africa – were announced on 8 May 2009. At a special meeting held in Dublin on 28 July 2009, the IRB confirmed that England would be hosts in 2015 and Japan in 2019, with the approval of the tournament organisers Rugby World Cup Ltd (RWC Ltd), going in favour 16–10.
== Venues ==
The IRB (which was renamed World Rugby in November 2014), RWC Ltd, the Japan Rugby Football Union (JRFU) and host organisers Japan 2019 went through a process of asking for expressions of interest and meeting with and explaining game hosting requirements to interested parties from late 2013. In May 2014, it was announced that 22 municipal and prefectural organisations across Japan had expressed interest. Those organisations were asked to enter formal bids by 31 October 2014. On 5 November, organisers announced that 14 bids had been received. Hong Kong and Singapore had expressed interest in hosting some of the matches and were included in Japan's bid, but were not among the 14 stadiums announced in 2014. Nissan Stadium in Yokohama, venue for the 2002 FIFA World Cup Final and Niigata's Denka Big Swan Stadium, also a World Cup venue, decided not to bid.
Several changes to the venues submitted in the JRFU's original 2009 bid were made. The JRFU's own Chichibunomiya Stadium in Tokyo, suitable for smaller interest games in the capital, was not included in the plan. The JRFU selected the larger and more modern 50,000-seat Nagai multi-purpose stadium as its preferred venue for games in Osaka, though East Osaka City, which had taken over the Hanazono Rugby Stadium from long-time corporate owners Kintetsu in April 2015, submitted a joint bid with Osaka Municipality, intending to refurbish the stadium. Kamaishi, Hamamatsu, Kyoto, Ōita, Nagasaki and Kumamoto were also not part of the JRFU's bid. While the bids included venues from a broad area of Japan, two areas were not involved in hosting: Hokushin'etsu (Hokuriku and Kōshin'etsu regions), which includes the city of Niigata; and the Chūgoku region, which includes Hiroshima and the nearby island of Shikoku. No city in Chūgoku hosted games at the 2002 FIFA World Cup, but Hiroshima did host games in the 2006 FIBA World Championship.
The new National Stadium in Tokyo being constructed for the 2020 Summer Olympics was expected to be the primary venue of the tournament. However, the original plans were scrapped and rebid in 2015 due to criticism over its design and increasing costs. As a consequence, it would no longer be completed in time. The fixtures assigned to the stadium were re-located, with the opening match moved to Ajinomoto Stadium and the final moved to Nissan Stadium in Yokohama.
== Qualifying ==
The top three teams from the pools at the 2015 World Cup received an automatic spot, with the remaining eight teams coming from the qualifying series around the world. Six of the remaining eight spots available were filled by regional qualifiers with the additional two spots being filled in play-off. Qualifying was split into five regional groups; Africa, Americas, Asia, Europe and Oceania.
On 1 July 2017, the United States became the first team to qualify after defeating Canada in the two-leg match to qualify as America 1. The following two weeks saw Fiji and Tonga booking their spots as Oceania 1 and 2 respectively. Samoa later confirmed their spot as the third Oceanic team with a win over Germany in a two-legged tie the following year. In January 2018, Uruguay became the fourth team to qualify with a 10-point victory over Canada across the two legs to book a spot as Americas 2.
In March, Romania initially qualified to take the spot as Europe 1. But after complaints from the Spanish into an investigation of ineligible players, it was deemed that Romania, Spain and Belgium all broke the eligibility rules and were deducted points which meant Russia qualified for the World Cup while Germany headed to the play-off against Samoa. In August, Namibia became the final team to qualify from the continental tournaments after defeating Kenya in the final round of the Rugby Africa Gold Cup. The final spot was decided by a repechage tournament in Marseille in November 2018, which was won by Canada after winning all three of their games.
== Draw ==
The pool draw took place on 10 May 2017, in Kyoto. The draw was moved from its traditional place of December in the year following the previous World Cup, after the November internationals, so that nations had a longer period of time to increase their world rankings ahead of the draw.
The seeding system from previous Rugby World Cups was retained with the 12 automatic qualifiers from 2015 being allocated to their respective bands based on their World Rugby Rankings on the day of the draw:
Band 1: The four highest-ranked teams
Band 2: The next four highest-ranked teams
Band 3: The final four directly qualified teams
The remaining two bands were made up of the eight qualifying teams, with allocation to each band being based on the previous Rugby World Cup playing strength:
Band 4: – Oceania 1, Americas 1, Europe 1, Africa 1
Band 5: – Oceania 2, Americas 2, Play-off Winner, Repechage Winner
This meant the 20 teams, qualified and qualifiers, were seeded thus (world ranking as of 10 May 2017):
The draw saw a representative randomly draw a ball from a pot; the first drawn ball went to Pool A, the second Pool B, the third Pool C and the fourth Pool D.
== Squads ==
Each team submitted a squad of 31 players for the tournament, the same as the 2015 tournament. These squads were to be submitted to World Rugby with the deadline being 8 September with the United States being the last team to reveal their squad on 6 September.
== Match officials ==
World Rugby named the following 12 referees, seven assistant referees and four television match officials to handle the 48 matches:
== Opening ceremony ==
The opening ceremony took place at Ajinomoto Stadium in Tokyo on 20 September 2019 at 18:30 (JST). The ceremony featured a showcase of traditional and modern Japanese culture, as well as the culture of rugby union, and told the story of the evolution of rugby union in Japan. New Zealand's Richie McCaw, who captained the All Blacks to the World Cup title in 2015, performed a ceremonial handover of the Webb Ellis Cup. Six jet aircraft of the Japan Air Self-Defense Force's Blue Impulse aerobatic team flew over the stadium. Kiyoe Yoshioka of Japanese pop-rock band Ikimono-gakari sang World in Union, the official song of the Rugby World Cup. The tournament was officially declared open by Fumihito, Prince Akishino of Japan; both he and World Rugby chairman Sir Bill Beaumont gave speeches at the end of the ceremony, with Beaumont saying:
"Over the next six weeks we will experience the very best of rugby and the very best of Japan as excitement sweeps this great nation. I know Japan will be the most welcoming of hosts, you are the best. The waiting is over and the stage is set. It’s now over to the teams and the fans to make this the best World Cup ever."
== Pool stage ==
The 20 teams are divided into four pools of five teams. Each pool is a single round-robin of 10 games, in which each team plays one match against each of the other teams in the same pool. Teams are awarded four league points for a win, two for a draw and none for a defeat. A team scoring four tries in a match is awarded a bonus point, as is a team that loses by seven points or fewer – both bonus points are awarded if both situations apply. The teams finishing in the top two of each pool advance to the quarter-finals. The top three teams of each pool received automatic qualification to the 2023 Rugby World Cup.
Tie-breaking criteria
If two or more teams are tied on match points, the following tiebreakers apply:
The winner of the match between the two teams
Difference between points scored for and points scored against in all pool matches
Difference between tries scored for and tries scored against in all pool matches
Points scored in all pool matches
Most tries scored in all pool matches
Official World Rugby Rankings as of 14 October 2019
If three teams were tied on points, the above criteria would be used to decide first place in the pool and then the criteria would be used again (starting from criterion 1) to decide second place in the pool.
=== Pool A ===
The opening match of the 2019 Rugby World Cup was played in Pool A with Japan scoring a 30–10 win over Russia. Kotaro Matsushima became the first Japanese player to score a hat-trick at a World Cup. For the Russian side, Kirill Golosnitsky scored the first try of the tournament after four minutes – the fastest try ever scored in the opening match of a World Cup. Two days later, Ireland defeated Scotland 27–3. On 24 September, Samoa played their first match against Russia in Kumagaya, and Samoa went on to win 34–9. Four days later, hosts Japan defeated Ireland 19–12, scoring four out of six penalties. While it was an upset win for Japan, World Rugby later admitted three of the four offside penalties were incorrectly awarded to Japan. Kenki Fukuoka scored a try in the 58th minute to give Japan a two-point lead after Ireland's Garry Ringrose and Rob Kearney had scored the opening two tries. Yu Tamura's conversion and fourth successful penalty kick sealed the result for Japan. Scotland recorded their first victory of the World Cup with a 34–0 whitewash victory over Samoa in muggy conditions in Kobe, with Samoan captain Jack Lam stating that the rugby ball was "a bar of soap."
Three days later, Kobe Misaki Stadium held another match in Pool A – this time it was Ireland, who whitewashed their opponents (Russia) in a 35–0 victory with five different players getting tries for the Irish. The Irish though, did not have everything go right with Jordi Murphy being subbed off in the 27th minute due to a possible rib injury, which added to the Irish back row pain after losing Jack Conan earlier in the tournament. Japan recorded their third victory over Samoa in Toyota with a 85th minute try from Kotaro Matsushima sealing the Japanese a 38–19 bonus point victory. Russia in the final match of the tournament was hammered by Scotland 61–0 with George Horne scoring a hat-trick as the Scots became the first team in World Cup history to not concede a point from two consecutive World Cup matches. A red card to Bundee Aki in the 29th minute forced Ireland to go down to 14 men but that was the only blemish with Ireland winning 47–5 over Samoa in Fukuoka. Johnny Sexton scoring two tries for the Irish. The typhoon saw the Japan–Scotland match under threat with the Scottish Rugby Union demanding legal action if it was cancelled. But after an inspection deemed the match to go ahead, Japan held their nerve against a fast-finishing Scotland to take home a 28–21 victory with Kenki Fukuoka scoring two tries. The win saw Japan become the first Tier 2 team to qualify since 2007, as they topped the group while Ireland finished in second place.
=== Pool B ===
Pool B started with New Zealand beating South Africa 23–13. New Zealand opened their scoring with two tries in four minutes from George Bridge and Scott Barrett giving New Zealand a 17–3 lead at half-time. Pieter-Steph du Toit scored a converted try to bring the score back to 17–10 but two penalties from Richie Mo'unga and Beauden Barrett sealed the result. In Higashiōsaka, Italy conceded an early try against Namibia before running away with a bonus-point victory by 25 points. Italy earned a second bonus-point victory in Fukuoka, scoring seven tries in a 48–7 demolition of Canada. Over in Toyota, South Africa defeated Namibia by 54 points, scoring nine tries while Namibia could manage only a Cliven Loubser penalty in the 23rd minute. New Zealand recorded their second victory of the World Cup with a 63–0 victory over Canada at Ōita Stadium. For New Zealand, Brad Weber scored his first two tries in international rugby with the Barrett brothers (Jordie Barrett, Beauden Barrett and Scott Barrett) each scoring a try as they became the first trio of brothers to start for New Zealand.
New Zealand continued their demolition of their opponents with a 62-point win over Namibia in Chōfu, with the floodgates opening in the second half after Namibia restricted the All Blacks to 24 points in the first half. Sevu Reece, Ben Smith and Anton Lienert-Brown scoring two tries in the match. Between the two New Zealand games, South Africa romped over Italy with Cheslin Kolbe scoring two tries as the South Africans won 49–3 in Fukuroi. This was followed by a 66–7 victory over Canada with Cobus Reinach scoring the fastest hat-trick in World Cup history, with his three tries being scored in a space of 11 minutes. The final two matches of the group were not played as Typhoon Hagibis saw the cancellation of the New Zealand–Italy and Namibia–Canada matches. At the end of the pool stage, New Zealand finished on top of the table with South Africa finishing second.
=== Pool C ===
Pool C's opening match saw Argentina come back from a 17-point half-time deficit against France at Tokyo Stadium, only for France's Camille Lopez to score a game-winning drop goal in the 70th minute to win 23–21. In Sapporo, two tries from Manu Tuilagi helped England to a bonus-point victory over Tonga. England followed that up with a 38-point victory over the United States, with Joe Cokanasiga scoring two tries in the victory; however, the match was soured by the first red card of the tournament, shown to the United States' John Quill for a shoulder charge to the head of England's Owen Farrell. Argentina bounced back from their defeat by France with a 28–12 victory over Tonga in Higashiōsaka; all of Argentina's scoring happened in the first 28 minutes, including a hat-trick from Julián Montoya as they raced to a 28-point lead before Tonga brought the margin back to 16 with two tries of their own. After Typhoon Mitag almost cancelled the match, the French were inconsistent with errors keeping the United States in the match before three late tries in the second half secured a 33–9 win in Fukuoka.
In Chōfu, England qualified for the quarter-finals with a 39–10 victory over Argentina with Argentine player Tomás Lavanini being shown a red card, which forced Argentina down to 14 men as he was forced off due to a high tackle on Owen Farrell's head. France later joined them in qualifying for the knockout stage with a two-point victory over Tonga at Kumamoto Stadium. After conceding the first 17 points of the match, Tonga came back into the match with tries from Sonatane Takulua and Mali Hingano to close the gap to only three points before Romain Ntamack gave the cushion that France needed with two penalties in eight minutes giving France the victory. Argentina became the first team to finish their matches of the 2019 World Cup, with a 47–17 victory over the United States in Kumagaya. Joaquín Tuculet and Juan Cruz Mallia each scored two tries in the meeting, their first since 2003. After the England–France game was cancelled due to Typhoon Hagibis, Tonga ended their World Cup campaign with a 31–19 victory over the United States. This was due to the Tongan's using their opportunities with them converting into tries and despite the United States being within striking range with three minutes to go, Telusa Veainu converted the match-winning try and a bonus-point victory for Tonga. At the end of the pool stage, it was England winning the group with France finishing in second place.
=== Pool D ===
Pool D opened with Australia beating Fiji by 18 points in Sapporo after Fiji led by two points at half-time. Australia scored four tries in the second half for the bonus point. Wales beat Georgia 43–14 at City of Toyota Stadium, after leading 29–0 at half-time and 22–0 after three tries in the first 19 minutes. In Kamaishi, Fiji scored the opening try against Uruguay. Two mistakes within eight minutes gave Teros the lead before a try from Juan Manuel Cat enhanced it to 12 points at half-time. Three Fijian tries in the second half were to no avail as two penalty goals from Felipe Berchesi gave Uruguay their first win in a World Cup since 2003. In Kumagaya on 29 September, Georgia recorded a 33–7 win over Uruguay. Dominant work by their forwards in the second half laid the foundation for the bonus-point victory. Over in Chōfu, Dan Biggar scored the fastest drop goal in World Cup history as Wales led 23–8 at the half. Two second-half tries from Australia brought the scores to within a point but the Welsh held out for a 29–25 win.
A second half performance from Fiji at a wet Hanazono Rugby Stadium saw the Fijians record their first win of their 2019 World Cup campaign as they won 45–10 over Georgia. This was partly due to Semi Radradra scoring two tries while also aiding in setting up three more tries as Fiji scored seven tries to one in the bonus-point victory. Another slow start for the Australians in their game with Uruguay did not stop them from recording a win over the South Americans, with Tevita Kuridrani and Dane Haylett-Petty each getting two tries in the 35-point victory at Ōita Stadium. Four days later at the same stadium, Fiji got off to a 10–0 lead with the tries coming from Josua Tuisova and Kini Murimurivalu within eight minutes. Fiji held their lead until the 31st minute when Josh Adams scored his second try of three for the match. Wales increased their lead from there to win 29–17, qualifying for the quarter-finals with Australia. The penultimate match of Pool D saw Australia outlast a tough Georgia in difficult conditions in Fukuroi, as they won 27–8. Wales finished undefeated with a 35–13 win over Uruguay at Kumamoto Stadium to record a bonus-point victory and set up a quarter-final with France while Australia came in second.
== Knockout stage ==
The knockout stage of the Rugby World Cup consisted of three single-elimination rounds leading to a final and a third-place playoff. Following a tie in regulation time, two 10-minute periods of extra time would be used to determine a winner. If the scores are tied at the end of extra time, an additional 10-minute "sudden death" period is played, with the first team to score any points being declared the winner. If the score remains tied at the end of extra time, a kicking competition would ensue.
=== Quarter-finals ===
The first two quarter-finals were played on Saturday. The first quarter-final saw England defeat Australia 40–16 at Ōita Stadium. Two tries from Jonny May, plus the 18 turnovers that the Australians conceded and led to two more being scored by England, sealed the result that prompted Michael Cheika to resign as Australian coach. The following match saw New Zealand book their spot in the semi-finals, with the All Blacks cruising to a 46–14 win over Ireland at Tokyo Stadium. Aaron Smith scored two of the All Blacks' seven tries, with the Irish only getting on the board in the 69th minute from a Robbie Henshaw converted try. A penalty try was then added seven minutes later.
The other two quarter-finals were played the following day. In the opening match, France got off to an early 12–0 lead with Sébastien Vahaamahina and Charles Ollivon both scoring tries in the first eight minutes. Aaron Wainwright opened the Welsh account with a try in the 12th minute before Virimi Vakatawa scored the French's third, giving them a 19–10 lead at the break. Nine minutes into the second half, France went down to 14 men with Sébastien Vahaamahina being red-carded for an elbow to Aaron Wainwright as Wales went on to win the match 20–19 with a 74th minute try to Ross Moriarty. In the last quarter-final match, it was South Africa who claimed a 26–3 win over Japan with Makazole Mapimpi scoring two tries in the victory.
=== Semi-finals ===
In the first semi-final, England took on New Zealand in front of 68,843 spectators in Yokohama. In response to New Zealand's haka, England's players stood in a V-shape formation, for which they were later fined having crossed the halfway line. England scored the opening points of the game in the second minute with a try from Manu Tuilagi, converted by Owen Farrell. After two penalties on either side of the half, the All Blacks responded in the 57th minute to close the gap to six points with a converted try from Ardie Savea, but two later penalties in the 63rd and the 69th confirmed England's spot in the final.
The second semi-final was also played in Yokohama, as the 67,750 spectators in attendance saw South Africa take on Wales for a spot against England in the final. South Africa took a 9–6 lead into half-time, but Biggar levelled the scores with a penalty kick six minutes into the second half. Damian de Allende then scored the first try of the match in the 57th minute, fending off two Welsh tacklers to score from 20 metres out. Wales again equalised thanks to Josh Adams scoring down the short side from an attacking scrum on the South African five-metre line; however, they were penalised for collapsing a maul with five minutes left in the game, allowing Pollard to kick the winning points and book South Africa a spot in the final.
=== Bronze final ===
The bronze medal was won by New Zealand in a convincing win over Wales.
=== Final ===
England started as favourites for the final, but they had an unfortunate start to the game as Kyle Sinckler was substituted in the third minute after colliding with Maro Itoje, leaving England with only one tighthead prop. South Africa tight forwards Bongi Mbonambi and Lood de Jager left the field through injuries in the 21st minute. During the first half the only points scored were from penalties, with South Africa leading 12–6 at half time after several handling errors by England. England came close to scoring a try, but did not manage to score after 26 phases.
Two more successful penalties on either side made the score 18–12 at the beginning of the second half. Makazole Mapimpi scored the first try in the 66th minute, making South Africa's lead 25–12 after the conversion while becoming the first Springbok to score a try in a World Cup final. Cheslin Kolbe followed up with another try eight minutes later, making the final score 32–12.
== Statistics ==
=== Most tries ===
7 tries
Josh Adams
6 tries
Makazole Mapimpi
5 tries
Kotaro Matsushima
4 tries
Julián Montoya
Kenki Fukuoka
Ben Smith
=== Most points ===
== Typhoon Hagibis and match cancellations ==
On 10 October, World Rugby and the Japan Rugby 2019 Organising Committee announced that, due to the predicted weather caused by Typhoon Hagibis, the Pool B meeting between New Zealand and Italy and the Pool C meeting between England and France had been cancelled. The decisions had been made on safety grounds with considerations on the expected impact the typhoon would have on Tokyo, including likely public transport shutdown or disruption. This was the first ever occasion any Rugby World Cup match had been cancelled. Decision on cancellation of pool games scheduled for 13 October was made on the day of the game, including the match between Japan and Scotland.
On the evening of 12 October Japan Standard Time (JST), World Rugby and the Japan 2019 Organising Committee released a statement that they had advised Namibia and Canada of the possibility of their game being cancelled, with the typhoon predicted to impact Kamaishi. On 13 October, World Rugby and the Japan 2019 Organising Committee announced the cancellation of the Namibia–Canada game in Kamaishi. The decision was made following a level 5 evacuation order in the city on the day of the match following the typhoon. Canada's national team stayed in Kamaishi to help out local residents with their cleanup efforts. The Namibia national team interacted with fans in the campsite Miyako City.
Shortly after the announcement of the cancellation of the Namibia–Canada game, it was confirmed that the matches between Wales and Uruguay and the United States and Tonga would go ahead as scheduled. By noon on 12 October, it was confirmed that the match between Japan and Scotland was unaffected by the typhoon and would take place as scheduled, in front of spectators who had previously feared that they might have missed out with the game played behind closed doors.
In line with tournament rules, the canceled pool matches were declared as drawn, the points being shared two each with no score registered. With these cancellations, France were unable to compete for the top pool position (held by England at the time), with a victory to secure that place. For Italy, however, the cancellation effectively eliminated them from the tournament; a victory against defending champions New Zealand could have seen them qualify for the knock-out stage, dependent on the margin of the win. This also had implications on whether South Africa finished top of their pool or as runners-up, having already confirmed their progression to the quarter-finals.
== Broadcasting ==
For the first time, the domestic rights holder did not serve as the host broadcaster of the tournament. Instead, International Games Broadcast Services (IGBS), a joint venture between Host Broadcast Services (HBS) and IMG, handled production of the footage distributed to rights holders. IGBS used production resources from traditional rugby nations such as Australia, France, New Zealand, South Africa and the United Kingdom. Japanese broadcaster NHK covered selected games in 8K resolution, using a combination of nine 8K cameras and up-converted 4K resolution footage from IGBS. The International Broadcast Centre was located outside Ajinomoto Stadium.
World Rugby streamed the tournament on its website for unsold markets. Sport24 was the rights holder for in-flight/in-ship broadcast. In South Africa, pay television channel SuperSport had broadcasting rights. To enable the whole country to watch, the free-to-air South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC) broadcast the final after they reached an agreement with MultiChoice.
== Notes ==
^1 Typhoon Hagibis caused the matches New Zealand versus Italy and England versus France to be cancelled and recorded as 0–0 draws.
^2 Typhoon Hagibis and an associated evacuation order for Kamaishi caused the match between Namibia and Canada to be cancelled and recorded as a 0–0 draw.
== References ==
== External links ==
Rugby World Cup – official site |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elkay_Apartments | Elkay Apartments | The Elkay Apartments is a historic five-unit two-story multi-family building located at 638-642 Kelton Avenue, in the Westwood neighborhood of Los Angeles, California.
== History ==
Designed in 1948 in the International Style of architecture by Los Angeles architect Richard Neutra, it was completed in 1948 for violist Louis Kievman. The name Elkay is derived from his initials.
The building is a part of a collection of homes designed by Neutra and built in North West Westwood Village, including the Landfair Apartments and Strathmore Apartments. It is next door to the Kelton Apartments, which Neutra designed in 1941 for himself. The Elkay Apartments is the last home designed by Neutra in North Westwood Village. On June 21, 1988, despite objections from the owners of the Apartments at the time, the City of Los Angeles designated the building as a Los Angeles Historic-Cultural Monument.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joshna_Chinappa | Joshna Chinappa | Joshna Chinappa (born 15 September 1986) is an Indian squash player. She became the youngest Indian national champion at the age of 14. She is a two-time World Champion and four-time Asian Champion. In recognition of her contributions to Indian squash, Joshna received the Arjuna Award in 2013 and the Padma Shri in 2024.
== Early life ==
Joshna Chinnappa was born in Chennai, Tamil Nadu, on 15 September 1986. Her father Anjan Chinappa runs a coffee plantation at Coorg. Her great granduncle, K.M. Cariappa, who was the first commander-in-chief of the Indian Army in independent India, grandfather, and father were all squash players. Joshna started playing squash at the age of seven. When she was eight, she considered whether to pursue badminton or tennis. Eventually, she chose squash which she started playing at the Madras Cricket Club. Her father, who represented the Tamil Nadu squash team, was also her first coach.
Joshna was the first beneficiary of the Mittal Champions Trust established by Mahesh Bhupati with funding from Lakshmi Mittal.
== Career ==
=== 2000–2008 ===
In 2000, Joshna won her first junior and senior national championship titles. She became the youngest player to hold both titles at the age of 14. In 2003, Joshna made history by winning the British Junior Open title in the U17 category when she was 16. The next year, she reached the final of the U19 category of the same competition, losing to Egypt's Omneya Abdel Kawy. In 2005, she came back to the same tournament again and clinched the title after beating Tenille Swartz of South Africa. In July 2005, Joshna competed in the World Junior Squash Championships in Belgium, reaching the finals. She was defeated by Raneem El Weleily of Egypt. She had also played this tournament in 2003, when she reached the last eight.
In 2007, Joshna said that she had decided to change coaches from Mohammad Medhaat to Malcolm Willstrop. Joshna won her first WISPA tour title in 2008 when she won the NSC Super Satellite No 3 in Malaysia, by beating Low Wee Wern. The following week, she defeated Wern again in the NSC Super Satellite to claim her second tour title. At this time, she was at her career best PSA World rank of 39.
=== 2010–2012 ===
In 2010, Joshna won the German Ladies Open, beating Gaby Schmohl 11–6, 11–7, 11–6 at Saarbrücken. This was her fourth tour title and first in Europe. In 2011, she won the Windy City Open by beating her compatriot Dipika Pallikal 3–2 in the final.
Joshna faced an injury layoff in August while playing in the Hamptons Open. When she came back after a seven-month break in May 2012, she clinched the WISPA title in the 2012 Chennai Open in her hometown. Joshna defeated Sarah Jane Perry of England 9–11, 11–4, 11–8, 12–10.
=== 2014 ===
In February, Joshna won the Winter Club Women's Open. In April, she won the Richmond Open, upsetting Australia's former world champion Rachael Grinham 11–9, 11–5, 11–8. This was her first win against Rachael in six meetings. In March, she reached her new career-high PSA world ranking of 19.
In August, Joshna and Dipika entered the 2014 Commonwealth Games in Glasgow as the fifth-seeds in women's doubles. After winning every match in the group stage, they advanced to quarterfinals, in which they beat Joelle King and Amanda Land-Murphy in straight games. They beat the second-seeded Australian pair of Rachael Grinham and Kasey Brown in the semifinals to reach the final, where they defeated the English pair of Jenny Duncalf and Laura Massaro. They accomplished the upset win against the top-seeded pair in less than 28 minutes with scores of 11–6, 11–8. Joshna and Dipika made history by winning the gold medal at the event. This was India's first-ever squash medal in the Commonwealth Games.
=== 2015 ===
In May, Joshna reached the semifinals at the 2015 HKFC International, but failed to beat Annie Au from Hong Kong. In August, she won the Victorian Open in Australia for her tenth tour title. She beat Line Hansen from Denmark 11–5, 11–4, 11–9. In September, she won the NSCI Open title, by beating Egypt's Habiba Mohamed 11–8, 11–9, 11–6. Joshna was injured during the second game of the match, after Mohamed unintentionally struck her on the face with the racket.
In October, Joshna beat Salma Hany from Egypt 11–9, 8–11, 5–11, 11–8, 11–9 to reach the semifinals of the 2015 Carol Weymuller Open. Joshna was defeated by Joelle King in the semifinals. In the first round of the Qatar Classic, Joshna defeated Raneem El Welily from Egypt, the World No. 1 at the time. In December 2015, Joshna achieved her career-high world rank of 13. She become the highest-ranked Indian woman player, overtaking Dipika in rankings for the first time.
=== 2016 ===
In February, Joshna participated in the 2016 Cleveland Classic in the United States, where she was knocked out by Camille Serme in the quarterfinals. Then she competed at the 2016 South Asian Games in Guwahati as the top-seed. She won gold after defeating her Pakistani rival Maria Toorpaki Wazir 10–12, 11–7, 11–9, 11–7.
In May, Joshna reached the semifinals of the 2016 HKFC International in Hong Kong. This time she was able to beat Annie Au 3–2, to whom she had lost the same title the previous year. However, she lost in the finals to New Zealand's Joelle King. In July, Joshna rose to her new career-high ranking of 10, becoming the second Indian to break into the world's top 10 after Dipika. In August, Joshna participated in the 2016 SRAM Invitational in Malaysia. She managed to reach the finals after beating Joelle King in the semifinal, but was defeated by Malaysian Nicol David in the final.
In October, Joshna reached the finals of the 2016 Otters International in Mumbai after beating Tesni Evans 3–1, 11–6, 15–13, 9–11, 11–8. She lost to Hong Kong rival Annie Au in the finals 9–11, 11–13, 7–11. In November, she participated in the 2016 World Team Squash Championships in Paris with Dipika, Akanksha Salunkhe, and Sunayna Kuruvilla on the women's team. The Indian team did not qualify for the knockout stage of the championship.
=== 2017 ===
In March, Joshna competed in the 2017 British Open Squash Championship. She lost in the second round match against Raneem El Welily. In April, she participated in the 2017 Asian Individual Squash Championships, which took place in Chennai. She reached the finals where she faced Palikkal. Joshna won the long match 13–15, 12–10, 11–13, 11–4, 11–4, becoming the first Asian Squash Champion from India. In an interview, she said that winning this title was her biggest achievement.
In August, Joshna partnered with Dipika to play in the World Doubles Squash Championship. As the second-seeds, they cruised into the quarterfinals and beat Samantha Cornett and Nikole Todd 10–11, 11–6, 11–8 to enter the semifinals. They settled for a bronze medal after being defeated by Jenny Duncalf and Alison Waters.
In September, Joshna won her 15th national championship title at the 74th National Squash Championships which took place in Greater Noida. This put her only one title short of the record for most number of national championship titles. Later that month, she played in the 2017 HKFC International as the third-seed. She advanced to the final, but lost to Nour El Tayebl.
=== 2018 ===
In April, Joshna participated in the 2018 Commonwealth Games. She reached the quarterfinals of the women's singles event after beating Tamika Saxby from Australia, but lost to Joelle King 11–5, 11–6, 11–9. Joshna, along with Dipika Pallikal, won the doubles silver medal at the 2018 Commonwealth Games. In April, Joshna won her second-round match at El Gouna International against the eight-time world champion Nicol David in straight games. This was one of her more prominent upsets. She lost in the quarterfinals. In August, Joshna reached the semifinals at the 2018 Asian Games. She won the semifinal match against Nicol David 12–10, 11–9, 6–11, 10–12, 11–9. She lost to Sivasangari Subramaniam in the final, and settled for the silver medal. In October, Joshna reached the quarterfinals of the Carol Weymuller Open.
=== 2019 ===
In March, Joshna reached the quarterfinals of the Black Ball Open, where she lost to Joelle King. She went down in the semifinals of the Macau Open in April. In May, she won the 2019 Asian Individual Squash Championships, after beating Annie Au in the final. Joshna won her 17th national squash champion title in June, breaking the record held by Bhuvneshwari Kumari who had won the national title 16 times. In the World Squash Championship which took place in October, Joshna lost to Nour El Sherbini of Egypt in the pre-quarterfinal.
=== 2020 ===
In February, Joshna won her 18th national title in the 77th Senior National Championship.
== Titles ==
On 2 February 2014, Joshna won the Winnipeg Winter Open trophy – her maiden WSA world title, by defeating Egypt's Heba El Torky 11-13 11-8 11-5 3-11 12–10 in the final. Her other titles are:
Asian Games, 2018 - Bronze (Singles), Silver (Team)
Commonwealth Games, 2018 - Silver (Doubles)
Asian Squash Title, 2017- Winner
NSC Series No. 6 (Tour 12) 2009 – Winner
British Junior Open, 2005 – Winner
Asian Junior, 2005 – Winner
World Junior Championships, Belgium, 2005 – Runner-up
British Open Junior, 2004 – Runner-up
SAF Games, Pakistan, 2004 – Gold
Hong Kong event, 2004 – Runner-up
Asian Championship, 2004 – Bronze
Malaysian Junior, 2004 – Winner
Indian National Junior, 2004 – Winner
Indian National Senior, 2004 – Winner
== Rivalry with Dipika Pallikal ==
Joshna and Dipika are considered as India's top performing women players of all time, as they both had reached top 10 in the world in their careers. Joshna says that the so-called rivalry between the two is hyped up by the media. They are both competitive but get along well, as they are often roommates for events, and teammates in events such as the Commonwealth Games. The two together won the Women’s Doubles Gold Medal in the 2022 Squash World Doubles Championships in Glasgow, Scotland.
== See also ==
Squash in India
India women's national squash team
Official Women's Squash World Ranking
== References ==
== External links ==
Joshna Chinappa at WISPA (archived)
Joshna Chinappa at WSA (archived)
Joshna Chinappa at Squash Info
ISP Squash Site Article on Chinappa
The Hindu article on training for the world juniors
Joshna Chinappa won the third WISPA title of her career |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan_People%27s_Party | Pakistan People's Party | The Pakistan People's Party (PPP) is a Pakistani political party with a centre-left to leftist political position and a democratic socialist ideology. It is one of the three major mainstream political parties alongside the Pakistan Muslim League (N) and the Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf. It currently holds the most seats in the Senate, and second-most in the National Assembly; alongside leading a majoritarian government in Sindh and a coalition government in Balochistan.
Founded in 1967 in Lahore, when a number of prominent left-wing politicians in the country joined hands against the presidency of Ayub Khan, under the leadership of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. It is a member of the Socialist International. The PPP's platform is socialist, liberal-progressive, and its stated priorities continue to include transforming Pakistan into a social-democratic state, promoting egalitarian values, establishing social justice, and maintaining a strong military.
Since its foundation in 1967, it has been a major centre-left populist in the country and the party's leadership has been dominated by the members of the Bhutto-Zardari family with Bilawal Bhutto-Zardari its chairman and Asif Ali Zardari as the president. Although, its power of center lies in Sindh and Balochistan, the party has been elected into leading the executive on five separate occasions (1970, 1977, 1988, 1993 and 2008), while on four occasions (1990, 1997, 2002 and 2013) it emerged as the largest opposition party.
In the 20th century, the party dominated the nation's politics and the two-party system in rival with the conservative Pakistan Muslim League (N) and Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf while opposing the status quo policies in the country. In 2013, the party struggled to appeal its political narrative in the country, and, for the first time in its history, the party failed to secure its position to become majoritarian or in opposition in 2018 and in 2024. In foreign policy, the party supports liberal internationalism while advocating for stronger ties with the United Kingdom, China, and Russia.
== History ==
=== Foundation ===
On 30 November 1967, Meraj Muhammad, a devoted communist, was able to gather left-wing leaders in the residency of the Dr. Mubashir Hassan in Lahore, Punjab, that included the public intellectuals, J. A. Rahim, Ghulam Mustafa, A. H. Pirzada, Hayat Sherpao, and S. M. Rashid who were the founding members of the Pakistan Peoples Party, and announced the establishment on 1 December 1967. The convention elected Zulfikar Ali Bhutto as its first chairman when the latter was unable to challenge the leadership of the National Awami Party (NAP) from Wali Khan in 1966.
Its manifesto, titled Islam is our Religion; Democracy is our Politics; Socialism is our Economy; Power Lies with the People was written by Bengali communist J. A. Rahim, and published on 9 December 1967. The document, which was viewed as "Marxist", declared that "Only socialism, which creates equal opportunities for all, protects [people] from exploitation, removes the barriers of class distinction, and is capable of establishing economic and social justice. Socialism is the highest expression of democracy and its logical fulfillment".
==== Left-wing activism and populism ====
Despite controversially winning the presidential elections held in 1965, President Ayub Khan was widely disapproved for his economic policies that many saw as the distribution of wealth to the capitalist elite at the expense of ordinary people, evidenced by the drastic increase in income inequality and poverty. The economy suffered when Ayub Khan's administration entered in the war with India in 1965 which ended up in a compromise facilitated by the former Soviet Union. In public circles, the ceasefire was widely disapproved with foreign minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto went on to accuse Ayub Khan of "losing the war on the negotiating table", which led to his dismissal by Ayub Khan while he fiercely defended the peace agreement and called it in the best interest of the people.
Massive protests and strikes ensued against Ayub Khan, who responded by outlawing the political gatherings in the country. On 5 February 1966, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman announced his program of regional autonomy for East Bengal at a news conference.
According to Philip E. Jones, the Peoples Party had three main ideological camps: Marxists, Islamic socialists and the landed elite. In 1968, Ayub Khan celebrated his government's "Decade of Development" which was widely disapproved of when the demonstrations erupted all over the country. In the same year, spontaneous students' movements erupted throughout the country, largely due to unemployment and economic hardship which saw the beginning of the student movements in the country. AT the same time, ideological differences emerged within the NAP, which led to a major split between the pro-Russian and pro-Chinese factions. The pro-Russian faction, led by Wali Khan in West, proposed a parliamentary route to power, whereas the pro-Chinese faction led by Moulana Bhashani in East advocated for a peasant revolution to overthrow Khan's administration. The vacuum on the left generated by the disunity of the National Awami Party was effectively filled by the Pakistan Peoples Party as a united front of opposition to Ayub Khan.
Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, being shrewder in sensing the mood of the mass movement, had embarked upon the 'need for socialism' and other radical slogans. This PPP programme connected with the masses' moods, aspirations and sentiments; the PPP became the largest party of the masses in the history of Pakistan, almost overnight. The first activists and cadres who gave the PPP a foothold and standing were from the different Maoist groups and other scattered left activists. These groups were disillusioned and frustrated by the traditional Stalinist leadership of the left.
In 1968, Pakistan Peoples Party then launched and driven the massive public-relations and membership program, beginning in the Punjab province. The program directly targeted the country's poverty-stricken masses in rural areas with the left-wing oriented slogans "Land to the Landless" proved to be popular amongst the peasants and workforce, as the party promised not only to abolish the feudalism, but also to redistribute land. The working-classes quickly flocked to the new party, believing it to be a party dedicated to the destruction of capitalism in the country. The university students and professors who often bore the brunt of Ayub Khan's presidency during his decade-long rule were promised a better future with better educational and career opportunities. Many other members of society who had felt stifled and repressed by the press-control and heavy censorship practised by the authoritarian Ayub Khan administration also joined the new party, whose manifesto also attracted the country's numerous minorities.
The massive demonstration and public protests eventually led Ayub Khan to resign from the presidency on 25 March 1969 by inviting his army commander General Yahya Khan to take-over the government. President Yahya Khan imposed the martial law in the country with a promised to hold general elections within two years.
==== 1970 general election and 1971 war ====
On 31 March 1970, the Yahya administration enacted the legal framework, which was seen as the path for future constitution but also restored the provincial autonomy in the country, ideology, and aimed for establishing a unicameral legislature as the framework also called for general elections in 1970. In response, the Peoples Party decided to hold its national conference that was held in Hala, Sindh between 1–3 July 1970. At this conference, there were two different opinions on participating in the upcoming general election with some hardliners arguing for boycotting the elections but rather adopt methods of revolutionary insurrection to take power, whereas others emphasized the importance of partaking in parliamentary democracy. In the end, the decision to participate in the elections was taken.
On 4 January 1970, Bhutto officially launched his electoral campaign by addressing a public meeting at Nishtar Park in Karachi and then leading a campaign in Liaquat Garden in Rawalpindi and public speaking in parts of the Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa. The party published its ideology in newspapers such as Nusrat, Fatah, and Mussawat. The results of the general elections in 1970 showed that the Peoples Party won most of the seats in the four provinces shared together with the pro-Russian National Awami Party (NAP) and the conservative Pakistan Muslim League. The Peoples Party, in east, struggled to appeal its political narrative due to strong ethnic sentiments and against the identity politics led by the Awami League, which also failed to make any breakthrough or win any seats in western four provinces. Data published by the Election Commission of Pakistan (ECP) which showed that the Awami League had a clear mandate when it secured 160 seats out of the total 300 seats in the National Assembly, whereas the Peoples Party came second with 81 seats.
The Pakistan Peoples Party questioned the results and contested Awami League's mandate to form the central government as Awami League had failed to win won a single seat. To break the impasse, Bhutto proposed the continuation of the One Unit program, with two separate prime ministers for governing the wings. This proposal was rejected by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman who emphasized the implementation of Six Points for a more federal Pakistan; this proposal was rejected by Bhutto. On 3 March 1971, the two leaders, along with President General Yahya Khan, met in Dacca to try and resolve the constitutional crisis which ended up in bitter arguments on both sides. With Mujib calling for the nationwide strike, Bhutto, who feared a civil war, proposed to form a coalition with Rehman as Prime Minister and Bhutto as President, which was agreed upon by both sides.
This proposal was never made public when President Yaya Khan authorized the wide-range military operations in East and placing both Bhutto and Rehman on arrest orders in Central Jail Adiala. The news of arrest of Rehman eventually led to the liberation war and followed by the Indian intervention in East Bengal, cementing the defeat of the Pakistan Armed Forces in East and ceasefire in western front, and the independence of Bangladesh.
==== Post-war politics and reconstruction ====
The news of Yahya administration conceding to the surrender after Indian invasion in east sparked the spontaneous protests against the military and President Yahya Khan who ultimately resigned and handed over the control of the administration to Zulfikar Ali Bhutto on 20 December 1971. The party assumed the control what remained of Pakistan— the nation was completely isolated, angered, and demoralized. After becoming president, Bhutto in his first statement to foreign media correspondents said: Let us forget the past. We have made terrible mistakes and Pakistan is in a mess—— the worst crisis in our history. But we have been given a terrible bashing by the Western press and I ask you now to please get off our backs while we put our house in order.
In a televised media, the People's Party under Bhutto vowed to build a new Pakistan. On 2 January 1972, the People's Party announced a policy measure program of nationalization of industrial sector, including iron and steel, heavy engineering firms, petrochemicals, cement and public utilities. A new labor policy was announced increasing the power of trade unions. Despite the core of the leadership of the party came from feudal background, the People's Party announced reforms limiting land ownership and the government take-over of more than a million acres to distribute to landless peasants.
More than 2,000 civil servants were dismissed on charges of corruption and those who protested against the policies. On foreign front, People's Party supported President Bhutto of negotiating the return of more than 93,000 prisoners of war and settlement with India that brought the areas occupied by India under the management of Pakistani government. Development of the nuclear weapons program also took place under the Bhutto's administration as part of the defense strategy to prevent foreign invasions on 20 January 1972. In 1972, the People's Party had to address the labor unrest when the steel workers intensified their demands and the whole country engulfed with periodic lockouts and encirclement of industries. Among them notable struggles were the emergence of a worker-led court under Abdur Rehman in Kot Lakhpat.
In 1973, the People's Party spearheaded the writings and the framework of the Constitution that placed the country's political structure towards the parliamentary democracy. In the Peoples Party's first budget of 1972–73, the healthcare and education were nationalized, with a record 42.3 percent of the total budget being allocated for the affordable healthcare and education program.
On 10 April 1973, the People's Party spearheaded the efforts to promulgated the Constitution which was approved by the National Assembly and the Senate, and it came into effect from 14 August 1973, the day Bhutto elected as the Prime Minister of Pakistan. The People's Party initiated education reforms that expanded the school network to slums and small villages, creating basic health facilities, land reforms and housing schemes. However, these programs were affected by the global recession, fueled by the oil crises, and the failure of reforms resulted into rising inflation in 1974. The letter of credit of Pakistan was rejected by International Monetary Fund and World Bank and a massive capital flight was seen from the country to Eastern Europe. Dr Mubashar Hassan, then-finance minister under Bhutto's administration wrote in a note to core of the leadership of the People's Party: "We have been in office for more than six months. Many decisions have been taken but a growing implementation gap is becoming visible. Once the implementation gap sets in, the decline begins. We came to abolish the abominable status quo but the status quo is very much present..."
On the foreign policy, the People's Party moved towards building closer ties with the People's Republic of China, with Bhutto successfully negotiating an aid package worth $300 million for Pakistan and also writing off loans amounting to over $110 million.
In 1975–76, the serious issues began to emerge within the party's ranks, when Bhutto decided to utilize the state machinery to keep an eye on the activities of the Pakistan National Alliance– a rightwing conservative alliance led by the Pakistan Muslim League. The People's Party direction was geared towards centre-left when leftwing intellectuals – such as Malik Mirage, a law minister under Bhutto's administration, Mubashir Hassan, finance minister in Bhutto's administration– were asked to resign from their respective assignments. In September 1974, under pressure from religious organizations, the People's Party agreed on drafting and passing the constitutional amendment declaring the Ahmadiyya community to be non-Muslim. In 1976, the People's Party supported the authorization of the military operation in the Balochistan and dismissed the key ally, the National Awami Party, government by imposing the governor's rule in the province as a wider policy to fight against the feudalism in the province.
==== Redemption and two-party system ====
In 1977, the Pakistan People's Party led by Bhutto secured the landslide victory in general election over the conservative National Alliance but the opposition refused and denied the election results. Massive demonstration and protests broke out in the conservative strongholds of the country that forced the party to negotiate with the opposition and offered to hold another set of elections, also in 1977. although, in 1974, he had banned alcohol. Any attempts by the party to settle the issue with the opposition failed which led to General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, the army chief at that time, imposed a martial law to ensure security in the country in 1977.
From 1979—88, the People's Party was a target of the various counterintelligence operations and was a proponent of organizing and leading the Movement for the Restoration of Democracy (MRD) under its elected chairperson Benazir Bhutto.
The Peoples Party spearheaded the pro-democratic movement in the country under Benazir Bhutto's direction against the martial law and boycotted the general elections in 1985.
After the death of General Zia-ul-Haq in 1988, the People's Party returned and assumed the control of the executive government after voted in majority during the general elections, with Benazir Bhutto becoming the first female head of government in the Muslim world. The issues relating to the economic recession, national security, industrial nationalization, and administration guidance that differs from the President Ishaq Khan, eventually led to the dismissal of the People's Party's government in 1990. The part lost the general election in 1990, which was said and later proved in court inquiries to be heavily rigged in favor of conservative alliance led by Fida Mohammad. In 2012, the Supreme Court of Pakistan declared this election "rigged in favor" of the Pakistan Muslim League.
In 1993, the People's Party secured the majority in the general election, forming an unusual coalition with fundamentalist JUI(F) and the Awami National Party (ANP). The party dominated the two-party system facing the rival Pakistan Muslim League (N) on a conservative and status quo platform. The party under Benazir Bhutto faced the issues relating to the economic recession, war in Afghanistan on the western front, and identity politics in Karachi, Sindh. The party also suffered with internal factions mainly in three parliamentary groups: the Bhuttoists, the Parliamentarians and the Sherpaoists, with Bhuttoism becoming the most influential and powerful in Sindh and Balochistan. Internal opposition and disapproval of Asif Zardari and Benazir Bhutto's policies by her brother Murtaza Bhutto created a rift in their relations. Murtaza Bhutto was assassinated in a police shootout with the Sindh Police in 1996, with many pointing the finger of blame at his sister and her husband.
The assassination of Bhutto in a police shootout damaged the credibility of the party in its stronghold and was later dismissed by dismissed by the party's own elected President Farooq Leghari in September 1996. From 1996–2006, the People's Party worked on strengthening its vote bank in the rural areas of Sindh and eventually reached an understanding with the Pakistan Muslim League(N) in leading the Alliance for Restoration of Democracy (ARD) that effectively opposed the military-backed government of President Pervez Musharraf.
==== 21st century and current affairs ====
In 2007, the party faced the leadership crises when its presiding leader, Benazir Bhutto, was assassinated on 27 December 2007 but the party won the majority to control the executive after the general elections held in 2008. Initially reaching a compromise with its rival Pakistan Muslim League (N), the party spearheaded the efforts to impeach President Pervez Musharraf who later resigned. During this time, the party nominated Yousaf Raza Gillani for the premiership and Asif Ali Zardari for the presidency while forming a coalition alliance with Pakistan Muslim League (Q) in Punjab, Awami National Party in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, JUI(F) in Balochistan and Muttahida Qaumi Movement in Sindh. While on other hand, the Peoples Party claimed the exclusive mandate in Gilgit-Baltistan and Kashmir.
In 2010, President Zardari voluntarily transferred the powers and control of the executive Prime Minister's Secretariat which was ratified through the passage of the eighteenth amendment to the constitution as part of country's road to parliamentary democracy. In growing criticism on tackling foreign-bound terrorism from west, corruption, energy crises, and economic stagflation, the party struggled to project its overall political narratives but managed to maintain a large vote bank in deeper Sindh, Balochistan, and southern skirts of Punjab.
According to The Economist in 2017, the party "has become irrelevant outside their home province of Sindh."
== Electoral history ==
=== National Assembly elections ===
=== Senate of Pakistan Elections ===
=== Sindh Assembly elections ===
=== Punjab Assembly elections ===
=== Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Assembly elections ===
=== Azad Kashmir Legislative Assembly Elections ===
=== Gilgit-Baltistan Assembly Elections ===
== Notable leadership ==
The first socialist and democratic convention attended by the leading 67 left-wing intellectuals who appointed Zulfikar Ali Bhutto as the first and founding chair of the Pakistan Peoples Party. After his execution, the senior party leadership handed over the chairmanship of the party to his wife, Nusrat Bhutto, and held the position into the 1980s. In 1982, Nusrat Bhutto, ill with cancer, was given permission to leave Pakistan for medical treatment and remained abroad for several years. At that point her daughter, Benazir Bhutto, became acting head of the party while Nusrat technically remained its chairman and was referred to as such as late as September 1983. By January 1984, Benazir was being referred to as the party's chairman and subsequently secured the legal appointment by the senior leadership of Central Executive Committee at the convention held in 1984. She had been elected chairperson for life, which she remained until her assassination on 27 December 2007. Her nineteen-year-old son, Bilawal Bhutto Zardari and his father Asif Ali Zardari were appointed party co-chairmen after assassination of Benazir Bhutto on 30 December 2007.
=== List of party's presidents ===
=== List of party's prime ministers ===
== Current structure and composition ==
The Central Executive Committee of the Pakistan Peoples Party of Pakistan serves as party's highest leadership, and apex governing authority, and is primarily responsible for promoting Peoples Party activities, promotion, media campaigning, welfare distribution, public policy and works. The CEC is the supreme parliamentary body in charge of setting out strategies and positions during and after elections. The CEC is currently chaired by Asif Ali Zardari, assisted by additional vice-chairmen, including all the major office bearers of the party. However, the CEC is focused on election campaigning and organizational strategy during the national parliamentary elections, overseeing the media works, ideological promotion, and the foreign policy. The public works, welfare distribution are partly managed at the municipal unit level up to the federal level, which supervise and give legal authority for such works.
The PPP-Young Organization is a youth-led party organisation that attempts to mobilise the youth for Peoples Party candidates for the Youth Parliament. The group's Trotskyist-Marxist wing, "The Struggle", which is internationally affiliated with International Marxist Tendency (IMT) pursues an entryist strategy by working inside party's student wing, the Peoples Students, a student-outreach organization with the goal of training and engaging the new generation of the Pakistan Peoples Party. The Peoples Party also has an active military-street wing, the Peoples' Aman Committee, controversially affiliated with the Pakistan Peoples Party.
Nationally, each province and territory has a provisional committee, made up of elected committee members as well as ex-officio committee members who elect its presidents. The local committees often coordinate campaign activities within their jurisdiction, oversee local conventions, and in some cases primaries or caucuses, and may have a role in nominating candidates for elected office under state law. All administration, campaign, and party policies required complete permission from the CEC's co-chairman and the vice-chairmen.
=== Ideology ===
In its inception, the notable communists from the Communist Party and socialists of the defunct Socialist Party gathered to form the Peoples Party in 1967 by electing Zulfikar Ali Bhutto its first chairman. The Pakistan Peoples Party's leftist program remains far more successful and integrated in the civil society than the Communist Party.
Since then, the Peoples Party has been a leading proponent of democratic socialism with the mainstream agenda of social democracy, favouring semi-secular and semi-Islamic socialist principles. Historically, the Peoples Party favoured financially stable farmers, industrial labour unions and the middle-class. The Peoples Party rejected far-left politics and ultra-leftism, supporting unregulated business and finance, and laissez-faire capitalism, after which it was no longer widely viewed as a socialist or social-democratic party, as its economic policies swung dramatically to the right-wing, embracing economic neoliberalism and unfettered capitalism and privatisation of publicly owned institutions, favouring partial income taxes.
Despite its democratic-socialist ideas, the Peoples Party never actually allied with the Soviet Union, with the Communist Party of Pakistan remaining one of its major rivals. The Peoples Party has been criticised by various socialists such as Fahad Rizwan who accused the Peoples Party of opportunism. Recently, the Peoples Party has adopted privatisation and small-scale nationalisation policies, with centrist economic and socially progressive agendas.
Basic, enshrined principles of PPP include "Islam [as] our Faith. Democracy is our Politics. Socialism is our Economy. All Power to the People".
=== Issues involving foreign policy ===
Relations with China, Russia, Iran and Turkey, are the central and the strongest proponents of the Peoples Party's foreign policy. Under Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, Pakistan built closer ties with Soviet Union, China, and Iran, but under Benazir Bhutto, the foreign policy was revised after taking shifts to centre-right policies. Earlier in the 1970s, the Peoples Party faced a "secret" cold war with the United States, but then suffered a US-backed coup in 1977. On the other hand, Anti-Americanism among most PPP workers and its student wing grew twofold after Zulfikar Ali Bhutto's execution at the hands of the pro-American Ziaul Haq dictatorship, the party's new chairperson, Benazir Bhutto, advised her party to concentrate on the removal of Zia alone. She also adopted Nawaz Sharif's conservative privatisation policies in order to secure funding from the United States and the World Bank, but received a harsh opposition from within the party. Throughout the 1980s, the party's credibility was damaged by the United States who "keenly sabotaged" any of its efforts and organizational establishment in the dense areas of country. Although PPP leader Bilawal Bhutto Zardari said he did not want to choose one side in the 21st century China-US strategic competition, Hina Rabbani Khar argues that the instinct to preserve Pakistan's partnership with the United States would ultimately sacrifice the full benefits of the country's "real strategic" partnership with China.
=== Academia ===
The Pakistan Peoples Party through Zulfikar Ali Bhutto proudly receives all credit for launching the atomic bomb project in 1972, public ceremonies are held on Youm-e-Takbir (lit. 'Day of Greatness') to commemorate the political services of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto who established the program.
In 1976, Murtaza Bhutto graduated from Harvard University, Bhutto graduated with his thesis entitled "Modicum of Harmony". His thesis dealt with the spread of nuclear weapons in general, and the implications of India's nuclear weapons on Pakistan in particular. Murtaza went on to Christ Church, Oxford, his father's alma mater, for a three-year course to read for an MLit degree. Bhutto submitted his master thesis, containing a vast argumentative work on Nuclear strategic studies, where he advocated for Pakistan's approach to develop its nuclear deterrence program to counter Indian nuclear program.
Since its establishment, the Peoples Party has produced prolific scientists-turned technocrats, including Farhatullah Babar, Mubashir Hassan, and the senior academic scientists who played a role in building the atomic bomb. The Peoples Party member's notably provided their public support to Abdul Qadeer Khan who had been forced to attend the military debriefings by General Pervez Musharraf in 2004. In August 2012, after years of negligence, the peoples party made its effort to bestowed and award Munir Ahmad Khan the highest state honor, the Nishan-e-Imtiaz, as a gesture of political rehabilitation; the honor was publicly presented by President Asif Ali Zardari in a public ceremony.
In 1995–1996, the Peoples Party under Benazir Bhutto's era opened computer literacy centres to provide the public with access to computers and technology. In 1990, they made Pakistan the first Muslim country to launch a satellite, Badr-I. They are also responsible for establishing, nurturing, and funding the missile's programs, such as Ghauri and Shaheen in the 1990s. As part of the science policy, they established the Pakistan Science Foundation in 1973 and helped establish the Pakistan Academy of Letters in 1976. In 1996, Benazir Bhutto established SZABIST at Karachi to become a leading institution of science and technology and appointed academic Dr. Javaid Laghari as its first president, who later was also elected Senator from Sindh on a technocrat seat and eventually Chairman HEC leading a revolution of reforms in higher education in South Asia.
=== Ideology and platform ===
PPP’s stated objectives include:
Ensuring merit-based representation of marginalized regions and communities.
Enacting legal and electoral reforms, such as joined the politicians from contesting multiple seat the elections.
Implementing public welfare programs on organization, women, farmers, clean drinking water, clean road, transport, and healthcare.
== Challenges and controversies ==
=== "Losing the left" and post-secularism ===
Since the 1990s, the Peoples Party has been under intense criticism, both from its own members and the other leftists in the country, notably due to the charges of large-scale corruptions. The leading leftist, Nadeem Paracha, has asserted that since 1977, the Peoples Party's manifesto has been transformed into a centre-right platform, despite that during the 1977 parliamentary elections, the Peoples Party's manifesto did not mention socialism. During the 1973–75, the Peoples Party's radical ultra-left and communist wings led by Mirage Khalid and the Maoist wings under Khalid Syed were purged by the Peoples Party to ensure the political support of the powerful Sindh's feudal lords and Punjab's landed elite, with Paracha claiming the Peoples Party has "lost the left".
Leading left-wing journalist Mehdi Hasan has remarked that the Peoples Party is "not a secular party", firstly citing its support of declaring Ahmadiyya community as non-Muslims through the second constitutional amendment, secondly for banning the use of liquor, and thirdly for the Peoples Party declaring Friday as a holiday to win the support of religious elements.
=== Kashmir Cause ===
The chairman of PPP Bilawal Bhutto Zardari led a convention on 19 September 2014 in Multan, Punjab, where he reportedly quoted: "the [PPP] would take back entire Kashmir for his country."
Bhutto emphasized on his last part of the speech: "I will take back Kashmir, all of it, and I will not leave behind a single inch of it because like the other provinces, it belongs to Pakistan. He pledged to continue supporting Kashmiri freedom struggle morally and diplomatically...(.)".
=== Internal opposition and factionalism ===
Since the 1990s, the factionalism has grown in the party when Murtaza Bhutto returned to Pakistan. Disagreeing with Benazir and Asif Ali Zardari's political philosophy brewing the party, Murtaza Bhutto split and formed the more powerful yet more leaning towards left wing faction, Bhuttoist in 1995. Confrontation with Benazir Bhutto in 1999 over the party guidance, Aftab Sherpao splits from the party and forming the Pakistan Peoples Party (Sherpaoist)—a more reformist with libertarian agenda.
Factionalism continued in 2011 when PPP sacked Mahmood Qureshi over the Raymond Davis incident in Lahore. Qureshi later defected to PTI. Another leftist leader, Malik Ali Khan also resigned from the Peoples Party, saying that he "did not agree with how President Zardari was leading the party particularly with regards to an alliance with centre-right PML (Q) and the foreign policy."
In 2012, the PPP's powerful leader, Zulfiqar Mirza, quit from the party despite urgings amidst disagreement with Asif Zardari's leadership and policies with regards to dealings with the liberal MQM in Sindh. Reasoning with their isolation, the socialist politicians felt that the party had now moved away from the original ideas it was founded on by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto in 1967. In 2014, Labour leader, Safdar Ali Abbasi, formed the Workers faction amid disagreement with party's fiscal policy.
=== Defection in PPP: The Launch of Pakistan Peoples Party Parliamentarian-Patriots ===
The Pakistan Peoples Party Parliamentarian-Patriots (PPPPP) was launched in Lahore in the year 2002 as a 'forward bloc' that broke away from the PPP to back the Pakistan Muslim League Quaid-e-Azam (PML-Q) transforming itself into Pakistan's newest party at that time. The leader of the rebel group was Makhdoom Faisal Saleh Hayat. In January 2017, Former federal minister Syed Faisal Saleh Hayat joined the Pakistan Peoples Party on Monday, more than 14 years after being elected on the PPP ticket in 2002, bringing an end to the PPPPP.
== See also ==
Bhuttoism and Sindh
Roti Kapada Aur Makaan
Current and former breakaway factions of the PPP
Pakistan Peoples Party (Shaheed Bhutto)
Qaumi Watan Party, formerly Pakistan Peoples Party (Sherpao)
Pakistan Peoples Party (Parliamentarians)
Pakistan Peoples Party (Workers)
Political realism
Socialism in Pakistan
List of Islamic political parties
== Explanatory notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Shah, Sayed Wiqar Ali (2004). "Pakistan Peoples Party: Socialism and Dynastic Rule". Political Parties in South Asia. Washington, D.C.: Praeger Publishers. pp. 156–200. ISBN 0-275-96832-4. Retrieved 10 August 2012.
Bhutto, Zulfikar Ali (1969). The Myth of Independence. London: Oxford U.P. ISBN 978-0192151674. Retrieved 7 April 2015.
Lieven, Anatol (2011). Pakistan: A hard country (1st ed.). New York: PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-1610390231.
Hussain, Zahid (2010). Scorpion's Tail. New York: Simon and Schuster. p. 245. ISBN 978-1439157862. Retrieved 7 April 2015.
Jones, Philip E. (2003). The Pakistan People's Party: Rise to Power. Karachi: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195799668.
Ali, Tariq (2012). The Duel: Pakistan on the Flight Path of American Power. New York [US]: Simon and Schuster. p. 1960. ISBN 978-1471105883. Retrieved 7 April 2015.
== External links ==
Pakistan Peoples Party Pakistan based Web site
Pakistan Peoples Party USA official site
The Pakistan Peoples Party, Radio France Internationale (in English)
A detailed Web site on the life of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto
2008 Election dossier, Radio France Internationale (in English) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diane_Disney_Miller#:~:text=Diane%20Marie%20Disney%20was%20born,high%20school%20and%20high%20school. | Diane Disney Miller | Diane Marie Disney-Miller (December 18, 1933 – November 19, 2013) was the eldest daughter and only biological child of Walt Disney and his wife Lillian Bounds Disney. Diane co-founded the Walt Disney Family Museum alongside her family. She was president of the Board of Directors of the Walt Disney Family Foundation.
== Early life, education, and personal life ==
Diane Marie Disney was born in Los Angeles on December 18, 1933. She attended Los Feliz Grammar School before moving to Immaculate Heart High School (Los Angeles) for junior high school and high school. Disney went on to study English at the University of Southern California.
When she was 20 years old, Disney was introduced to 21-year-old University of Southern California student Ron Miller, a member of the USC Trojans football team, on a blind date after a University of California–USC game. They married in a small Episcopal church ceremony in Santa Barbara on May 9, 1954. Together, the couple had had seven children: Christopher (b. 1954), Joanna (b. 1956), Tamara (b. 1958), Jennifer (later Miller-Goff; b. 1960), Walter (b. 1962), Ronald (b. 1964), and Patrick (b. 1966). Her husband then served in the Army and played professional football before Walt Disney convinced him to work for the Walt Disney Studios, and ascended from film directing and production to president and CEO of what is now The Walt Disney Company.
== Philanthropy ==
Miller was a patron of the arts, as well as a lifelong classical music enthusiast and a generous philanthropist.
Miller published a series of eight pieces for the Saturday Evening Post in 1956 titled "My Dad, Walt Disney", co-written with Pete Martin. In 1957 she published the book The Story of Walt Disney. After her husband was removed from his executive position at Walt Disney Productions in 1984, Miller began to limit her involvement with the company.
After her husband joined the Disney company, Miller traveled to Napa Valley with her mother, Lillian, to visit several wineries. The trip inspired Miller to start a vineyard, with the possibility of a winery. With the children grown, Ron left the company and the entertainment industry in 1984. Both he and Diane went on to develop the renowned Silverado Vineyards Winery in Napa, which became their home. In 1976, the family purchased a large property along the Silverado Trail in the Stags Leap District. They planted Cabernet Sauvignon and Chardonnay and started making wine in 1981. They expanded the winery to only using estate-grown grapes, and Diane helped create a home and a family-like atmosphere rather than just a business.
Miller was instrumental in pushing ahead with the Walt Disney Concert Hall in downtown Los Angeles. In 1988, Lillian Disney, her mother, announced plans to contribute $50 million to the Los Angeles Concert Hall in Downtown Los Angeles, which Miller would later come to support throughout her life. More than 70 architectural firms submitted proposals to the head director, Frank Gehry. By 1996, the project was almost dead, but Miller persuaded Gehry to move forward with it, despite problems with poor management and disagreements over the design, and Los Angeles County officials' attempts to cancel it. It was supposed to be worth $10 million by 1997. Diane arranged for the Walt Disney Family Foundation to contribute about $25 million to keep Gehry in control, and the hall finally opened in 2003, at the cost of $247 million. Although Lillian Disney died in 1997 and never saw a concert there, Miller continued to support the concert hall.
After devoting her earlier life to raising her seven children, Miller undertook an active advocacy to document the life and accomplishments of her father, who she perceived to have been the subject of poorly researched biographies and inaccurate rumors. She was also concerned that his name had become more of a corporate identity than a reference to the man himself. In 2001, the Walt Disney Family Foundation released The Man Behind the Myth, a documentary film about Walt Disney's life featuring interviews with his colleagues, peers, and family. In 2009, Miller co-founded the Walt Disney Family Museum with her son Walter Elias Disney Miller, who is a movie producer, and Miller was also the president of the Board of Directors of the Walt Disney Family Foundation at the time of her death, which is a nonprofit organization that owns and operates the Walt Disney Family Museum, located in Presidio in San Francisco.
In 2015, the inaugural Diane Disney Miller Lifetime Achievement Award was created to honor the museum's founder, to recognize those who have made an outstanding impact in the field of arts, education, community involvement, or technological advancements.
=== Honorees ===
2015 – Richard Sherman
2016 – Marty Sklar
2017 – John Lasseter
== Death and dedication ==
Miller died on November 19, 2013, at age 79, one month before her 80th birthday, from medical complications that developed after a fall in September the same year.
The film Saving Mr. Banks is dedicated to her memory; Miller died shortly before it opened theatrically.
Ron and Diane Disney Miller received a special thank you in Inside Out (2015).
== References ==
== External links ==
Diane Disney Miller at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prophets_of_Da_City#:~:text=1988%2D1990%3A%20Early%20years,-The%20group%20began&text=The%20album%20had%20the%20first,'%20(do%20it%20thoroughly). | Prophets of Da City | Prophets of Da City (POC) is a hip hop crew from Cape Town, South Africa. They are composed of about eight members, though the exact membership fluctuates frequently; these include Ishmael Morabe (vocals), Mark Heuvel (dance), Shaheen Ariefdien, Ramone and DJ Ready D. Their style uses elements of hip hop music, reggae and traditional African rhythms. Their albums include Our World (1990), Boom Style (1992), Age of Truth (1993), Phunk Phlow (1994), Universal Souljaz (1995), and Ghetto Code (1997). They are currently signed under the independent record label Ghetto Ruff.
== History ==
=== 1988–1990: Early years ===
The group began in late 1988 when Shaheen and Ready D experimented in a small 8-track studio (owned by Shaheen's father, Issy Ariefdien and Lance Stehr the current Ghetoruff CEO) and produced a demo that ultimately became "Our World" (1990), the first South African hip hop release. Although the production value was not exactly stellar it did attempt to interpret hiphop through their unique Cape Town influences and experiences (both musically and lyrically). The album had the first recorded Cape slang (local Afrikaans dialect) hip-hop song called 'Dala Flat' (do it thoroughly). It also consisted of an uptempo goema inspired 'Stop the Violence' and the hip house meets mbaqanga title track. It also featured the Abdullah Ibrahim inspired "Roots" that featured DJ A-ski on the turntables. Although POC was quite a novelty to the South African music scene, record labels were turned off by their social commentary and favoured a more party music approach. Lance, POC manager, set up Ku-shu shu Records and signed a distribution and marketing deal through Teal Trutone (Gallo subsidiary). In 1990 POC was nominated for the OKTV Award for Best New Group. They also embarked on an extensive 80-leg anti-drug school tour that reached an average of 70 000 students.
=== 1991–1992: Boom Style ===
The second release in late 1991 was Boom Style (referring to the hardhitting punch of a TR-808 drum machine kick drum or self-praise of the way the music is kicking – although often mistaken to mean "tree style" because boom means "tree" in Afrikaans). While the album had a scathing attack on the apartheid regime in the song 'Ons Stem' (meaning our voice – as a response to the apartheid national anthem 'die stem' – the voice) and the innovative Hard Time on Stage, the follow-up to Murder on Stage from Our World, it was less experimental. The lead single, Boom Style, like their first single, Our World, aimed to fuse contemporary US hiphop influenced dance music with mbaqanga styled guitar riffs. While Our World was rather innocent and daring for its time, Boom Style reflected the realities of operating within the music industry and the pressures of the market on POC. The censorship board sent a formal letter to the label to express their displeasure over the use of the Afrikaner national anthem in which POC not only mocked 'Die Stem', but also disrespected Afrikaner and other colonial political icons. Their live shows incorporated all aspects of hip hop culture and not only emceeing. Turntablism, Breakdancing and even aerosol art at times were used to not only present POC but represent hip hop culture and expose to parts of South Africa where people did not know what hip hop was. The video for 'Kicking Non Stop' was censored because members of the crew put a portrait of the then president, P. W. Botha, in a fridge to chill. This year the POC social issues based tour covered another 45 schools.
In 1992 they were invited by Quincy Jones and Caiphus Semenya to perform at the Montreux Jazz Festival in Switzerland. This year they embarked on a Namibian anti-drug campaign, covering 65 schools. They also got increasingly more involved in facilitating workshops on deejaying, b-boying and developing hip hop writing techniques. Leading up to the first democratically held election in South Africa, POC embarked on a national voter education campaign. Although Issy Ariefdien has been involved in group's production since the first album, POC also brought former rival Patrick Hickey a.k.a. Caramel (then an emcee and producer with emcees from U.N.C.L.E.) on board as part of the production team for the Age of Truth album.
=== 1993 and beyond ===
In late 1993 POC was invited to perform in Denmark at the Visions of Africa music festival and also embarked on a national voter education tour, covering high schools, community centres and universities. The aim was to explain the voting process to youth who never had the opportunity to vote in any national elections. The democratically held election marked an important moment in the history of South Africa, but also the history of hip hop in South Africa, because it was an acknowledgment of the popularity and power of hiphop as a pedagogical tool.
In 1994, POC performed at the inauguration of Nelson Mandela where they sang their song "Excellent, finally black President". The fact that they were invited was extremely important to them. The members of Prophets of Da City grew up during apartheid and this truly meant a lot to the group. Mark Schwartz writes, "Times were good until one day in 1985 when tanks rolled down the main drag of Mitchell's Plain Township, and Ready and his homie Shaheen put down the vinyl and picked up bricks and gasoline bombs to hurl at apartheid's army. For the next nine years, through a state of emergency, political upheaval, and economic turmoil, Ready, Shaheen and their posse Prophets of Da City persevered until finally they got to drop bombs at another revolution, as the only performers at the inauguration of South Africa's president Nelson Mandella". This step for POC was not only major for racial barriers but for rap in South Africa. This has been considered the song that brought hip hop more into the mainstream of South Africa when previously, hip hop had been more of an underground movement whose fans consisted mainly of the poorer class in the urban areas of Cape Town.
In 2006 Sean Drummond and Dylan Valley, two student filmmakers, tracked down the whereabouts of the POC members. The documentary titled Lost Prophets was screened at various film festivals in South Africa.
POC celebrated 20 years since the release of South Africa's first hip hop album, 'Our World' in 2015.
== Inspiration ==
Inspired by the production styles of the Bomb Squad (Public Enemy) and Boogiemen (Ice Cube), Age of Truth is arguably their most militant and musically daring album. This album is generally considered South Africa's first hip hop classic album. Although Age of Truth won album of the year in various publications, the majority of the songs were banned.
The 1993 song Understand Where I'm Coming From provides background for some of the struggles about which POC raps by explaining many of the hardships faced in daily life. "The song is about empowering yourself as an individual and moving forward as a community" claims musician Ready D. "Understand Where I'm Coming From" also appeared on the Tommy Boy Planet Rap album which featured 12 hip hop crews from around the world. The album was recorded and mixed at Bop Studios in the then Bantustan, Bophutatswana. The head engineer at Bop Studios worked with POC before and offered them a deal to record an album at an extraordinary reduced rate. POC found out that the aim behind Bop Studios was to entice big music stars to record there to legitimise Bophutatswana as a sovereign state. When the group heard about this while they recorded there, they included the lines "Fuck Mangope (Bophutatswana's head of fake state) even if we record here". The head engineer confiscated all the mixed DATs and confronted the group about certain remarks made on the album. After a heated debate the group left with a 'stolen' backup copy of the mixed album that eventually became the released version.
== Lyrical themes ==
POC's songs were often filled with socio-political messages about the state of South Africa's social and economic issues in the urban areas, which were the most economically depressed. According to the article "Globalization and Gangster Rap: Hip Hop in the Post-Apartheid City", their 1993 song "Understand Where I'm Coming From" was a "lament about poverty and social dislocation in the ghetto, questioning the wisdom of patriotism in a class stratified society", as can be inferred from the opening of the song: "Why should I fight for a country's glory / When it ignores me? / Besides, the township's already a war zone / So why complain or moan?" The song also questions the degree to which this new post-Apartheid South Africa is actually new, since there are still racial and class inequalities throughout the communities. The music created as a result of these types of struggles takes the form of hip hop because "young African and Coloured youth... see hip hop and its subcultures as the art form that best expresses their feelings of economic marginality and social dislocation". Many connections can be seen between POC's style of hip hop and the broader American style of hip hop. In "Understand where I'm Coming From", feelings of rebellion and separation from central government are rapped about just as they might be in politically conscious American hip hop; also, in the POC song "Dallah Flet 2", "negative and misogynistic attitudes towards single mothers" are rapped about, something which author Zine Magubane claims is "ubiquitous in American rap music". POC's gender politics on Age of Truth was first analysed in a 2001 article titled “Black Thing: Hip-Hop Nationalism, ‘Race’ and Gender in Prophets of da City and Brasse vannie Kaap” by Adam Haupt, who argued that some of the gender-based problems on this album could partly be explained by the crew's black nationalist politics. Black nationalism, like other forms of nationalism, tended to privilege patriarchal imperatives and marginalised female subjects. Hip-hop nationalism in the early 90s reflected some of these problems. As Haupt's analysis of Cape hip-hop activism in the book Stealing Empire reveals, POC's work is best compared to black nationalist US hip-hop of the late 80s and late 90s—and not gangsta rap, as suggested by “Globalization and Gangster Rap: Hip Hop in the Post-Apartheid City”. This is particularly significant in the light of their parody of gangsta rap on songs like "Wack MCs" off Phunk Phlow. Stealing Empire contends that the sometimes simplistic cultural imperialism thesis in some scholarship about hip-hop beyond the US is limited when considering the artistic and political agency of activists and artists who hope to use hip-hop as a means to engage youth critically about their lives in South African townships. By way of caution, Magubane's article credits the Black Consciousness song "Black Thing" to Black Noise when it was, in fact, composed and recorded by POC.
== Notable co-performances ==
The group has also performed around famous artists like James Brown, Public Enemy, The Fugees, Ice-T, Quincy Jones and more.
== References ==
== External links ==
Ready D & Shaheen RBMA video lecture session
[1]
[2] |
'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luigi_Berlinguer#:~:text=Early%20life%20and%20education,-Berlinguer%20was%20born&text=He%20obtained%20a%20law%20degree%20from%20the%20University%20of%20Sassari%20in%201955.' | Luigi Berlinguer | Luigi Berlinguer (Italian pronunciation: [luˈiːdʒi berliŋˈɡwɛr]; 25 July 1932 – 1 November 2023) was an Italian jurist and politician. He was a professor at the University of Siena, and also served as the minister of university and research and the minister of education.
== Early life and education ==
Berlinguer was born in Sassari, Sardinia, on 25 July 1932. His brother, Sergio Berlinguer, was a diplomat and politician. They were cousins of the Italian Communist Party (PCI) leader Enrico Berlinguer, who died in 1984. He obtained a law degree from the University of Sassari in 1955.
== Career ==
Berlinguer served as mayor of Sennori. He was the rector of the University of Siena from 1985 to 1993, when he was appointed to the Ciampi Cabinet as minister of universities, science, and technology. He was one of the three former PCI members in the cabinet. He served as the minister of education between 1996 and 2000 in the cabinets led first by Romano Prodi and then by Massimo D'Alema. He was also acting minister of universities, science, and technology from 1996 to October 1998. He was succeeded by Ortensio Zecchino as minister. In addition, he served in both the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate of the Republic.
As a member of the Democratic Party, Berlinguer was elected as a member of the European Parliament (MEP) in 2009, sitting as part of the Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats. In the European Parliament, he served as first vice-chair of the committee on legal affairs and as a member of the committee on culture and education beginning in 2009.
== Death ==
Berlinguer died on 1 November 2023, at the age of 91.
== Electoral history ==
Source:
== Awards and honours ==
In 2011, Berlinguer received by the European Parliament the MEP award in the field of culture and education.
Knight Grand Cross Order of Merit of the Italian Republic, 27 December 1992.
== See also ==
List of members of the European Parliament for Italy, 2009–2014
== References ==
== External links ==
Media related to Luigi Berlinguer at Wikimedia Commons |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel_Baschet#:~:text=At%2017%2C%20Marcel%20entered%20the,Rome%20from%201883%20to%201887. | Marcel Baschet | Marcel-André Baschet (5 August 1862 – 28 December 1941) was a French portrait painter, notable for his numerous portraits of the Presidents of the French Third Republic.
== Biography ==
He was born in Gagny (Seine-et-Oise), the second son of the art editor Ludovic Baschet, editor of Panorama and the Revue illustrée. His brother René was the art critic for Salonsavant, and was editor of the magazine L'Illustration from 1904 to the first half of the 20th century. At 17, Marcel entered the Académie Julian in the studio of Jules Lefebvre. A student at the École des beaux-arts de Paris in the studio of Gustave Boulanger, in 1883 he won the Grand Prix de Rome for painting for Oedipus curses his son Polynices, and became a pensionist at the Villa Médicis in Rome from 1883 to 1887.
On 3 January 1888, he married Jeanne Guillemeteau, and they had two children, one son and one daughter. He became a teacher at the Académie Julian in 1889. From 1900, he spent a number of years as a teacher to Princess Mathilde. From 1907 to 1941, he had a shop at 21 Quai Voltaire in Paris, where a commemorative plaque was placed after his death. He won the médaille d'honneur in 1908 for his portrait of Henri Rochefort, and his portrait of Claude Debussy was exhibited around the world. He was awarded the Knight of the Légion d'honneur in 1898, and then in 1913, he was elected a member of the Académie des beaux-arts.
His works are held in a number of private collections and museums, including the Musée d'Orsay and Château de Versailles. His younger brother Jacques (1872–1952) was a historian, art critic, artistic director, and editor of the magazine L'Illustration, and director of a national company.
== Works ==
(incomplete list)
=== Paintings ===
=== Engravings, lithographs ===
Le Salon de Peinture, portrait of Melle Louise Lyman
=== Illustrations ===
Drogues et Peinture 24 illustrations by the artist, édition Laboratoire pharmaceutique Chantereau à Paris, Album d'Art Contemporain, n° 54, s. d., v. 1937
== Exhibitions ==
1908 - Salon des Artistes Français : Médaille d'Honneur
== Prizes, awards ==
1883 - First Grand Prix de Rome for painting
1908 - Médaille d'Honneur of the Salon des Artistes Français
1913 - Member of the Académie des beaux-arts
Society of Artistes français
== Museums, monuments ==
Musée de l'Armée
Musée du Château de Versailles
Musée d'Orsay
== Students ==
(incomplete list)
== Bibliography ==
François Antoine Vizzavona, Portrait de l'Artiste en Académicien
Jacques Baschet, Marcel Baschet, sa vie, son œuvre, Imp Sadag, L'Illustration, 1942
Société des Artistes Français. Salon de 1928: Exposition Annuelle des Beaux-Arts, 1928.
Joseph Uzanne, Figures contemporaines tirées de l'album Mariani, Librairie Henri Floury Paris, vol. VI, 1901
== Notes and references ==
== External links ==
Photographic archives of the Ministry of Culture. Bases Archim et ARCADE |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinoko_Teikoku | Kinoko Teikoku | Kinoko Teikoku (きのこ帝国; literally "Mushroom Empire") was a Japanese shoegaze/dream pop band.
Their first EP, Long Good Bye, peaked in the Oricon Albums Chart at #56 on the week of December 4, 2013. Their 2016 album Ai no Yukue peaked at #19 on Oricon Album Chart on December 14, 2016.
Time Lapse was their last and most successful album, released on September 12, 2018. It peaked #14 on Oricon Album Chart. On May 27, 2019, the band announced they will be suspending activity.
The group was composed of Satō Chiaki (佐藤千亜妃) as vocals and guitar, A-chan (あーちゃん) on the guitar and keyboards, Shigeaki Taniguchi on the bass, and Kon Nishimura on drums.
== Discography ==
=== Albums ===
eureka (February 6, 2013)
Fake World Wonderland (フェイクワールドワンダーランド) (October 29, 2014)
Neko to Allergie (猫とアレルギー) (November 11, 2015)
Ai no Yukue (愛のゆくえ) (November 2, 2016)
Time Lapse (タイム・ラプス) (September 12, 2018)
=== Mini albums ===
Uzu ni Naru (渦になる) (May 9, 2012)
=== EPs ===
Long Good Bye (ロンググッドバイ) (December 14, 2013)
Sakura ga Saku Mae ni (桜が咲く前に) (April 29, 2015)
=== Demos ===
1st demo (2011, self-released)
Yoru ga Aketara (夜が明けたら) (September 12, 2011, self-released)
=== Singles ===
Taikutsu Shinogi (退屈しのぎ) (2012, self-released)
Eureka (ユーリカ) (January 17, 2013)
Tokyo (東京) (September 9, 2014)
Sakura ga Saku Mae ni (桜が咲く前に) (April 29, 2015)
Cry Baby (クライベイビー) (June 29, 2016)
Natsu no Kage (夏の影) (August 29, 2016)
Taiyou ni somuite (太陽に背いて) (December 13, 2017)
=== V.A. ===
Daizawa Jidai (代沢時代 ～Decade of Daizawa Days～) (April 11, 2012)
『Yes, We Love butchers ～Tribute to bloodthirsty butchers～』 Night Walking (March 26, 2014)
CHATMONCHY Tribute ～My CHATMONCHY～ (March 28, 2018)
Takeshi Kobayashi meets Very Special Music Bloods (April 4, 2018)
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soko_522#:~:text=Service%20ceiling%3A%207%2C000%C2%A0m%20(23%2C000%C2%A0ft) | Soko 522 | The Soko 522 was a two-seater Yugoslav military training and light attack aircraft produced in the 1950s by SOKO in Yugoslavia.
== History ==
The Soko 522 was designed by Yugoslav engineers Šostarić, Marjanović and Čurčić at the Ikarus Aircraft Factory in Zemun. The first prototype flew in February 1955. After the initial success of the new aircraft, production was transferred to the Soko aircraft factory in Mostar. Production lasted until 1961 and totalled 110 units. The Soko 522 was used as the primary trainer aircraft for the Yugoslav air force until it was retired in 1978.
It gained some fame for its role in war movies filmed in Yugoslavia during the 1960s and 1970s, where it was used to portray the Fw 190 German fighter. Some of its prominent movie roles were in the Yugoslav Oscar candidate Battle of Neretva and Kelly's Heroes, starring Clint Eastwood.
== Operators ==
Yugoslavia
Yugoslav Air Force
460th Light Combat Aviation Squadron (1961–1967)
461st Light Combat Aviation Squadron (1961–1968, 1973–1977)
462nd Light Combat Aviation Squadron (1961–1968, 1973–1977)
463rd Light Combat Aviation Squadron (1961–1966)
464th Light Combat Aviation Squadron (1961–1966)
465th Light Combat Aviation Squadron (1961–1966)
== Surviving aircraft ==
France
60168 – Soko 522 airworthy.
Serbia
60132 – Soko 522 on static display at the Museum of Aviation in Belgrade.
60157 – Soko 522 on static display at the Museum of Aviation in Belgrade.
60204 – Soko 522 on static display at the Museum of Aviation in Belgrade.
????? Soko 522 on static display in park at Tovariševo
Bosnia and Herzegovina
60143 – Soko 522 on static display at Mostar Airport in Mostar, Herzegovina-Neretva.
Slovenia
Soko 522 on static display at the Pivka Park of Military History in Pivka.
United States
Soko 522 owned by John Magoffin in Tucson, Arizona. It was damaged in a wheels up landing.
== Specifications (Soko 522) ==
Data from Jane's All The World's Aircraft 1961–62General characteristics
Crew: 2
Length: 9.20 m (30 ft 2 in)
Wingspan: 11.00 m (36 ft 1 in)
Height: 3.58 m (11 ft 9 in)
Gross weight: 1,089 kg (2,400 lb)
Powerplant: 1 × Pratt & Whitney R-1340-AN-1 Wasp air-cooled radial engine, 450 kW (600 hp)
Performance
Maximum speed: 351 km/h (218 mph, 190 kn)
Range: 978 km (608 mi, 528 nmi)
Service ceiling: 7,000 m (23,000 ft)
Armament
Avionics
radio AN-ARC-3, VKT 100-156 MHz range 45 km at 1000 ft, 200 km at 10,000 ft
radiocompass AN-ARN-6 100-1750 kHz or AD-722
== See also ==
Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era
Yakovlev Yak-11
== References ==
=== Notes ===
=== Bibliography === |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edith_Nawakwi | Edith Nawakwi | Edith Zewelani Nawakwi (24 June 1959 – 7 April 2025) was a Zambian politician and economist. She was the first woman in Zambia to hold the post of Minister of Finance following her appointment in 1998 since Zambia's independence 33 years previously to that time. She was also the first woman to hold that post in the SADC region. Nawakwi was the President of the Forum for Democracy and Development under which she ran for president at the 2016 general election.
== Early life and education ==
Nawakwi was born in Mwenzo, now in Northern Province of Zambia. She held a degree in Agriculture Economics and Business Management from the University of Zambia and a post-graduate diploma in Economics of Energy and Development from Imperial College London, London.
== Career ==
Nawakwi's political career saw her join the Movement for Multi-Party Democracy (MMD) in 1990. She held various political positions including Minister of State for Energy & Water Development, Minister of Energy & Water Development, Minister of Agriculture, Food & Fisheries, Minister of Finance and Minister of Labour & Social Security between 1992 and 2001.
In 2001, she and some ex-members of the Movement for Multi-Party Democracy formed the Forum for Democracy and Development where she served as the party's secretary-general and vice-president before she was elected party president in 2005, making her the first woman in Zambia to achieve such a feat. In 2011, under the platform of the Forum for Democracy and Development, she was the only woman who contested the 2011 general election, placing seventh on the log with a total of 6,833 votes. She also contested the 2015 presidential election, placing third with a vote percentage of 0.92%. In 2016, she ran for the presidency at the 2016 general election where she placed third, receiving a total of 24,149 votes.
== Personal life and death ==
Nawakwi was married to Geofrey Hambulo, a former Citibank banker and entrepreneur, with whom she had three children. In January 2013, one of her daughters, Hatamba Hambulo was murdered. Her dumped body was found in a manhole in Ibex Hill with her hands and legs tied.
Nawakwi died after a long illness in South Africa, on 7 April 2025, at the age of 65. Her husband, Hambulo, predeceased her on 5 December 2021.
== References ==
== External links ==
Edith Nawakwi at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calytrix_acutifolia | Calytrix acutifolia | Calytrix acutifolia is a species of flowering plant in the myrtle family Myrtaceae and is endemic to south-west of Western Australia. It is a slender, openly-branched shrub with linear to lance-shaped leaves and clusters of white, cream-coloured or yellow flowers with 40 to 85 white stamens in several rows.
== Description ==
Calytrix acutifolia is a slender, openly-branched shrub that typically grows to a height of up to 2 m (6 ft 7 in), and has linear to lance-shaped leaves 2.5–15 mm (0.098–0.591 in) long and 0.5–1.0 mm (0.020–0.039 in) wide on a petiole 0.5–1.25 mm (0.020–0.049 in) long. There is usually a stipule up to 0.75 mm (0.030 in) long at the base of the petiole. The flowers are arranged singly in leaf axils with green to light brown bracteoles 3–5 mm (0.12–0.20 in) long. The floral tube is more or less cylindrical, with 5 to 7 ribs and 3.5–4.5 mm (0.14–0.18 in) long. The sepals are glabrous, 1.0–2.3 mm (0.039–0.091 in) long and lack an awn. The petals are white, 7.5–10 mm (0.30–0.39 in) long and 2.0–2.5 mm (0.079–0.098 in) wide and there are 40 to 85 cream to light yellow stamens in 2 to 4 rows. Flowering occurs between April and December with a peak from mid-October to early November.
== Taxonomy ==
This species was first described in 1839 by John Lindley who gave it the name Lhotskya acutifolia in his A Sketch of the Vegetation of the Swan River Colony. In 1987, Lyndley Craven transferred the species to Calytrix as C. acutifolia in the journal Brunonia. The specific epithet (acutifolia) means "sharply pointed leaves".
== Distribution and habitat ==
Calytrix acutifolia grows on hill slopes and gullies in wandoo and marri woodlands on the escarpment of the Darling Range and Pinjarra plain in the Jarrah Forest and Swan Coastal Plain bioregions of south-western Western Australia.
== Conservation status ==
This species is listed as "not threatened" by the Government of Western Australia Department of Biodiversity, Conservation and Attractions.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union | Republics of the Soviet Union | In the Soviet Union, a Union Republic (Russian: Сою́зная Респу́блика, romanized: Soyúznaya Respúblika) or unofficially a Republic of the USSR was a constituent federated political entity with a system of government called a Soviet republic, which was officially defined in the 1977 constitution as "a sovereign Soviet socialist state which has united with the other Soviet republics to form the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics" and whose sovereignty is limited by membership in the Union. As a result of its status as a sovereign state, the Union Republic de jure had the right to enter into relations with foreign states, conclude treaties with them and exchange diplomatic and consular representatives and participate in the activities of international organizations (including membership in international organizations). The Union Republics were perceived as national-based administrative units of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).
The Soviet Union was formed in 1922 by a treaty between the Soviet republics of Byelorussia, Russian SFSR (RSFSR), Transcaucasian Federation, and Ukraine, by which they became its constituent republics of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (Soviet Union). For most of its history, the USSR was a one-party state led by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Key functions of the USSR were highly centralized in Moscow until its final years, despite its nominal structure as a federation of republics; the light decentralization reforms during the era of perestroika (reconstruction) and glasnost (voice-ness, as in freedom of speech) conducted by Mikhail Gorbachev as part of the Helsinki Accords are cited as one of the factors which led to the dissolution of the USSR in 1991 as a result of the Cold War and the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States.
The Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic, a relic of the Soviet-Finnish War (the Winter War), became the only union republic to be deprived of its status in 1956. The decision to downgrade Karelia to an autonomous republic within the Russian SFSR was made unilaterally by the central government without consulting its population. The official basis for downgrading the status of the republic was the changes that had occurred in the national composition of its population (about 80% of the inhabitants were Russians, Belarusians and Ukrainians), as well as the need to reduce the state apparatus, the cost of maintaining which in 1955 amounted to 19.6 million rubles.
== Overview ==
Chapter 8 of the 1977 Soviet Constitution is titled as the "Soviet Union is a union state". Article 70 stated that the union was founded on the principles of "socialist federalism" as a result of the free self-determination of nations and the voluntary association of equal Soviet Socialist Republics. Article 71 listed all fifteen union republics that united into the Soviet Union.
According to Article 76 of the 1977 Soviet Constitution, a union republic was defined as a sovereign Soviet socialist state that had united with other Soviet Republics into the USSR. Article 78 of the Constitution stated that the territory of a union republic may not be altered without its consent. The boundaries between republics may be altered by mutual agreement of the republics concerned, if the rest of the union agreed. Article 81 of the Constitution stated that "the sovereign rights of Union Republics shall be safeguarded by the USSR".
In the final decades of its existence, the Soviet Union officially consisted of fifteen Soviet Socialist Republics (SSRs). All of them, with the exception of the Russian SFSR (until 1990), had their own local party chapters of the All-Union Communist Party.
In 1944, amendments to the All-Union Constitution allowed for separate branches of the Red Army for each Soviet Republic. They also allowed for Republic-level commissariats for foreign affairs and defense, allowing them to be recognized as de jure independent states in international law. This allowed for two Soviet Republics, Ukraine and Byelorussia, (as well as the USSR as a whole) to join the United Nations General Assembly as founding members in 1945.
The Soviet currency Soviet ruble banknotes all included writings in national languages of all the 15 union republics.
All of the former Republics of the Union are now independent countries, with ten of them (all except the Baltic states, Georgia and Ukraine) being very loosely organized under the heading of the Commonwealth of Independent States. The Baltic states assert that their incorporation into the Soviet Union in 1940 (as the Lithuanian, Latvian, and Estonian SSRs) under the provisions of the 1939 Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact was illegal, and that they therefore remained independent countries under Soviet occupation. Their position is supported by the European Union, the European Court of Human Rights, the United Nations Human Rights Council and the United States. In contrast, the Russian government and state officials maintain that the Soviet annexation of the Baltic states was legitimate.
Constitutionally, the Soviet Union was a federation. In accordance with provisions present in its Constitution (versions adopted in 1924, 1936 and 1977), each republic retained the right to secede from the USSR. Throughout the Cold War, this right was widely considered to be meaningless; however, the corresponding Article 72 of the 1977 Constitution was used in December 1991 to effectively dissolve the Soviet Union, when Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus seceded from the Union. Although the Union was created under an initial ideological appearance of forming a supranational union, it never de facto functioned as one; an example of the ambiguity is that the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic in the 1930s officially had its own foreign minister, but that office did not exercise any true sovereignty apart from that of the union. The Constitution of the Soviet Union in its various iterations defined the union as a federation with the right of the republics to secede. This constitutional status led to the possibility of the parade of sovereignties once the republic with de facto (albeit not de jure) dominance over the other republics, the Russian one, developed a prevailing political notion asserting that it would be better off if it seceded. The de facto dominance of the Russian republic is the reason that various historians (for example, Dmitri Volkogonov and others) have asserted that the union was a unitary state in fact albeit not in law.
In practice, the USSR was a highly centralised entity from its creation in 1922 until the mid-1980s when political forces unleashed by reforms undertaken by Mikhail Gorbachev resulted in the loosening of central control and its ultimate dissolution. Under the constitution adopted in 1936 and modified along the way until October 1977, the political foundation of the Soviet Union was formed by the Soviets (Councils) of People's Deputies. These existed at all levels of the administrative hierarchy with the Soviet Union as a whole under the nominal control of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, located in Moscow within the Russian SFSR.
Along with the state administrative hierarchy, there existed a parallel structure of party organizations, which allowed the Politburo to exercise large amounts of control over the republics. State administrative organs took direction from the parallel party organs, and appointments of all party and state officials required approval of the central organs of the party.
Each republic had its own unique set of state symbols: a flag, a coat of arms, and, with the exception of Russia until 1990, an anthem. Every republic of the Soviet Union also was awarded with the Order of Lenin.
== Union Republics of the Soviet Union ==
The number of the union republics of the USSR varied from 4 to 16. From 1956 until its dissolution in 1991, the Soviet Union consisted of 15 Soviet Socialist Republics: in 1956, the Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic, created in 1940, was absorbed into the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. Rather than listing the republics in alphabetical order, the republics were listed in constitutional order (which roughly corresponded to their population and economic power when the republics were formed). However, particularly by the last decades of the Soviet Union, the constitutional order did not correspond to order either by population or economic power.
=== Short-lived Union Republics of the Soviet Union ===
=== Non-union Soviet republics ===
The Turkestan Soviet Federative Republic was proclaimed in 1918 but did not survive to the founding of the USSR, becoming the short-lived Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic of the RSFSR. The Crimean Soviet Socialist Republic (Soviet Socialist Republic of Taurida) was also proclaimed in 1918, but did not become a union republic and was made into an autonomous republic of the RSFSR, although the Crimean Tatars had a relative majority until the 1930s or 1940s according to censuses. When the Tuvan People's Republic joined the Soviet Union in 1944, it did not become a union republic, and was instead established as an autonomous republic of the RSFSR.
The leader of the People's Republic of Bulgaria, Todor Zhivkov, suggested in the early 1960s that the country should become a union republic, but the offer was rejected. During the Soviet–Afghan War, the Soviet Union proposed to annex Northern Afghanistan as its 16th union republic in what was to become the Afghan Soviet Socialist Republic.
=== Republics not recognized by the Soviet Union ===
=== Other defunct Soviet states ===
Ukrainian People's Republic of Soviets (1917–1918) → Ukrainian Soviet Republic (1918)
Bessarabian Soviet Socialist Republic (1919)
Socialist Soviet Republic of Lithuania and Belorussia (1919–1920)
Galician Soviet Socialist Republic (1920)
== Autonomous Republics of the Soviet Union ==
Several of the Union Republics themselves, most notably Russia, were further subdivided into Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics (ASSRs). Though administratively part of their respective Union Republics, ASSRs were also established based on ethnic/cultural lines.
According to the constitution of the USSR, in case of a union republic voting on leaving the Soviet Union, autonomous republics, autonomous oblasts and autonomous okrugs had the right, by means of a referendum, to independently resolve whether they will stay in the USSR or leave with the seceding union republic, as well as to raise the issue of their state-legal status.
== Dissolution of the Soviet Union ==
Starting in the late 1980s, under the rule of Mikhail Gorbachev, the Soviet government undertook a program of political reforms (glasnost and perestroika) intended to liberalise and revitalise the Union. These measures, however, had a number of unintended political and social effects. Political liberalisation allowed the governments of the union republics to openly express sentiments related to nationalism. In addition, the loosening of political restrictions led to fractures within the Communist Party which resulted in a reduced ability to govern the Union effectively. The rise of nationalist and right-wing movements, notably led by Boris Yeltsin in Russia, in the previously homogeneous political system undermined the Union's foundations. With the central role of the Communist Party removed from the constitution, the Party lost its control over the State machinery and was banned from operating after an attempted coup d'état.
Throughout this period of turmoil, the Soviet government attempted to find a new structure that would reflect the increased authority of the republics. Some autonomous republics, like Tatarstan, Checheno-Ingushetia, Abkhazia, South Ossetia, Crimea, Transnistria, Gagauzia sought the union statute in the New Union Treaty. Efforts to found a New Union Treaty, however, proved unsuccessful and the republics began to secede from the Union. By 6 September 1991, the Soviet Union's State Council recognized the independence of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania bringing the number of union republics down to 12. On 8 December 1991, the remaining leaders of the republics signed the Belavezha Accords which agreed that the USSR would be dissolved and replaced with a Commonwealth of Independent States. On 25 December, President Gorbachev announced his resignation and turned all executive powers over to Yeltsin. The next day the Council of Republics voted to dissolve the Union. Since then, the republics have been governed independently with some reconstituting themselves as liberal parliamentary republics and others, particularly in Central Asia, devolving into highly autocratic states under the leadership of the old Party elite.
== See also ==
Flags of the Soviet Republics
Emblems of the Soviet Republics
Commonwealth of Independent States
Eurasian Economic Union
National delimitation in the Soviet Union
Bavarian Soviet Republic
Hungarian Soviet Republic
Slovak Soviet Republic
Limerick Soviet
Paris Commune
Provisional Polish Revolutionary Committee (Polish SSR)
Republics of Russia
Federal subjects of Russia
Post-Soviet states (former Soviet Republics)
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Bibliography of the Russian Revolution and Civil War
Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union
Bibliography of the Post Stalinist Soviet Union |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007_Super_14_season | 2007 Super 14 season | The 2007 Super 14 season started in February 2007 with preseason matches held from mid-January. It finished on 19 May with the final at Kings Park Stadium in Durban, in the first final between two South African teams in the history of Super Rugby. The visiting Bulls won the 2007 Super 14 Final, scoring a try in the 83rd minute and narrowly defeating the Sharks 20–19, thereby becoming the first South African side to win the Super Rugby title in the professional era.
Super 14 is a provincial rugby union competition with 14 teams from New Zealand, Australia and South Africa. This season is the second of the expansion, which led to the name change to the Super 14. The 2007 season saw an old team emerge with a new name, as the Cats changed their name to the Lions effective 8 September 2006.
There was also some confusion over the inclusion of the Southern Spears franchise, who were in the end not included. The season is also notable of the New Zealand sides resting several All Blacks players in the first half of the season. There were 94 matches held over the 3½ months, with each team playing one full round robin against the 13 other teams, 2 semi-finals and a final. Every team will get one bye over the 14 rounds.
== Player withdrawal ==
With the Rugby World Cup in September, all three countries would have some of their top players rested, to avoid injuries. All Blacks coach Graham Henry made clear his wish for up to 30 of New Zealand's best players to miss around half of the Super 14, with the five New Zealand franchises supporting him in May 2006. The mandatory stand-down period meant that the 30 players who toured at the end of 2006 would miss at least the first week of competition.
John Connolly, the Wallabies coach, was also interested in lightening the load for his top players. It was expected that the Australians would want to rest only a few players, especially veterans such as Stephen Larkham and George Gregan, as they are seen as key to Australia's World Cup chances. Springboks coach Jake White met the board of SA Rugby, the commercial arm of the South African Rugby Union, in Cape Town on 25 May 2006 to put forward his suggestion to rest key players between then and the World Cup at regular intervals. White was also keen to rest some players during the Boks' 2006 mid-year internationals against Scotland and France.
It was revealed in September 2006 that the All Blacks would rest 22 players, who would go into a "conditioning group" for the first 7 weeks of competition. The 22 players named were: Jerry Collins, Jason Eaton, Carl Hayman, Andrew Hore, Chris Jack, Richie McCaw, Chris Masoe, Keven Mealamu, Anton Oliver, Greg Somerville, Rodney So'oialo, Reuben Thorne, Ali Williams, Tony Woodcock, Dan Carter, Byron Kelleher, Leon MacDonald, Aaron Mauger, Mils Muliaina, Joe Rokocoko, Sitiveni Sivivatu and Piri Weepu. Seven of these players were from the Crusaders, six from the Hurricanes, four from the Blues, three from the Chiefs and two from the Highlanders. These players would be available for their franchises from Week 8. From these 22 players, Jason Eaton and Piri Weepu didn't make the final All Blacks squad for the 2007 Rugby World Cup.
After the NZRU announced the resting of 22 leading players, Pat Wilson, Australian High Performance Manager, revealed that leading Wallabies would only be rested for one match, which was to be chosen by their state's union. This decision has drawn criticism from former Wallabies coach and current Queensland Reds coach Eddie Jones, who said that while resting the older players could be beneficial, it is better for younger players, such as his own Rodney Blake, to receive game time.
The SARU decided against resting their top players for the 2007 Super 14 but conceded that it was likely that players would be rested for some games. It is expected that News Corp and the other SANZAR nations will request compensation from the New Zealand Rugby Union.
== Southern Spears saga ==
During the 2006 Super 14 season, SA Rugby announced that, contrary to the original plans, the Southern Spears would not replace the lowest ranked South African based side.
In August 2006, however, the Spears won a court case for inclusion into the 2007 season, which would be at the expense of the Cats, who changed their name to the Lions the following month. SA Rugby and the South African Rugby Union were expected to appeal the High Court of South Africa's decision. In November 2006, SA Rugby and the Spears reached a settlement. The financially troubled Spears abandoned the court case. They will still exist as an organisation to promote and develop rugby in the Southern and Eastern Cape region, with the support of SA Rugby and the SARU, but will now not be a part of Super Rugby in the foreseeable future. With the settlement, the season's Super 14 line-up was set, with the Lions taking up the final South African place.
== Table ==
== Results ==
The draw for the 2007 season was released on 2006-10-13. The season started 8 days earlier than the 2006 season, with the first match being between the Blues and the Crusaders at Auckland's Eden Park, the second time in the last two years the Blues had hosted the first match. In total, 94 matches were played, comprising 91 regular season matches, 2 semi-finals and the final. There were 29 Friday night match-ups and 61 Saturday matches. One match, the Brumbies-Waratahs regional derby in Week 10, was played on a Sunday night.
=== Round 1 ===
The 2007 Super 14 started in contrast to that of 2006. The game of the week was the Blues from Auckland beating the defending champions the Crusaders, which was the first loss to a New Zealand side that the Crusaders had suffered since May 2004 and was ironically the Blues' first win over a New Zealand team for two years. The other upset was 2006 Finalists the Hurricanes losing to last years 12th placed Queensland Reds.
=== Round 2 ===
Week two saw the New Zealand teams have a strong week with the Hurricanes, Crusaders, Blues notching wins. Western Force began to show vast improvement from 2006 winning only their second match since entering the competition in 2006. Apart from the Force all other Australian teams suffered a loss.
=== Round 3 ===
In week three a Super rugby record was broken, although not one to be proud of. The Reds and Brumbies played in the lowest scoring match ever, a dire affair that resulted in a Brumbies win 6–3. The 22 All Blacks missing from New Zealand teams started to have a visible effect on the kiwi sides with only the Hurricanes claiming a tight win over the Blues. Another relatively low scoring match saw even the last years powerhouse champions the Crusaders beaten by last years 13th placed Lions, it was the first match in six years the Crusaders hadn't scored a single try.
* Note: This match was the lowest-scoring in Super Rugby history at the time.
=== Round 4 ===
Week Four saw the Brumbies lose their second game by conceding a try in the final seconds to the Hurricanes (the first was to the Blues in Week Two). The Blues convincingly put away the Queensland Reds while the Force surrendered in the final seconds to the Lions leaving them yet to win a home game. The Bulls beat the Chiefs while the Crusaders began the show the form that they have displayed in past years by beating the Cheetahs 49–28.
=== Round 5 ===
Week 5 saw the Blues defeat the Highlanders, the Chiefs drew with the Cheetahs in the final moments of the game, the Hurricanes lost at | home to bottom placed Stormers and the Crusaders suffered their 3rd defeat of the season losing in the final minute because of a blunder by Rico Gear. The Brumbies also suffered a loss at | home to the Bulls whereas the controversial game of the round saw the Waratahs draw with the Western Force because of a blunder by Waratahs utility back Sam Norton-Knight who decide to run with the ball in the final minute instead of taking the penalty shot which could have won them the game and for his mistake Lote Tuqiri shoved him and walked off the pitch looking very disappointed.
=== Round 6 ===
Week 6 saw the Reds travel to the "House of Pain" to play the Highlanders. Recent signing Andrew Walker was rushed into the starting team, however the Reds lost 17–33. The next game saw the Brumbies looking to rectify a three-game losing streak at their home ground. They did so with a convincing 26–13 win against the Stormers. The Force were also looking to end a | home ground hoodoo against the Hurricanes. Seeking their first ever victory at Subiaco the Force looked to have squandered an 11–10 lead upon conceding a try with two minutes left to put the score at 17–11. However a try on the sideline and followed by an unlikely conversion by Force wing Cameron Shepherd gave the Force a maiden | home victory. The next day opened with the Blues thrashing an in-form Lions outfit 41–14. The game saw Doug Howlett score two tries and in doing so becoming the equal highest try scorer in Super Rugby history (with Joe Roff of the Brumbies). The Waratahs then played a | home game against the Bulls – who won 32–19 thanks to two tries apiece to Bryan Habana and Fourie du Preez.
Note: Doug Howlett became the joint top try scorer in Super Rugby with Joe Roff on 57 Tries
=== Round 7 ===
The Chiefs put on a convincing win against the Lions to start week seven. This was followed later that evening with the Force easily putting away the bottom of the table Reds in Perth. The Crusaders began to show their regular form with a win against the Bulls and the Waratahs season slumped to a new low with a home loss at the hands of the Stormers. The Cheetahs pulled off an unexpected win against the Brumbies and the undefeated Sharks continued their streak – beating the Hurricanes.
=== Round 8 ===
The Waratahs fell to another loss – being convincingly beaten by the Blues in Auckland. The Bulls were not worried about the "House of Pain" moniker of Carisbrook – instead they turned in on the Highlanders to win 22–13. The Crusaders continued their quick ascent up the ladder with a bonus-point win over the Stormers. Queensland slipped to another loss – albeit a close one – against the Chiefs. The Sharks suffered their first loss of the season as the Brumbies recording a big upset at ABSA Stadium. It was also the Brumbies first ever away win against the Sharks. The Lions continued the Hurricanes bad season with an easy win.
=== Round 9 ===
The Highlanders recorded a home win over the Cheetahs to open the round before the Force subjected the Sharks to their second loss in as many matches in Perth. The Hurricanes pulled off a win over the Bulls and the Blues put in a hard-fought win over the Chiefs. The Blues' Doug Howlett took sole possession of the all-| time try scoring lead in Super Rugby during the latter match. The Crusaders pulled away from the Waratahs early in the game before slacking off in the second half and seeing their lead evaporate to 34–28. The Waratahs scored a try late in the game to seemingly secure a win with the kick to come – but Peter Hewat missed a relatively easy kick to hand the Crusaders a 34–33 win. The Brumbies won a second game in South Africa – this time a close encounter against the Lions. A late Julian Huxley try securing a 14–9 win for the Canberra-based side.
=== Round 10 ===
The Blues easily put away the Cheetahs in the sole Good Friday game. The next day saw the Chiefs beat the Highlanders before a startling mountain backdrop in Queenstown. The Crusaders annihilated the Force 53–0. It was the largest score ever conceded by the Force and the largest losing margin – but for the Crusaders it didn't come close to their 96–19 win against the Waratahs in 2002. The Sharks continued the high scoring – putting 57 points on the Reds in Brisbane for a big win. The Stormers upset the Lions 30–8 in Cape Town. In the sole Easter Sunday clash the Waratahs failed to resurrect their season against the Brumbies – going down 36–10 in the interstate grudge match between the rivals. The win put the Brumbies into the top four for the first time in 2007.
=== Round 11 ===
This week saw the Hurricanes take on the Cheetahs and Hosea Gear became the Hurricanes' hero after scoring a 90-metre try in the final moments of the game. It was also the team's fourth try of the game which gave them a bonus point on top of the win. The following day, the Chiefs thrashed the Western Force 64–36, a game which saw a total of 14 tries being scored, nine of which were scored by the Chiefs, with Roy Kinikinilau and Brendon Leonard each getting hat-tricks. The Crusaders then defeated the Highlanders to climb to the top of the table. The Blues lost to the Sharks at home, going down by 7 points, and the Waratahs won only their second game this season, defeating the Reds, who sit at the bottom of the table. In the last match of the week, the Bulls thrashed the Stormers 49–12.
=== Round 12 ===
The Crusaders defeated the Hurricanes in a thrilling encounter which saw Jerry Collins being stretchered off after injuring his neck in a tackle on Rua Tipoki. The Brumbies defeated the Western Force in an all-Australian derby by just two points and the Reds won their second game of the season defeating the Cheetahs. Ben Tune (who is leaving the club after the season) scored the winning try in that match, but the match of the round saw the Chiefs defeat the Sharks to put themselves in contention for a semi-final spot. The Waratahs lost to the Highlanders by a point after Peter Hewat missed another conversion, and in a South African derby, the Bulls thrashed the Lions 31–7. Finally, the Blues lost their away match to the Stormers, but they remain second in the table nonetheless.
=== Round 13 ===
With the semi-final week just around the corner, Week 13 saw some close matches including the opener between the Highlanders and the Hurricanes at the cake tin. The score was 22 – 16 to the Hurricanes at 80 minutes but a final minute try to Toby Morland in the corner turned things around. Nick Evans needed to get the kick over to win the game but was unsuccessful allowing the Hurricanes to win the game lucky to not have the same situation when the Hurricanes lost to the Force in week 6. The force continued their up and down season by comfortably beating the cheetahs. The Waratahs narrowly lost going down to the chiefs. The Brumbies pulled an upset win over the Crusaders to keep their semi final hopes alive. The Sharks dominated the lions to make sure they would at least get a home semi final. The Blues lost their third game in a row going down to the Bulls which slimmed the chances of the Blues securing a semi final spot and helped the Bulls secure a semi final spot. The last game of the week saw the stormers easily put away the Reds.
=== Round 14 ===
This was an exciting week for the two South African contenders the Bulls and the Sharks, both with possibilities of a home semi final. The action-packed weekend started with an upset, the in-form Chiefs beating the Crusaders 30–24 at Lancaster Park. This result gave the Sharks the opportunity to take the top spot if they won in Cape Town. The Blues smashed the Western Force 33–6 to keep their title dreams alive. Later, the Brumbies kept their semi final hopes alive by defeating the tired and weary Highlanders 29–10. Waratahs defeated the Hurricanes away in Wellington 38–14. Cheetahs gave the Lions the South African wooden spoon by beating them 16–10. The first main game of the day was the Stormers vs the Sharks. The Sharks played an efficient and professional game whilst the Stormers played their usual erratic hot and cold game that had seen them beat some good teams during the season, but in the end the Sharks easily claimed a 36–10 victory to be the first South African side to finish at the top of the table at the end of the round-robin stage in the Super 14 competition's history. The last game of the weekend promised to be a huge one for the Bulls, who were chasing a semi final spot. They came up against a feeble Reds team, who after going ahead 3–0 in the beginning, had no idea of the onslaught they were going to receive. The Bulls, who needed a bonus-point win to reach the semifinals, easily achieved this goal a quarter of the way into the "match". Early in the second half they reached the 45-point margin needed to push them up to third place. Then the impossible became possible. If the Bulls went 72 points clear of the Reds, they would leapfrog to second, giving them a home semifinal in the high-altitude cauldron of noise that is Loftus Versfeld. They seemed to reach this goal with little effort against a humiliated Reds side, setting a new Super Rugby record for winning margin of 89 points.
== Finals ==
=== Semi finals ===
=== Grand final ===
The match had four tries – two by each team, and the last of which was scored by Bulls' wing Bryan Habana in the 82nd minute to give his team the trophy. It was the first Super rugby final to be played in South Africa, as well as the first all South African final, and the first final with a South African winner.
Man of the Match:Victor Matfield (Bulls)
Assistant referees:Lyndon Bray (New Zealand)Bryce Lawrence (New Zealand)
Television match official:Kelvin Deaker (New Zealand)
Assessor: Tappe Henning (South Africa)
== Player statistics ==
=== Leading try scorers ===
=== Leading point scorers ===
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henryk_Rolirad#:~:text=7%20External%20links-,Early%20life,by%20Stanis%C5%82aw%20and%20Stefania%20Rolirad. | Henryk Rolirad | Henryk Rolirad (11 April 1909 – 4 January 1984) was a Polish food–systems engineer who was recognized as a Righteous among the Nations for saving Jews during World War II.
== Early life ==
Henryk Rolirad was born in Poznań, Poland, and was adopted at age two by Stanisław and Stefania Rolirad. He graduated from Poznań's University of Economics. He first worked at a local Crafts Chamber, then as director of the Poznań branch of the Polish travel agency Orbis. In 1938 Rolirad formed an Orbis bureau in Zbąszyń.
== World War II ==
In 1938 Nazi Germany deported many Polish–Jewish emigres back to their native Poland. Even before World War II had begun, Henryk Rolirad was assisting these emigres arriving in the transit town of Zbąszyń.
During the German occupation of Poland, Rolirad was a member of the Polish Home Army's Security Corps and, in that capacity, worked with the Jewish Military Union (Żydowski Związek Wojskowy) active in the Warsaw Ghetto. Rolirad supplied the Jews with food, medicines, and forged documents, inside as well as outside the Ghetto, and made his own home available as a temporary refuge for Jews escaping the Ghetto. He also rented at least three other houses in which to hide Jews.
On 23 April 1943, as he sheltered Jews in one of his houses, Rolirad was captured by the German Gestapo. In German-occupied Poland, the penalty for helping Jews was death. The Gestapo placed Rolirad and two Jewish women into a truck. During transit, the truck stopped at an intersection, and the Gestapo man left the truck to enter a nearby house, leaving behind only two guards. A member of the Polish underground resistance, unable to see who was inside the truck, tossed in a hand grenade. Rolirad was seriously injured and remained disabled to the end of his life.
In 1944 Rolirad met Maria Einstein, both originally from Poznań. They had become acquainted earlier while helping Jews in Zbąszyń. Rolirad looked after Maria Einstein, saving her life.
== Postwar ==
After the war, Rolirad married Maria Einstein. In 1965 they emigrated with their daughters to Israel, living at Ramat Gan.
Rolirad died on 4 January 1984, of a malignant illness. He was interred at the Jaffa Catholic Cemetery in Tel Aviv.
== Recognition ==
On 18 October 1966 Yad Vashem, in Jerusalem, recognized Henryk Rolirad as a Righteous among the Nations.
== See also ==
Rescue of Jews by Poles during the Holocaust
Home Army
List of Righteous among the Nations by country
== References ==
== External links ==
Rolirads page in Yad Vashem site. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happy_Birthday,_Mr._President#:~:text=Monroe's%20iconic%20dress%20was%20designed,in%202023)%20for%20its%20construction. | Happy Birthday, Mr. President | "Happy Birthday, Mr. President" is a song sung by actress and singer Marilyn Monroe on May 19, 1962, for President John F. Kennedy at a gala held at Madison Square Garden for his 45th birthday, 10 days before the actual date (May 29). The event was co-hosted by Arthur B. Krim and Anna M. Rosenberg, who sat next to the President during the star-studded event.
Monroe sang the traditional "Happy Birthday to You" lyrics in a sultry, intimate voice, with "Mr. President" inserted as Kennedy's name. She continued the song with a snippet from the classic 1938 song, "Thanks for the Memory", for which she had written new lyrics specifically aimed at Kennedy.
Afterwards, as a large birthday cake was presented to him, President Kennedy came on stage and joked about Monroe's version of the song, saying, "I can now retire from politics after having had Happy Birthday sung to me in such a sweet, wholesome way," alluding to Monroe's delivery, skintight dress, and image as a sex symbol.
The performance was one of Monroe's last major public appearances before her death less than three months later on August 4, 1962. First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy, who rarely attended Democratic Party events, instead spent the day at the Loudoun Hunt Horse Show with her children, John and Caroline. Monroe was accompanied by jazz pianist Hank Jones.
== History ==
President Kennedy's birthday celebration was held at the third Madison Square Garden on May 19, 1962, and more than 15,000 people attended, including numerous celebrities. The event was a fundraising gala for the Democratic Party.
Monroe attended the event during the production of Something's Got to Give, resulting in her receiving a hand-delivered note stating that she had violated her contract with 20th Century Fox and eventual firing in June 1962.
Monroe's dress was made of a sheer and flesh-colored marquisette fabric, with 2,500 shimmering rhinestones sewn into it. The dress was so tight-fitting that Monroe had difficulty putting it on; she wore nothing under it. It was designed by Jean Louis. Monroe's hair was styled by Kenneth Battelle and her makeup was done by Marie Irvine.
Monroe was accompanied to the event by her publicist Patricia Newcomb and her former father-in-law Isidore Miller, with whom she had remained very close. Peter Lawford was at the event that night to introduce Monroe. He made a play on the actress's reputation for tardiness by giving her a number of introductions throughout the night, after which she did not appear on stage. When Monroe finally appeared in a spotlight, Lawford introduced her as the "late Marilyn Monroe". Monroe peeled off her white ermine fur coat, revealing the dress, and the audience gasped.
The event was staged and produced by Broadway composer and lyricist Richard Adler. The lighting design was by stage designer Sam Leve. According to his New York Times obituary, "Perhaps his most famous, although unintentional, touch was the lighting he designed for Marilyn Monroe's birthday serenade to Kennedy at Madison Square Garden, which caused her dress to become see-through."
== Dress ==
Monroe's iconic dress was designed by costume designer Bob Mackie, who was hired to sketch the design for the leading fashion designer of the time, Jean Louis, who paid $1,440.33 (equivalent to $11,403 in 2024) for its construction. The dress sold in 1999 at an auction in New York City for over $1.26 million (equivalent to $2.22 million in 2024). Canadian billionaire Jim Pattison subsequently purchased the dress on November 17, 2016, at a Los Angeles auction for $4.8 million, making it one of the most valuable dresses.
In 2022, reality TV star Kim Kardashian wore Monroe's Happy Birthday Mr. President dress for the Met Gala. Kardashian had lost 16 pounds (7.3 kg) in three weeks to fit into the dress. Kardashian remains the only person other than Monroe known to have worn the dress. Kardashian wore Monroe's original dress for approximately five minutes, only to walk up the runway, and then changed into an exact replica so as to not cause any more unnecessary strain to the 60-year-old dress.
Displeased with both Kardashian and the current owner, Ripley Entertainment, Bob Mackie (who first sketched the design in 1962 at the age of 23) said in an interview with Entertainment Weekly, "I thought it was a big mistake.. [Marilyn] was a goddess. A crazy goddess, but a goddess. She was just fabulous. Nobody photographs like that. And it was done for her. It was designed for her. Nobody else should be seen in that dress."
Within the same interview, Alicia Malone, a host for Turner Classic Movies (TCM), expressed her concerns, stating, "There are all the issues with the actual preservation of the dress and things like oxygen can affect a dress.. Usually, these outfits are kept very much in controlled environments. So, it was quite alarming that she was able to wear it. I personally wish she wore a replica instead of the real thing."
In an interview with BBC in June 2022, Dr. Kate Strasdin, a senior lecturer in cultural studies at Falmouth University, remarked, "You can't even handle a dress like that without damaging it in some way, let alone wear it, so it was inevitable that there was going to be significant damage just by even wearing it on the red carpet... there will have been oils in her skin, there will have been all of that chemical reaction with a silk that is fragile". It is also noted that an Instagram account dedicated to "The Marilyn Monroe Collection", a company which claims to hold "the world's largest privately held collection of Marilyn Monroe's personal property," managed by owner Scott Fortner's team, posted a comparison image of the dress which showed significant irreversible damage which occurred after the gala event.
== Legacy ==
In the 1987 season three, sixth episode of The Golden Girls ("Letter to Gorbachev"), Rose Nylund (Betty White) dreams about, among other incidents, Blanche Devereaux (Rue McClanahan) singing a parody rendition titled "Happy Birthday, Mr. #1 Communist" to Mikhail Gorbachev, the then-leader of the Soviet Union.
In the 1992 film Wayne's World, Mike Myers puts on a bra and does an impression of Monroe singing the song as his character, Wayne, while his girlfriend Cassandra (Tia Carrere) is on the phone. In 1994, Mathilda (Natalie Portman) reenacted Myers's scene in Leon: The Professional. At the time, she had never seen Monroe's performance.
On the January 16, 1993, episode of Saturday Night Live, musical guest Madonna parodied the song as "Happy Inauguration, Mr. President", alluding to the first inauguration of Bill Clinton later that week.
Geri Halliwell of the Spice Girls performed the song in 1998 for the then Prince Charles' 50th birthday celebration, replacing the line "Happy Birthday, Mr. President" with "Happy Birthday, Your Royal Highness".
In a season two episode of Breaking Bad, "Mandala" (2009), Skyler White sings the song to her boss Ted Beneke for his birthday. Fran Felstein sings it in The Sopranos season 5 episode "In Camelot" (2004).
In 2012, American musician Lana Del Rey reenacted the performance in the music video for her song "National Anthem", with herself as Monroe and ASAP Rocky as President Kennedy.
In 2016, a trailer for the second season of the alternate history series The Man in the High Castle shows Monroe singing the song for Adolf Hitler, with the line "Happy Birthday, Mr. President" replaced with "Happy Birthday, Mein Führer".
== See also ==
List of individual dresses
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lewis#:~:text=The%20Atlanta%20Journal%2DConstitution%20said,to%20the%20halls%20of%20Congress%22. | John Lewis | John Robert Lewis (February 21, 1940 – July 17, 2020) was an American civil rights activist and statesman who served in the United States House of Representatives for Georgia's 5th congressional district from 1987 until his death in 2020. He participated in the 1960 Nashville sit-ins and the Freedom Rides, was the chairman of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) from 1963 to 1966, and was one of the "Big Six" leaders of groups who organized the 1963 March on Washington. Fulfilling many key roles in the civil rights movement and its actions to end legalized racial segregation in the United States, in 1965 Lewis led the first of three Selma to Montgomery marches across the Edmund Pettus Bridge where, in an incident that became known as Bloody Sunday, state troopers and police attacked Lewis and the other marchers.
A member of the Democratic Party, Lewis was first elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1986 and served 17 terms. The district he represented included most of Atlanta. Due to his length of service, he became the dean of the Georgia congressional delegation. He was one of the leaders of the Democratic Party in the House, serving from 1991 as a chief deputy whip and from 2003 as a senior chief deputy whip. He received many honorary degrees and awards, including the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2011.
== Early life and education ==
John Robert Lewis was born near Troy, Alabama, on February 21, 1940, the third of ten children of Willie Mae (née Carter) and Eddie Lewis. His parents were sharecroppers in rural Pike County, Alabama, of which Troy was the county seat. His great-grandfather, Frank Carter, had been born enslaved in the same county in 1862, and lived until Lewis was seven years old.
As a boy, Lewis aspired to be a preacher, and at age five, he preached to his family's chickens on the farm. As a young child, Lewis had little interaction with white people, as his county was majority black by a large percentage and his family worked as farmers. By the time he was six, Lewis had seen only two white people in his life. Lewis recalls "I grew up in rural Alabama, very poor, very few books in our home." He describes his early education at a little school, walking distances from his home. "A beautiful little building, it was a Rosenwald School. It was supported by the community, it was the only school we had." "I had a wonderful teacher in elementary school, and she told me 'read my child, read!' And I tried to read everything. I loved books. I remember in 1956, when I was 16 years old, with some of my brothers and sisters and cousins, going down to the public library, trying to get a library card, and we were told the library was for whites only and not for coloreds." As he grew older, he began taking trips into Troy with his family, where he continued to have experiences of racism and segregation. Lewis had relatives who lived in northern cities, and he learned from them that in the North, schools, buses, and businesses were integrated. When Lewis was 11, an uncle took him to Buffalo, New York, where he became acutely aware of the contrast with Troy's segregation.
In 1955, Lewis first heard Martin Luther King Jr. on the radio, and he closely followed King's Montgomery bus boycott later that year. At age 15, Lewis preached his first public sermon. At 17, Lewis met Rosa Parks, notable for her role in the bus boycott, and met King for the first time at the age of 18. In later years, Lewis also credited evangelist Billy Graham, a friend of King's, as someone who "helped change me". Lewis also stated that Graham inspired him "to a significant degree" to fulfill his aspirations of becoming a minister.
After writing to King about being denied admission to Troy University in Alabama, Lewis was invited to meet with him. King, who referred to Lewis as "the boy from Troy", discussed suing the university for discrimination, but he warned Lewis that doing so could endanger his family in Troy. After discussing it with his parents, Lewis decided instead to proceed with his education at a small, historically black college in Tennessee.
Lewis graduated from the American Baptist Theological Seminary in Nashville, Tennessee, and was ordained as a Baptist minister. He then earned a bachelor's degree in religion and philosophy from Fisk University, also a historically black college. He was a member of Phi Beta Sigma fraternity.
== Student activism and SNCC ==
=== Nashville Student Movement ===
As a student, Lewis became an activist in the civil rights movement. He organized sit-ins at segregated lunch counters in Nashville and took part in many other civil rights activities as part of the Nashville Student Movement. The Nashville sit-in movement was responsible for the desegregation of lunch counters in the city's downtown. Lewis was arrested and jailed many times during the nonviolent activities to desegregate the city's downtown businesses. He was also instrumental in organizing bus boycotts and other nonviolent protests to support voting rights and racial equality.
During this time, Lewis said it was important to engage in "good trouble, necessary trouble" in order to achieve change, and he held to this credo throughout his life.
While a student, Lewis was invited to attend nonviolence workshops held at Clark Memorial United Methodist Church by the Rev. James Lawson and Rev. Kelly Miller Smith. Lewis and other students became dedicated to the discipline and philosophy of nonviolence, which he practiced for the rest of his life.
=== Freedom Riders ===
In 1961, Lewis became one of the 13 original Freedom Riders. The group of seven blacks and six whites planned to ride on interstate buses from Washington, D.C. to New Orleans to challenge the policies of Southern states along the route that had imposed segregated seating on the buses, which violated federal policy for interstate transportation. The "Freedom Ride", originated by the Fellowship of Reconciliation and revived by James Farmer and the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), was initiated to pressure the federal government to enforce the Supreme Court decision in Boynton v. Virginia (1960), which declared segregated interstate bus travel to be unconstitutional. The Freedom Rides revealed the passivity of the local, state, and federal governments in the face of violence against law-abiding citizens. The project was publicized and organizers had notified the Department of Justice about it. It relied upon the Alabama police to protect the riders, even though the state was known for notorious racism, and did not undertake actions except assigning FBI agents to record incidents. After extreme violence broke out in South Carolina and Alabama, the Kennedy Administration called for a "cooling-off" period, with a moratorium on Freedom Rides.
In the South, Lewis and other nonviolent Freedom Riders were beaten by angry mobs and arrested. At age 21, Lewis was the first of the Freedom Riders to be assaulted while in Rock Hill, South Carolina. When he tried to enter a whites-only waiting room, two white men attacked him, injuring his face and kicking him in the ribs. Two weeks later Lewis joined a Freedom Ride bound for Jackson, Mississippi. Near the end of his life, Lewis said of this time, "We were determined not to let any act of violence keep us from our goal. We knew our lives could be threatened, but we had made up our minds not to turn back." As a result of his Freedom Rider activities, Lewis was imprisoned for 40 days in the notorious Mississippi State Penitentiary in Sunflower County.
In an interview with CNN during the 40th anniversary of the Freedom Rides, Lewis recounted the violence he and the 12 other original Freedom Riders endured. In Birmingham, the Riders were beaten by an unrestrained mob including KKK members (notified of their arrival by police) with baseball bats, chains, lead pipes, and stones. The police arrested them, and led them across the border into Tennessee before letting them go. The Riders reorganized and rode to Montgomery, where they were met with more violence at the local Greyhound station. There Lewis was hit in the head with a wooden crate. "It was very violent. I thought I was going to die. I was left lying at the Greyhound bus station in Montgomery unconscious", said Lewis, remembering the incident.
When CORE gave up on the Freedom Ride because of the violence, Lewis and fellow activist Diane Nash arranged for Nashville students from Fisk and other colleges to take it over and bring it to a successful conclusion.
In February 2009, 48 years after the Montgomery attack, Lewis received a nationally televised apology from Elwin Wilson, a white southerner and former Klansman.
Lewis wrote in 2015 that he had known the young activists Michael Schwerner and Andrew Goodman from New York. They, along with James Chaney, a local African-American activist from Mississippi, were abducted and murdered in June 1964 in Neshoba County, Mississippi, by members of the Ku Klux Klan including law enforcement.
=== SNCC Chairman ===
In 1963, when Charles McDew stepped down as chairman of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), Lewis, a founding member, was elected to take over. Lewis's experience was already widely respected. His courage and tenacious adherence to the philosophy of reconciliation and nonviolence had enabled him to emerge as a leader. He had already been arrested 24 times in the nonviolent movement for equal justice. Lewis was the youngest of the "Big Six" leaders who were organizing the March on Washington that summer. He was the fourth of 12 speakers on the program that day, which ended with Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.'s now-famous "I Have a Dream" speech. A. Philip Randolph preceded Lewis. James Farmer, Whitney Young, and Roy Wilkins spoke between Lewis and King.
Lewis had written a response to Kennedy's 1963 Civil Rights Bill. Lewis and his fellow SNCC workers had suffered from the federal government's passivity in the face of Southern violence. He planned to denounce Kennedy's bill for failing to provide protection for African Americans against police brutality, or to provide African Americans with the means to vote; he described the bill as "too little and too late". Advance copies of the speech were distributed on August 27 but encountered opposition from the other chairs of the march who demanded revisions. James Forman rapidly re-wrote the speech, replacing Lewis's initial assertion "we cannot support, wholeheartedly the [Kennedy] civil rights bill" with "We support it with great reservations."
After Lewis, Dr. King gave his now celebrated "I Have a Dream" speech. Historian Howard Zinn later wrote of this occasion:
At the great Washington March of 1963, the chairman of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), John Lewis, speaking to the same enormous crowd that [next] heard King's "I Have a Dream" speech, was prepared to ask the right question: 'Which side is the federal government on?' That sentence was eliminated from his speech by the other organizers of the March to avoid offending the Kennedy Administration.In 1964, SNCC opened Freedom Schools, launched the Mississippi Freedom Summer for voter education and registration. Lewis coordinated SNCC's efforts for Freedom Summer, a campaign to register black voters in Mississippi and to engage college student activists in aiding the campaign. Lewis traveled the country, encouraging students to spend their summer break trying to help people vote in Mississippi, which had the lowest number of black voters and strong resistance to the movement.
In 1965 Lewis organized some of the voter registration efforts during the 1965 Selma voting rights campaign, and became nationally known during his prominent role in the Selma to Montgomery marches. On March 7, 1965 – a day that would become known as "Bloody Sunday" – Lewis and fellow activist Hosea Williams led over 600 marchers across the Edmund Pettus Bridge in Selma, Alabama. At the end of the bridge and the city-county boundary, they were met by Alabama State Troopers who ordered them to disperse. When the marchers stopped to pray, the police discharged tear gas and mounted troopers charged the demonstrators, beating them with nightsticks. Lewis's skull was fractured, but he was aided in escaping across the bridge to Brown Chapel, a church in Selma that served as the movement's headquarters. Lewis bore scars on his head from this incident for the rest of his life.
Lewis served as SNCC chairman until 1966, when he was replaced by Stokely Carmichael.
== Field Foundation, SRC, and VEP (1966–1977) ==
In 1966, Lewis moved to New York City to take a job as the associate director of the Field Foundation of New York. He was there a little over a year before moving back to Atlanta to direct the Southern Regional Council's Community Organization Project. During his time with the Field Foundation, he completed his degree from Fisk University.
In 1970, Lewis became the director of the Voter Education Project (VEP), a position he held until 1977. Though initially a project of the Southern Regional Council, the VEP became an independent organization in 1971. Despite difficulties caused by the 1973–1975 recession, the VEP added nearly four million minority voters to the rolls under Lewis's leadership. During his tenure, the VEP expanded its mission, including running Voter Mobilization Tours.
== Early work in government (1977–1986) ==
In January 1977, incumbent Democratic U.S. Congressman Andrew Young of Georgia's 5th congressional district resigned to become the U.S. Ambassador to the U.N. under President Jimmy Carter. In the March 1977 open primary, Atlanta City Councilman Wyche Fowler ranked first with 40% of the vote, failing to reach the 50% threshold to win outright. Lewis ranked second with 29% of the vote. In the April election, Fowler defeated Lewis 62%–38%.
After his unsuccessful bid, Lewis accepted a position with the Carter administration as associate director of ACTION, responsible for running the VISTA program, the Retired Senior Volunteer Program, and the Foster Grandparent Program. He held that job for two and a half years, resigning as the 1980 election approached.
In 1981, Lewis ran for an at-large seat on the Atlanta City Council. He won with 69% of the vote, and served on the council until 1986.
== U.S. House of Representatives ==
=== Elections ===
==== 1986 ====
After nine years as a member of the U.S. House of Representatives, Wyche Fowler gave up the seat to make a successful run for the U.S. Senate. Lewis decided to run for the 5th district again. In the August Democratic primary, where a victory was considered tantamount to election, State Senator Julian Bond ranked first with 47%, just three points shy of winning outright. Lewis finished in second place with 35%. In the run-off, Lewis pulled an upset against Bond, defeating him 52% to 48%. The race was said to have "badly strained relations in Atlanta's black community" as many Black leaders had supported Bond over Lewis. Lewis was "endorsed by the Atlanta newspapers and a favorite of the white liberal establishment". His victory was due to strong results among white voters (a minority in the district). During the campaign, he ran advertisements accusing Bond of corruption, implying that Bond used cocaine, and suggesting that Bond had lied about his civil rights activism.
In the November general election, Lewis defeated Republican Portia Scott 75% to 25%.
==== 1988–2018 ====
Lewis was reelected 18 times, dropping below 70 percent of the vote in the general election only once in 1994, when he defeated Republican Dale Dixon by a 38-point margin, 69%–31%. He ran unopposed in 1996, 2004, 2006, and 2008, and again in 2014 and 2018.
He was challenged in the Democratic primary just twice: in 1992 and 2008. In 1992, he defeated State Representative Mable Thomas 76–24%. In 2008, Thomas decided to challenge Lewis again; Markel Hutchins also contested the race. Lewis defeated Hutchins and Thomas 69–16–15%.
=== Tenure ===
==== Overview ====
Lewis represented Georgia's 5th congressional district, one of the most consistently Democratic districts in the nation. Since its formalization in 1845, the district has been represented by a Democrat for most of its history.
Lewis was one of the most liberal congressmen to have represented a district in the Deep South. He was categorized as a "Hard-Core Liberal" by On the Issues. The Washington Post described Lewis in 1998 as "a fiercely partisan Democrat but ... also fiercely independent". Lewis characterized himself as a strong and adamant liberal. The Atlanta Journal-Constitution said Lewis was the "only former major civil rights leader who extended his fight for human rights and racial reconciliation to the halls of Congress". The Atlanta Journal-Constitution also said that to "those who know him, from U.S. senators to 20-something congressional aides", he is called the "conscience of Congress". Lewis cited Florida Senator and later Representative Claude Pepper, a staunch liberal, as being the colleague whom he most admired. Lewis also spoke out in support of gay rights and national health insurance.
Lewis opposed the 1991 Gulf War, and the 2000 U.S. trade agreement with China that passed the House. He opposed the Clinton administration on NAFTA and welfare reform. After welfare reform passed, Lewis was described as outraged; he said, "Where is the sense of decency? What does it profit a great nation to conquer the world, only to lose its soul?" In 1994, when Clinton considered invading Haiti, Lewis opposed armed intervention. After a non-violent transition of power was negotiated, Lewis supported the presence of U.S. troops in Haiti as part of Operation Uphold Democracy, calling the operation a "mission of peace". In 1998, when Clinton was considering a military strike against Iraq, Lewis said he would back the president if American forces were ordered into action. In 2001, three days after the September 11 attacks, Lewis voted to give President George W. Bush authority to use force against the perpetrators of 9/11 in a vote that was 420–1; Lewis called it probably one of his toughest votes. In 2002, he sponsored the Peace Tax Fund bill, a conscientious objection to military taxation initiative that had been reintroduced yearly since 1972. Lewis was a "fierce partisan critic of President Bush", and an early opponent of the Iraq War. The Associated Press said he was "the first major House figure to suggest impeaching George W. Bush", arguing that the president "deliberately, systematically violated the law" in authorizing the National Security Agency to conduct wiretaps without a warrant. Lewis said, "He is not king, he is president."
Lewis drew on his historical involvement in the Civil Rights Movement as part of his politics. He made an annual pilgrimage to Alabama to retrace the route he marched in 1965 from Selma to Montgomery – a route Lewis worked to make part of the Historic National Trails program. That trip became "one of the hottest tickets in Washington among lawmakers, Republican and Democrat, eager to associate themselves with Lewis and the movement. 'We don't deliberately set out to win votes, but it's very helpful", Lewis said of the trip'." In recent years, however, Faith and Politics Institute drew criticism for selling seats on the trip to lobbyists for at least $25,000 each. According to the Center for Public Integrity, even Lewis said that he would feel "much better" if the institute's funding came from churches and foundations instead of corporations.
On June 3, 2011, the House passed a resolution 268–145, calling for a withdrawal of the United States military from the air and naval operations in and around Libya. Lewis voted against the resolution.
In a 2002 op-ed, Lewis mentioned a response by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. to an anti-Zionist student at a 1967 Harvard meeting, quoting "When people criticize Zionists they mean Jews, you are talking anti-Semitism." In describing the special relationship between African Americans and American Jews in working for liberation and peace, he also gave other statements by King to the same effect, including one from March 25, 1968: "Peace for Israel means security, and we must stand with all our might to protect its right to exist, its territorial integrity. I see Israel as one of the great outposts of democracy in the world, and a marvelous example of what can be done, how desert land can be transformed into an oasis of brotherhood and democracy. Peace for Israel means security and that security must be a reality."
Lewis "strongly disagreed" with the movement for Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions (BDS) against Israel and co-sponsored a resolution condemning the pro-Palestinian group, but he supported Representatives Ilhan Omar and Rashida Tlaib's House resolution opposing U.S. anti-boycott legislation banning the boycott of Israel. He explained his support as "a simple demonstration of my ongoing commitment to the ability of every American to exercise the fundamental First Amendment right to protest through nonviolent actions".
==== Protests ====
In January 2001, Lewis boycotted the inauguration of George W. Bush by staying in his Atlanta district. He did not attend the swearing-in because he did not believe Bush was the true elected president. Later, Lewis joined 30 other House Democrats who voted to not count the 20 electoral votes from Ohio in the 2004 presidential election.
In March 2003, Lewis spoke to a crowd of 30,000 in Oregon during an anti-war protest before the start of the Iraq War. In 2006 and 2009 he was arrested for protesting against the genocide in Darfur outside the Sudanese embassy. He was one of eight U.S. Representatives, from six states, arrested while holding a sit-in near the west side of the U.S. Capitol building, to advocate for immigration reform.
==== 2008 presidential election ====
At first, Lewis supported Hillary Clinton, endorsing her presidential campaign on October 12, 2007. On February 14, 2008, however, he announced he was considering withdrawing his support from Clinton and might instead cast his superdelegate vote for Barack Obama: "Something is happening in America and people are prepared and ready to make that great leap." Ben Smith of Politico said that "it would be a seminal moment in the race if John Lewis were to switch sides."
On February 27, 2008, Lewis formally changed his support and endorsed Obama. After Obama clinched the Democratic nomination for president, Lewis said "If someone had told me this would be happening now, I would have told them they were crazy, out of their mind, they didn't know what they were talking about ... I just wish the others were around to see this day. ... To the people who were beaten, put in jail, were asked questions they could never answer to register to vote, it's amazing." Despite switching his support to Obama, Lewis drew criticism from his constituents for his support of Clinton for several months. One of his challengers in the House primary election set up campaign headquarters inside the building that served as Obama's Georgia office.
In October 2008, Lewis issued a statement criticizing the presidential campaign of John McCain and his running mate Sarah Palin and accusing them of "sowing the seeds of hatred and division" in a way that brought to mind the late Gov. George Wallace and "another destructive period" in American political history. McCain said he was "saddened" by the criticism from "a man I've always admired", and called on Obama to repudiate Lewis's statement. Obama responded to the statement, saying that he "does not believe that John McCain or his policy criticism is in any way comparable to George Wallace or his segregationist policies". Lewis later issued a follow-up statement clarifying that he had not compared McCain and Palin to Wallace himself, but rather that his earlier statement was a "reminder to all Americans that toxic language can lead to destructive behavior".
On an African American being elected president, he said:If you ask me whether the election ... is the fulfillment of Dr. King's dream, I say, 'No, it's just a down payment.' There's still too many people 50 years later, there's still too many people that are being left out and left behind.After Obama's swearing-in ceremony as president, Lewis asked him to sign a commemorative photograph of the event. Obama signed it, "Because of you, John. Barack Obama."
==== 2016 firearm safety legislation sit-in ====
On June 22, 2016, House Democrats, led by Lewis and Massachusetts Representative Katherine Clark, began a sit-in demanding House Speaker Paul Ryan allow a vote on gun-safety legislation in the aftermath of the Orlando nightclub shooting. Speaker pro tempore Daniel Webster ordered the House into recess, but Democrats refused to leave the chamber for nearly 26 hours.
==== National African American Museum ====
In 1988, the year after he was sworn into Congress, Lewis introduced a bill to create a national African American museum in Washington. The bill failed, and for 15 years he continued to introduce it with each new Congress. Each time it was blocked in the Senate, most often by conservative Southern Senator Jesse Helms. In 2003, Helms retired. The bill won bipartisan support, and President George W. Bush signed the bill to establish the museum, with the Smithsonian's Board of Regents to establish the location. The National Museum of African American History and Culture, located adjacent to the Washington Monument, held its opening ceremony on September 25, 2016.
==== 2016 presidential election ====
Lewis supported Hillary Clinton in the 2016 Democratic presidential primaries against Bernie Sanders. Regarding Sanders' role in the civil rights movement, Lewis remarked "To be very frank, I never saw him, I never met him. I chaired the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee for three years, from 1963 to 1966. I was involved in sit-ins, in the Freedom Rides, the March on Washington, the March from Selma to Montgomery ... but I met Hillary Clinton". Former Congressman and Hawaii Governor Neil Abercrombie wrote a letter to Lewis expressing his disappointment with Lewis's comments about Sanders. Lewis later clarified his statement, saying "During the late 1950s and 1960s when I was more engaged, [Sanders] was not there. I did not see him around. I have never seen him in the South. But if he was there, if he was involved someplace, I was not aware of it ... The fact that I did not meet him in the movement does not mean I doubted that Senator Sanders participated in the civil rights movement, neither was I attempting to disparage his activism."
In a January 2016 interview, Lewis compared Donald Trump, then the Republican front-runner for the presidential nomination, to former Alabama Governor George Wallace: "I've been around a while and Trump reminds me so much of a lot of the things that George Wallace said and did. I think demagogues are pretty dangerous, really ... We shouldn't divide people, we shouldn't separate people."
On January 13, 2017, during an interview with NBC's Chuck Todd for Meet the Press, Lewis stated: "I don't see the president-elect as a legitimate president." He added, "I think the Russians participated in having this man get elected, and they helped destroy the candidacy of Hillary Clinton. I don't plan to attend the inauguration. I think there was a conspiracy on the part of the Russians, and others, that helped him get elected. That's not right. That's not fair. That's not the open, democratic process." Trump replied on Twitter the following day, suggesting that Lewis should "spend more time on fixing and helping his district, which is in horrible shape and falling apart (not to [...] mention crime infested) rather than falsely complaining about the election results", and accusing Lewis of being "All talk, talk, talk – no action or results. Sad!" Trump's statement about Lewis's district was rated as "Mostly False" by PolitiFact, and he was criticized for attacking a civil rights leader such as Lewis, especially one who was brutally beaten for the cause, and especially on Martin Luther King weekend. Senator John McCain acknowledged Lewis as "an American hero" but criticized him, saying: "this is not the first time that Congressman Lewis has taken a very extreme stand and condemned without any shred of evidence for doing so an incoming president of the United States. This is a stain on Congressman Lewis's reputation – no one else's."
A few days later, Lewis said that he would not attend Trump's inauguration because he did not believe that Trump was the true elected president. "It will be the first (inauguration) that I miss since I've been in Congress. You cannot be at home with something that you feel that is wrong, is not right", he said. Lewis had failed to attend George W. Bush's inauguration in 2001 because he believed that he too was not a legitimately elected president. Lewis's statement was rated as "Pants on Fire" by PolitiFact.
==== 2020 presidential election ====
Lewis endorsed Joe Biden for president on April 7, 2020, a day before Biden effectively secured the Democratic nomination. He recommended Biden pick a woman of color as his running mate.
=== Committee assignments ===
Lewis served on the following Congressional committees at the time of his death:
Committee on Ways and Means
Subcommittee on Oversight (Chair)
United States Congress Joint Committee on Taxation
=== Caucus memberships ===
Lewis was a member of over 40 caucuses, including:
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) Caucus (Co-Chair)
Congressional Structured Settlements Caucus (Co-Chair)
Congressional Black Caucus
Congressional Progressive Caucus
Congressional Brazil Caucus
Congressional Arts Caucus
In 1991, Lewis became the senior chief deputy whip in the Democratic caucus.
== Biographies ==
Lewis's 1998 autobiography Walking with the Wind: A Memoir of the Movement, co-written with Mike D'Orso, won the Robert F. Kennedy Book Award, the Anisfield-Wolf Book Award, the Christopher Award and the Lillian Smith Book Award. It appeared on numerous bestseller lists, was selected as a New York Times Notable Book of the Year, was named by the American Library Association as its Nonfiction Book of the Year, and was included among Newsweek magazine's 2009 list of "50 Books For Our Times". It was critically acclaimed, with The Washington Post calling it "the definitive account of the civil rights movement" and the Los Angeles Times proclaiming it "destined to become a classic in civil rights literature".
His life is also the subject of a 2002 book for young people, John Lewis: From Freedom Rider to Congressman. In 2012, Lewis released Across That Bridge, written with Brenda Jones, to mixed reviews. Publishers Weekly's review said, "At its best, the book provides a testament to the power of nonviolence in social movements ... At its worst, it resembles an extended campaign speech."
=== March (2013) ===
In 2013, Lewis became the first member of Congress to write a graphic novel, with the launch of a trilogy titled March. The March trilogy is a black and white comics trilogy about the Civil Rights Movement, told through the perspective of civil rights leader and U.S. Congressman John Lewis. The first volume, March: Book One is written by Lewis and Andrew Aydin, illustrated and lettered by Nate Powell and was published in August 2013, the second volume, March: Book Two was published in January 2015 and the final volume, March: Book Three was published in August 2016.
In an August 2014 interview, Lewis cited the influence of a 1958 comic book, Martin Luther King and the Montgomery Story, on his decision to adapt his experience to the graphic novel format. March: Book One became a number one New York Times bestseller for graphic novels and spent more than a year on the lists.
March: Book One received an "Author Honor" from the American Library Association's 2014 Coretta Scott King Book Awards, which honors an African American author of a children's book. Book One also became the first graphic novel to win a Robert F. Kennedy Book Award, receiving a "Special Recognition" bust in 2014.
March: Book One was selected by first-year reading programs in 2014 at Michigan State University, Georgia State University, and Marquette University.
March: Book Two was released in 2015 and immediately became both a New York Times and Washington Post bestseller for graphic novels.
The release of March: Book Three in August 2016 brought all three volumes into the top 3 slots of the New York Times bestseller list for graphic novels for 6 consecutive weeks. The third volume was announced as the recipient of the 2017 Printz Award for excellence in young-adult literature, the Coretta Scott King Award, the YALSA Award for Excellence in Nonfiction, the 2016 National Book Award in Young People's Literature, and the Sibert Medal at the American Library Association's annual Midwinter Meeting in January 2017.
The March trilogy received the Carter G. Woodson Book Award in the Secondary (grades 7–12) category in 2017.
=== Run (2018) ===
In 2018, Lewis and Andrew Aydin co-wrote another graphic novel as a sequel to the March series entitled Run, which documents Lewis's life after the passage of the Civil Rights Act. The authors teamed with illustrator Afua Richardson for the book, which was originally scheduled to be released in August 2018, but was later rescheduled. It was released on August 3, 2021, a year after his death, as it was one of his last endeavours before he died. Nate Powell, who illustrated March, also contributed to the art.
== Personal life ==
=== Marriage and family ===
Lewis met his future wife Lillian Miles at a New Year's Eve party hosted by Xernona Clayton. Lillian worked for the library of Atlanta University at the time. The two of them married one year later in 1968. In 1976, they had a son, who also works in politics. Lillian died on December 31, 2012, their 45th marriage anniversary
He has a grandson who lives in Paris.
=== Illness and death ===
On December 29, 2019, Lewis announced that he had been diagnosed with stage IV pancreatic cancer. He remained in the Washington D.C. area for his treatment. Lewis stated: "I have been in some kind of fight – for freedom, equality, basic human rights – for nearly my entire life. I have never faced a fight quite like the one I have now."
On July 17, 2020, Lewis died in Atlanta at the age of 80, on the same day in the same city as his friend and fellow civil rights activist C.T. Vivian. Lewis had been the final surviving "Big Six" civil rights icon.
Then-president Donald Trump ordered all flags to be flown at half-staff in response to Lewis's death. Condolences also came from the international community, with Swedish Prime Minister Stefan Löfven, French President Emmanuel Macron, Irish President Michael D. Higgins among others, all memorializing Lewis.
=== Funeral services ===
Public ceremonies honoring Lewis began in his hometown of Troy, Alabama at Troy University, which had denied him admission in 1957 due to racial segregation. His casket was then taken for a memorial held at the historic Brown Chapel AME Church in Selma, Alabama. Calls to rename the Edmund Pettus Bridge in Selma, in Lewis's honor grew after his death. On July 26, 2020, his casket, carried in a horse-drawn caisson, traveled the same route over the bridge that he walked during the Bloody Sunday march from Selma to Montgomery, before his lying in state at the Alabama State Capitol in Montgomery.
United States House of Representatives Speaker Nancy Pelosi and Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell announced that Lewis would lie in state in the United States Capitol Rotunda on July 27 and 28, with a public viewing and procession through Washington, D.C. He is the first African-American lawmaker to be so honored in the Rotunda; in October 2019 his colleague, representative Elijah Cummings, lay in state in the Capitol Statuary Hall. Health concerns related to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic led to a decision to have his casket displayed outdoors on the East Front steps during the public viewing hours, rather than the usual line of people in the Rotunda filing past the casket to pay their respects. On July 29, 2020, Lewis's casket left the U.S. Capitol and was transported back to Atlanta, Georgia, where he lay in state at the Georgia State Capitol.
Among the distinguished speakers at his final funeral service at Atlanta's Ebenezer Baptist Church were former U.S. Presidents Bill Clinton, George W. Bush, and Barack Obama, who gave the eulogy. Former President Jimmy Carter, unable to travel during the COVID-19 pandemic due to his advanced age, sent a statement to be read during the service. The then-current President Donald Trump did not attend the service. Lewis was buried at Atlanta's historic South-View Cemetery.
Lewis penned an op-ed to the nation that was published in The New York Times on the day of his funeral. In it, he called on the younger generation to continue the work for justice and an end to hate.
== Honors ==
Lewis was honored by having the 1997 sculpture by Thornton Dial, The Bridge, placed at Ponce de Leon Avenue and Freedom Park, Atlanta, dedicated to him by the artist. In 1999, Lewis was awarded the Wallenberg Medal from the University of Michigan in recognition of his courageous lifelong commitment to the defense of civil and human rights. In that same year, he received the Four Freedoms Award for the Freedom of Speech.
In 2001, the John F. Kennedy Library Foundation awarded Lewis the Profile in Courage Award "for his extraordinary courage, leadership and commitment to civil rights". However, it was not the regular award, but rather a special Profile in Courage Award for Lifetime Achievement which has been given out only twice, John Lewis and William Winter (in 2008). The next year he was awarded the Spingarn Medal from the NAACP.
In 2004, Lewis received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement presented by Awards Council member James Earl Jones.
In 2006, he received the U.S. Senator John Heinz Award for Greatest Public Service by an Elected or Appointed Official, an award given out annually by Jefferson Awards for Public Service. In September 2007, Lewis was awarded the Dole Leadership Prize from the Robert J. Dole Institute of Politics at the University of Kansas.
Lewis was the only living speaker from the March on Washington present on the stage during the inauguration of Barack Obama. Obama signed a commemorative photograph for Lewis with the words, "Because of you, John. Barack Obama."
In 2010, Lewis was awarded the first LBJ Liberty and Justice for All Award, given to him by the Lyndon Baines Johnson Foundation, and the next year, Lewis was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Barack Obama.
In 2016, it was announced that a future United States Navy underway replenishment oiler would be named USNS John Lewis. Also in 2016, Lewis and fellow Selma marcher Frederick Reese accepted Congressional Gold Medals which were bestowed to the "foot soldiers" of the Selma marchers. The same year, Lewis was awarded the Liberty Medal at the National Constitution Center. The prestigious award has been awarded to international leaders from Malala Yousafzai to the 14th Dalai Lama, presidents George Bush and Bill Clinton and other dignitaries and visionaries. The timing of Lewis's award coincided with the 150th anniversary of the 14th amendment. In 2020, Lewis was awarded the Walter P. Reuther Humanitarian Award by Wayne State University, the UAW, and the Reuther family.
Lewis gave numerous commencement addresses, including at the School of Visual Arts (SVA) in 2014, Bates College (in Lewiston, Maine) and Washington University in St. Louis in 2016, Bard College and Bank Street College of Education in 2017, and Harvard University in 2018.
Lewis was recognized for his involvement with comics with the 2017 Inkpot Award.
On July 30, 2018, the Atlanta City Council voted to rename Atlanta's Freedom Parkway John Lewis Freedom Parkway. On November 5, 2020, the Metropolitan Council of Nashville and Davidson County voted to rename an extensive part of Nashville, Tennessee's 5th Avenue John Lewis Way.
On June 23, 2020, the Fairfax County Public School Board voted to change the name of Robert E. Lee High School to John R. Lewis High School which is located in Springfield, Virginia. A program called John Lewis Now was created in his vision to provide students with in-school curriculum and out-of-school experiences in leadership and government utilizing the nearby Washington D.C. area.
Lewis's death in July 2020 has given rise to support for renaming the historically significant Pettus bridge in Lewis's honor, an idea previously floated years ago. After his death, the Board of Fairfax County Public Schools announced that Robert E. Lee High School in Springfield, Virginia would be renamed John R. Lewis High School.
Following his death, Troy University announced that the main building on its flagship campus would bear the name of John Lewis. The building, which was the oldest on campus, was previously named after Bibb Graves, a former governor of Alabama and high-ranking officer of the Ku Klux Klan.
On August 1, 2020, a statue of Lewis was revealed by sculptor Gregory Johnson. The statue was commissioned by Rodney Mims Cook Jr. and was installed at Cook Park in Atlanta, Georgia, in April 2021.
On February 21, 2021, President Joe Biden marked Lewis's late birthday on Twitter, urging all Americans to "carry on his mission in the fight for justice and equality for all." He tweeted, "While my dear friend may no longer be with us, his life and legacy provide an eternal moral compass on which direction to march. May we carry on his mission in the fight for justice and equality for all."
On October 2, 2021, Seattle opened the John Lewis Memorial Bridge.
On October 27, 2021, the University of California, Santa Cruz named one of its residential colleges, formerly known as College Ten, John R Lewis College.
On August 16, 2024, a statue of Lewis by Basil Watson was installed in Decatur, Georgia, in the place where an obelisk monument to the Confederacy was put by the United Daughters of the Confederacy in 1908; the obelisk was removed in 2020.
=== Honorary academic degrees ===
Lewis was awarded more than 50 honorary degrees, including:
1989: Honorary Doctor of Laws degree from Troy State University (now Troy University)
1995: Honorary Doctor of Public Service degree from Northeastern University
1998: Honorary Humane Letters degree from Brandeis University
1999: Honorary Doctor of Laws degree from the University of Massachusetts Boston
1999: Honorary Doctor of Laws degree from Knox College
2001: Honorary Doctor of Laws degree from University at Albany
2002: Honorary D.H.L. from Howard University
2003: Honorary Doctor of Laws degree from the College of Wooster
2004: Honorary degree from Portland State University
2004: Honorary LHD from Juniata College
2007: Honorary LL.D. degree from the University of Vermont
2007: Honorary LL.D. degree from Adelphi University
2012: Honorary LL.D. degrees from Brown University, University of Pennsylvania, Harvard University, and the University of Connecticut School of Law
2013: Honorary Doctor of Humane Letters from Judson College
2013: Honorary LL.D. degrees from Cleveland State University and Union College
2014: Honorary LL.D. degree from Emory University
2014: Honorary Doctorate of Fine Arts from the School of Visual Arts.
2014: Honorary Bachelor of Arts from Lawrence University.
2014: Honorary Doctor of Letters degree from Marquette University
2015: Honorary Doctorate of Humane Letters from the McCourt School of Public Policy, Georgetown University.
2015: Honorary Doctor of Humane Letters from Lawrence University
2015: Honorary degree from Goucher College
2015: Honorary Doctor of Laws degree from Hampton University
2016: Honorary Doctorate of Humane Letters from New York University
2016: Honorary Doctor of Humane Letters from Bates College
2016: Honorary Doctor of Humane Letters from Washington University in St. Louis
2016: Honorary Doctor of Policy Analysis from the Frederick S. Pardee RAND Graduate School
2016: Honorary Doctor of Laws degree from Washington and Jefferson College
2017: Honorary Doctor of Laws degree from Yale University
2017: Honorary Doctor of Laws degree from Berea College
2017: Honorary Doctor of Humane Letters degree from Bank Street Graduate School of Education
2018: Honorary Doctor of Law degree from Boston University
2019: Honorary Doctor of Humane Letters degree from City College of New York
2019: Honorary Doctorate from Tulane University
== Electoral history ==
== In popular culture ==
Lewis was portrayed by Stephan James in the 2014 film Selma. He made a cameo appearance in the music video for Young Jeezy's song "My President", which was released in the month of Obama's inauguration. In 2017, John Lewis voiced himself in the Arthur episode "Arthur Takes a Stand". Lewis's life was chronicled in the 2017 PBS documentary John Lewis: Get in the Way and the 2020 CNN Films documentary John Lewis: Good Trouble.
Lewis appeared in the 2019 documentary Bobby Kennedy for President, in which Lewis commends Robert F. Kennedy especially in regards to his support for civil rights throughout his time as a senator for New York and during Kennedy's 1968 presidential campaign. Lewis also recounted his deep sorrow following the 1968 assassinations of Kennedy and Martin Luther King Jr.
Lewis appeared alongside Amandla Stenberg to present Green Book as a nominee for Best Picture at the 91st Academy Awards that took place on February 24, 2019.
Lewis attended comics conventions to promote his graphic novel, most notably San Diego Comic-Con, which he attended in 2013, 2015, 2016, and 2017. During the 2015 convention, Lewis led, along with his graphic novel collaborators Andrew Aydin and Nate Powell, an impromptu simulated Selma civil rights march arm in arm with children, during which he wore the same clothes as he did on Bloody Sunday, garnering thousands of con goers to participate. The event became so popular it was repeated in 2016 and 2017.
== Bibliography ==
Reporting Civil Rights: American Journalism 1963–1973 (Library of America: 2003) ISBN 1-931082-29-4
Lewis, John; D'Orso, Michael (1999). Walking with the Wind. San Diego: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 0-15-600708-8. The U.S. Congressman tells of life in the trenches of the Civil Rights Movement, the numerous arrests, sit-ins, and marches that led to breaking down the barriers of discrimination in the South during the 1950s and 1960s.
John Lewis in the Lead: A Story of the Civil Rights Movement by Jim Haskins and Kathleen Benson, illustrated by Benny Andrews, (Lee & Low Books: 2006) ISBN 978-1-58430-250-6. A biography of John Lewis, one of the "Big Six" leaders who were chairman of activist groups organizing the 1963 March on Washington, focusing on his involvement in Freedom Rides, the March on Washington, and the march across the Edmund Pettus Bridge in the 1965 Selma to Montgomery marches.
John Lewis: From Freedom Rider to Congressman by Christine M. Hill, (Enslow Publishers, Inc., 2002) ISBN 0-7660-1768-0. A biography of John Lewis written for juvenile readers.
Freedom Riders: John Lewis and Jim Zwerg on the Frontlines of the Civil Rights Movement by Ann Bausum, (National Geographic Society, 2006) ISBN 0-7922-4173-8.
Across That Bridge by John Lewis with Brenda Jones, (Hyperion: 2012) ISBN 978-1-4013-2411-7. Winner of the 2013 NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Literary Work/Biography. It is an accessible discussion of Lewis's philosophy and his viewpoint of the philosophical basis of the Civil Rights Movement.
March: Book One a 2013 illustrated comic history of Lewis's career, with sequels published in 2015 and 2016, by John Lewis, Andrew Aydin, and Nate Powell, (Top Shelf Productions) ISBN 978-1-60309-300-2.
Carry On: Reflections for a New Generation from John Lewis (2021)
Greenberg, David (October 8, 2024). John Lewis: A Life. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-1-9821-4299-5.
== See also ==
John Lewis Voting Rights Act
List of African-American United States representatives
List of civil rights leaders
List of members of the United States Congress who died in office (2000–present)#2020s
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Oral History Interview with John Lewis from Oral Histories of the American South, November 20, 1973
"SNCC – People: John Lewis.", April 11, 2011
"Congressman John R. Lewis Biography and Interview." www.achievement.org. American Academy of Achievement.
== External links ==
John Lewis at Find a Grave
SNCC Digital Gateway: John Lewis, Documentary website created by the SNCC Legacy Project and Duke University, telling the story of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee and grassroots organizing from the inside-out
Biography at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
Financial information (federal office) at the Federal Election Commission
Legislation sponsored at the Library of Congress
Profile at Vote Smart
John Lewis debates the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) Archived October 29, 2013, at the Wayback Machine, June 11, 1996.
Rep. Lewis on Congress, Gitmo, Afghan War and Charles Rangel – video interview by Democracy Now!, November 17, 2010
Appearances on C-SPAN
Finding your Roots with Henry Louis Gates, Jr. "Season 1, Episode 2: John Lewis and Cory Booker" Archived February 23, 2020, at the Wayback Machine
American Experience; Freedom Riders; Interview with John Lewis from the American Archive of Public Broadcasting
SNCC photographer Danny Lyon on John Lewis, his roommate in Atlanta in 1963 and lifelong friend |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Brisson | Henri Brisson | Eugène Henri Brisson (French: [ɑ̃ʁi bʁisɔ̃]; 31 July 1835 – 14 April 1912) was a French statesman, who was twice Prime Minister of France, between 1885–1886 and in 1898.
== Biography ==
He was born at Bourges (Cher), and followed his father's profession of advocate. Having made his mark in opposition during the last days of the empire, he was appointed deputy-mayor of Paris after the government was overthrown. He was elected to the Assembly on 8 February 1871, as a member of the extreme Left. While not approving of the Commune, he was the first to propose amnesty for the condemned (on 13 September 1871), but the proposal was voted down. He strongly supported compulsory primary education, and was firmly anti-clerical. He was president of the chamber from 1881 — replacing Léon Gambetta — to March 1885, when he became prime minister upon the resignation of Jules Ferry; but he resigned when, after the general elections of that year, he only just obtained a majority for the vote of credit for the Tonkin expedition.
He remained conspicuous as a public man, took a prominent part in exposing the Panama scandals, was a strong candidate for the presidency of France after the murder of President Carnot in 1894; however, he lost to Jean Casimir-Perier. Brisson was once again president of the chamber from December 1894 to 1898. Brisson stood once again as a candidate for the presidency of France in 1895, but lost once again to Félix Faure. Following the 1898 French legislative election, whilst the country was violently excited over the Dreyfus affair, the incumbent Premier, Jules Méline, lost the confidence of the Chamber of Deputies - subsequently allowing Brisson be re-appointed as Premier and form a new cabinet in June 1898. Brisson's firmness and honesty increased popular respect for him, but a chance vote on a matter of especial excitement overthrew his ministry in October. As a leader of the radicals he actively supported the ministries of Waldeck-Rousseau and Combes, especially concerning the laws on the religious orders and the separation of church and state. In May 1906, he was re-elected president of the chamber of deputies by 500 out of 581 votes.
== Brisson's 1st Ministry, 6 April 1885 – 7 January 1886 ==
Henri Brisson – President of the Council and Minister of Justice
Charles de Freycinet – Minister of Foreign Affairs
Jean-Baptiste Campenon – Minister of War
François Allain-Targé – Minister of the Interior
Jean Clamageran – Minister of Finance
Charles Eugène Galiber – Minister of Marine and Colonies
René Goblet – Minister of Public Instruction, Fine Arts, and Worship
Hervé Mangon – Minister of Agriculture
Sadi Carnot – Minister of Public Works
Ferdinand Sarrien – Minister of Posts and Telegraphs
Pierre Legrand – Minister of Commerce
Changes
16 April 1885 – Sadi Carnot succeeds Clamageran as Minister of Finance. Charles Demôle succeeds Carnot as Minister of Public Works.
9 November 1885 – Pierre Gomot succeeds Mangon as Minister of Agriculture. Lucien Dautresme succeeds Legrand as Minister of Commerce.
== Brisson's Second Ministry, 28 June – 1 November 1898 ==
Henri Brisson – President of the Council and Minister of the Interior
Théophile Delcassé – Minister of Foreign Affairs
Godefroy Cavaignac – Minister of War
Paul Peytral – Minister of Finance
Ferdinand Sarrien – Minister of Justice and Worship
Édouard Locroy – Minister of Marine
Léon Bourgeois – Minister of Public Instruction and Fine Arts
Albert Viger – Minister of Agriculture
Georges Trouillot – Minister of Colonies
Louis Tillaye – Minister of Public Works
Émile Maruéjouls – Minister of Commerce, Industry, Posts, and Telegraphs
Changes
5 September 1898 – Émile Zurlinden succeeds Cavaignac as Minister of War
17 September 1898 – Charles Chanoine succeeds Zurlinden as Minister of War. Jules Godin succeeds Tillaye as Minister of Public Works.
25 October 1898 – Édouard Locroy succeeds Chanoine as interim Minister of War, remaining also Minister of Marine.
== References ==
Attribution:
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Brisson, Eugène Henri". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 4 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 574.
== External links == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sher_Afgan_Niazi | Sher Afgan Niazi | Dr. Sher Afgan Khan Niazi (Urdu: شیر افگن خان نیازی; died 11 October 2012) was a Pakistani politician. He served as Minister of Parliamentary Affairs of Pakistan.
AK Niazi or General Niazi was his real uncle.He was elected for a fourth time to National Assembly in 2002 as a member of Pakistan Peoples Party (Parliamentarians), but later shifted his loyalty to become PPPP (Patriot) and then joined the Pakistan Muslim League (Q). Sher Afgan Niazi helped President of Pakistan Pervez Musharraf to oust, detain and then replace the judges of the Supreme Court in 2007 and also supported Musharraf regime's military operation at Lal Masjid, Islamabad. On 18 February 2008, he lost the general election to an independent candidate, Humair Hayat Khan Rokhri. On April 8, 2008 he was pelted with rotten eggs and attacked in Lahore, Punjab by the lawyers protesting against his support for dismissing of Supreme Court judges and Lal Masjid operation. That attack was strongly protested for days in his home town.
Niazi joined President Pervez Musharraf's newly formed political party, the All Pakistan Muslim League (APML). However, he later resigned from the party following differences with the leadership. He was expert in constitutional affairs and had strong command over constitution of Pakistan. He completed his M.B.B.S degree from Nishtar Medical College, Multan, Punjab.
Niazi was famous for memorizing all the articles of the Constitution of Pakistan. His health deteriorated slowly after one of his sons died in car accident in Rawalpindi, and he was diagnosed with liver cancer in 2012.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmie_Johnson | Jimmie Johnson | Jimmie Kenneth Johnson (born September 17, 1975) is an American professional stock car racing driver and team owner. He competes part-time in the NASCAR Cup Series, driving the No. 84 Toyota Camry XSE for Legacy Motor Club. Johnson has won seven Cup championships, including five consecutive titles, tying him with Richard Petty and Dale Earnhardt for the most all-time. He is widely considered one of the greatest drivers in NASCAR history.
Johnson was born in El Cajon, California and began racing motorcycles at the age of four. After graduating from Granite Hills High School, he competed in off-road series. He raced in Mickey Thompson Entertainment Group (MTEG), Short-course Off-road Drivers Association (SODA), and SCORE International, winning rookie of the year in each series. In 1998, Johnson and his team, Herzog Motorsports, began stock car racing. He moved to the national American Speed Association (ASA) series for late model touring cars and won another rookie of the year title. In 2000, he switched to the NASCAR Busch Series (now Xfinity Series).
Johnson's talent was noticed by Hendrick Motorsports driver Jeff Gordon, who convinced owner Rick Hendrick to sign him in the Winston Cup Series full-time for 2002, with Gordon as a part-owner of his car. After finishing fifth in the points in his first full season, he was second in 2003 and 2004 and fifth in 2005. Johnson won his first Cup Series championship in 2006 and with further wins in 2007, 2008, 2009, and 2010, he became the first and only driver in NASCAR history to win five consecutive championships. Johnson finished sixth in the points standings in the 2011 season and third in 2012 before winning his sixth championship in 2013. In 2016, Johnson won his seventh championship, tying Richard Petty and Dale Earnhardt for the most Cup Series championships of all time. Johnson is also a two-time winner of the Daytona 500, winning in 2006 and 2013. Between 2002 and 2017, Johnson recorded seven championships, 83 career race wins, 222 top fives, 341 top tens, and 35 pole positions. From 2021 to 2022, Johnson competed in the IndyCar Series for Chip Ganassi Racing, and has competed occasionally in sports car racing throughout his career.
== Racing career ==
=== Beginnings ===
==== Off-road racing ====
Johnson started racing motorcycles in 1980 when he was four. Three years later, he won the 60cc class championship, despite injuring his knee. Afterward, he moved to the Mickey Thompson Entertainment Group (MTEG) Stadium Racing Series, where he won several more awards. In 1993, Johnson was given the opportunity to drive for Herb Fishel. He refused the deal and continued racing buggies and trucks in off-road stadium and desert races. He also reported for ESPN in the Short-course Off-road Drivers Association (SODA). Three years later, Johnson drove for Herzog Motorsports in the off-road truck series in 1996. By 1997, Johnson had progressed to SODA's Class 8; Class 8 is short-course off-road racing's class of two-wheel-drive Trophy Trucks which generate about 800 horsepower. He battled Scott Taylor and Brendan Gaughan for the championship. That year, Johnson won both races at Lake Geneva Raceway's first race weekend in May. He also won the season's third event at Antigo before finishing second to Gaughan at Antigo's second race. Johnson returned to Lake Geneva in July, winning the Saturday race and finishing second on the following day. Taylor ended up winning the championship with Gaughan second and Johnson third.
In SCORE, Johnson won races and had a few memorable finishes, like that in the 1995 Baja 1000, after leading over 900 miles, he fell asleep behind the wheel and woke up to find himself going off course. His Trophy Truck, Butch (the paint scheme of which was used for a throwback for Johnson's 48 car in the 2019 Southern 500, and the car that was used by Larry Ragland in wins such as the 1991 Baja 1000), was wrecked.
During his time in the SODA, SCORE, and MTEG series, Johnson accumulated over 25 wins, 100 top-three finishes, six championships, and received Rookie of the Year honors in all three leagues.
==== ASA and Busch Series ====
In 1997, Johnson began racing on asphalt ovals when he ran three races in the American Speed Association (ASA), making his debut at Hawkeye Downs Speedway. Driving for Herzog Motorsports' stock car program, he won the ASA Pat Schauer Memorial Rookie title in 1998. One year later, he had two wins and finished third in the standings. Johnson finished second in the two races at Fairgrounds Speedway he participated in over those two years.
Johnson made his NASCAR Busch Series (now NASCAR Xfinity Series) debut at the 1998 Indianapolis Raceway Park event, where he finished 25th for ST Motorsports. He continued his limited slate in 1999 with Herzog Motorsports before moving to a full-time schedule in 2000. At Watkins Glen International, he had a spectacularly hard accident on lap 46 when his brakes failed entering the first turn. He had to swerve quickly to the right to avoid the No. 86 of Dennis Demers, but went into the grass on the inside of turn one, then went back across the track, caught some air on the gravel trap before finally crashing head-on into the Styrofoam barriers at the far end of the turn while still more than 150+ MPH. He eventually climbed out of the car unscathed and raised his fists in the air like he had won the race. Johnson noted he was "so happy to be alive and OK. The next couple of days I was really sore." Otherwise, in a rather uneventful season which featured one DNQ at Daytona and six top-tens, he finished tenth in the point standings.
In 2001, Johnson recorded one win at Chicagoland Speedway, and finished eighth in the point standings; his win at Chicagoland was his only win throughout his career at the track. During the year, he joined Hendrick Motorsports for a four-race schedule in the Winston Cup Series, making his series debut in the UAW-GM Quality 500 at Lowe's Motor Speedway. The opportunity was made available when he connected with Hendrick driver Jeff Gordon during the 2000 Busch season; with Herzog facing shutdown due to sponsorship issues, Johnson approached Gordon and was informed of the team's intention to field a fourth car for him.
Johnson formally moved to Hendrick in 2002, driving the No. 48 Lowe's-sponsored Chevrolet.
=== NASCAR Cup Series ===
==== 2002–2005 ====
Johnson began racing full-time in the Winston Cup Series during the 2002 season. He earned his first career pole position for the Daytona 500, becoming the third rookie to do so (the first were Loy Allen Jr. in 1994 and Mike Skinner in 1997). In his thirteenth career start, Johnson scored his first career win in the NAPA Auto Parts 500 at Auto Club Speedway. Johnson became the first rookie driver to lead the point standings and to win twice at the same track during a season, by sweeping both races at Dover. In the Coca-Cola 600, Johnson led 263 laps before he got a penalty for overshooting his pit box. He earned four pole positions and three wins (tying the rookie record set by Tony Stewart in 1999; later surpassed by Shane van Gisbergen, who won four times in 2025), as well as six top-fives and 21 top-tenfinishes. He finished fifth in the final point standings. However, despite the strong season, Ryan Newman won rookie of the year honors over Johnson, partially due to Newman having 22 Top 10's compared to Johnson's 21.
In 2003, Johnson finished ninth on the all-time list for consecutive weeks ranked in the top ten in points with 69. He won three races (Coca-Cola 600 at Charlotte and both New Hampshire races), two poles (at Kansas Speedway and Pocono Raceway), fourteen top-fives, and twenty top-ten finishes, including a second-place finish at Rockingham after leading 78 laps. He also was able to win the All-Star race for the first time, as well as finishing second in the final standings, ninety points behind Matt Kenseth and 207 ahead of his future teammate Dale Earnhardt Jr.
In 2004, Johnson started slowly at Rockingham Speedway and Las Vegas Motor Speedway with results of 41st and sixteenth, after a top-ten finish in the Daytona 500. However, he quickly was able to rebound, winning the Carolina Dodge Dealers 400 at Darlington Raceway. Subsequent victories in the Coca-Cola 600, the Pocono 500, and the Pennsylvania 500 came in the middle of the season, seeing Johnson sweep the Pocono races. However, finishes of 37th and 32nd at Talladega Superspeedway and Kansas moved him toward the bottom of the point standings. Afterward, he was able to win the UAW-GM Quality 500 at Lowe's Motor Speedway. The second victory of the 2004 Chase for the Nextel Cup, at the Subway 500 at Martinsville on October 24, 2004, was marred by tragedy. Owner Rick Hendrick's son Ricky, twin nieces, brother, and chief engine builder Randy Dorton, as well as Joe Turner, Scott Lathram, were killed in an airplane crash en route to the race. All eight passengers and both pilots died in the incident, and Johnson was told after the completion of the race. Johnson had a total of eight wins, twenty top-fives, and 23 top-ten finishes. At the end of the season, Johnson finished second in the point standings.
In 2005, Johnson won at Las Vegas, Lowe's Motor Speedway, Dover International Speedway, and then again at Lowe's. In total, Johnson had four consecutive wins at his sponsor's (Lowe's) sponsored track in Charlotte, North Carolina. He won the Coca-Cola 600 that year, which broke the record for the most yellow flags in a Cup Series race, by beating Bobby Labonte by .027 seconds. Johnson had a chance to win the championship coming into the November 20 season finale at Homestead-Miami Speedway, but finished fifth in points after crashing at the midway point of the event with a tire problem. He scored thirteen top-fives, 22 top-ten finishes, and one pole position.
==== 2006–2010: Championship streak ====
===== 2006 =====
In 2006, Johnson began the season by winning the Daytona 500. The Daytona 500 also marked his first race with Earl Barban as the spotter, who won five championships with Johnson and the No. 48 team. He finished second in the next race at California Speedway and won the UAW-DaimlerChrysler 400 at Las Vegas by passing Matt Kenseth on the last lap. Johnson won his third race of the season in the Aaron's 499 at Talladega, followed by two more victories at Indianapolis and Martinsville. One highlight of the season was when he saved the car from slamming into the wall when he spun out during qualifications at the first Dover race. Throughout the season, he became the only modern era driver to win at least three races in each of his first five seasons. He started the chase with unfortunate mishaps in the first four races; a DNF at New Hampshire, a pitting mistake at Dover, a penalty at Kansas (he led the most laps in the race), and, while trying to make a pass for first at Talladega, getting clipped and spinning out. He and the team kept their hopes up and rallied with five straight Top 2 finishes including a win at Martinsville to come back from eighth in the points standings to take the championship. At the end of the season, he recorded one pole, thirteen top-fives, 24 top-tens, and his first championship title (this was also the first in his NASCAR career). In December, Johnson won the 2006 Driver of the Year Award.
===== 2007 =====
During the 2007 season, Johnson continued on a streak and recorded ten wins, four poles, twenty top-fives, and again 24 top-ten finishes. Those ten wins included sweeping both races at Richmond, Atlanta, and Martinsville. He also won at Las Vegas, Auto Club, Texas, and Phoenix. Afterward, he won his second consecutive championship title and was named the 2007 Driver of the Year. Johnson also had the best average finish in the Chase with 5.0. At the end of the season, he had a total of 33 career wins, placing him eighteenth on the all-time wins list.
In December 2007, Johnson commenced a program of exercise sessions and a run schedule supervised by John Sitaras, in order to balance his strength. Sitaras' initial assessment found that half of his body was much tighter, having acclimated to offsetting the g-force load from turning left while driving. In two years, Johnson's body fat percentage dropped from 20% to 8% (visible also in the change of the shape of his face), while his strength and stamina greatly improved. Johnson later became the first racing driver to be named Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year (in 2009).
===== 2008 =====
After the 2008 season, Johnson became the second driver to win three consecutive NASCAR Cup Series championships, the first being Cale Yarborough. During the season, he won seven races (including a sweep at Phoenix), a career-high of six poles, fifteen top-fives, and 22 top-tens. In five of those seven wins, he started from the pole. He became the only driver to record three wins in each of their first seven seasons. It was also during this year that Johnson raced in his first-ever NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series race, the O'Reilly 200 at Bristol, where he led 28 laps before spinning out on lap 101. That weekend was the first time he had ever sat in a racing truck. In the Chase for the Championship, he recorded fourteen wins, eight more than any other driver. One of those included Phoenix, in which he won on low fuel and high tire wear after crew chief Chad Knaus decided to stay out late in the race. He was also named the 2008 Driver of the Year and won an ESPY as the Best Driver. After the season, he also moved to third on the active winners' list.
===== 2009 =====
In the 2009 season, Johnson recorded his fourth consecutive championship, becoming the only driver to win four back-to-back season titles. Throughout this season, he won seven races (including a third consecutive Checker Auto Parts 500 and both Dover races), four poles, sixteen top-fives, and 24 top-ten finishes. Johnson now became the only driver to win at least three races in each of his first eight seasons, as well as the only driver to qualify for the Chase for the Championship every year since 2004. During the season, he moved up one spot to second on the active winners' list and went to thirteenth on the all-time wins list. After the season concluded, he won an ESPY for the second consecutive year and won the Driver of the Year award for the third time, tying Jeff Gordon, Mario Andretti, and Darrell Waltrip as the only three-time drivers to win the award.
===== 2010 =====
During 2010, Johnson won his fifth consecutive championship, becoming the third driver to make up points to win the title since 1975. During the season, he scored two poles, seventeen top-fives, 23 top-tens, and six wins. He also remained the only driver to qualify for the Chase every year since its inception in 2004. He became the twelfth driver to win 50+ NASCAR races when he won at Bristol in March and went up to tenth on the all-time wins list. His wins in 2010 included Auto Club, Las Vegas, where he passed Jeff Gordon with sixteen laps to go for the lead, Bristol, Sonoma, his first and only road course win, New Hampshire, and Dover. At New Hampshire, with eight laps remaining, Kurt Busch, who was running second, bumped Johnson to become the leader, but Johnson returned the favor a couple of laps later to lead the final two laps. Johnson said, "Kurt knocked me out of the way. At that point, I thought, I don't care if I win or finish. I'm going to run into him one way or the other ... I tried once and moved him. (I thought) I've got to hit him harder. The second time I did and moved him out of the way."
Johnson was also named Driver of the Year for the fourth time in his career, joining Gordon as the only drivers to win the award that many times. Johnson had been fighting for the championship with Denny Hamlin all season, but eventually passed him in points in the season finale at Homestead.
Johnson also won Tony Stewart's charity race, the Prelude to the Dream, his first victory on a dirt oval.
==== 2011 ====
In 2011, Johnson began the season with a fourth-place finish in the Budweiser Shootout, after starting from the 23rd position. One week later in the 2011 Daytona 500, he started 23rd, but finished 27th after being involved in a crash on lap 29. During the Subway Fresh Fit 500, he managed a third-place finish. Following a sixteenth-place finish after the Kobalt Tools 400, he collected two consecutive top-five finishes.
Statistically, Johnson's 2011 season was one of his worst performances to date, even though he finished sixth in the points. He only won two races during the season. The first was the Aaron's 499 at Talladega Superspeedway, where Johnson started on the outside pole and tandem-drafted with Dale Earnhardt Jr. for the entire race. On the last lap, with Johnson in front, he and Earnhardt Jr. were in fifth and sixth off of turn 4, behind two other pairs of cars – their Hendrick teammates Jeff Gordon and Mark Martin, and the Richard Childress drafting pair of Clint Bowyer and Kevin Harvick. In the tri-oval, Earnhardt Jr. gave Johnson enough of a push to nip Bowyer at the finish line by 0.002 seconds. This was the closest recorded finish in Talladega history and tied the 2003 Carolina Dodge Dealers 400 for closest margin of victory in NASCAR history. After finishing in the first 15 positions in the next four races, Johnson failed to finish the Coca-Cola 600 after his engine failed. Three weeks later, in the Heluva Good! Sour Cream Dips 400, Johnson spun off turn two, flattening multiple tires, and breaking the sway bar which prompted him to a finish of 27th. During the Toyota/Save Mart 350, Johnson finished seventh after starting 12th on the grid. The finish moved Johnson to third in the Drivers' standings.
After returning to Daytona International Speedway for the Coke Zero 400, Johnson and Earnhardt Jr. ran together for most of the race, like at Talladega, until Johnson pitted under a caution flag. Johnson fell down the grid and was involved in a last-lap accident, prompting him to finish twentieth. During the next two races, Johnson finished third and fifth in the Quaker State 400 and the Lenox Industrial Tools 301. Two weeks later, Johnson found himself finishing nineteenth during the Brickyard 400 after coming to pit road with thirty laps remaining in the event. Johnson finished fourth in the Good Sam RV Insurance 500, after bumping Kurt Busch on the final lap. In the next race, Johnson finished tenth. Johnson finished in the top five in the following three races. During the last race of the regular season, the Wonderful Pistachios 400, Johnson finished in the 31st position. While at Chicagoland Speedway for the GEICO 400, Johnson finished tenth. Afterward, Johnson finished eighteenth in the Sylvania 300, then second in the AAA 400. One week later, Johnson recorded his second victory of the season in the Hollywood Casino 400. During the Bank of America 500, Johnson was involved in a crash and finished 34th. In the following race, Johnson finished second. For the next two races, Johnson finished fourteenth in each and finished 32nd in the Ford 400 to finish sixth in the Driver's championship standings.
The third NASCAR Championship for Tony Stewart marked the first time since 2005 (coincidentally, Stewart's second) that someone other than Johnson was the champion.
==== 2012 ====
Johnson began the 2012 season with a 14th-place finish in the Budweiser Shootout after crashing on lap 74. During the Daytona 500, Johnson was involved in a crash on lap two when he turned into the wall after contact from Elliott Sadler, then was t-boned by David Ragan, also collecting Danica Patrick, Kurt Busch and Trevor Bayne. Damage to the car was severe, prompting him to retire and finish 42nd. Afterward, he finished fourth and second in the Subway Fresh Fit 500 and Kobalt Tools 400. While at Bristol Motor Speedway for the Food City 500, Johnson finished in the ninth position, moving him up to 11th in the Drivers' Standings. Next, Johnson finished tenth in the Auto Club 400, despite having an oil leak, but the rain saved Johnson from a low finish. He went on to finish twelfth in the spring event at Martinsville after being involved in a crash on the first green-white-checker attempt. In the following event, the Samsung Mobile 500, Johnson finished second after leading much of the race before he was passed by Greg Biffle. Afterward, he recorded a third-place finish in the STP 400 at Kansas on April 22, 2012, and a sixth-place finish in the Capital City 400 at Richmond one week later. On May 6, 2012, Johnson started nnieteenth in the Aaron's 499 at Talladega, but finished 35th after suffering a broken oil pump belt on lap 62.
Johnson won his first race of the season one week later in the Bojangles' Southern 500 at Darlington. The win was also Rick Hendrick's 200th NASCAR Cup Series win. A week later, he matched Gordon and Dale Earnhardt with three wins in the NASCAR Sprint All-Star Race after winning the 2012 NASCAR Sprint All-Star Race. Next, in the Coca-Cola 600, Johnson finished eleventh in the race after a penalty on lap 354. After the Coca-Cola 600, Johnson went on to win his second race of the season in the FedEx 400. In the Pocono 400, he recorded a fourth-place finish after starting 24th on the grid. During the next two races, Johnson placed fifth, moving him to fourth in the standings. Afterward, Johnson finished sixth after winning his first pole position of the season in the Quaker State 400. However, in the Coke Zero 400, Johnson finished 36th after retiring from a crash on lap 124. After finishing seventh during the Lenox Industrial Tools 301, Johnson recorded his third victory of the season and his fourth career win at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway, tying Jeff Gordon for what was the record for the most wins in the Brickyard 400.
At Michigan, Johnson was leading late in the race with six laps to go when his engine blew up, giving the race to Greg Biffle.
After making the NASCAR Chase for the Championship, Johnson secured three straight top-five finishes in the GEICO 400, Sylvania 300 and AAA 400. Following a seventeenth place finish in Good Sam Roadside Assistance 500, Johnson recorded four top-ten finishes, including two consecutive wins from the pole position at Martinsville and Texas, which was his sixtieth win in the series, to take a seven-point lead over Brad Keselowski. Johnson was able to hold off Keselowski's hard racing, which even prompted Tony Stewart to say that he was driving with a "death wish". At Phoenix, Johnson blew a right front tire, which caused him to collide into the wall and finish in the 32nd position. He was racing for the win and the championship the following week at Homestead, but his chances of winning the championship were over after he had a pit road penalty and had a gear failure and he finished 36th in that race, and finished third in the Drivers Championship behind Keselowski and Bowyer.
==== 2013: Return to championship form ====
In 2013, Johnson began his season with a fourteenth place finish in the 2013 Sprint Unlimited when he crashed on lap 14 along with Kyle Busch, Kurt Busch, Mark Martin, Jeff Gordon, and Denny Hamlin. Afterward, he placed fourth in the first Budweiser Duel, resulting in a ninth-place starting position in the 2013 Daytona 500. In the Daytona 500, Johnson started well, assuming the lead from Jeff Gordon on lap 32 and leading a handful of laps before falling back to the middle of the pack. Over the last few laps, Johnson was racing alongside Brad Keselowski for the lead until a caution came out for debris. Johnson took advantage of leading on the last restart. With five laps to go, Johnson led a lane with Greg Biffle and Danica Patrick. He then held off a last-lap charge from Dale Earnhardt Jr. and Mark Martin to win his second Daytona 500. This was Johnson's first Daytona 500 win with Knaus, as he won the 2006 race with Darian Grubb as Knaus was serving a five-race suspension. It was also the first time since his 2006 win that he finished better than 27th in the Daytona 500, after a streak of six years where he had never finished better than 27th because of crashes and mechanical failures.
The following week at Phoenix, Johnson started inside the top ten and finished second behind Carl Edwards. He followed this with a sixth-place finish at Las Vegas. At Bristol, he was running on the lead lap until a late-race spin forced him back to a 22nd-place finish. At Fontana, he struggled for most of the race, racing near the back of the pack, but salvaged a twelfth-place finish. Johnson won his first pole position of the season at Martinsville and had the dominant car, leading 346 of 500 laps on the way to his eighth Martinsville race win. Johnson also assumed the point lead, which he held for the remainder of the regular season. Johnson's consistency was enough that there were points in the summer where he was more than a full two-race wins' worth of points ahead of Carl Edwards or Clint Bowyer. Afterward, Johnson finished sixth at Texas. At Kansas, he led nine laps and finished third behind Matt Kenseth and Kasey Kahne. Johnson finished 12th the following week at Richmond, allowing him to build even further on his point lead. At Talladega, he was the only driver besides Matt Kenseth to lead double-digit laps (sixteen) and finished in fifth place. A fourth-place finish the following week at Darlington allowed Johnson to further solidify his point lead over Edwards.
In the 2013 NASCAR Sprint All-Star Race, Johnson won his record fourth All-Star race after a fast pit stop allowed him to start the final ten-lap sprint in second, and later passed Kasey Kahne for the victory. One week later, Johnson finished 22nd after spinning sideways late in the race. At Dover, Johnson led 143 laps but finished 17th when he jumped Juan Pablo Montoya on the last restart, causing NASCAR to issue him a penalty. He was able to redeem himself for this mistake the following week at Pocono by earning the pole position, leading the most laps, and winning his third race of the season, which increased his point lead to 51 points over Edwards. This also snapped a nine-year winless streak for Johnson at Pocono since sweeping both of the track's 2004 NASCAR Cup Series races. At the Quicken Loans 400 at Michigan, Johnson closed in on Greg Biffle for the lead with less than 10 laps left, but suffered a flat tire with less than five laps to go. Johnson finished the race in 28th, his worst finish of the season to that point. Johnson then finished ninth at Sonoma. At Kentucky, Johnson started third. He had the dominant car of the race, leading 182 of 267 laps. However, on a restart on lap 246, Johnson was slow to get up to speed and was subsequently touched and spun by Joey Logano, costing Johnson a shot at the win and giving the race to Matt Kenseth. Johnson was able to charge through the field after the caution and restart to salvage a ninth-place finish.
Returning to Daytona for the Coke Zero 400, Johnson led 94 laps and held off Tony Stewart and Kevin Harvick on a green-white-checker finish to win his fourth race of the year. In winning the race, Johnson became the first driver since Bobby Allison in 1982 to sweep both Daytona races in a season. This was a significant improvement in Johnson's runs on the restrictor plate tracks, as he had been crashed out of the running at both Daytona races in 2012, had an engine failure early while leading at Talladega in the spring and was part of a crash on the last lap in the fall. Also, he was one of only three drivers to sweep the top ten, the other two drivers being Ryan Newman and Dale Earnhardt Jr.
At New Hampshire for the Camping World RV Sales 301, Johnson qualified second, but failed post-qualifying inspection after his car was found to be too low, and started the race in 43rd, the first time in his career he started dead last. In the race, Johnson passed seven cars in the first four laps and reached the Top 20 by lap 50, while reaching the top ten by lap 165; Johnson finished sixth. He almost won the pole position at Indianapolis but was bumped to second by Ryan Newman. Johnson led the most laps and almost won, but a slow final pit stop cost him the race to Newman. The following week at Pocono, Johnson won another pole position, setting another track qualifying record. He led 43 of the first 80 laps before he cut a right-front tire that knocked a spark plug loose and affected the handling of the car. Johnson's pit crew worked hard to repair the car, fixing the plug on the last pit stop, and managing to salvage a thirteenth-place finish after racing near the back of the pack for most of the race.
Returning to Michigan, Johnson qualified third but crashed in happy hour, forcing him to a backup car and a 43rd starting spot. After running up to the lead through pit stop strategy, Johnson lost an engine on lap 55, relegating him to a 40th-place finish. This was followed by a streak of three poor finishes of 36th at Bristol, 28th at Atlanta, and 40th at Richmond due to crashes and mechanical failures.
Johnson started the Chase seeded in second place. He started the Chase with a fifth-place finish at Chicago, followed by a fourth-place finish at New Hampshire. At Dover, Johnson led 243 laps and held off Dale Earnhardt Jr. over the last 25 laps to win his eighth race at the track, also redeeming himself for the restart line violation that had cost him a shot at winning the June race.
Johnson spent the next several races chasing Matt Kenseth for the points lead, eventually gaining it at Talladega, though losing it when he and Kenseth tied for the points lead at Martinsville. Returning to Texas, Johnson had the dominant car, leading 255 laps to his sixth win of the season. The following weekend at Phoenix, Johnson avoided trouble in tight racing on two separate occasions (a near scrape in turn 4 on the first lap, and later a near spin after contact with Carl Edwards in turn 1) to escape with a third-place finish. He also capitalized on Kenseth's suffering from a poorly-handling car. With Kenseth finishing 23rd, Johnson took a 28-point lead to the season finale at Homestead-Miami Speedway. In the finale, Johnson raced conservatively to a ninth-place finish to secure his sixth title. He closed out the season with six wins, three poles, sixteen top-fives, and 24 top-tens, with an average finish of 9.8 and an average start of 10.7.
==== 2014 ====
Statistically, 2014 was one of Johnson's worst seasons to date. He started the season on an up-and-down note but went winless through the first eleven races of the 2014 season (his best finish was second at Martinsville). Skepticism began to arise, as he had never gone more than twelve races into a season without a win, and hadn't gone that long since the first few years of his Cup career. However, Johnson won the Coca-Cola 600, his first win in the race since 2005. Afterward, he went on to win at Dover the following week, making it the thirteenth time he had back-to-back wins.
A few weeks later, Johnson recorded his first win at Michigan, after several years of being deprived of a shot at victory as a result of running out of gas or blowing an engine. However, he didn't keep up with the momentum. After finishing in the top ten at Sonoma and Kentucky, Johnson was collected in an early wreck in the Coke Zero 400, finishing 42nd. Johnson's streak of misfortune continued the next several weeks, finishing 42nd for the second week in a row at New Hampshire. This was followed up by an inconsistent run at Indy (fourteenth), and poor showings resulting from accidents at Pocono (39th) and Watkins Glen (28th). Despite the poor finishes, Johnson qualified fourth for the Chase.
In the Chase, Johnson finished twelfth at Chicagoland, fifth at New Hampshire, and third at Dover to advance to the Contender Round. However, trouble struck when he finished 40th and seventeenth in the next two races.
At Talladega, Johnson started second and led a high of 84 laps. However, a 24th-place finish kept him from advancing to the Eliminator Round. At Martinsville, Johnson started seventh but finished 39th after being involved in a crash early in the race. Returning to Texas, Johnson dominated and held off Brad Keselowski, Kevin Harvick (and Jeff Gordon, who cut a tire on contact with Brad Keselowski late in the race which led to a post-race brawl) to score his third straight win in the fall Texas race, and also ended an eighteen-race winless streak. At Phoenix, he struggled for most of the day and finished 38th after blowing a tire and crashing out. At the season finale at Homestead, Johnson finished ninth and closed out finishing eleventh in points. This marked the first time in Johnson's NASCAR Cup career that he had finished outside of the top ten in the final points.
==== 2015 ====
Johnson began his season with a win in the Budweiser Duel. He started the season by finishing fifth in the Daytona 500 for the second year in a row. The following week, he won the Folds of Honor QuikTrip 500 at Atlanta.
At Las Vegas, Johnson crashed twice into the outside wall, leaving him with a 41st-place finish. He rebounded with an eleventh-place finish in Phoenix and a ninth-place finish at California, his first top-ten there in two years. At Martinsville, he struggled to a 35th-place finish. However, his momentum returned at Texas when he held off Kevin Harvick and Dale Earnhardt Jr. to win. At Bristol, he avoided tight trouble early in the race and came home second to polesitter Matt Kenseth. At Richmond, he finished third. These finishes moved him back up to fourth in the standings. At Talladega, Johnson started fifth and led fifty laps, only to finish second to Earnhardt Jr.
At Kansas, Johnson gambled by staying out on the last round of pit stops and held off Harvick and Earnhardt again to win his third race at Kansas and of the season. In winning, he established a Cup record of 23 wins on 1.5-mile tracks, taking what was both his 200th top-five and his 300th top-ten finish. At Charlotte, he spun out on two occasions. The first time was early in the race while running 16th coming out of turn 4, but he was lucky to avoid hitting anything. He wasn't so lucky on the second spin late in the race; while running fifth, he spun out again at the same place, and hit the wall in pit road, causing some nose damage. Those spin-outs left him with a 40th-place finish. He rebounded the following week with a win at Dover, and also became one of four drivers to have won ten or more races at one track. This gave him a total of 74 career wins, two fewer than Dale Earnhardt's 76.
At Pocono, Johnson cut a tire on lap 88 but did not take major damage. He was able to work his way through the field to finish in third place. He finished nineteenth at Michigan after the race was called for rain on lap 138. At Sonoma, Johnson led the most laps at 45 laps, but a late-race caution caused by Casey Mears' broken wheel axle cost him, and he was passed by Kyle Busch with five laps to go and slipped back to sixth place.
Returning to Daytona, Johnson started 12th and led 35 laps before finishing second to Dale Earnhardt Jr., in a repeat of the Talladega race. At Kentucky, Johnson started sixth and ran inside the top-ten for most of the night, finishing ninth. At the second stop in Pocono, Johnson, along with two of his Hendrick teammates, Jeff Gordon and Dale Earnhardt Jr., took advantage of several cars running out of fuel to finish in the top six (Gordon finished third, Dale Jr. took fourth, and Johnson grabbed sixth). At Watkins Glen, despite suffering two penalties (lap 3: Overshooting the entrance to the inner loop, and caution No. 1 (lap 26–28): Speeding through pit road), Johnson rallied to finish tenth. He wasn't so lucky at Michigan, as late in the race, he got loose and spun in turn 3, and damaged the splitter on his car, resulting in a 39th-place finish (ten laps down). He rebounded at Bristol by finishing fourth, but had bad luck once more at Darlington. He spun out on lap 134 in turn 4, bringing out the seventh caution, and was never a real threat. He ended up nineteenth. He was able to recover a bit for a ninth-place finish at Richmond and started first in the Chase in a three-way tie between him, Kyle Busch, and Matt Kenseth.
Johnson opened up the Chase in a rough way. At Chicagoland, he blew a left front tire early in the race but was able to charge through the field to salvage an eleventh-place finish. He was also the subject of controversy when he made contact with Kevin Harvick on a three-wide pass that led to Harvick cutting a left rear tire, leaving Harvick with a 42nd place finish.
At Loudon, Johnson finished sixth after blowing a tire in the third position. At Dover, his Chase hopes came to an end when his car broke a driveline, leading him to finish 36 laps down in 41st place. At the fall race at Texas, Johnson won, passing Brad Keselowski with four laps to go. This marked his fourth consecutive win in the fall race, and third consecutive win on that track, having also won the spring race. That victory also marked the 75th of his NASCAR Cup Series career, putting him one race win short of tying Dale Earnhardt's career wins. Also in the process, he snapped a twenty-race winless streak.
Johnson finished fifth at Phoenix, and for the third year in a row, he finished ninth at Homestead. Also in the process, he edged out Ryan Newman by one point to finish tenth in the final standings. With the retirement of his teammate and mentor, Jeff Gordon, Johnson assumed the active wins record with 75.
==== 2016: The seventh title ====
Johnson began the 2016 season with a sixteenth-place finish at the Daytona 500. In the next race at Atlanta Motor Speedway, he won his first race of the season and the 76th of his career, tying Dale Earnhardt for seventh on the all-time wins list. Johnson finished third and eleventh in the next two events of the season at Las Vegas and Phoenix. His second victory of the season came in the fifth race, the Auto Club 400, where Johnson passed Harvick in an overtime finish. It was also the first time since 2011 that he finished in the top-five at the Auto Club Speedway. In the STP 500 at Martinsville Speedway, Johnson recorded a ninth-place finish after moving through the field after qualifying 24th. One week later, Johnson finished fourth in the Duck Commander 500 at Texas Motor Speedway despite suffering minor damage during a thirteen-car accident that occurred within fifty laps of the finish.
In the Food City 500 at Bristol, Johnson finished 23rd after making an unscheduled pit stop due to a loose lug nut on lap 300. At Richmond, he led 44 laps early in the race and finished third. At Talladega, Johnson was spun by Paul Menard and got involved in a multi-car accident with 28 laps to go, finishing 22nd. Johnson's streak of misfortune continued through the next several months, crashing out at Dover, Pocono, Daytona, Kentucky and at Watkins Glen, where he finished last for the first time in his career. His Top 10 finishes during the period came only in the Coca-Cola 600 and Brickyard 400, where he finished third in both races. Johnson finished seventh and sixth at Bristol and Michigan the following two weeks, but finished 33rd at Darlington after he spun out of turn 4. Johnson then finished 11th at Richmond. He qualified eighth for the Chase.
Johnson began the Chase for the Championship by leading a race-high 118 laps at Chicagoland, but received a speeding penalty during a green flag pit stop late in the race, and ultimately finished 12th. Johnson finished eighth the following week at Loudon. At Dover, Johnson led 90 laps but once again received a pit road penalty with 105 laps to go, costing him a win. He charged through the field and finished seventh (1st car a lap down) and moved to the "Round of 12" of the Chase.
At Charlotte, Johnson led a race-high 155 laps and won the Bank of America 500, claiming his eighth win at the track and the third win of the season, also snapping his 24-race winless streak. This marked Johnson's first appearance in the "Round of 8" under the current Chase system. He then finished 4th at Kansas and 23rd at Talladega. At Martinsville, Denny Hamlin aggressively made contact with Johnson on lap 198 and had a tire rub to cause a caution, but was able to stay on the lead lap. Later, during a caution on lap 362, he lost fuel pressure but was able to get the car refired and stayed on the lead lap again. After the restart, he took the lead from Hamlin and led the final 92 laps to win the Goody's Fast Relief 500. This locked him into the Championship 4 for the final race at Homestead. Johnson finished eleventh in the rain-shortened race at Texas, and 38th at Phoenix after being penalized a lap for passing the pace car coming down to pit road and being involved in a wreck on a restart.
Johnson claimed his seventh championship by winning at Homestead on November 20. After losing his starting spot due to a pre-race inspection fault, Johnson started at the rear of the field. He progressed through the field, cracking the Top 10 quickly, but remained stagnant around fifth-place for a majority of the race. On a restart with ten laps to go, Carl Edwards came across the nose of Joey Logano, hit the inside wall, and triggered a massive wreck, ending Edwards' championship hopes. Johnson avoided the accident and was put in a position to win the title. On the final restart, he passed Kyle Larson, winning the race and his seventh championship, tying Richard Petty and Dale Earnhardt for the most all-time championships.
==== 2017: Final NASCAR wins ====
Johnson came into 2017 as the defending NASCAR Cup Series champion. The start of the season didn't go as smoothly as the end of last season, however. Through the first six races of the season, Johnson only scored one top-ten finish. He then rebounded with back-to-back wins at the 2017 O'Reilly Auto Parts 500 in Texas (started from the rear of the field) and the 2017 Food City 500 at Bristol, his first win at The Last Great Coliseum since 2010. This would be the fourteenth and final time he won back-to-back races in his career. The following week, Johnson would finish just outside the Top 10 at Richmond, after colliding with teammate Dale Earnhardt Jr late in the event, leading to an eventual flat tire and spin for the driver of the No. 88.
Johnson scored his third win of the season at Dover in June after passing Kyle Larson on an overtime restart, which ended under caution with a multicar incident behind the two leaders. This was Johnson's record-holding 11th win at Dover and 83rd career victory, tying him with NASCAR Hall of Famer, Cale Yarborough. This would eventually be Johnson's final NASCAR Cup Series win.
The rest of the season didn't go smoothly for Johnson. In the week following his Dover triumph, during the Axalta presents the Pocono 400, Johnson's brakes failed into turn 1 at a speed of over 200 MPH, resulting in a tremendous impact with the outside SAFER barrier. Similarly, directly behind Johnson, fellow competitor Jamie McMurray also experienced a brake failure and impacted the wall hard, igniting a large vehicle fire. Both Johnson and McMurray were uninjured in the accident.
Johnson suffered a big slump during the summer part of the season, failing to earn a top-five finish and only netting three top-ten finishes. During that stretch, in the 2017 Brickyard 400 on a late race restart, Johnson's Lowes-sponsored Chevrolet started billowing smoke while running in third place. Heading into turn 3, the two race leaders, Brad Keselowski and Kasey Kahne, battled one another, allowing Johnson to close in and make a three-wide move to the inside. Without much space into the corner, and with the obvious mechanical failure, the car broke sideways and impacted the outside retaining wall hard. The following week, Johnson had another run-in with teammate Kasey Kahne, resulting in a second consecutive DNF; his third in the last four races. Regardless, Johnson (from his wins earlier in the season) was able to qualify for the playoffs.
Entering the 2017 NASCAR Cup Series Playoffs, the defending champion was still one of the favorites to win the title, despite his results over the summer stretch. After earning his first top-five finish (third) since his Dover victory, fittingly in the fall Dover event, he advanced through the opening round and into the Round of 12. Johnson scored a seventh-place finish at Charlotte to open the second round, but the following week was involved in "The Big One" at Talladega. He was scored with a 24th-place result after his car was disqualified for violating the NASCAR Damaged Vehicle Policy, in which his crew worked on the car during the red flag. In the elimination race at Kansas Speedway, Johnson entered with a seven-point advantage. After having two separate spins, he drove his way through a large multicar accident off turn 2, involving Playoff drivers Matt Kenseth and Jamie McMurray, and rebounded with an eleventh-place finish. Assisted by fellow Playoff contenders finding trouble, Johnson qualified into the Round of 8, by just nine points.
Unfortunately, Johnson's performance slipped in the third round. He finished twelfth at Martinsville, but was followed by a disappointing 27th-place result at Texas. Entering the final race in the round at Phoenix, Johnson was 51 points behind the Playoff cutoff, and in a near must-win situation. However, on lap 148, Johnson's hopes at an eighth championship ended when he blew a tire in turn three, and hit the outside wall hard, ending his day and eliminating him from the Playoffs. Johnson finished tenth in the final standings, his fifteenth and final top-ten finish in the points standings.
==== 2018: Final season with Knaus and Lowe's ====
Johnson's Speedweeks did not go smoothly, wrecking in each of his three races. At the Advance Auto Parts Clash, he was wrecked on the last lap by Kyle Larson; this was the seventh year in a row he failed to finish the Clash. Johnson qualified third for the 2018 Daytona 500 but had to go to a backup car after wrecking in his Duel. On lap 59 of the Daytona 500, he got caught up in a wreck started by Ryan Blaney, and Ricky Stenhouse Jr., which also involved his teammate William Byron, Erik Jones, Daniel Suárez, Trevor Bayne, and Ty Dillon and ended up 38th. Since then, Johnson struggled throughout the 2018 season with only two top-fives and eight top-ten finishes by the time he barely made the Playoffs for the fifteenth season in a row. Johnson's only great run of the season came at the Charlotte Roval race where he ran in the top-ten for most of the day and battled Martin Truex Jr. for the win on the final lap, but he locked his brakes on turn 17 and spun out of control, taking Truex out with him in the process while Blaney passed them to win the race. Johnson finished eighth, and as a result of a three-way tie with zero points, he was eliminated in the Round of 16. Johnson scored only one more top-ten finish afterward and wound up a then career-worst fourteenth in the final point standings since running full-time in 2002, winless for the first time in his career, along with equaling a career-low eleven top-ten finishes for the second season in a row.
Johnson notably gave teammate and friend Chase Elliott a push to the front stretch when his car ran out of fuel when being congratulated by the rest of the drivers after recording his first career win, at Watkins Glen.
On March 14, 2018, Lowe's announced it would no longer sponsor the No. 48 car after the 2018 season; Ally Financial assumed primary sponsorship of the team in 2019 on a two-year deal. Johnson and his long-time crew chief Knaus parted ways at the end of the season, ending a seventeen-year partnership, the longest in NASCAR history. Johnson was paired with JR Motorsports crew chief Kevin Meendering in the 2019 season.
==== 2019 ====
The 2019 season started on a positive note for Johnson, as he won the 2019 Advance Auto Parts Clash after contact between him and Paul Menard sent Menard spinning while battling for the lead and triggering "The Big One" on lap 55 right before the rain arrived. It was also the first race with new sponsor Ally Financial and crew chief Meendering. He followed it up by finishing eighth in the first duel race. In the Daytona 500, Johnson ran up front most of the race, but when he came to pit road with around 40 to go, B. J. McLeod and Cody Ware's cars spun behind him and hit him in the left rear. The contact ripped off the left rear quarter-panel. He recovered to finish ninth after being two laps down. In the next race at Atlanta Motor Speedway, Jimmie finished 24th, two laps down. He followed up by finishing nineteenth. He followed up that performance with a ninth-place finish. On March 29 in O'Reilly Auto Parts 500 qualifying at Texas, Johnson got his first pole since 2016 at Texas and scored his first Top 5 finish since the 2018 Coca-Cola 600 two days later. At the Coca-Cola 600, Johnson ran well and ended up finishing eighth. At Chicagoland Speedway, Johnson started fourth and took the lead on lap seven from Austin Dillon. He went on to finish fourth, followed by a third-place finish at the rain-shortened Coke Zero Sugar 400 a week later, his best finishes of the season.
On July 29, 2019, following a string of disappointing finishes during the season, Hendrick Motorsports announced that race engineer Cliff Daniels would replace Meendering as the crew chief of the No. 48. At Watkins Glen, Johnson finished nineteenth after being spun out by Ryan Blaney, leading to an argument between the two after the race. The animosity between them lasted until Michigan a week later.
In September 2019, Johnson missed the playoffs cut for the first time in his NASCAR career after finishing 35th in the Brickyard 400 due to contact with Kurt Busch and William Byron that sent his car crashing hard into the wall.
Johnson scored four more top-ten finishes in the playoffs and wound up finishing a career-worst eighteenth place in the final standings, going winless for the second straight season. Many crashes throughout the season brought down his otherwise promising year.
On October 4, 2019, Ally extended its sponsorship of the No. 48 for three more years through the 2023 season.
==== 2020: Final full-time season ====
On November 20, 2019, Johnson announced that the 2020 Cup season would be his last full-time season of racing, although he did not rule out a part-time schedule after that. The 2020 season started with the Daytona 500 qualifying, he finished fourth for a second year in a row. Later that day, he entered the 2020 Busch Clash as the defending champion. He started sixteenth and finished eleventh after a tire spun on the first restart in overtime. Next race was the 2020 Bluegreen Vacations Duels. He started and finished second behind team-mate William Byron in Duel 2. In his last Daytona 500, he started sixth and finished 35th after Kyle Busch and Brad Keselowski triggered "The Big One". Next week in Las Vegas, he finished first in the final practice. He started eighteenth and finished fifth in the race. At his home track Auto Club, he qualified second, losing the pole position to Clint Bowyer by 0.007 seconds. In the race, his wife and children waved the green flag at the start of the race. There was a four-wide salute before the race to honor him. For most of the event, he was in the top ten and led ten laps; he finished seventh.
In The Real Heroes 400 at Darlington, the first race back after the delay forced by the COVID-19 pandemic, Johnson was leading in the final lap of the first stage when he lost control of his car and crashed after contact with Chris Buescher who was a lap down at the time. It marked his 100th race in a row without a win. A few days later in the Toyota 500 at the same track, Johnson bounced back with an eighth-place finish in the same track. At the Coca-Cola 600, he qualified second, losing the pole position to Kurt Busch by 0.009 seconds. Johnson finished second in the 600 but was disqualified after his car failed post-race technical inspection. He bounced back with an 11th-place run in Charlotte's next race Alsco Uniforms 500.
Johnson enjoyed a pair of top-ten finishes at Bristol and Atlanta. At Martinsville, he overcame a start at 21st and finished third in the first stage, and scored his first stage win of the year and the third of his career in the second segment, but dropped back in the third stage and finished tenth. He fell back early due to car issues at Homestead, but ended with a strong run to make his way to the top twenty and finish sixteenth. The following week at Talladega, Johnson spearheaded a pre-race ceremony in support of Bubba Wallace after it was falsely reported a noose was in his garage; before the race, Johnson texted his peers that he intended to stand with Wallace during the national anthem, with the drivers also pushing his car to the front of pit road. In the race, Johnson was on the verge of taking the lead with three laps remaining before being spun by Harvick.
On July 3, 2020, two days before the Brickyard 400 at Indianapolis, Johnson announced he had tested positive for the coronavirus, forcing him to miss the race and Justin Allgaier to take over the No. 48. This snapped a 663-race streak in which Johnson started a Cup event. Johnson was cleared to return to racing on July 8, 2020, after testing negative twice, and he received a waiver that allowed him to remain playoff eligible should he qualify. His first race back was the Quaker State 400 at Kentucky, a track at which he had never won before. With 23 laps to go, he was coming off of the fastest three laps of the race and a strong run from ninth to third before taking the inside on a restart and being nipped by Brad Keselowski in the left rear, spinning out. He finished the race in eighteenth. The next week at Texas, Johnson was again one of the fastest cars, putting up a top-ten lap before getting loose and hitting the wall in stage 2. On top of that, his crew committed a penalty for too many crew members over the wall. He finished 26th and only two points above the playoff cutoff in the standings. Johnson's misfortunes continued at Kansas when he was collected in a third-stage crash while running in the top ten, followed by a first-stage spin at New Hampshire while fighting for a top-five spot.
Prior to the Go Bowling 235 at the Daytona road course, the No. 48 team changed the Ally paint scheme from black to white, which Johnson branded as a "rAlly" livery in an effort to "reset" his luck. Johnson, who had experience at the road course via the 24 Hours of Daytona, finished fourth in a run that he described as "what we needed".
The final three races of the regular season saw Johnson battling with Byron and Matt DiBenedetto for the final playoff spots. Entering the doubleheader at Johnson's strongest track, Dover, Johnson was 25 points behind his teammate. He finished seventh and third in the two races while Byron was 28th and fourth, which placed Johnson below Byron by four points with one race before the playoffs, and nine points behind DiBenedetto. The final race, the Coke Zero Sugar 400 at Daytona, began with a strong first stage for Johnson as he finished fifth, ahead of Byron and DiBenedetto. The second stage saw him pit early to avoid having to save fuel, and he took advantage of the drivers pitting later in the stage, for another fifth-place finish. Although the three bubble drivers avoided a late wreck in the final stage, Johnson was collected in "The Big One" with two laps remaining. Although his team was able to salvage the car to meet the minimum speed and finish 17th, DiBenedetto beat him for the last playoff seed by six points. In his post-race interview, Johnson lamented his misfortunes during the year including the Coca-Cola 600 disqualification and the positive COVID-19 test; he drew praise from fans for his humility when he congratulated Knaus, who moved to Byron's team, and expressed his gratitude to Hendrick Motorsports for his career.
In the first playoff race, the Cook Out Southern 500 at Darlington, despite being out of the playoffs, Johnson ran in the top five for most of the night in a throwback scheme that combined those of Dale Earnhardt and Richard Petty, to honor the two other seven-time champions. His teammates at Hendrick Motorsports also drove in throwback schemes to honor him in his last year.
During the fall Texas race, Johnson would gain publicity by running a special scheme created by designer Noah Sweet, otherwise known as Lefty or Lefty Designs. Sweet, four months earlier in June, had created a mock Jimmie Johnson scheme adorned with pride flag colors, which had led to an excess of harassment towards Sweet and led him to take a temporary break from social media. During his break, encouragement came from most in the NASCAR community (with the hashtag #WeLoveLefty created and spread), including Johnson himself. In a few weeks, Ally president Andreas Brimmer and Jimmie Johnson would tell Sweet on a video call that he would have his chance to get his design on Johnson's car. Sweet, whose favorite driver throughout his life had been Johnson, said, "I'm going to remember it for the rest of my life. I am." The car eventually ran in the 2020 Autotrader EchoPark Automotive 500, finishing 36th due to engine issues.
Johnson's only top-ten of the playoffs came in his final start with a fifth-place finish in the Season Finale 500 at Phoenix; he was the highest-finishing driver of those not in the Championship Round. After the race, he congratulated teammate Elliott on his maiden championship and performed a Polish victory lap.
He ended his final season with ten top-ten finishes, the lowest of his career.
==== 2023: Legacy Motor Club co-owner, part-time return ====
On November 4, 2022, Johnson purchased an ownership stake in Petty GMS Motorsports. In addition, he announced his return to the Cup Series on a part-time basis in 2023, starting with an attempt to make the 2023 Daytona 500.
On January 11, 2023, the team was rebranded under the name Legacy Motor Club, with Johnson announced to be running the No. 84. On February 14, 2023, Johnson made the Daytona 500 entry field by scoring the fastest lap among the non-chartered teams. Johnson finished 31st after being involved in an overtime crash. Johnson would then make a start at the COTA race in March, where he finished 38th after wrecking out on lap one. Johnson's next start would come at the 2023 Coca-Cola 600 in May. He finished 37th after spinning out twice and only completing 115 laps. On June 26, 2023, Johnson's in-laws were involved in a possible murder-suicide at their house in Muskogee, Oklahoma. Johnson was on the original entry list for the Chicago street course race, yet on June 27, 2023, Legacy Motor Club announced they would withdraw his entry from the race due to the tragedy.
Johnson started his 2024 part-time season with a 28th-place finish at the 2024 Daytona 500. He also raced at Texas (29th), Dover (28th), Kansas (38th), Charlotte (29th), and Indianapolis (33rd). On July 26, Legacy Motor Club released crew chief Jason Burdett and several members of the No. 84 team.
On January 27, 2025, Johnson was named majority owner of Legacy Motor Club, with Knighthead Capital Management purchasing a minority stake and former co-owner Maury Gallagher stepping back into an ambassador role. At the 2025 Daytona 500, Johnson finished third, his highest finish at the race since winning in 2013, his highest finish in the Next Gen cars; his previous best was 26th at the 2024 season finale at Phoenix; and his highest finish since the 2020 Drydene 311 doubleheader at Dover.
=== IndyCar Series ===
In 2020, Johnson participated in a test with IndyCar Series team Chip Ganassi Racing. He initially had a test scheduled in March with Arrow McLaren SP at Barber Motorsports Park before it was canceled due to the COVID-19 pandemic, a second attempt with Chip Ganassi Racing on the Indianapolis road course in July was postponed when he tested positive for the virus. The CGR test finally took place on July 28, 2020, it was overseen by CGR owner Chip Ganassi and five-time IndyCar champion Scott Dixon (who is, along with Johnson, considered to be one of the best in their respective series) to discuss the car. Johnson said that driving an IndyCar was a "childhood dream" of his.
On September 9, 2020, Johnson announced that he would join Chip Ganassi Racing on a part-time basis in 2021 and 2022 to drive the road and street courses on the IndyCar circuit. The deal left open the possibility of running select NASCAR Cup Series events in conjunction, as Ganassi fielded two cars in NASCAR and could've added a part-time car for Johnson, staying under the four-car maximum for Cup teams. However, in 2021, Ganassi's NASCAR operations were sold to Justin Marks and absorbed into the Trackhouse Racing Team the following year. Johnson refused to run the ovals due to safety concerns of racing open-wheel cars on them but after both driving the cars and watching teammate Tony Kanaan run on ovals, he ultimately agreed to run an oval test at Texas to prep himself for the Indianapolis 500.
Throughout the year, Johnson largely struggled in IndyCar, frequently running at the back of the field and struggling with spins and accidents.
On December 15, 2021, Johnson announced that he would contest the full 2022 IndyCar schedule driving the No. 48 car for Chip Ganassi Racing. During his first oval race in the series, the XPEL 375 at Texas, Johnson finished a then career-best sixth. Johnson made his Indianapolis 500 debut later in the year. Johnson led two laps and, despite a late race crash, was elected Rookie of the Year for the race. Johnson proceeded to collect his first career IndyCar top-five in his first ever trip to Iowa Speedway at the Hy-Vee Salute to Farmers 300 presented by Google on July 24, 2022. On September 26, 2022, Johnson announced that he would be stepping back from racing full-time.
=== Other racing ===
Johnson first raced in the Race of Champions in Europe in 2002. He was eliminated in the first runoff by then world rally champion Marcus Grönholm of Finland, but he and Jeff Gordon and Colin Edwards racing as Team USA won the teams' championship. He returned to the event two years later but lost the quarter finals 0–2 to Mattias Ekström of Sweden, who was DTM German Touring Car champion that year. Johnson entered the 2006 Race of Champions but did not start due to an injury received just days before the race. He still attended the event to cheer for teammate Travis Pastrana. In the 2007 event, Johnson was eliminated before the quarter-finals by Formula One driver Sébastien Bourdais of France.
In 2004, Johnson started racing in Grand-Am with the 24 Hours of Daytona, where he finished eighth. He also entered the event one year later, which his team, Howard-Boss Motorsports, finished second. Two years later, he entered two events, which were both held at Daytona International Speedway. During the races, his team finished 9th and 19th. In 2008, Johnson moved to Bob Stallings Racing with Alex Gurney and Jon Fogarty to race in the 2008 Rolex 24 at Daytona, where the team finished second. One year later, he returned with GAINSCO/Bob Stallings Racing for his fifth Rolex 24 appearance. During the race, his team finished seventh. He returned to the team in 2010 to race in the Rolex 24 and Sahlen's Six Hours of the Glen. During the Rolex 24 at Daytona his team finished 21st, while at Watkins Glen the team finished sixth. He returned to the Rolex 24, in 2011 where his team finished fifteenth.
Johnson returned to the race in 2021, driving an Ally Financial-sponsored No. 48 Cadillac DPi-V.R for Action Express Racing alongside Simon Pagenaud, Kamui Kobayashi, and Mike Rockenfeller. He finished second for a third time in his career. Alongside Pagenaud and Kobayashi, he will participate in all IMSA Michelin Endurance Cup races for 2021, which include Sebring, Watkins Glen, and Road Atlanta. At Sebring, his team finished third, but they were moved to the rear of DPi classification for violating drive time rules after Pagenaud was found to have driven more than the maximum four hours within a six-hour time period. The team finished 28th in overall ranking.
On November 26, 2018, Johnson participated in a motorsports cultural exchange with two-time F1 champion Fernando Alonso at Bahrain International Circuit, where both drivers compared their respective race cars.
== Personal life ==
Johnson was born on September 17, 1975 in El Cajon, California, the son of Catherine Ellen "Cathy" (née Dunnill) and Gary Ernest Johnson. He has two younger brothers, Jarit and Jessie. Both have made professional off-road racing starts in the TORC: The Off-Road Championship. Johnson attended Granite Hills High School, while he raced motorcycles during the weekends. He was a varsity water polo player, diver, and swimmer, and graduated in 1993. The number 48 is retired from all sports teams uniforms at his school and Johnson was inducted into the school's Athletic Hall of Fame. Johnson lives in Charlotte, North Carolina like many other NASCAR drivers. He is married to Chandra Janway. They have two daughters.
Johnson is a triathlete, regularly participating in triathlons and long-distance running; the Jimmie Johnson Foundation's Wellness Challenge also hosts triathlons. In 2019, he competed in the Boston Marathon, finishing with a time of 3:09:07 and 4,155th overall (3,746th among males and 641st in the Male 40–44 class).
Johnson was close friends with NASCAR competitor Blaise Alexander. Following Alexander's death during a racing incident at Charlotte in 2001, which prompted NASCAR as a sanctioning body to require the use of the HANS device by every driver in its top three series, Johnson's car has had a flame decal with Alexander's initials inside of it at every race. In 2004, following the plane crash that killed the son of Rick Hendrick, Ricky, along with nine others, the tail number of the Hendrick plane that crashed was added alongside Alexander's initials.
=== The Jimmie Johnson Foundation ===
The Jimmie Johnson Foundation was launched by Johnson and his wife, Chandra, in 2006. The foundation helps children, families, and communities in need. In 2007, Johnson opened Jimmie Johnson's Victory Lanes in Randleman, North Carolina, which is a four-lane bowling alley for campers at Pattie and Kyle Petty's Victory Junction Gang Camp. The foundation supports several charities, including Habitat for Humanity, Hendrick Marrow Program, Make-A-Wish Foundation, and Victory Junction. Every year, it holds a golf tournament in San Diego, which raises money for K-12 public education. Since the beginning, the tournament has raised a total of $8 million to help fund several projects. During 2009 and 2010, the foundation awarded $1.5 million for the Education Champions Grants program. The money is given to public schools in California, Oklahoma, and North Carolina. It helps fund basic needs, such as technology, outdoor classrooms, playground construction, and reading programs. The foundation has also assisted the American Red Cross with disaster relief efforts.
In 2014, Johnson joined the Ban Bossy campaign, as a spokesperson advocating leadership in young girls.
== Legacy ==
For his successes, Johnson is often regarded as one of the greatest drivers in NASCAR history. Other drivers and teammates have also lauded Johnson for his leadership and helpfulness, including younger drivers Corey LaJoie (for whom Johnson advocated to get a seat in a Cup car), Chase Elliott, William Byron, Bubba Wallace, Alex Bowman, and Ryan Blaney as well as veterans including Brad Keselowski, Kevin Harvick, Jeff Gordon, and more.
=== Awards and honors ===
In 2000, People recognized Johnson as one of their "Men in the Fast Lane".
Johnson has won the Driver of the Year Award five times (2006, 2007, 2009, 2010, 2013). In 2009, he became the first racing driver to win the Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year Award in the United States.
Johnson was ranked No. 1 on Forbes.com's list of "Most Influential Athletes" for two consecutive years (2011, 2012).
In 2018, Johnson received the fourth-annual Byrnsie Award, named after the late Fox NASCAR broadcaster Steve Byrnes, during FS1's RaceDay prior to the running of the Toyota/Save Mart 350 at Sonoma Raceway.
=== Records and milestones ===
At the time of his retirement, Johnson's 83 career points-paying victories made him the winningest active NASCAR driver, in sixth place among the all-time Cup Series winners; he is also ranked third among those who have competed during the sport's modern era (1972–present). He is tied in first with Dale Earnhardt Sr. and Richard Petty for most NASCAR Cup Series championships, with 7. He also has the most consecutive NASCAR Cup Series championships with 5.
Johnson is the all-time winningest Cup Series driver at the following tracks:
Auto Club Speedway (6)
Charlotte Motor Speedway (8)
Dover International Speedway (11)
Las Vegas Motor Speedway (4)
Texas Motor Speedway (7)
Johnson won a Cup Series race at every track on the 2020 schedule except at Chicagoland Speedway (where he won his first NASCAR race, in the Busch Series), Kentucky Speedway, Watkins Glen International, The Roval at Charlotte Motor Speedway, and the Daytona International Speedway Road Course.
Up until 2019, Johnson was the only driver to have qualified for the NASCAR Cup Series playoffs every single year since its inception in 2004. He also holds the record for the most consecutive and total playoff appearances, with 15.
=== Soccer ===
On January 11, 2022, Johnson announced Charlotte FC's first ever MLS draft pick, and the first overall draft pick of the 2022 MLS SuperDraft, when Charlotte drafted Ben Bender out of the University of Maryland, College Park.
== In popular culture ==
=== Film and television appearances ===
Johnson appeared as a moonshine runner along with Ryan Newman in the opening scene of the 2004 NASCAR 3D: The IMAX Experience.
Johnson made an appearance as himself in the 2005 film Herbie: Fully Loaded, commenting on Herbie's sunroof as unusual for a stock car to have, and his car is also briefly seen from Herbie's POV.
Johnson starred in an episode of the television series Las Vegas in 2005.
Johnson starred in an episode of the HBO reality television series 24/7, titled "Jimmie Johnson: Race to Daytona". Cameras followed him from January 2010 to the 52nd Daytona 500 held on February 14, 2010.
In 2012, Johnson was featured in a NASCAR segment of Top Gear along with NASCAR drivers Jeff Gordon, Juan Pablo Montoya, and Kyle Petty.
Johnson appeared on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon three times between 2014, 2016, and 2022. In the seventh episode of 2014, Johnson and Fallon raced motorized beer coolers. In the forty-eighth episode of 2016, Johnson joined Fallon and fellow championship 4 NASCAR drivers Carl Edwards, Joey Logano, and Kyle Busch in a game of Mario Kart. In the one hundred forty-fourth episode of 2022, Johnson and his daughter joined Fallon to promote the running of the 106th Running of the Indianapolis 500
Johnson appeared on The Ellen DeGeneres Show during its tenth season in 2013. Fresh off his second Daytona 500 victory, Johnson challenged host Ellen DeGeneres to a go-kart race.
On November 19, 2013, Johnson became the first professional athlete to co-host ESPN's flagship news show, SportsCenter.
In 2015, Johnson appeared on the series Repeat After Me and voiced a lobster named Jimmie on the animated kids show Bubble Guppies.
In 2016, Johnson appeared in Blaze and the Monster Machines with fellow NASCAR drivers Chase Elliott, Kasey Kahne, and Danica Patrick.
In 2016, Johnson appeared in a cutaway gag for season two, episode seven of Superstore
On November 30, 2021, Johnson appeared on CBS Mornings to promote the Jimmie Johnson Foundation’s charity campaign with the American Legion.
In 2022, Johnson appeared alongside fellow NASCAR driver Clint Bowyer in season one, episode 3 of Barmageddon. The episode saw the two face off under the show’s format.
=== Magazines ===
Johnson has appeared on the cover of several magazines, including NASCAR Illustrated; Sports Illustrated; Men's Fitness, and Success.
=== Music video ===
Johnson makes a cameo appearance as a pilot in the music video for The Avett Brothers' "Ain't No Man", the lead single from the album True Sadness (2016).
=== Video games ===
Johnson's Cup ride, the No. 48 Lowe's Chevrolet, is featured on the covers of NASCAR Racing 2003 Season alongside Kevin Harvick and NASCAR The Game: 2011.
Johnson and Hendrick Motorsports teammate Jeff Gordon are featured on the cover of NASCAR 06: Total Team Control, highlighting Team Control, the main addition of the game.
Johnson is also one of the six cover drivers of NASCAR Kart Racing.
Johnson's No. 48 Chevrolet Impala is one of the twelve playable NASCAR Sprint Cup Series stock cars in the 2010 racing video game Gran Turismo 5. His 2011 car was later added to the game in the Spec II update of the game, with his 2013 car also being featured in the 2013 sequel Gran Turismo 6.
Johnson is featured in the 2011 racing video game Jimmie Johnson's Anything with an Engine.
Johnson's No. 48 is also playable in Forza Motorsport 6, via the NASCAR expansion pack. The expansion features twenty-four paint schemes from the 2016 Sprint Cup Series season, including Johnson's No. 48 Lowe's SS. Johnson, along with Chase Elliott and Kyle Busch, provide commentary in the expansion as the "voices of motorsport". Johnson and Elliott also had roles in developing the expansion.
Johnson, along with teammates Chase Elliott, Alex Bowman, and William Byron, were featured on the cover of NASCAR Heat 3.
Johnson was also featured in Ally Racer, a mobile game created to honor his final season by Ally Financial.
== Motorsports career results ==
== See also ==
List of Daytona 500 pole position winners
List of Daytona 500 winners
== References ==
=== Citations ===
=== Further reading ===
== External links ==
Official website
The Jimmie Johnson Foundation
Official profile at Legacy Motor Club
Jimmie Johnson driver statistics at Racing-Reference |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darsheel_Safary#:~:text=He%20took%20a%20break%20from,sports%20drama%20film%2C%20Hukus%20Bukus. | Darsheel Safary | Darsheel Safary (born 9 March 1997) is an Indian actor who appears in Hindi, Gujarati films and television. Safary made his film debut with the leading role of a dyslexic student in Aamir Khan's directorial debut, the critically acclaimed drama Taare Zameen Par (2007), for which he won the Filmfare critic's Award for Best Actor.
== Career ==
Born into a Gujarati Jain family, Safary made his acting debut in Taare Zameen Par (2007), playing the film's protagonist Ishaan Nandkishore Awasthi. Safary was discovered by script writer and creative director, Amol Gupte in late 2006 when he was looking for a male lead for Taare Zameen Par. After going through hundreds of auditions, Gupte found Safary at Shiamak Davar's dancing school, "Summer Funk". In choosing Safary, Gupte had a number of boys audition for a scene in which they would informally describe how they would "bunk" school after being given a few scenarios. He recalls, "It was a tough call. But Darsheel has the mischief in his eyes to be Ishaan. Everyone just naturally gravitated towards him."
Safary's performance as a struggling dyslexic child was praised by film critics. He won several awards for his performance. Taran Adarsh from indiaFM called Safary a "Master" and stated his performance merited a special award. Rajeev Masand of CNN-IBN wrote, "Darsheel Safary steals your heart as Ishaan Awasthi. Darsheel is a revelation as an actor, he's spontaneous and lovable and carries this film completely on his shoulders". Other reviewers called Safary the "real star of the film" and his performance as "brilliant". In a 2007 interview, Safary stated that his career plans may include singing, dancing, becoming a businessman or jewellery designer.
His second film Bumm Bumm Bole came in 2010 and according to some sources he was paid ₹ 3 lakh, the highest amount paid to any child actor at the time. He did two more films, Disney India's superhero film Zokkomon (2011) and Deepa Mehta's Midnight's Children (2012).
In 2012, he participated in dance reality show Jhalak Dikhhla Jaa with Avneet Kaur as his dance partner, but was eliminated and came in seventh position. He took a break from acting to focus on studies.
In 2016, he played the role of Abhay in the anthology series Yeh Hai Aashiqui. He then appeared in 2023 Hindi sports drama film, Hukus Bukus. and Gujarati film, Kutch Express (film).
== Filmography ==
=== Films ===
=== Television ===
=== Web series ===
=== Music videos ===
== Awards and nominations ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Darsheel Safary at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Prager | William Prager | William Prager, before 1940 Willy Prager (23 May 1903 – 17 March 1980), was a German-born American applied mathematician. In the field of mechanics he is well known for the Drucker–Prager yield criterion.
== Biography ==
Willy Prager was born on 23 May 1903 in Karlsruhe. He studied civil engineering at the Technische Universität Darmstadt and received his diploma in 1925. He received his doctorate in 1926 and worked as a research assistant in the field of mechanics from 1925 to 1929. From 1927 to 1929 he habilitated. He was a deputy director at University of Göttingen, professor at Karlsruhe, University of Istanbul, the University of California, San Diego and Brown University, where he advised Bernard Budiansky. Prager was also on a sabbatical at IBM's research lab in Zürich.
He died on 17 March 1980 in Zürich.
The Society of Engineering Science has awarded the William Prager Medal in Solid Mechanics since 1983 in his honor. In 1957, he received a Guggenheim Fellowship.
== Works ==
Beitrag zur Kinematik des Raumfachwerks, 1926, dissertation
Dynamik der Stabwerke (with K. Hohenemser), 1933
Mechanique des solides isotropes, 1937
Prager, William; Hodge, Philip G. Jr. (1951). Theory of Perfectly Plastic Solids. John Wiley & Sons. LCCN 51-012695.
Prager, William (1961). Introduction to Mechanics of Continua. Ginn and Company.
== See also ==
Plastic limit theorems
== References ==
== External links ==
William Prager - Encyclopedia Brunoniana - Brown University
References for William Prager
Mac Tutor Bio for William Prager
William Prager at the Mathematics Genealogy Project |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cierva_W.11_Air_Horse | Cierva W.11 Air Horse | The Cierva W.11 Air Horse was a helicopter developed by the Cierva Autogiro Company in the United Kingdom during the mid-1940s. The largest helicopter in the world at the time of its debut, the Air Horse was unusual for using three rotors mounted on outriggers, and driven by a single engine mounted inside the fuselage.
Only two aircraft were built, further development by Cierva was stopped after the crash of the first one and little work was done under Saunders Roe before the project was ended and the second aircraft was scrapped in 1951.
== Development ==
The W.11 "Air Horse" heavy lift helicopter was developed by the G & J Weir, Ltd., Aircraft Department, reconstituted in 1943 as the Cierva Autogiro Company. The "W" in the designation is a continuation of the autogiro and helicopter series developed by G & J Weir, Ltd., during the period 1932–1940.
The W.11 was a development of the Weir W.6 dual transverse rotor helicopter. It is the only helicopter of its type ever built and included three lifting rotors all turning in the same direction. The adoption of three rotors was due to concerns over the capability of a single large rotor to generate the required lift.
Torque balance was provided by slightly inclining each rotor axis to generate horizontal thrust components to provide anti-torque moments. The three rotor configuration was foreseen by Belgian helicopter experimenter Nicolas Florine in his patent of 1926 which presented the aforementioned means for balancing the reaction on the fuselage of two or more torque driven lifting rotors turning in the same direction.
Work on the W.11 commenced in 1945. The original W.11 configuration used two rotors transversely mounted either side at the front of the fuselage and a single rotor mounted on the centreline at the tail. This configuration was tested in 1947 with a scale-model in a wind tunnel at the Royal Aircraft Establishment at Farnborough, and much useful data on its performance was acquired. This determined that a single rotor at the front and the pair at the back of the fuselage was preferred for optimum stability and control.
A Rolls-Royce Merlin piston engine in the fuselage drove three 47-foot-diameter (14 m) three-blade rotors mounted on outriggers which projected from the fuselage. The blades were constructed from resin-impregnated wood which provided enormous strength, and were manufactured by the Glasgow furniture firm H. Morris & Co., Ltd. The W.11 rotor control system was hydraulically powered. It was the second helicopter ever to fly using such a system, the first being the Cierva W.9. The landing gear had a stroke of 5 ft (1.5 m) to cater for high descent rates in the event of engine failure during low-altitude operations.
Roles envisaged for the W.11 included passenger transport, air ambulance, and aerial crane. In September 1945 the design was modified to meet a requirement from Pest Control, Ltd., for use as a crop sprayer ("Spraying Mantis") in Africa for the groundnut scheme. Two aircraft were ordered under Air Ministry Specification E.19/46 in July 1946.
Cunliffe-Owen Aircraft, Ltd. at Eastleigh Airport, Southampton, UK, were contracted to build the two W.11s under the direction of the Cierva Autogiro Company. With a payload of 6,720 lb (3,050 kg) it would have been a very capable sprayer and following the first flights in December 1948 a grant was received from the Colonial Office to assist in development. However, the exit of Cunliffe-Owen from the aircraft business in 1947 delayed development of the W.11.
A proposed enlarged development using two Merlins or two Rolls-Royce Dart turboprops was designated as the W.11T. This was abandoned after the accident with the first W.11. The death of three long-time colleagues in the accident prompted financier James G. Weir to decline to provide additional funds since the Cierva Autogiro Company required ever-increasing investment. As a result, all of the company's development contracts were transferred to Saunders Roe. Development of the W.11 continued for a short time thereafter but was terminated by the British Government, and the remaining airframe, which had flown for less than 20 hours in total, was scrapped. Saunders-Roe continued development of the smaller Cierva W.14 Skeeter, which was a main/tail rotor configuration helicopter.
== Operational history ==
W.11 G-ALCV made its first flight on 7 December 1948 and was displayed at the Farnborough Air Show in 1949.
G-ALCV crashed on 13 June 1950, claiming the lives of Sqn Ldr Alan Marsh AFC (chief test pilot), Sqn Ldr John "Jeep" Cable, (Ministry of Supply test pilot), and Joseph K. Unsworth (flight engineer). The cause of the crash was due to fatigue failure of a swashplate carrier driving link in the front rotor hub.
Approximately one year later, the second W.11, G-ALCW was scrapped.
== Variants ==
W.11
Prototype three-rotor helicopter powered by a Rolls-Royce Merlin 24 inline piston engine, two built.
W.11T
Proposal for an enlarged variant powered by two Rolls-Royce Merlin 502 engines, to meet Air Ministry Specification 10/48 for a crop spraying helicopter, requirement was cancelled and the W.11T was not built.
W.12
Proposed freighter variant using Rolls-Royce Dart turboprops, not built
== Specifications (W.11) ==
Data from The Encyclopedia of World Aircraft, Jane's all the World's Aircraft 1949-50, Flight 7 April 1949General characteristics
Crew: 3, pilot, co-pilot, flight engineer
Capacity: cabin capacity 825 cubic feet (23.4 m3) cabin (up to 24 passengers in production version)
Payload: 3,755 lb (1,703 kg) payload
Length: 88 ft 7 in (27.00 m)
Width: 95 ft 0 in (28.96 m) rear rotors tip to tip
Height: 17 ft 9 in (5.41 m)
Empty weight: 12,140 lb (5,507 kg)
Max takeoff weight: 17,500 lb (7,938 kg)
Fuel capacity: 157 imp gal (189 US gal; 710 L) in a fuselage fuel tank; oil tank 15 imp gal (18 US gal; 68 L)
Powerplant: 1 × Rolls-Royce Merlin 24 V-12 liquid cooled piston engine, 1,620 hp (1,210 kW)
Main rotor diameter: 3 × 47 ft (14 m)
Main rotor area: 5,205 sq ft (483.6 m2)
Performance
Maximum speed: 140 mph (230 km/h, 120 kn) at sea level
Cruise speed: 95 mph (153 km/h, 83 kn) best range
Cruise speed best endurance: 55 mph (48 kn; 89 km/h)
Cruise speed maximum: 116 mph (101 kn; 187 km/h)
Range: 330 mi (530 km, 290 nmi) in still air
Endurance: 4.3 hours
Service ceiling: 23,300 ft (7,100 m) service
Absolute ceiling 28,000 ft (8,500 m)
Hover ceiling: 5,000 ft (1,500 m)
Rate of climb: 790 ft/min (4.0 m/s) initial vertical
Rate of climb initial inclined: 1,210 ft/min (6.1 m/s)
Disk loading: 3.36 lb/sq ft (16.4 kg/m2)
Power/mass: 10.8 lb/hp (6.6 kg/kW)
== References ==
Notes
== Further reading ==
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Aircraft (Part Work 1982–1985). Orbis Publishing.
The Cierva Air Horse. Jacob Shapiro. Journal of the Helicopter Association of Great Britain, Vol.2 No.4, 1949.
"Giving The Air Horse Its Head". Flight: 25. 5 January 1950.
"British Portfolio". Flight: 106. 23 January 1953.
Helicopter. Nicolas Florine
Rotary Wing Aircraft with Plural Rotors. Cyril George Pullin, Kenneth Watson.
Multirotor Helicopter. Cyril George Pullin, Kenneth Watson.
== External links ==
"World Buyers Acclaim British Planes" film footage of Cierva Air Horse in 1949
Cierva W.11 Air Horse; The Triple Rotor Heavy |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_art_museums | List of largest art museums | Art museums are some of the largest buildings in the world. The world's most pre-eminent museums have also engaged in various expansion projects through the years, expanding their total exhibition space.
== List ==
The following is a list of art museums ranked according to their gallery space where published by reliable sources. Only museums with more than 8,000 square meters (86,000 sq ft) of gallery space are included.
(Pls add MASP #22 now 21.863m2 https://guia.folha.uol.com.br/amp/passeios/2025/03/masp-abre-novo-predio-com-cinco-exposicoes-e-planeja-projetos-na-area-externa.shtml)
== See also ==
List of art museums
List of most-visited art museums
List of national museums
List of single-artist museums
== Notes ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Padma_Bhushan | Padma Bhushan | The Padma Bhushan (IAST: Padma Bhūṣaṇa, lit. 'Lotus Decoration') is the third-highest civilian award in the Republic of India, preceded by the Bharat Ratna and the Padma Vibhushan and followed by the Padma Shri. Instituted on 2 January 1954, the award is given for "distinguished service of a high order ... without distinction of race, occupation, position or sex". The award criteria includes "service in any field including service rendered by Government servants" including doctors and scientists, but exclude those working with the public sector undertakings. As of 2025, the award has been bestowed on 1341 individuals, including 38 posthumous and 101 non-citizen recipients.
The Padma Awards Committee is constituted every year by the Prime Minister of India and the recommendations for the award are submitted between 1 May and 15 September. The recommendations are received from all the state and the union territory governments, as well as from Ministries of the Government of India, Bharat Ratna and Padma Vibhushan awardees, the Institutes of Excellence, Ministers, Chief Ministers and Governors of States, Members of Parliament, and private individuals. The committee later submits their recommendations to the Prime Minister and the President of India for further approval. The award recipients are announced on 26 January, the Republic Day of India.
When instituted in 1954, twenty-three recipients were honoured with the Padma Bhushan. The Padma Bhushan, along with other personal civil honours, was briefly suspended twice, from July 1977 to January 1980 and from August 1992 to December 1995. Some of the recipients have refused or returned their conferments.
== History ==
On 2 January 1954, a press release was published from the office of the secretary to the President of India announcing the creation of two civilian awards—Bharat Ratna, the highest civilian award, and the three-tier Padma Vibhushan, classified into "Pahela Varg" (Class I), "Dusra Varg" (Class II), and "Tisra Varg" (Class III), which rank below the Bharat Ratna. On 15 January 1955, the Padma Vibhushan was reclassified into three different awards: the Padma Vibhushan, the highest of the three, followed by the Padma Bhushan and the Padma Shri.
The award, along with other personal civilian honours, was briefly suspended twice in its history. The first time in July 1977 when Morarji Desai was sworn in as the fourth Prime Minister of India, for being "worthless and politicized." The suspension was rescinded on 25 January 1980 after Indira Gandhi became the Prime Minister.
The civilian awards were suspended again in mid-1992, when two Public-Interest Litigations were filed in the High Courts of India, one in the Kerala High Court on 13 February 1992 by Balaji Raghavan and another in the Madhya Pradesh High Court (Indore Bench) on 24 August 1992 by Satya Pal Anand. Both petitioners questioned the civilian awards being "titles" per an interpretation of Article 18 (1) of the Constitution of India.
On 25 August 1992, the Madhya Pradesh High Court issued a notice temporarily suspending all civilian awards. A Special Division Bench of the Supreme Court of India was formed comprising five judges: A. M. Ahmadi C. J., Kuldip Singh, B. P. Jeevan Reddy, N. P. Singh, and S. Saghir Ahmad. On 15 December 1995, the Special Division Bench restored the awards and delivered a judgment that the "Bharat Ratna and Padma awards are not titles under Article 18 of the Constitution of India."
== Regulations ==
The award is conferred for "distinguished service of a high order...without distinction of race, occupation, position or sex." The criteria include "service in any field including service rendered by Government servants" but exclude those working with the public sector undertakings, with the exception of doctors and scientists. The 1954 statutes did not allow posthumous awards, but this was subsequently modified in the January 1955 statute; D. C. Kizhakemuri became the first recipient to be honoured posthumously in 1999.
The recommendations are received from all the state and the union territory governments, as well as from Ministries of the Government of India, Bharat Ratna and Padma Vibhushan awardees, the Institutes of Excellence, Ministers, Chief Ministers and Governors of States, Members of Parliament, and private individuals. The recommendations received between 1 May and 15 September of every year are submitted to the Padma Awards Committee, convened by the Prime Minister of India. The Awards Committee later submits its recommendations to the Prime Minister and the President of India for further approval.
The Padma Bhushan award recipients are announced every year on 26 January, the Republic Day of India, and registered in The Gazette of India—a publication released weekly by the Department of Publication, Ministry of Urban Development used for official government notices. The conferral of the award is not considered official without its publication in the Gazette. Recipients whose awards have been revoked or restored, both of which actions require the authority of the President, are also registered in the Gazette and are required to surrender their medals when their names are struck from the register.
== Specifications ==
The original specification of the award was a circle made of standard silver 1+3⁄8 inches (35 mm) in diameter, with rims on both sides. A centrally located lotus flower was embossed on the obverse side of the medal and the text "Padma Bhushan" written in Devanagari Script was inscribed above the lotus along the upper edge of the medal. A floral wreath was embossed along the lower edge and a lotus wreath at the top along the upper edge. The State Emblem of India was placed in the centre of the reverse side with the text "Desh Seva" in Devanagari Script on the lower edge. The medal was suspended by a pink riband 1+1⁄4 inches (32 mm) in width divided into three equal segments by two white vertical lines.
A year later, the design was modified. The current decoration is a circular-shaped bronze toned medallion 1+3⁄4 inches (44 mm) in diameter and 1⁄8 inch (3.2 mm) thick. The centrally placed pattern made of outer lines of a square of 1+3⁄16 inches (30 mm) side is embossed with a knob embossed within each of the outer angles of the pattern. A raised circular space of diameter 1+1⁄16 inches (27 mm) is placed at the centre of the decoration. A centrally located lotus flower is embossed on the obverse side of the medal and the text "Padma" written in Devanagari script is placed above and the text "Bhushan" is placed below the lotus.
The Emblem of India is placed in the centre of the reverse side with the national motto of India, "Satyameva Jayate" (Truth alone triumphs) in Devanagari Script, inscribed on the lower edge. The rim, the edges and all embossing on either side is of standard gold with the text "Padma Bhushan" of gold gilt. The medal is suspended by a pink riband 1+1⁄4 inches (32 mm) in width with a broad white stripe in the middle.
The medal is ranked fifth in the order of precedence of wearing of medals and decorations. The medals are produced at Alipore Mint, Kolkata along with the other civilian and military awards like Bharat Ratna, Padma Vibhushan, Padma Shri, and Param Vir Chakra.
== Refusals and controversies ==
Some of the bestowals of the Padma Bhushan have been refused or returned by the recipients. Bengali theatre activist Sisir Bhaduri (1959) was the first awardee who refused their conferment as "he felt state awards merely help create a sycophantic brigade" and "did not want to encourage the impression that the government was serious about the importance of theatre in national life." Sitar player Vilayat Khan declined to accept the award in 1968, stating that "the selection committees were incompetent to judge [his] music." Khan had earlier refused Padma Shri in 1964 and later also turned down Padma Vibhushan in 2000.
Journalist Nikhil Chakravarty rejected the award in 1990 stating that "journalists should not be identified with the establishment." Historian Romila Thapar refused to accept the award twice, for the first time in 1992, and later again in 2005, stating that she would accept awards only "from academic institutions or those associated with my professional work." For her 2005 bestowal, Thapar sent a clarification letter to the then President A. P. J. Abdul Kalam mentioning that she had declined to accept the award when the Ministry of Human Resource Development had contacted her three-month prior to the award announcement and had explained her reasons for not accepting the award. Journalist and civil servant K. Subrahmanyam refused his 1999 bestowal citing that "bureaucrats and journalists should not accept any award from the government because they are more liable to be favoured."
In 2003, Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh's (RSS) volunteer Dattopant Thengadi rejected the award until K. B. Hedgewar (RSS founder) and M. S. Golwalkar (RSS ideologue) are offered the Bharat Ratna. Civil servant S. R. Sankaran turned down the award in 2005 without citing any reason. In 2013, playback singer S. Janaki refused to accept her award and stated that "the award has come late in her five-and-half-decade long career." The singer also mentioned that she is not against the Government and expressed happiness for the recognition but requested the Government to "show some more consideration to the artists from the southern parts of the country."
In 2014, family members of J. S. Verma who served as 27th Chief Justice of India refused the posthumous conferral stating that "Verma himself would not have accepted" the honour as he "never hankered or lobbied for any acclaim, reward or favour."
Kannada novelist K. Shivaram Karanth, who was awarded in 1968, returned his award to protest against the Emergency declared in the country in 1975. Novelist Khushwant Singh, who accepted the award in 1974 in the field of literature and education, returned it in 1984 as a notion of protest against the Operation Blue Star. Singh was later awarded Padma Vibhushan in 2007. Pushpa Mittra Bhargava, 1986 recipient and scientist and founder-director of Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB), returned his award in 2015 in protest of the Dadri mob lynching and out of concern at the "prevailing socio-politico situation" in the country.
The 2010 conferment on an Indian-American businessman Sant Singh Chatwal, who was awarded the Padma Bhushan in the field of Public Affairs, created much controversy. Known for his association with former US President Bill Clinton and his wife Hillary Clinton, Chatwal pled guilty to violating the Federal Election Campaign Act and witness tampering during the 2008 United States presidential election. He was also accused of lobbying for the award by leveraging "his contacts in the Prime Minister's Office and United States Congress."
The Government provided clarification regarding the conferment and issued a press release which mentioned Chatwal as a "tireless advocate" of the country's interest in the United States. The statement also mentioned that "due diligence" exercise is carried out for each of the awardees and out of five Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) registered cases against Chatwal between 1992 and 1994, three were closed by CBI itself and in remaining two cases, Chatwal was discharged by the Court and as per the reports that were made available to the selection committee, there is nothing adverse on record against him. According to media reports, there were several cases filed or registered after April 2009 which includes three criminal complaints with Kerala Police and four cases in Delhi High Court and Kerala High Court. Chatwal also served a summons in January 2010. However, the then Union Home Secretary Gopal Krishna Pillai said that "no probe has been ordered nor any report sought from anyone."
Earlier in 2008, Chatwal was considered for the Padma Shri but the Indian Embassy in Washington, D.C. declined to nominate Chatwal when asked by the Prime Minister's Office. The then Indian Ambassador to the United States Ronen Sen had told PMO that the conferral would not be appropriate because of the controversy associated with his financial dealings in India and America. Sen also mentioned that though positive, Chatwal's contributions are much less compared to other Indian-Americans. The bestowal would not only "demoralise the others who had done much more" but also would create "the impression that India did not regard lack of transparency in financial dealings as a disqualification for its highest honours."
In 2022, former West Bengal Chief Minister Buddhadeb Bhattacharya refused to accept his award on the eve of the 73rd Republic Day of India. He reportedly refused to have been intimated about his nomination and straightaway exclaimed in the media that if he has been awarded, he refuses the same. His name appeared on the official list of awardees, and so far he has refused the same.
== List of awardees ==
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Bhattacherje, S. B. (2009). Encyclopaedia of Indian Events & Dates. Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. ISBN 978-81-207-4074-7.
Edgar, Thorpe (2011). The Pearson General Knowledge Manual 2011. Pearson Education India. ISBN 978-81-317-5640-9.
Hoiberg, Dale; Ramchandani, Indu (2000). Students' Britannica India. Vol. 1–5. Popular Prakashan. ISBN 978-81-7156-112-4.
== External links ==
Official website
"Awards & Medals". Ministry of Home Affairs (India). 14 September 2015. Retrieved 22 October 2015. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamia_College_of_Science_and_Commerce,_Srinagar#:~:text=The%20Islamia%20College%20of%20Science,0.0493%20km2)%20campus%20in | Islamia College of Science and Commerce, Srinagar | The Islamia College of Science and Commerce, Srinagar (commonly referred to as Islamia College or ICSC) is a University Grants Commission Autonomous College, and accredited as A grade by National Assessment and Accreditation Council, in the state of Jammu and Kashmir, located on a 12.17-acre (0.0493 km2) campus in Hawal Srinagar.
It is affiliated to University of Kashmir. It has the distinction to be the first college in Jammu and Kashmir to take the lead in incorporating the CBCS (choice based Credit system) from the year 2015.
== Establishment ==
The Government of Jammu and Kashmir established this Institute in 1961 during the Prime-ministership of Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad as an
Autonomous Educational Institute.
== Courses ==
=== Under Graduate (UG) courses ===
Source:
Bachelor of Computer Application BCA
Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA)
Bachelor of Commerce (Honours) B.Com
Bachelor of Information Technology BSc IT
Bachelor of Science (Medical) BSc
Bachelor of Science (Non Medical) BSc
Bachelor of Science (Bio-Technology) BSc
Bachelor of Science (Bio-Chemistry) BSc
Bachelor of Science (Electronics) BSc
Bachelor of Arts (Economics) B.A.
Bachelor of Science (Zoology) BSc
Bachelor of Science (Nano-Science & Nano Technology) BSc
Bachelor of Science (Botany) BSc
Bachelor of Science (Chemistry) BSc
=== Post Graduate (PG) courses ===
Master of Computer Applications MCA
Master of Commerce MCom
Master of Arts (English)
Master of Business Administration MBA
Master of Science (Botany). MSc
Master of Science (Chemistry) MSc
Master of Science (Zoology) MSc
Mathematics MSc
=== Integrated Post Graduate (I-PG) courses ===
Master of Science (Botany) MSc
Master of Science (Chemistry) MSc
Master of Science (Zoology) MSc
== Awards and achievements ==
The National Assessment and Accreditation Council, Bangalore (NAAC) has accredited the college at A level grade in its Certificate issued on 12 September 2017; the Institutional score being 3.27 CGPA, the highest rated college in J&K. It was accredited as the College for Potential Excellence by the University Grants Commission (India) in April 2010.
Adventures Activities
The college has also Mountaineering & Trekking Club which is affiliated with The Jammu & Kashmir Mountaineering and Trekking Association. The students of the college keenly participate in the activities held by the Club. The college adventure club is headed by Dr. Altaf Ur Rehman and Aga Syed Ashtar, Jasim Ali, Syed Kumail Madni were the leads of the Islamia College Mountaineering & Trekking Club.
== Notable alumni ==
MC Kash - Rapper
Ashiq Hussain Faktoo - Scholar
Fareed Parbati - Indian Poet
Z. G. Muhammad - Writer
Ghulam Rasool Nazki - Poet
Abrar Qazi - Indian Actor
== References ==
Islamia College to introduce three post-grad programmes this year. https://kashmirreader.com/2018/09/19/islamia-college-to-introduce-three-post-grad-programmes-this-year/ Archived 29 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Kashmir Reader. (Published: September 19, 2018). Retrieved September 29, 2018
== External links ==
www.islamiacollege.edu.in
http://www.naac.gov.in/docs/27th%20-%202nd%20cycle.pdf |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naledi_Pandor#:~:text=Grace%20Naledi%20Mandisa%20Matthews%20was%20born%20on%207%20December%201953%20in%20Durban%2C%20Natal%2C%20to%20Regina%20Thelma | Naledi Pandor | Grace Naledi Mandisa Pandor (née Matthews; born 7 December 1953) is a South African politician, educator and academic who served as the Minister of International Relations and Cooperation from 2019 until 2024. She also served as a Member of Parliament (MP) for the African National Congress (ANC) from 1994 to 2024.
Born in Durban, Pandor completed high school in Botswana. She qualified as a teacher and taught at multiple schools and universities, while she achieved various degrees from different universities. Pandor took office as a Member of Parliament in 1994. She soon became Deputy Chief Whip of the ANC caucus in 1995. She was elected Deputy Chairperson of the National Council of Provinces in 1998 and became chairperson in 1999.
She initially became a member of the national cabinet in 2004, following President Thabo Mbeki's decision to appoint her as Minister of Education. She retained her post in the cabinet of Kgalema Motlanthe. Newly elected President Jacob Zuma named her Minister of Science and Technology in 2009. She served in the position until her appointment as Minister of Home Affairs in 2012. She returned to the post of Minister of Science and Technology in 2014 and held it until 2018, when she became Minister of Higher Education and Training in the first cabinet of President Cyril Ramaphosa. After the 2019 general election, Pandor was mentioned as a possible candidate for Deputy President of South Africa. She was instead appointed Minister of International Relations and Cooperation. Pandor unsuccessfully stood for re-election to the National Assembly at the 2024 general election.
She has been the chair of the board of trustees of the Nelson Mandela Foundation since the 1st of October 2024.
== Early life and education ==
Grace Naledi Mandisa Matthews was born on 7 December 1953 in Durban, Natal, to Regina Thelma (died 2002) and Joe Matthews (1929–2010), a political and anti-apartheid activist and the son of academic Z. K. Matthews (1901–1968). She received her primary and secondary education in Botswana. She matriculated from Gaborone Secondary School. Between 1973 and 1977, she achieved a Certificate for Continuing Education and a bachelor's degree from the University of Swaziland and the University of Botswana, respectively. She then went overseas and fulfilled a Diploma in Education and an MA degree from the University of London between 1978 and 1979.
Pandor obtained a diploma in higher education, administration and leadership from the Bryn Mawr Summer Programme in 1992, and soon enrolled at Harvard Kennedy School to receive a diploma in leadership in development in 1997. She also attained an MA degree in linguistics from the University of Stellenbosch in the same year. Pandor received her PhD in education at the University of Pretoria in 2019, with a thesis titled "The contested meaning of transformation in higher education in post-apartheid South Africa".
== Teaching career ==
Pandor became a teacher at the Ernest Bevin School in London in 1980. She was subsequently employed as a teacher in Gaborone from 1981 to 1984, and as an instructor at the Taung College of Education from 1984 to 1986. Pandor worked as a senior lecturer in English at the University of Bophuthatswana from 1986 to 1989, and then as a senior fellow in the Academic Support Programme of the University of Cape Town from 1989 to 1994.
While at the University of Bophuthatswana, Pandor served as the chair of the university's Union of Democratic Staff Associations between 1988 and 1990. She was appointed the chairperson of the Western Cape National Executive Committee of the National Education Coordinating Committee in 1991 and served in the position until 1993. At the same time, she was part of the ANC's Western Cape Education Committee.
Additionally, Pandor chaired the ANC Athlone Central branch, while serving as both the head of the Desmond Tutu Education Trust and the Western Cape School Building Trust.
From 1992 to 1995, she worked as deputy head of the Tertiary Education Fund of South Africa. She soon became head of the fund. She was also deputy chairperson of the Joint Education Trust Board of Trustees between 1993 and 2001.
She was chancellor of Cape Technikon from 2002 to 2004. During the same period, she was a member of the governing council of the University of Fort Hare.
== Early parliamentary career ==
Pandor became a Member of the Parliament in the lower house of Parliament, the National Assembly, following the 1994 general election. Within the ANC caucus, she served as Deputy Chief Whip from 1995 until her deployment to the upper house of Parliament, the National Council of Provinces, in 1998. She served as Deputy Chairperson until her appointment as Chairperson following the 1999 general election. She succeeded inaugural Chairperson Mosioua Lekota when she assumed the office on 21 June 1999. She was the first woman to hold the role. Joyce Kgoali succeeded Pandor in 2004 and consequently became the second woman to hold the role.
== National government ==
=== Minister of Education (2004–2009) ===
Pandor returned to the National Assembly following the 2004 general election. President Thabo Mbeki appointed her to the role of Minister of Education; she took office on 12 May 2004. During her tenure in the portfolio, she was responsible for a complete overhaul of the nation's education system. Pandor initiated reforms to the country's failed implementation of the outcomes-based education (OBE) system. Mbeki resigned in 2008 and left Kgalema Motlanthe in charge. Motlanthe retained Pandor in her position in his interim cabinet.
=== Minister of Science and Technology (2009–2012) ===
Following the 2009 general election, Jacob Zuma became the new President of South Africa. He unbundled the Education Ministry into two new portfolios and appointed Pandor to the newly established post of Minister of Science and Technology in May 2009. During her time in the position, Pandor served as a driving force for South Africa to host the Square Kilometre Array (SKA) in the Karoo region. South Africa won the bid.
=== Minister of Home Affairs (2012–2014) ===
In October 2012, Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma resigned as Minister of Home Affairs in order for her to take up the role as Chair of the African Union. Her resignation caused a vacancy in the cabinet. Zuma consequently appointed Pandor as Minister of Home Affairs in an acting capacity on 2 October 2012. Soon after on 4 October 2012, Zuma formally appointed her as Minister of Home Affairs. In October 2013, she served as acting president for a day as Zuma visited the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
=== Minister of Science and Technology (2014–2018) ===
Following her re-election in the 2014 general election, Zuma announced that Pandor would return to the Department of Science and Technology. Malusi Gigaba succeeded her as Minister of Home Affairs. She took office on 26 May 2014 and succeeded Derek Hanekom.
=== Minister of Higher Education and Training (2018–2019) ===
Cyril Ramaphosa assumed the office of President in February 2018. Pandor was appointed Minister of Higher Education and Training and took office on 27 February 2018, succeeding Hlengiwe Mkhize.
=== Minister of International Relations and Cooperation (2019–2024) ===
After the 2019 general election, the Ministry of Higher Education and Training was split. Pandor was speculated to be appointed Deputy President of South Africa. She was Ramaphosa's original choice for Deputy President back in 2017 at the ANC's elective conference. She was instead appointed Minister of International Relations and Cooperation and assumed office on 30 May 2019.
In response to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Pandor and the Department of International Relations and Cooperation were initially critical of the invasion and released a statement, in which they called on Russia to withdraw its forces in Ukraine immediately. Ramaphosa was reportedly unhappy with Pandor and the department's statement, because it contradicted South Africa's position that negotiation was needed to end the war. Pandor later backtracked on her position, toeing the party line instead.
On 10 March 2022, Pandor said that she supported the idea of a single African currency to increase intra-continental trade.
In September 2022, Pandor stood in for Ramaphosa at the Seventy-seventh session of the United Nations General Assembly after he had decided to return to South Africa due to the ongoing electricity crisis after his working visit in Washington, D.C. In her address to the assembly, Pandor said that all ongoing wars and conflicts around the world should be given equal attention. She also called for Israel to be held accountable for its "destructive actions" in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, for the embargo against Cuba to be lifted and echoed the African Union's call for sanctions against Zimbabwe to be lifted.
Pandor was one of a number of sitting cabinet ministers who unsuccessfully sought re-election to the National Executive Committee of the African National Congress at the party's 55th National Conference in December 2022.
Reacting to the ICC arrest warrant for Vladimir Putin, Pandor criticized the International Criminal Court (ICC) for not having what she called an "evenhanded approach" to all leaders responsible for violations of international law. South Africa, which failed in its obligation to arrest visiting Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir in June 2015, invited Russian President Vladimir Putin to the 15th BRICS Summit of leaders of Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa in August 2023. In May 2023, Pandor announced that she had approved diplomatic immunity for Vladimir Putin and his officials so that they could attend the 15th BRICS Summit despite the ICC arrest warrant.
Pandor is known, in part, for her strong anti-Israel stance. Following the October 7th attack on Israel, Pandor held a telephone call with Hamas leader Ismail Haniyeh. According to reports, the phone call was described as "embarrassing" for President Cyril Ramaphosa, who was stated to have had "no prior knowledge" of its occurrence. Following news of the call, the South African Jewish Board of Deputies (SAJBD) issued a statement criticizing Minister Pandor’s reported expression of “support” for Hamas in the aftermath of the October 7 attacks on Israeli targets. The SAJBD argued that this stance had placed South Africa in "very dangerous waters" and subsequently called for Pandor’s immediate resignation or dismissal. On 12 November 2023, Pandor called on the ICJ to speed up its investigation of Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide in the Gaza Strip and that she expects the ICC to issue an arrest warrant for Israeli Prime Minister Netanyahu.
Pandor lost her seat in Parliament at the 2024 general election, having been ranked 86th on the ANC's national parliamentary list and the ANC only winning 73 national list seats.
== Personal life ==
Pandor is married to Sharif Joseph Pandor, whom she met while studying in Botswana, and they have four children together.
Her daughter, Aisha Pandor, is a prominent tech entrepreneur and investor, becoming CEO of California-based AI health platform Pandora Health.
She converted to Islam after she met her husband. Her in-laws gave her the Islamic name of Nadia. On her religious conversion, Pandor said: "My parents said God is God. As long as you worship Him we will support you and the Islamic principles are universal. Certainly, Islam demands much more of you in terms of observance."
== References ==
== External links ==
Naledi Pandor at People's Assembly
Grace Naledi Mandisa Pandor – South African History Online
Grace Naledi Mandisa Pandor, Ms – South African Government
Profile: Dr Naledi Pandor, Minister – Dirco
Naledi Pandor Biographical notes – dst.gov.za Archived 4 November 2021 at the Wayback Machine |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hari_Bansha_Acharya | Hari Bansha Acharya | Hari Bansha Acharya (Nepali: हरिवंश आचार्य) is a Nepalese actor, comedian, director, singer and writer.Hari Bansha Acharya, widely revered and regarded as the greatest comic comedian of all time in Nepalese Tele and movie industry, is known for his method acting. He is one half of the comedy duo MaHa Jodi along with fellow artist Madan Krishna Shrestha. He is known for his performance as Arjun in the 1997 patriotic drama film Balidaan. His performance in the series Madan Bahadur Hari Bahadur as "Hari Bahadur" is well recognized. He also wrote and performed in the film Shatru Gatey.
== Personal life ==
Hari Bansha Acharya was born on 27 Kartik 2014 BS (13 November 1957 AD) in Gairidhara, Kathmandu, to father Homanjaya Acharya and mother Ganesh Kumari. He met his first wife, Meera, in 1982. He has two sons, Trilok Acharya and Mohit Acharya. His first wife, Meera Acharya, suffered from heart disease, and died in 2011. He married his second wife Ramila Pathak in 2012. In 2015, Acharya established The Meera Centre, named for his late wife. The centre provides health and educational services with the aim of contributing to the holistic development of children under five years.
== Career ==
Acharya performed with Hari Prasad Rimal and Jitendra Mahat Avilashi in 2031 BS (1974 AD) on Radio Nepal, then the only radio station in Nepal. In 2032 BS (1975 AD), he joined Rastriya Naach Ghar. He had participated in Gaijatra Mahotsav in 2034 BS (1977 AD). Before performing with Madan Krishna Shrestha and becoming a part of the MAHA Jodi, he worked in the entertainment field for almost six years.
Acharya has also played in films. Lovipapi, Filim, Rajamati, Silu, Balidaan, Je Bho Ramrai bho, and Tah ta Sarhai Bigris Ni Badri are some of his popular films that were immensely popular in the Nepali film industry. His performance in Balidaan is considered to be his one of the finest performance. Some of his remarkable comedy series like Lal Purja, Pandra Gatay, Bhakunde Bhoot, Series of Hari Bahadur and Madan Bahadur, 50/50, and Dashain ko Chyangra, will be cherished by Nepalese even after many years. After 17 years Acharya and Shrestha starred in 2074 multistarrer comedy-drama Satru Gate whose story was written by Acharya. The film became a commercial success and is one of the highest grossing Nepali film ever.
Acharya and his comedy duo are active in social life and were very much noted for their effort in the April Uprising in Nepal, which dethroned the monarchy. The duo was touted for the Presidency by some spheres of the Nepalese population.
== Filmography ==
=== Films ===
All films are in Nepali language or else noted
=== Television programs ===
=== Theater programs ===
== Radio programs ==
== Music ==
Songs
Hari Bansha Acharya (album)
== Publications ==
Gold Medal — published by Kathmandu Publication
Mahasan — published by Sajha Prakashan
Neparujinno Kurasito Seuji (Social and Political Life of Nepal)
China Harayeko Manchhe (autobiography)
Hari Bahadur (novel)
== Positions held ==
Ambassador, UN World Food Program Nepal
Chairman, Kathmandu Animal Treatment Centre
Founder, Jana Andolan Health Relief Fund (established during 2nd People's Movement in 2062–2063 BS)
Executive Director, MaHa Sanchar, Kathmandu
Vice President, Kathmandu Model Hospital (PHECT)
Honorary Life Member, Nepal Association of Victoria Sydney, Australia (20 June 1998)
Honorary Member, Nepal Film Artist National Association
Founder board member, Tilganga Eye Centre, Kathmandu
board member, Spinal Injury Organisation, Kathmandu
board member, Campion Associates, Kathmandu
Member, Rotary Club of Tripureshwor, Kathmandu
Member, Nepal Russia Friendship Society, Kathmandu
Member, Nepal Music Association, Kathmandu
== Awards and honours ==
NEFTA awards
OFA awards
Honoured in Hasya Byangya Hijo Aaja Bholi 2070
Jagadamba Shree Puraskar
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Hari Bansha Acharya at IMDb
== Further reading ==
Neupane, Amar (2015). Karodaun Kasturi. Kathmandu: Fineprint Books. ISBN 9789937893145. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hall_(Victorian_politician) | John Hall (Victorian politician) | John Joseph Hall (18 February 1884 – 30 June 1949) was an Australian politician and journalist.
He was born in Eaglehawk to miner and tea merchant Joseph Hall and Isabella, née Gray. He attended state school before becoming a booking clerk with Victorian Railways and a journalist with the Bendigo Advertiser; he was also mining correspondent for The Argus. He married Clarissa Jessamine Snell on 26 December 1907, with whom he had six children. Active in the Kyabram Reform Movement, he was a founder of the Victorian Farmers' Union (VFU) in 1916 and served as its general secretary from 1916 to 1918. In 1917 he was elected to the Victorian Legislative Assembly as the member for Kara Kara, but he was defeated on a recount in February 1918. He was subsequently the VFU's candidate for the 1918 federal Flinders by-election, but withdrew after extracting a promise from the Nationalist Party to introduce preferential voting. Despite several attempts, Hall never re-entered parliament. He remained a journalist, editing the Farmer's Advocate (1917–1924), the Morning Post (1924–1927) and the Leader (1946–1949). Hall died in 1949 in Richmond.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfredo_di_Braccio_Award | Alfredo di Braccio Award | The Alfredo di Braccio Award is a prestigious prize for young Italian scientists given by the Italian Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei.
== Award winners ==
Every year a top young chemist or physicist receives this honor for their research.
2008 Chemistry prize was awarded to Lorenzo Malavasi (University of Pavia, Italy)
2009 Physics prize was awarded (ex aequo) to Alessandro Mirizzi (University of Bari, Italy) and Alessio Recati (CNR Trento, Italy)
2010 Chemistry prize was awarded to Riccardo Baron (Codoxo, USA)
2011 Physics prize was awarded (ex aequo) to Antonio Politano (University of Calabria, Italy) and Alessandro Giuliani (Roma Tre University, Italy)
2012 Chemistry prize was awarded to Tiziano Montini (University of Trieste, Italy)
2013 Physics prize was awarded (ex aequo) to Francesco Pellegrino (University of Catania, Italy) and Pasquale Serpico (CNRS, France)
2014 Physics prize was awarded to Stefano Protti (University of Pavia)
2015 Physics prize was awarded (ex aequo) to Filippo Caruso (University of Florence, Italy), Michele Cicoli (University of Bologna, Italy), and Alessandro Pitanti (CNR Pisa, Italy)
2016 Chemistry prize was awarded to Francesca Maria Toma (Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Italy)
2017 Physics prize was awarded to Marco Genoni (University of Milan, Italy)
2018 Chemistry prize was awarded to Lorenzo Mino (University of Turin, Italy)
2019 Physics prize awarded (ex aequo) to Matteo Lucchini and Andrea Crespi (Polytechnic University of Milan, Italy), and Lorenzo Rovigatti (University of Rome "La Sapienza", Italy)
2020 Chemistry prize was awarded to Raffaele Cucciniello (University of Salerno, Italy)
2021 Physics prize was awarded (ex aequo) to Eleonora Di Valentino (Durham University, UK) and Sunny Vagnozzi (University of Cambridge, UK)
2022 Chemistry prize was awarded to Gianvito Vilé (Polytechnic University of Milan, Italy)
== See also ==
List of chemistry awards
List of physics awards
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kailas_Nath_Wanchoo | Kailas Nath Wanchoo | Kailas Nath Wanchoo (25 February 1903 – 14 August 1988) was the tenth Chief Justice of India.
He was born in Allahabad into a Kashmiri Pandit family and was educated on primary at Nowgong, Madhya Pradesh and middle at Pandit Pirthi Nath High School, Kanpur, Muir Central College, Allahabad and Wadham College, Oxford. He joined the Indian Civil Service as Joint Magistrate on 1 December 1926 in Uttar Pradesh.
== Career ==
He was appointed as Judge of Allahabad High Court on 17 February 1947.In April 1967, he was sworn in as a Chief Justice of India following the retirement of Koka Subba Rao from the position on announcing his presidential campaign.
Over the course of his Supreme Court tenure, Wanchoo authored 355 judgments and sat on 1,286 benches.
As Chief Justice of India, he administered the oath of office to the 3rd President of India Zakir Husain.
== Official positions ==
Allahabad High Court Judge, Feb. 1947-Jan. 1951
Rajasthan High Court Chief Justice 1951-58(Longest time period as chief justice in Rajasthan HC)
Uttar Pradesh Judicial Reforms Committee Chairman, 1950–51
Indore Firing Inquiry Commission Sole Member, 1954
Dholpur Succession Case Commission Chairman, 1955
Law Commission Member, 1955.
Chief Justice of India on 12 April 1967. Retired 24 February 1968.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hillsong_Church# | Hillsong Church | Hillsong Church, commonly known as Hillsong, is a charismatic Christian megachurch and a Christian association of churches based in Australia. The original church was established in Baulkham Hills, New South Wales, as Hills Christian Life Centre by Brian Houston and his wife, Bobbie Houston, in 1983. Hillsong was a member of the Australian Christian Churches – the Australian branch of the US-based Assemblies of God – until 2018, when it separated to form a new denomination. The church is known for its contemporary worship music, with groups such as Hillsong Worship, Hillsong United and Hillsong Young & Free with many musical credits and hits charting all over the world.
Hillsong and its music have been highly successful globally, with its presence described as a global corporate brand. However, a series of scandals and criticisms have negatively affected its image in recent years. In March 2022, Houston stepped down as global senior pastor after an internal investigation found that he had breached the church's moral code of conduct for pastors by engaging in inappropriate behaviour with women on two occasions in the 2010s. In February 2023, Phil and Lucinda Dooley, who had been acting in the position since January 2022, took over as global senior pastors.
== History ==
=== Beginnings: 1977–1999 ===
In 1977, six years before the establishment of what would become Hillsong Church, Brian Houston's father Frank founded the Sydney Christian Life Centre (Sydney CLC) in Waterloo, New South Wales, in inner-city Sydney, in what was described by scholar Sam Hey as "a neo-Pentecostal megachurch". Brian Houston and his wife, Bobbie, started holding services at a school hall in Baulkham Hills, establishing Hills Christian Life Centre (Hills CLC) in 1983. Both Sydney CLC and Hills CLC were affiliated with the Australian Christian Churches (ACC), the Australian branch of the US-based Assemblies of God.
Hills CLC's growth into a megachurch through the 1980s and 1990s was largely driven by young people attracted by its contemporary worship music, and by its practice of planting churches internationally. In 1992, Hills CLC planted London Christian Life Centre as an independent church, with Gerard and Sue Keehan as pastors; it was renamed Hillsong London in 2000 and gradually grew to twelve locations across the United Kingdom. Kyiv Christian Life Centre, now Hillsong Kyiv, was also planted in newly independent Ukraine in 1992.
In 1997, Hills CLC moved into a new building at Baulkham Hills' Norwest Business Park. The church merged with Sydney CLC in May 1999, after Frank Houston had been exposed as a paedophile. Brian Houston became senior pastor of both churches for eighteen months. The multi-campus church was renamed Hillsong Church in 2001.
=== 21st century ===
Between 2008 and 2018, Hillsong Church planted more churches in Russia, South Africa, Sweden, Israel, Canada and Mexico. Hillsong also branched out into the United States, establishing sixteen locations by 2022.
In September 2018, Hillsong left the Australian Christian Churches—of which Brian Houston had been national superintendent/president from 1997 to 2009—to become an autonomous denomination, identifying itself more as a global and charismatic church. According to both Hillsong and ACC, the parting was amicable. Of the decision to spin itself off into its own denomination, Houston wrote, "We do not intend to function as a denomination in the traditional sense of the word... We are a denomination purely for practical reasons related to having the ability to ordain our pastors in Australia to legally conduct weddings as marriage celebrants operating under the rites of Hillsong Church". Houston added that they had not shifted doctrinally and that the ACC was still their "tribe". In 2018, it had 80 churches.
In October 2020, Hillsong purchased the Festival Hall venue in Melbourne to become the home of Hillsong Church Melbourne City's weekly church services after undergoing renovations to better suit the new uses.
In October 2021, Hillsong bought the Golders Green Hippodrome in London, England, with the intention of holding Sunday services there.
Houston resigned his chairmanship of the Hillsong board in September 2021, owing to the pressures of a court case relating to his alleged failure to report sexual abuse of a child by his father, of which he became aware in the 1990s. In January 2022, Houston announced that he was temporarily stepping down from church leadership for this reason and introduced new leaders Phil and Lucinda Dooley. Then in March 2022, following revelations of misconduct complaints by two women, he permanently stepped down from church leadership. Two weeks after this scandal, 9 of the 16 Hillsong Churches in the United States announced their decisions to leave the Hillsong global network.
In August 2022, Hillsong was sued by an Australian whistleblower in federal court there, alleging that the megachurch had moved millions of dollars overseas to avoid the charities regulator, the Australian Charities and Not-for-profits Commission (ACNC). The whistleblower alleged that Hillsong made "large cash gifts" to Houston and his family using tax-free money.
In August 2023, Brian Houston was acquitted of covering up his father's crimes.
== Statistics ==
According to a census published by the association in 2024, it would have 28 churches in Australia and in 27 countries.
Hillsong had 100,000 people in 14 countries in September 2015,increasing to 130,000 people in 21 countries in 2019. and
Due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, the church started measuring online attendees instead of regular attendees, which they stated average 444,000 per weekend.
== Branding ==
Hillsong has been described as a "global corporate brand", and "Australia's most powerful brand", with its fast global growth assisted by the spectacle of its huge conferences, the popularity of its music releases, young people's attraction to the charismatic leaders, Hillsong Television, its messaging and language (described by critics as "health and wealth"), customer service, targeting of children, presence on social media, and merchandising.
== Governance ==
The church is governed by the Hillsong Global Board and a group of elders known as the Hillsong Eldership, headed by Pastors Phil and Lucinda Dooley since 2022. The elders lead the church spiritually, whereas the board of directors manages the corporate administration appointed for one year, with renewable terms.
The founders, Brian and Bobbie Houston, had been the global senior pastors of Hillsong Church. On 31 January 2022, it was announced that Phil and Lucinda Dooley, pastors of the South African church, would be acting global senior pastors in Houston's absence until the end of 2022, after Brian Houston stepped down owing to the pressures of a court case relating to his alleged failure to report sexual abuse by his father, of which he was later acquitted.
Brian Houston was also chairman of the board, until his resignation from this position in January 2022. Since 2021, the chairman of the Hillsong Global board is Steve Crouch. He is the husband of long-term pastor Donna Crouch and former accountant to the church. George Aghajanian is general manager as well as a director of Hillsong Church Australia and its international entities.
In March 2022, Brian Houston resigned from the board of Hillsong Church and from his role as global senior pastor as a result of breaching the moral code of the church in his behaviour with two women.
== Locations and ministries ==
Hillsong has a global presence, with churches and ministries in Australia, Indonesia, Philippines and Japan, many European countries, Canada, US, South Africa, and, in Latin America, Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, and Uruguay as of February 2022.
Hillsong's various ministries include Hillsong Music, Hillsong Kids, Hillsong Youth, Hillsong Sisterhood, Hillsong Men, Hillsong Conference, Hillsong CityCare, Hillsong International Leadership College, TBN Inspire (branded as Hillsong Channel from June 2016 to 31 December 2021), TV & Film, Hillsong Performing Arts Academy and Hillsong Health Centre. Their total facilities are estimated to be worth around A$100 million.
=== Hillsong College ===
Two campuses of the Hillsong International Leadership College arose from the two churches that are now Hillsong Church, the Sydney Christian Life Centre and Hills Christian Life Centre. Both original colleges had similar goals of creating courses in ministry and leadership development based in a local church setting. With an emphasis on the creative arts, theological education was based on the ministry model.
The Sydney college was originally founded in 1983 by David Johnston and located at Arncliffe as the "International Institute for Creative Ministries" (IICM), but in 1989 Johnston parted ways with IICM, bringing the college under the auspices of Wesley Mission. That college moved to the Wesley Centre in Pitt Street, Sydney, and after a few name changes became Wesley Institute (now Excelsia College).
In 1988, Hills Christian Life Centre developed a training arm of IICM, under Ian Fuller. It was first known as Power Ministry School, then in 1992 Power Ministry College, under Steve Kelly. In 1993 the Hillsong School and a School of Music was established to train young musicians. In 1996, after Mark Hopkins took over as director, the Hillsong School and the School of Music were merged to form the Hills Leadership College.
In 1990, Robert Fergusson became principal at the Sydney location and switched the focus to practical ministry training. Classes, at this time accommodating around 50-70 students, were moved back to the church site and the name changed to Aquila College of Ministries in 1993. After Hills CLC merged with Sydney CLC (referred to as its "parent church") in 1999, in early 2000 the Sydney college merged with the Hills Leadership College to become Hillsong International Leadership College, with Duncan Corby appointed principal of its "City campus". It was approved as a registered training organisation in December 2002, and by 2007 there were around 900 full-time students enrolled across the two campuses, the majority from overseas.
In February 2016, Duncan Corby was dean of the college, while Catrina Henderson was principal. and it was still trading as Hillsong International Leadership College. In late 2016 it shortened its name to simply Hillsong College, and as of 2022 has campuses in Sydney and Phoenix, Arizona, and has an online curriculum. The official trading name of the city campus is Sydney Christian Life Centre Pty Ltd, and one of its tax-deductible charitable funds is called the International Institute for Creative Ministries Library Trust Fund.
=== Hillsong Sisterhood ===
Bobbie Houston has been especially influential in Hillsong's ministry for women, called Sisterhood. She is a mentor to many of Hillsong's women leaders. Although Hillsong generally supports the traditional roles of wife and mother for women, the church's position is that their ministries "empower" women. Riches found via interviews with attendees that the ministries increased women's choice regarding around sexuality and child rearing; encouraged women to start small businesses and to take on promotions at work; facilitated women's participation in cultural events, as well as promoted women's voices in religious teaching and public life. Church members have described Hillsong's leadership development as a process that supports women's movement from timid, supportive wife into leadership roles within the church. The Sisterhood is involved in issues such as HIV/AIDS, domestic violence and human trafficking. Their midweek gathering is primarily for women. It is attended by all female staff members and is the foundation of Hillsong's women's ministries. The Thursday meeting for mothers includes businesswomen, and special quarterly "Sisterhood United" night meetings include working women. Members of the church say that her authority as a leader comes from "a Pentecostal understanding of Spirit empowerment".
=== Australia ===
Hillsong has multiple campuses around Australia. As of February 2022, in New South Wales it has Baulkham Hills, two Sydney city campuses (one the location of the original Sydney CLC), several around various suburbs, and one each in Newcastle and Wollongong. There are also one or two churches in major cities in all of the other states except for South Australia. It also has churches in 30 countries across the world, and as of February 2022 reports 150,000 regular attendees globally.
==== Avalon Theatre ====
Hillsong purchased the heritage-listed Avalon Theatre in Hobart, Tasmania, for $2.55 million in 2020. The theatre underwent renovations in 2022.
==== Hillsong CityCare ====
In 1986, a social engagement program called CityCare was established in New South Wales, offering various community services including personal development programs, counselling services, a health centre and youth mentoring. CityCare's "street teams" worked within the community to care for, feed and clothe the homeless.
In July 2008, concerns were raised by some teachers, parents, and experts about the Hillsong City Care Shine program for girls being run in New South Wales public schools, community groups and the juvenile justice system. The concerns include that the program is "inappropriate for troubled young women, that the under-qualified facilitators are reinforcing gender stereotypes and that some parents have not been properly informed" and that "the program encourages girls to be subservient by teaching them that they need to be attractive to men". Hillsong claimed that parents were supportive and that the program broke down barriers in a group situation. In a further response, Hillsong denied that the program had been used for evangelism, but a teacher's federation representative insisted that children had been exposed to religious content, such as people relating stories about finding religion and joining the Hillsong Church.
== Beliefs ==
Hillsong was formerly affiliated with Australian Christian Churches (the Assemblies of God in Australia), part of Pentecostal Christianity. The church's beliefs are evangelical and charismatic.
Hillsong's positions on non-central doctrines of the faith are diverse, although individuals have taken a public stand on many topical issues in contemporary Christianity in keeping with mainstream Pentecostalism; for example, the church's founder opposes abortion and supports teaching creationism in schools. Hillsong has also declared support for Creationism and Intelligent Design and believes this should be taught in schools.
Hillsong's prosperity teachings have been criticised by Christian leaders Tim Costello and George Pell. Subsequent statements by Costello indicated that he was satisfied with changes made by Brian Houston to Hillsong's teaching in response to criticism. Costello also wrote a foreword to Hillsong's 2019 annual report. Hillsong's teachings have been commented on favourably by Peter Costello, Tim Costello's brother, also a Baptist and a former Treasurer of Australia, who has defended the church against accusations of unorthodoxy.
== Media and events ==
=== Music ===
Hillsong has been described by popular music scholar Tom Wagner as a "confluence of sophisticated marketing techniques and popular music". The music of Hillsong United and Hillsong Worship are credited with driving Hillsong's global popularity. Through the 1980s and 1990s, the congregation grew from 45 members to nearly 20,000 and emerged as a significant influence in the area of contemporary worship music. This was a result of strategic marketing that targeted younger generations and Hillsong's success at establishing itself as a global music standard.
Hillsong Church has produced over 40 albums, which have sold over 11 million copies. Albums are produced for different target audiences including Hillsong Kids for children. Hillsong Chapel features acoustic arrangements, which are "quieter" than the electric guitar, keyboard and drums that are typical of Hillsong's music. Hillsong's albums are produced by Hillsong Music Australia. Hillsong's congregational music has been the dominant source of the church's influence in the Charismatic Christianity movement.
Music is central to worship at the church. Hillsong's worship leaders have generally enjoyed a high-profile international position. Early worship leaders included Geoff Bullock and Darlene Zschech. Zschech was Hillsong's second worship leader, and Hillsong achieved international acclaim during her ministry. Zschech's "Shout to the Lord" was an early hit for Hillsong in the mid-1990s. In 2008, Reuben Morgan became Hillsong's third worship leader.
Hillsong's worship music has been widely influential not only in Pentecostal churches, but more broadly in Evangelical churches. Many of Hillsong's "worship expressions" have been incorporated into Evangelical services including raised hands, vocal utterance and dance. Hillsong Music has released over 40 albums since 1992, many of them achieving gold status in Australia and one of them, People Just Like Us, achieving platinum status. The church's 2004 live praise and worship album For All You've Done reached No. 1 in the mainstream Australian album charts (ARIA).
In September 2012, Hillsong produced The Global Project, a collection of their most popular songs released in nine different languages including Spanish, Portuguese, Korean, Mandarin, Indonesian, German, French, Swedish and Russian.
==== Hillsong Worship ====
The Hillsong Worship albums, formerly led by Darlene Zschech and Reuben Morgan and previously named Hillsong Live before 2014, all achieved gold status in Australia. The live album series was recorded at the Sydney campus(es) and then edited and produced by Hillsong Music Australia. The worship series began as a compilation of songs and developed into studio recorded albums. To help make Hillsong Music mainstream, an agreement with Warner Music Australia took place in 1999. In 2003, Sony Music Australia also signed with Hillsong Music to make the group even more mainstream. In 2018, Hillsong Worship won its first Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Christian Music Performance/Song for "What a Beautiful Name".
==== Hillsong United ====
Hillsong United was conceived as the youth arm of the worship ministry, producing annual live albums similarly to Hillsong Live, with a focus on alternative rock. As the members grew older, United has since transitioned into a band with currently an eleven-member fixed lineup of Hillsong musicians as well as a focus on studio albums compared to the Worship and Young & Free ministries. Their song "Oceans (Where Feet May Fail)" was No. 1 on the Billboard Hot Christian Songs list for a full year. It was the No. 1 song on the Billboard Christian Songs chart in 2014 and 2016, No. 2 for 2015, and the No. 1 song of the 2010s decade. The New York Times described their music as "ornate mainstream arena rock but with God-only lyrics that are vetted for adherence to theology". Joel Houston, Hillsong's creative director and former lead pastor of Hillsong New York, leads Hillsong United.
==== Hillsong Young & Free ====
Hillsong Young & Free was established in 2012 as a new youth branch of Hillsong's ministry. Hillsong Church has been successful at adjusting the musical style of their ministries to keep up with changing musical trends. Hillsong Young & Free was launched to attract postmillennial youth worshippers. The style of music in this particular ministry reflects features of musical genres that are popular with this target demographic, including electronic dance music. Laura Toggs and Peter Toganivalu were founders of the collective, while Toggs was also one of the vocalists of Young & Free prior to her resignation from Hillsong in 2023.
==== Hillsong Kids ====
Hillsong Kids is music designed for and by Hillsong's children's ministry. The albums Jesus Is My Superhero and Super Strong God were included on Natalie Gillespie's "Best Christian Children's Albums" lists for 2005 and 2006, respectively (published in Christianity Today).
=== Television ===
In late March 2022, Network 10 removed Hillsong-produced television programs from its schedules and video on demand service 10Play. The removal came amid controversies involving Brian Houston, who resigned from his position as senior pastor after being indicted in a misconduct investigation by the ministry. Since then, Brian Houston has announced through X, formerly known as Twitter, that he would be launching a new church in 2024. This would consist of weekly services through an online platform.
=== Hillsong Channel ===
On 9 March 2016, Trinity Broadcasting Network (TBN), the American religious broadcaster, announced a partnership with Hillsong that saw TBN's digital terrestrial television (DTT) sub-channel, The Church Channel, rebranded as the broadcast version of Hillsong Channel on 1 June 2016. The American linear channel was rebranded as TBN Inspire on 1 January 2022, and the international versions followed suit in April 2022, though Hillsong remained a partner in the network. Due to the scandals associated with Brian Houston in relation to Hillsong Church, TBN removed Hillsong Channel from their network. It has since been replaced by similar Christian content. In substitute to the channel, they will be providing non-pulpit teachings, worship programs, documentary, and a one-hour flagship program.
=== Hillsong Conference ===
Hillsong Conference is a mid-year week long annual conference in Sydney, London and New York City each year. First started in 1986, it has grown to be the largest annual conference in Australia as of January 2022.
The Australian conference is hosted by Hillsong Church and lead pastors Brian and Bobbie Houston and involves a variety of guests from across the globe. Baptist minister Michael Frost described the 2011 conference as having, "a kind of electric, almost carnival atmosphere ... the delegates were full of anticipation and excitement".
In 2014, the New York event was held in Madison Square Garden, while the London conference was held in The O2 Arena over three days and has continued to be held at this venue until at least 2018.
== Media appearances ==
On 16 September 2016, the documentary Hillsong: Let Hope Rise, directed by Michael John Warren, was released to cinemas across the United States. The film had gone through two other media companies, Warner Bros. and Relativity Media. It was set to be released the year prior in April, but had complications with the distribution rights. The film was picked up by Pure Flix Entertainment and released the following year. The documentary explores Hillsong's beginnings and its rise to prominence as an international church. The focus is on the band Hillsong United as they write songs for their upcoming album and work toward a performance at The Forum in Inglewood, California.
In 2022–2023, various programs charting the rise and demise of Hillsong were aired on a number of media platforms. In March 2022, Discovery+ released a documentary series, Hillsong: A Megachurch Exposed, revealing the allegations related to child-sex crimes, marital affairs, and the mishandling of money given from the congregants to the church. In March 2023, satirical news outlet The Betoota Advocate partnered with Paramount to release a new satirical series on TV which would include an episode about Hillsong. The Herald Sun produced an investigative podcast called Faith on Trial. In June of that year, ex-Hillsong member Marc Fennell presented The Kingdom on SBS Television.
=== FX: The Secrets of Hillsong ===
On 19 May 2023, Hulu released a four-part documentary series, The Secrets of Hillsong, across the United States and Australia, in association to Vanity Fair. The series was directed by Stacy Lee and produced by Scout Productions and Vanity Fair Studios. The four episodes speak on a variety of topics regarding various scandals related to Hillsong Church, specifically in the United States and Australia. Throughout the series, there are conversations and interviews with former congregants, journalists, and former pastors Carl Lentz and Laura Lentz.
The show begins with an introduction of the former pastor Carl Lentz and his process of creating a revival in the city of New York through their new location, Hillsong NYC, that opened on 17 October 2010. The church quickly evolved into a megachurch and started attracting various big-name celebrities like Justin Bieber, the Kardashian-Jenner family, Selena Gomez, Vanessa Hudgens, Kyrie Irving, and Jay-Z. In 2020, the church's reputation began declining, and people began speaking out about their experience in the Hillsong Church, along with Carl Lentz's Instagram post about being unfaithful to his wife of 17 years. Among the troubles at Hillsong, former congregants reported allegations of racism, sexual abuse, homophobia, and being taken advantage of when offering their services for free to help the church.
Towards the end of the documentary series, viewers learn that Frank Houston, the man who founded Sydney Christian Life Centre, had been involved in a series of acts of pedophilia and his son, Pastor Brian Houston, was hiding the crimes of his father. This resulted in Brian Houston being charged with obscuring the truth about his father's past. Brian did not provide any comments regarding this topic to the Vanity Fair producers for the series.
== Political influence ==
Hillsong Church has attracted support from high-profile politicians, especially from the Liberal Party of Australia. In 1998, Brian Houston met with the prime minister of Australia, John Howard, and most of his cabinet at Parliament House in Canberra before sharing prayers. In 2002, Howard opened the Hillsong Convention Centre at the Baulkham Hills location. In 2004 and 2005, the Treasurer of Australia, Peter Costello, spoke at its annual conferences. Mark Latham, the Leader of the Opposition, declined Hillsong's invitation to the 2004 conference, although Bob Carr, the Premier of New South Wales (from the New South Wales Labor Party), attended the 2005 conference.
Liberal MP for Mitchell, Alan Cadman, and two Family First Party senate candidates, Joan Woods and Ivan Herald, who failed to win senate seats, were featured in a Hillsong circular during the election, with members being asked to pray for them.
Hillsong's high-profile involvement with political leaders has been questioned in the media, and publicly, the church has distanced itself from advocating certain political groups and parties, including the fledgling Family First party. Brian Houston has replied to these criticisms by stating, "I think people need to understand the difference between the church being very involved in politics and individual Christians being involved in politics."
In 2008, Sydney inner city publication Central Magazine stated that Hillsong had donated A$600 to a Member of the Legislative Council, Kristina Keneally (ALP), for the tickets of a fundraising dinner, featuring the New South Wales' planning minister, Frank Sartor (ALP), as a guest speaker one month before the 2007 state election, despite Hillsong's own statement of corporate governance declaring that "Hillsong Church does not make financial contributions to or align itself with any political party or candidate." A Hillsong staff member, Maria Ieroianni, said that no donation had been made and that the dinner was not a fundraiser. Hillsong also issued a statement on their website denying that the money was a donation. According to the Central Magazine article, Keneally has described the dinner as a fundraiser and the money from Hillsong as a donation. The article also states that these descriptions are confirmed by the records of the New South Wales Electoral Commission.
Prime Minister Scott Morrison opened the 2019 Hillsong annual conference, shortly after the May 2019 federal election. He is not a member of Hillsong, being part of the Horizon Church's congregation.
== Controversies ==
Hillsong has been criticised by politicians, media, community groups, Christian leaders and former members such as Tanya Levin. Criticisms have included Hillsong's finances, its ties to controversial organisations, its attitudes towards LGBTQ+ people and its treatment of critics as well as scandals involving Brian Houston and other prominent church leaders.
=== Finances ===
Criticisms have been levelled at Hillsong in regard to its finances, particularly its use of government grants when it reportedly made A$40 million in 2004, and A$50 million in 2010.
In 2005, Hillsong was accused of spending most of the money it received through government grants for programs to assist the Riverstone Aboriginal Community Association (RACA) on their own staff salaries. The federal government acknowledged that A$80,000 from the grant money had been used to pay Hillsong Emerge CEO Leigh Coleman, who was only indirectly involved in the programs. One program, designed to give microloans to Indigenous Australians, paid A$315,000 to Hillsong staff over the course of a year, though only granted six loans averaging A$2,856 each during that time. Hillsong's application for the grant listed the RACA as a co-funder, though the RACA denied ever offering funding, saying they were never in a position to do so. In 2006, Hillsong were stripped of A$414,000 from the grant on the grounds they had faked the Indigenous endorsement that was required to obtain it. Hillsong were also accused of offering the RACA A$280,000 in order to silence their complaints regarding the matter, which they declined; a Hillsong spokesperson stated the offer of money was "not an attempt to silence RACA but amicably resolve the issue."
Pushes for a charity commission in Australia have stemmed from claims that religious organisations like Hillsong avoid taxes by paying their staff in tax-exempt fringe benefits. In 2010, The Sunday Telegraph reported that the Houston family was enjoying a lavish lifestyle, almost entirely tax-free, including vehicles and expense accounts.
In early 2023, it was announced that 153 staff members accepted voluntary redundancies in 2022, a cost-cutting method that reportedly will save the church close to $10 million. The moves were made following the accusations that the church had been extravagantly spending money and participating in fraud. The move comes alongside an independent review into the church's financial structure.
=== Sexual abuse by founder's father ===
Frank Houston, the father of Hillsong Church founder Brian Houston, was a pastor in New Zealand and Australia who sexually abused boys over the course of his ministry. One of the nine identified victims was routinely subjected to sexual abuse in the 1960s and 1970s when he was 7 to 12 years old. In 1999, his mother reported the abuse to the Assemblies of God denomination. Although Brian Houston, then national president of the Assemblies of God denomination in Australia, was legally obligated to report the crime, he allegedly did not do so. Brian Houston stated that he felt it reasonable not to report the crime when it came to light at the time that the victim was an adult, and when the victim did not want the crime reported (an assertion that was denied by the victim). The victim later testified to the Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse that Frank Houston offered him AU$10,000 as compensation at a McDonald's in the presence of Nabi Saleh. During an internal church investigation, Frank Houston eventually confessed to the crime. The commission also heard that he was involved in the sexual abuse of other children in New Zealand. Frank Houston resigned from his church in 2000 which, then lacking a pastor, was merged into Hillsong Church. A further internal investigation by the Assemblies of God in Australia, in conjunction with the Assemblies of God in New Zealand, found six additional child sexual abuse allegations that were regarded as credible.
On 5 August 2021, NSW Police issued a warrant for Brian Houston to attend the Downing Centre Local Court in Sydney on 5 October, alleging that Houston concealed child sexual abuse by his late father, Frank. Houston was in the United States at the time of being charged. He has denied the charges and his lawyer stated he intended to plead not guilty. Houston resigned his chairmanship of the Hillsong board in September 2021, as court proceedings were likely to be protracted. In January 2022, Houston announced that he was temporarily stepping down from church leadership for this reason and introduced new leaders Phil and Lucinda Dooley.
In August 2023, Brian Houston was found not guilty of covering up his father's sex crimes.
=== Views on homosexuality ===
The church has been criticised for its stance on homosexuality issues. It considers homosexual practice sinful, and does not allow homosexuals to assume leadership roles. It issued a statement in February 2019 stating that it was inclusive; however, Houston had formerly said that Hillsong would accept those who did not follow a "homosexual lifestyle".
In 2014, Brian Houston discussed being more understanding of homosexuals. Later, he clarified his position after being criticised by some Christians for allegedly supporting homosexuality. In a statement released on Hillsong's website, he stated: "Nowhere in my answer did I diminish biblical truth or suggest that I or Hillsong Church supported gay marriage."
=== Mercy Ministries ===
Hillsong has been criticised for its involvement with Mercy Ministries, an evangelical charity with an anti-abortion view and a conservative perspective on homosexuality. Hillsong responded by praising the work of Mercy Ministries and stating that they "are not involved in the operational aspects of the organisation". The church also said, "We have heard many wonderful testimonies about how the work of Mercy has helped the lives of young women facing often debilitating and life-controlling situations. Some would even say that Mercy Ministries has saved their life [sic]." Mercy Ministries in Australia was shut down on 31 October 2009, citing "extreme financial challenges and a steady drop in [their] support base". Hillsong had distanced itself from the organisation previously despite still funding it, and staffing elements of it.
=== Former members' criticisms ===
Hillsong's attitude towards criticism was portrayed negatively by former member Tanya Levin in her book People in Glass Houses: An Insider's Story of a Life In and Out of Hillsong. Specific criticisms covered authoritarian church governance, lack of financial accountability, resistance to free thought, strict fundamentalist teachings and lack of compassion. In an interview with Andrew Denton, Levin further discussed her experience of Hillsong, which she described as "toxic Christianity".
Many former church members have accused the church of exploiting volunteers, due to overwork, lack of recognition and interference in privacy.
=== Guglielmucci cancer claim scandal ===
On 20 August 2008, Michael Guglielmucci, a then pastor of Planetshakers Church, composed "Healer", a song about his experience of cancer. He was invited by Hillsong to add his song to the album This Is Our God. Later, he confessed that he had lied about having cancer. Hillsong leadership told the press they were unaware of this situation and that the suspended pastor was seeking professional help. The Australian Christian Churches promised that all money donated by listeners inspired by the song would either be returned or donated to charity. "Healer" has since been removed from further releases of the album.
=== Mark Driscoll appearance ===
In 2015, American preacher Mark Driscoll was invited to attend the Hillsong annual conference. When it was revealed that Driscoll had made offensive comments about women, Brian Houston announced that Driscoll would no longer attend the conference. However, a pre-recorded interview with Driscoll was played during the conference.
=== Black Lives Matter movement ===
Gary Clarke, then pastor of Hillsong London, was criticised for refusing to comment on the murder of George Floyd in the US, having said on 30 May 2020, "For me to be railing as a pastor about something that's going on in another country, I'm not really sure that's going to help anyone." Both Clarke and Houston subsequently apologised for the comments and, in early 2021, Clarke and his wife Cathy were moved into an international leadership role. In early June 2020, Hillsong came out in support of Black Lives Matter in the US, with Brian Houston stating that they are "committed as a Church to playing our part in seeing racism eradicated ... until that becomes a reality, we will continue to say black lives matter".
In response to the Black Lives Matter protests, Hillsong held a panel discussion, with members consisting of people of colour of diverse backgrounds who were involved with the church, such as Hillsong Darwin pastor and Aboriginal Australian academic Robyn Ober.
=== Carl Lentz affairs ===
Hillsong pastor Carl Lentz helped to lead Hillsong's first church in the United States, in New York City, in 2010. Lentz became friends with singer Justin Bieber and developed a celebrity following. Hillsong expanded on the East Coast under Lentz, but some members felt that it became unduly focused on fashion, and on servicing the desires of its pastors and its famous patrons. Church volunteers were allegedly expected to work long hours, and were reportedly treated as second-class citizens and gaslighted. Around 2017, two Hillsong volunteers who attempted to convey their concerns about Lentz to Hillsong leadership were allegedly intercepted and dismissed.
In 2020, Hillsong fired Lentz after finding that he had engaged in "more than one extra-marital affair" and was currently involved in one. Lentz's lover stated that Hillsong is not "genuine. That's the truth. It's a money machine ... and I think it's wrong ... I think [Lentz] is a victim of his own church. He gave his life to this church, and that's how they played him."
=== Sexual assault reporting ===
In early 2021, Vanity Fair, the Christian Post and News.com.au reported that a female student at Hillsong Leadership College named Anna Crenshaw had been indecently assaulted by a married Hillsong administrator named Jason Mays, the son of the church's director of human resources. In January 2020, Mays had pleaded guilty to indecent assault and received two years probation and mandatory counselling. Though Mays received a 12-month ban from ministry, he was subsequently reinstated to his ministry role and volunteered with singing at worship services. Crenshaw criticised Hillsong's leadership for downplaying the incident and not holding Mays accountable for his actions. Brian Houston subsequently apologised for his Tweet questioning Crenshaw's version of events. That same month, several Hillsong Leadership College students penned a letter criticising the church leadership for allowing Mays to remain on staff despite his indecent assault conviction.
In September 2021, 60 Minutes aired a segment called "Hillsong Hell" featuring Crenshaw and a second woman known as "Katherine", who alleged that she had been raped by a fellow church member on church premises in 2018. Both women alleged that Hillsong had ignored their complaints and tried to downplay the incidents. According to 60 Minutes, Hillsong sees itself as the victim when it is criticised and cares more about protecting itself than investigating accusations, noting that Mays had pleaded guilty to assaulting Crenshaw yet retained his job at Hillsong. Brian Houston subsequently posted a Twitter message questioning Crenshaw's version of events and also gave an interview with Eternity magazine portraying the church as the victim of allegations.
Hillsong criticised the 60 Minutes report, saying it was "factually wrong, sensationalised, unbalanced and highly unethical". Hillsong stated that it had investigated both incidents and reported the assault on Crenshaw to police in May 2019. It defended its decision to retain Mays on the grounds that the magistrate had described the offence as "low-level", that Mays had expressed remorse for his actions, and that Crenshaw's account was contradicted by other witnesses. It also claimed that "Katherine" had been unwilling to provide details about the date and perpetrator of the alleged rape, and was unwilling to take the matter to the police. Nine News journalist Tom Steinfort criticised Hillsong's response as "tone-deaf" and accused the church leadership of victim blaming.
=== COVID-19 rule breaches ===
In January 2022, during the COVID-19 pandemic, participants at a Hillsong youth camp at the Glenrock scout camp near Newcastle, New South Wales, were filmed dancing and singing without masks. While the state government's public health order did not apply to religious gatherings, singing and dancing at most recreational and public venues and gatherings was prohibited. NSW Health ordered the organisers of the Hillsong youth camp to stop singing and dancing after public outcry and media coverage from a video of the youth camp. The Premier of New South Wales, Dominic Perrottet, stated that he was "completely shocked" by the video from the event. In response, Hillsong apologised for reinforcing the perception that they were not complying with the public health order and stated that they would comply with health authorities' instructions and maintained that the youth camp was not a music festival. While New South Wales Police personnel spoke with organisers of the youth camp, they declined to issue a fine. All attendees were tested before arriving at the camp.
=== Resignations of senior pastors ===
In March 2022, Brian Houston resigned his position as global senior pastor after an internal investigation into his misconduct began. It was reported that in both 2013 and 2019 he had engaged in inappropriate behaviour with women connected to the church.
Hillsong Dallas pastor Reed Bogard resigned in January 2021, two weeks before an internal investigation found that he had been accused of raping a female junior colleague while serving at Hillsong New York City. According to the report, the married Bogard had been having an affair with the colleague between 2013 and 2014, and Hillsong Australia had been aware of the affair in the second half of 2014 but had declined to take action. Hillsong paused the Dallas campus in April 2021 following Bogard's resignation.
On 24 March 2022, Sam Collier, the lead pastor of Hillsong Atlanta, established less than a year earlier, resigned, citing the ongoing scandals and allegations towards senior figures in Hillsong church. Collier was the first African-American pastor to lead a Hillsong church. He announced plans to establish his own church.
In late March 2022, Hillsong Phoenix lead pastor, Terry Crist, announced that his church would be leaving the Hillsong global network, citing a loss of confidence in Hillsong's Global Board leadership in the wake of the resignation of founder Houston.
As of 6 April 2022, nine Hillsong branches in the US had separated from the church since the revelations about Houston.
On 10 May 2023, Houston's daughter Laura Toggs and her husband Peter Toganivalu, founders and global pastors of youth ministry group Hillsong Young & Free, announced to the church that they were leaving Hillsong, citing that they were called by God elsewhere.
Several worship leaders from Hillsong have since departed the church, including Toggs, Brooke Ligertwood, Taya Gaukrodger, and Benjamin William Hastings.
=== Property acquisition ===
An investigative report on ABC TV's 7.30 program on 6 April 2022 revealed that Hillsong had acquired many properties that had been hidden behind a web of entities across the world. It had done this in part by assuming financial control over other churches, starting with Garden City Church in 2009, which later transferred over 12 properties in Brisbane to one of the Hillsong charities, with no transfer of money. It has also taken control of the finances of at least one church in Sydney, which has since broken away. It took over Hillsong Kyiv in 2014, coercing its then pastors to hand over assets and leave Hillsong. An investigator from the Trinity Foundation in Dallas found that Hillsong owned at least three condominiums in New York City, a US$3.5-million home in California and 31 properties in Arizona, expected to be worth a total of US$40 million by 2023. Its corporate and financial structures mean that the church is protected against litigation which demands large payouts to plaintiffs.
=== Criticism by Hillsong leadership ===
On 19 March 2022, John Mays, head of people and development in the church, wrote a letter to the global leadership recommending that the Houstons should be dismissed from the church, saying that they had contributed to "many unhealthy people practices... over many years". He alleged that Brian Houston had a "strong, immovable, leadership disposition together with a distinct lack of personal accountability", and that Bobbie was not a victim, but also shared the responsibility of maintaining accountability. He said that the motive behind his letter was "to support Hillsong employees" rather than personal malice, and that he joined in celebrating aspects of the Houstons' legacy.
== See also ==
C3 Church Global
Transformational Christianity – Modern evangelical movement
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Blaine, Lech (May 2020). "Hillsong's strange tides". The Monthly.
Hardy, Elle (18 March 2020). "The House That Brian Built: Inside The Global Empire That Is Hillsong". GQ.
Hardy, Elle (2 October 2021). "In reckoning with its demons, Hillsong will be forced to move away from what made it powerful". The Guardian.
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoshinaga_Sakurai | Yoshinaga Sakurai | Yoshinaga Sakurai (born 6 November 1949) is a Japanese equestrian. He competed in the individual dressage event at the 1992 Summer Olympics.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Internationale_d%27Escrime# | Fédération Internationale d'Escrime | The International Fencing Federation (Fédération Internationale d'Escrime) commonly known by the acronym FIE, is the international governing body of Olympic fencing. Today, its head office is at the Maison du Sport International in Lausanne, Switzerland. The FIE is composed of 155 national federations, each of which is recognized by its country's Olympic Committee as the sole representative of Olympic-style fencing in that country.
== History ==
The International Fencing Federation (Fédération Internationale d'Escrime) is the heir of the Société d'encouragement de l'escrime founded in France in 1882, which took part in the global movement of structuring sport. The first international fencing congress was held in Brussels, Belgium in 1897 at the instigation of the Fédération belge des cercles d'escrime, followed by another one in Paris in 1900. On this occasion the Société organised one of the first international fencing events; French, Italian, Spanish, and Belgian fencers attended the competition. Dissensions rapidly arose between épéeists and foilists, which held the majority at the Société. The third congress held in Brussels in 1905 voted the creation of an international fencing committee whose mission would be of fostering friendship amongst all fencers, establishing national rules, and supporting the organization of fencing competitions. The third congress also adopted the French rules as the basis for upcoming international competitions. New tensions appeared, this time between France and Italy, about the regulatory weapon grip. They led to the boycott by France of the fencing events of the 1912 Olympic Games.
A new international congress was called together in Ghent, Belgium, in July 1913. The main matter was the adoption of international regulations for each of the three weapons. The French rules were adopted in épée and foil; the Hungarian rules were chosen for sabre. Frenchman René Lacroix also campaigned for the creation of an international fencing federation.
The International Fencing Federation (Fédération Internationale d'Escrime) was founded on 29 November 1913, in the conference rooms of the Automobile Club de France in Paris. The nine founding nations were Belgium, Bohemia (now the Czech Republic), France, Great Britain, Hungary, Italy, the Netherlands, and Norway. Albert Feyerick, president of the Federation of fencing clubs of Belgium, was elected as the first president. The FIE held its first congress on 23 June 1914, and accepted the adhesion of seven new countries: Austria, Denmark, Monaco, Romania, Russia, Switzerland, and the United States.
=== Presidency of Alisher Usmanov ===
Russian oligarch Alisher Usmanov was elected president of the FIE in 2008 with 66 votes to 61 for incumbent president René Roch. He was re-elected in 2012 and 2016. In 2021, Usmanov was re-elected by acclamation to a fourth term, for which he was congratulated by Vladimir Putin.
On 28 February 2022, in reaction to the Russian invasion of Ukraine, the European Union blacklisted Usmanov, imposing an EU-wide travel ban on him and freezing all of his assets. The EU stated: "He has been referred to as one of Vladimir Putin's favourite oligarchs." Following the imposition of the sanctions on him, Usmanov announced on 1 March 2022, in an accusatory letter, that he was stepping down as FIE President. On 30 November 2024, he was re-elected to the office for another term.
=== Impact of the Russian invasion of Ukraine ===
In response to the Russian invasion of Ukraine in late February 2022, the FIE agreed with the European Fencing Confederation (EFC) to ban Russian and Belarusian fencers, and reallocated competitions that were due to be held in Russia and Belarus.
On 10 March 2023, the FIE became the first Olympic governing body to officially reinstate Russian and Belarusian athletes and officials, in time for the start of the qualification for the 2024 Summer Olympics. Protesting this decision, Denmark, France, Germany, and Poland cancelled upcoming World Cup fencing events to prevent Russians and Belarusians from participating.
In April 2023, it was revealed that the European Fencing Confederation had sent a critical letter to the FIE, outlining their opposition to the FIE's plans to strip the countries that had indicated they would not grant visas to Russians and Belarusians from hosting rights, and impose sanctions on them. In addition, the EFC approved in congress in June 2023 that no Russian or Belarusian coach or athlete may compete in an EFC competition, and that Russia and Belarus are suspended as members. Over 200 fencers also signed an open letter in which they objected to the FIE's decision to allow the return of Russian and Belarusian fencers as neutrals. In May 2023, the FIE decided to strip individual events at the 2023 European Games in Kraków-Małopolska of their Olympic qualifier status because the Polish organizers banned Russians from participating at the Games, and therefore they organized instead a separate European Championships in Plovdiv for individual events only where Russians were allowed to compete. The Nordic Fencing Union heavily criticized these decisions by the FIE.
=== Disqualification of Ukrainian world champion, and subsequent reversal ===
In July 2023, Ukrainian four-time individual world sabre champion Olga Kharlan was disqualified by the FIE at the World Fencing Championships. Kharlan defeated Russian Anna Smirnova 15-7. At the time, and since 1 July 2020 (and reconfirmed by FIE public notice in September 2020 and in January 2021), by public written notice the FIE had replaced its previous handshake requirement with a "salute" by the opposing fencers, and written in its public notice that handshakes were "suspended until further notice." Smirnova extended her hand to Kharlan, who in turn extended her saber in an offer to the Russian to tap blades. Kharlan said her choice of salute was meant as a sign of respect for her opponent, while still acknowledging the ongoing conflict between Ukraine and Russia. After a long delay during which Smirnova protested and sat on the strip for 45 minutes, Kharlan was ultimately black-carded and eliminated from the championship by FIE officials. The Russian had been allowed to compete as a neutral athlete. The Ukrainian delegation filed an appeal. The German Fencing Federation criticized the decision by the FIE and maintained that the very strict interpretation of the rules sent a fatal signal far beyond the world of fencing.
The FIE came under fire for its decision. Ukrainian tennis player Elina Svitolina called the FIE’s disqualification “disrespectful” towards Ukrainians. Mykhailo Podolyak, adviser to Ukraine president Volodymyr Zelensky, called the FIE decision "absolutely shameful," and posted a photo on his Twitter feed which appeared to show the Russian fencer smiling and flashing the victory sign with a Russian soldier, writing: "The photo features ... the Russian fencer.... As you can see, she openly admires the Russian army.... The [FIE] disqualified the Ukrainian representative for not shaking hands with the Russian." Kharlan said "This federation will never change." Team USA head coach Yury Gelman said that the FIE was the most corrupt federation in the world.
The IOC strongly disagreed with the FIE's actions. On 28 July at the behest of the Comité international olympique, the FIE reversed itself and cancelled its disqualification of Kharlan, making it possible for her to enter the team women's sabre event on 29 July, while at the same time arguing that "The FIE stands fully behind the penalty, which, after a thorough review, is in complete accordance and compliance with its official rules and associated penalties." Kharlan was also told by the IOC in an empathic letter on which the FIE president was copied that due to the circumstances she was being granted automatic qualification into the 2024 Paris Olympics, and that she should "[r]est assured that the IOC will continue to stand in full solidarity with the Ukrainian athletes and the Olympic community of Ukraine during these extremely difficult times." Subsequently, though the FIE had defended its position in its interim president's letter to Kharlan, Bruno Gares, the FIE's representative of the Executive Committee in the Rules Commission said that -- after the required salutes at the end of a bout -- handshakes would become optional, with a distance greeting permitted instead.
== Events ==
Competitions organized by the FIE include the senior World Championships and World Cup, the Junior World Championships and Junior World Cup, the Cadets World Championships, and the Veterans World Championships. The Zonal Championships recognised by the FIE are the Senior Zonal Championships and the
Junior Zonal Championships, but other competitions may be organized by the Zonal Confederations.
The FIE assists the International Olympic Committee in the organization of fencing events at the Summer Olympics. The number of events has been a matter of contention between the FIE and the CIO since the introduction of the women's sabre at the 1999 World Championships: since then, the World Championships feature twelve events: an individual and a team weapon for each of the three weapons, for men and for women. However, the CIO refuses to increase the number of Olympic medals allocated to fencing. After much dithering, the FIE decided to organize all six individual events, but only four team events, decided on a rotational basis. The two team events excluded from the Olympic programme, one for men and one for women, are included instead in the World Championships.
== People ==
=== Presidents of the FIE ===
A list of FIE presidents from 1913 to the present:
=== Athletes ===
== Continental federations ==
As of 2023, the FIE recognized 155 affiliated national federations.
Note: As of 7 July 2012, the Netherlands Antilles was still listed as an FIE Member nation, and 146 member nations were listed on the FIE's membership page. However, after the country was dissolved, it lost its National Olympic Committee status in 2011. At the 2012 Olympics, athletes from the former Netherlands Antilles were eligible to participate as independent athletes under the Olympic flag (no fencers competed).
== References ==
=== Sources ===
Ottogalli, Cécile; Six, Gérard; Terret, Thierry (2014). L'Histoire de l'escrime. 1913–2013, un siècle de Fédération internationale d'escrime. Biarritz: Atlantica. ISBN 978-2-7588-0485-7. FIE100.
== External links ==
Media related to Fédération Internationale d'Escrime at Wikimedia Commons
Official website
Olympics, FIE records
History of fencing
FIE calendar
Results of FIE competitions
FIE rules
FIE Magazines
FIE press releases |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kokernag#:~:text=Yet%20another%20theory%20is%20that,and%20scholar%20Shiekh%20ul%20Alam. | Kokernag | Kokernag (Urdu pronunciation: [koːkərnɑːɡ] ; Kashmiri pronunciation: [kɔkarnaːɡ]) is a sub-district, town and a notified area committee in the Breng Valley (also known as the Golden Crown of Kashmir) of Anantnag district in the Indian union territory of Jammu and Kashmir. The place is known for its botanical gardens, pristine freshwater springs, and rainbow trout farm. It is 25.3 km from Anantnag District via NH244. It is one of the most popular weekend getaways from the state capital of Srinagar.
== Etymology ==
The etymology of the word 'Kokernag' (Kashmiri: کۄکرناگ) is controversial and there are various theories, none of which has any conclusive historical proof. One theory is that the name derives from the two words koker and nag. Koker has been taken from a Kashmiri word for chicken, while nag has been taken from a Sanskrit word for springs. The springs gush out of the base of a thickly wooded hill from where it divides into channels, which resembles the claw-foot of a hen, hence the name. A second theory is that Koker means 'fowl' and nag means 'serpent'. Yet another theory is that the word Kokernag originates from Koh (Mountain) kan (from or under) nag (spring).
Kokernag is known also as Breng Kokernag, the name given by poet and scholar Shiekh ul Alam. He said "kokernag breng chu sunsund preng" which means that "Kokernag is crown of gold". Kokernag is also mentioned in Ain Akbari, wherein it has been mentioned that the water of Kokernag satisfies both hunger and thirst and it is also a remedy for indigestion.
== Geography ==
Kokernag is at an altitude of approximately 2,000 m above sea level. Towns situated around Kokernag are Wangam, Devalgam, Hangalgund, Nagam, Sagam, Zalengam, Magam, and Soaf Shali. The total area of the Kokernag trout farm is about 400 kanals, of which 129 kanals are for gardens and area.
=== Climate ===
== Economy ==
It is known for its trout streams and the largest fresh water spring in Kashmir. The trout hatchery department has constructed pools in series in which trout is reared. The Trout Fish Farming Project Kokernag through European Economic Community Assistance was established in 1984 and serves as the mother unit for production of quality Rainbow Trout and Brown Trout. Under the extension program of this project, 59 trout rearing units/hatcheries have been established in almost all the districts of the state, including Leh and Kargil. More new trout rearing units are also coming up. The trout is made readily available to the common man at all the rearing units of the department, including a special sale outlet at Gagribal.
The state's first rural mart has been set up in Kokernag to promote and market the handicraft products manufactured by the local women self help groups, by NABARD.
== Demographics ==
According to the 2011 India census, Kokernag had a population of 6,553. Males constitute 68% of the population and females constitute 32% of the population. Kokernag has an average literacy rate of 63%, higher than the national average of 59.5%. Male literacy is 77%, female literacy is 33%. In Kokernag, 9% of the population is under 6 years of age.
== Transportation ==
=== Road ===
Kokernag is situated at a distance of about 25 km from Anantnag on the right side of NH 244. The easiest and most comfortable means of transportation is to hire a Sumo at Anantnag. One can also catch a local bus that is easily available in Anantnag and head towards Kokernag. It takes about one hour to reach Kokernag.
=== Rail ===
The nearest railway station is Anantnag railway station on the 119 km long Kashmir Railway that runs from Baramulla to Banihal. It lies at a distance of 30 km from Kokernag.
=== Air ===
The nearest airport is Srinagar International Airport, located 85 kilometres from Kokernag.
== See also ==
Jammu and Kashmir
Anantnag
Bijbehara
Kishtwar
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linda_Lingle | Linda Lingle | Linda Lingle (née Cutter; June 4, 1953) is an American politician and publisher who served as the sixth governor of Hawaii from 2002 to 2010. A member of the Republican Party, she was the first Republican elected governor of Hawaii since 1959, and was the state's first female and Jewish governor. Prior to serving as governor, Lingle served as mayor of Maui County from 1991 to 1999 and as chair of the Hawaii Republican Party from 1999 to 2002. As of 2025, Lingle and her lieutenant governor, Duke Aiona, are the last Republicans to have won or held statewide office in Hawaii.
During the 2004 Republican National Convention in New York City, Lingle served as chair of the convention during the absence of permanent chair Dennis Hastert from the convention floor. In 2012, she was the Republican nominee for the United States Senate, vying unsuccessfully for an open seat vacated by retiring U.S. Senator Daniel Akaka. She is the only woman to have served as Hawaii's governor.
In January 2015, Lingle was appointed as a senior adviser to Illinois Governor Bruce Rauner, and left the position in July 2016. She also served on the Governors' Council of the Bipartisan Policy Center in Washington, D.C. Lingle moved back to Hawaii in the second quarter of 2017 and became a member of Hawaii Pacific University's board of trustees in June 2017.
== Early life, education, and early career ==
Lingle was born Linda Cutter to a Jewish family in St. Louis, Missouri in 1953, the daughter of Mildred and Richard Cutter. Lingle moved with her parents to Southern California when she was 12. She graduated from Birmingham High School in Lake Balboa, California (at that time, part of Van Nuys), then received her bachelor's degree in journalism cum laude from California State University, Northridge, in 1975.
Soon after that, she followed her father to Hawaii, working first in Honolulu as a public information officer for the Teamsters and Hotel Workers Union. Later, she moved to Molokai, where she started the Molokai Free Press, a community newspaper.
== County politics ==
In 1980, Lingle was elected to the Maui County Council, where she served five two-year terms. Lingle served three of those terms representing Molokai and two terms as an at-large member. Upon the 1990 retirement of Hannibal Tavares as mayor of Maui County, Lingle decided to challenge former Maui mayor and Hawai'i State Speaker of the House of Representatives Elmer Cravalho for the seat. Despite polls showing Lingle trailing far behind her Democratic opponent, Lingle proved victorious. The Honolulu Advertiser and Honolulu Star-Bulletin newspapers declared the election one of the biggest upsets in Hawai'i political history. She became the youngest person elected to the office of Maui County Mayor, at the age of 37, as well as the first woman. She was sworn into office as Mayor of Maui on January 2, 1991. In 1994, Lingle easily won re-election over her Democratic opponent, Maui County councilman Goro Hokama.
Under Lingle's leadership, Maui County implemented performance-based budgeting. Its successful passage and execution earned for Lingle the Distinguished Budget Presentation Award from the Government Finance Officers Association for four years. Mayor Lingle was also credited for attracting tourism and job growth to Maui County during a period when the state tourism industry was struggling.
== 1998 gubernatorial campaign ==
Lingle would once again attempt an upset victory, this time in pursuit of the governor's office in 1998. Barred from seeking a third term as mayor of Maui, Lingle was nominated by the Hawaiʻi Republican Party to run against incumbent governor Benjamin J. Cayetano. Republican party members believed that Lingle was the best shot at the office and that 1998 would probably be the only chance the party would have of ever winning. Lingle capitalized on the anger of Hawaiʻi residents over the stagnant economy and their dissatisfaction with the strategies employed by the Democrats in attempt to solve the problem. Cayetano trailed in the media polls heading into the November election but on the evening of the election, Cayetano and Lingle were separated by a single percentage point forcing a recount. Lingle was defeated in the closest election in Hawaiʻi history.
The state Democratic Party was accused of launching a whisper campaign alleging that Lingle was a lesbian, and that she would abolish Christmas as a state holiday.
== State party chair ==
After being defeated, Lingle was elected chair of the Hawaiʻi Republican Party. She served from 1999 to 2002. During her tenure as party chair, Lingle overhauled party policies and gave the party a lift she believed was needed to make the party competitive in a historically Democratic Party-dominated state. Internal reforms proved successful and Lingle succeeded in electing more Republicans to seats in both houses of the Hawaiʻi State Legislature. At the peak of Republican success, the party held 19 of the 51 seats in the state House of Representatives. Party membership grew as younger people joined. Republicans gained a more youthful appearance and had reinvented itself informally as the new GOP Hawaiʻi. Lingle is a member of The Wish List, America's largest fundraising and campaign political action committee for Pro-choice Republican Women and The Republican Majority for Choice.
== Governor of Hawaii ==
=== 2002 gubernatorial campaign ===
Barred from seeking a third term, Cayetano announced his retirement from political service in 2002. Having become even more popular among Hawaii residents, Lingle was once again selected as the Republican nominee for the office of Governor of Hawaii. Her campaign was substantially aided when the popular favorite, Democratic mayor of the City and County of Honolulu Jeremy Harris withdrew after allegations of campaign finance irregularities. Hawaii Democrats then nominated incumbent lieutenant governor Mazie Hirono; it was one of the few gubernatorial races in which both major candidates were women.
Lingle ran on her "Agenda for New Beginnings", a campaign platform developed to promote Republican leadership and highlight their criticisms of the previous 40 years of Democratic administration of the state. It also cited differences between Lingle's message and the previous, more conservative platforms which Hawaii Republicans had advocated.
Focusing less on her mayoral accomplishments and more on the message of reform, Lingle won the election alongside former state judge Duke Aiona, who became Lingle's lieutenant governor.
Lingle was the first state Governor-elect not to be inaugurated at the Coronation Pavilion on the grounds of Iolani Palace. She was inaugurated in the rotunda of the Hawaii State Capitol. She took the oath of office upon a Tanakh.
=== First term ===
Lingle signed into law the Three Strikes Law and Sex Offender Registry Website Law. She vetoed a bill that would have required all hospitals in Hawaii to provide emergency contraception to rape victims, concerned that Catholic hospitals would challenge it. In May 2004 Lingle led a delegation to Israel, paid for by the Israeli Government. She enjoyed high approval ratings, usually around 70 percent.
Lingle spent much of 2004 campaigning for Republican candidates, both in the presidential election and the Hawaii state legislature. She supported President George W. Bush's Iraq policies, and campaigned for Bush in the contiguous United States. When some polling late in the election showed Bush tied or narrowly leading Democrat John Kerry, Lingle attempted to help Republicans carry her state for the first time since 1984. Vice President Dick Cheney also campaigned in the state. The state legislature had a Democratic supermajority and she wanted to have enough members to block them from overriding her vetoes. Ultimately, not only did Kerry win the state, but Republicans lost five seats in the state legislature, reducing their presence to near single-digits and causing the Democrats to consider Lingle more vulnerable than they initially expected. The 2004 presidential election in Hawaii was the closest Republicans have come to reclaiming the state since 1984, when Ronald Reagan last won the state.
In January 2006, Lingle received an honorary doctorate degree in public management from the University of the City of Manila, presented by Manila mayor Lito Atienza while Lingle was on an official visit to the Philippines.
In education, she attempted to divide the State Board of Education into seven local school boards, but failed. One of the more controversial issues Lingle championed is the practice of sending prisoners to the mainland, as opposed to building a new prison in Hawaii.
=== 2006 gubernatorial election ===
In 2006, Lingle announced her candidacy for re-election as Governor of Hawaiʻi. In the Democratic Party, many people were speculated to run, but many of them declined, including State Senator Colleen Hanabusa, then Senate President Bobby Bunda, former Congressman Ed Case (who ran for U.S. Senate), U.S. Congressman Neil Abercrombie, and Hawaii County Mayor Harry Kim. Despite the difficulty of finding an opponent for Lingle, former state senator Randy Iwase decided to run for governor. In the primary election he easily defeated Waianae Harbormaster William Aila Jr., and ended up with former Big Island State Senator Malama Solomon as his running mate. Over the course of the campaign, Iwase was considered an underdog who had only spent $340,000, compared to Lingle's $6 million; in his ads, he attacked Lingle over her relationship with President Bush. Governor Lingle won by the largest margin in state history, 63 percent to 35 percent.
=== Second term ===
In August 2007, the Hawaii Supreme Court invalidated a Lingle appointee's exemption of the Hawaii Superferry from having to undertake an environmental assessment before operating in Hawaii waters. The Superferry was an $80 million high-speed ferry. Despite the Court's ruling, the ferry sailed to Kauai without an environmental assessment. It was met by protesters on surfboards who turned the ferry back to Oahu. Lingle summoned a massive police and Coast Guard response. She told Kauai protesters that they would be charged under Hawaii's anti-terrorism laws if they continued to interfere with the Superferry's operation. Lingle sought a legislative exemption from environmental law on behalf of the Superferry (known as Act Two). Several Maui groups, including the Sierra Club, Maui Tomorrow and the Kahului Harbor Coalition challenged the law as unconstitutional, citing a violation of separation of powers, and favoritism towards a single company. The ferry suspended all Hawaii service in March 2009, days after the Hawaii Supreme Court struck down Act Two as unconstitutional.
2008 Republican Convention
As she had four years before, Lingle campaigned for the Republican ticket, describing herself as "of the same breed as McCain and Palin." She received national exposure when she delivered a primetime address on the third night of the 2008 Republican National Convention praising John McCain's choice of Alaska Governor Sarah Palin as his vice-presidential running-mate. Lingle and Palin, both Republican women governors of non-contiguous states, are friends who grew acquainted through the Republican Governors Association. (Palin also attended college at two different institutions in Hawaii in the 1980s, including Hawaii Pacific College, now Hawaii Pacific University, where Lingle took on a trustee position in 2017.) Lingle's speech filled the role of the traditional address formally nominating the vice-presidential candidate, though Palin was not officially nominated until the next night.
Health care policies targeting legal immigrants and Compact of Free Association residents
In July 2009, the Lingle Administration ended the Hawaiʻi Immigrant Health Initiative, a state program providing medical coverage for legal immigrants present in the United States for fewer than five years. This move included the elimination of all residents present in Hawaiʻi under the Compact of Free Association from QUEST, the state's Medicaid coverage plan that assists the low income population in Hawaiʻi with their health care needs. Noting that such a policy likely constituted unlawful discrimination in violation of the Equal Protection Clause, federal district court judge John Michael Seabright issued a preliminary injunction against the implementation of the substituted health care plan. Subsequent Governor Neil Abercrombie indicated that he may continue the State's appeal of the injunction to the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit.
School furlough sit-in
On April 13, 2010, two student protesters who were occupying her office were arrested and criminal trespassing citations were issued to eight others. The demonstrators were part of a sit-in to protest a school furlough policy implemented due to budget shortages. The following day, April 14, two more protesters were arrested and citations were issued to five other protesters.
Civil union veto
Lingle on July 6, 2010, vetoed Hawaii House Bill 444, which would have allowed for civil unions for couples in Hawaii, arguing the issue should be decided by referendum. The bill had passed the state house with three votes less than the two-thirds vote threshold necessary to override the veto, although the bill met that threshold in the state senate.
Departure from public office
Ineligible to run for a third term, Governor Lingle was succeeded by Democrat Neil Abercrombie and left office on December 6, 2010. The second Republican governor in state history after William F. Quinn (1959–1962), Lingle remains the only GOP candidate to be re-elected governor of Hawaii by popular vote.
== 2012 U.S. Senate election ==
In October 2011, Lingle said on KSSK radio show that she would run for the open seat vacated by retiring U.S. Senator Daniel Akaka (D-HI). She won the Republican primary election on August 11, 2012, against nominal opposition and faced Hirono in the general election – a repeat of the 2002 gubernatorial race.
Lingle was the first reasonably well-funded Republican to run for the Senate in Hawaii since Pat Saiki ran in the 1990 special election against Akaka, and the strongest Republican candidate for a full term in the Senate from the state in memory. Although a poll in the summer of 2012 showed the race as close as five points, ultimately Hirono defeated Lingle with 63 percent of the vote to Lingle's 37 percent.
== After 2012 ==
After her failed Senate bid, Lingle taught a public policy seminar at California State University, Northridge, from which she had graduated in 1975. She also gave lectures and worked with the Governor's Council and Energy Security Council for the Bipartisan Policy Center.
In January 2015, Lingle was appointed as a senior adviser to Illinois governor Bruce Rauner. She was to join a trio of outsiders in May/June 2015 to work on problems such as the state's retirement system and low credit ratings. Lingle left the chief operating officer position in July 2016. Weeks later, she delivered an opening-day speech at the 2016 Republican National Convention about Jewish support for the party and for Donald Trump as its presidential nominee.
In January 2017, Lingle announced at a Republican gathering that she planned to move back to Hawaii in April 2017. In May 2017, she was one of four former governors brought together by Harvard University to discuss issues related to the nation's opioid crisis. Lingle became a member of Hawaii Pacific University's board of trustees in June 2017 and served through 2020.
In December 2018, Lingle was the last speaker in a year-long Leadership Series for the Nisei Veterans Memorial Center. In her comments, Lingle described her leadership path and said that people aren't born leaders, but become them through handling failures and taking advantage of opportunities for success when others do not.
Lingle supported 2020 candidate Rick Blangiardi, who won election to become mayor of Honolulu in January 2021.
In 2022, Lingle led a new "Women's Prison Project" seeking to reform women's processing through Hawaii's criminal justice system; in 2023, the project helped open housing for women leaving prison. Also in 2022, Lingle and others established a Hawaii Pacific University scholarship in her name for students showing a potential for exceptional leadership.
== Personal life ==
Lingle was married and divorced twice. She married her first husband, Charles Lingle, while in college, in 1972. Upon leaving California for Hawaii, she divorced him in 1975 but kept the Lingle name. During her term as mayor of Maui County, Lingle divorced her second husband, Maui attorney William Crockett, to whom she was married from 1986 to 1997. Lingle is currently single and does not have any children.
Her uncle founded the Cutter Ford car dealerships in Hawaiʻi.
Lingle is a California State University, Northridge 2004 distinguished alumni honoree.
Lingle is active in the Republican Jewish Coalition, serving as a speaker at events and otherwise using her role as the only Jewish Republican US governor. President George W. Bush appointed her to serve on the Honorary Delegation to accompany him to Jerusalem for the celebration of the 60th anniversary of the State of Israel in May 2008.
== Electoral history ==
== See also ==
List of female governors in the United States
Washington Place
== References ==
== External links ==
"A Conversation with the Governor" Maui No Ka 'Oi Magazine Vol.7 No.1 (April 2003).
Appearances on C-SPAN
"10 Most Intriguing People" Article about ten most important people in 2008 Maui politics. (Lingle is featured on page 6) Maui No Ka 'Oi Magazine Vol. 12 No. 3 (May 2008). |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Prize_for_Exact_Sciences_(Chile) | National Prize for Exact Sciences (Chile) | The National Prize for Exact Sciences (Spanish: Premio Nacional de Ciencias Exactas) was created in 1992 as one of the replacements for the National Prize for Sciences under Law 19169. The other two prizes in this same area are for Natural Sciences and Applied Sciences and Technologies.
It is part of the National Prize of Chile.
== Jury ==
The jury is made up of the Minister of Education, who calls it, the Rector of the University of Chile, the President of the Chilean Academy of Sciences, a representative of the Council of Rectors, and the last recipient of the prize.
== Winners ==
1981, Igor Saavedra Gatica (physics)
1991, Enrique Tirapegui (physics)
1993, Servet Martínez and Eric Goles (mathematics)
1995, Claudio Bunster (physics)
1997, María Teresa Ruiz (astronomy)
1999, José Maza Sancho (astronomy)
2001, Fernando Lund Plantat (physics)
2003, Carlos Conca (mathematics)
2005, Rafael Benguria (physics)
2007, Miguel Kiwi (physics)
2009, Ricardo Baeza Rodríguez (mathematics)
2011, Patricio Felmer (mathematics)
2013, Manuel del Pino (mathematics)
2015, Mario Hamuy (astronomy)
2017, Guido Garay Brignardello (astronomy)
2019, Dora Altbir (nanoscience and nanotechnology)
2021, Mónica Rubio (astronomy)
2023, Jaime San Martín (mathematics)
== See also ==
CONICYT
List of astronomy awards
List of computer science awards
List of mathematics awards
List of physics awards
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firozabad_district | Firozabad district | Firozabad district (Hindustani pronunciation: [fɪɾoːzaːbaːd̪]) is one of the western districts of the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh, which has Firozabad city as its district headquarters. Administratively, the district is a part of the Agra division.
== History ==
The city lies in the cultural region of Braj and was a part of the Surasena Mahajanapada of Aheers during the Vedic Age. It was subsequently ruled by larger kingdoms like the Mauryas, Guptas, Scythians, Kushans, and Indo-Greeks before falling into the hands of local Rajput, Ahir and Jat rulers. The Bhadoria Rajputs from Agra, Jats of Bharatpur and Aheers of Gundhau and Dheerpura have ruled the city for some time.
It was named after Firoz Shah Mansab Dar in 1566 during the reign of Mughal Emperor Akbar. The 1596 gazetteer of Agra and Mathura records that Firozabad was upgraded to a Pargana then given to Nabab Sadulla as a jagir during the reign of Shah jahan (r. 1627–1658). Mr. Peter, a businessman, connected with the East India Company visited the town on 9 August 1632 and found it in good condition. Etawah, Budaun, Mainpuri and Firozabad were all first class mansabdars of the emperor Farrukhsiyar (r. 1713–1719). The estate of Rajput clans the Labhowa Jhala Hindu Rajas were subdued during the Mughal sultanate which captured many regions in the United Provinces, and by 1680 the Rajas of Labhowa lost control of Firozabad district. As written by famous Britisg Historian Matthew Atmore in his book Hindu Tribes and Castes, Jadaun Rajputs are here in huge numbers and other cities of Firozabad.
Bajirao Peshwa captured Firozabad and Etmadpur in 1737 in the regime of Mohammad Shah. Jat Rulers from Mahawan attacked Faujdar Hakim Kajim at Firozabad where they killed him on 9 May 1739, then went on to rule Firozabad for 30 years. Firozabad was also part of Bharatpur Kingdom.Gajuddin, Hidayat Vaksh (son of Alamgir II), his nephew and Mirza Baba his son in law, looted Firozabad. Mirza Nabab Khan stayed here until 1782. At the end of 18th century Firozabad was ruled by Himmat Bahadur Gusain with the cooperation of the Raja of Labhowa.
The French Army Chief Marathas D. Wayan established an ordnance factory in Firozabad in November 1794, an event that Thomas Traving mentions in his book Travels in India. Marathas appointed his subadar Lakwadads here who built a fort near the old tehsil. General Lek and General Vellajally attacked Firozabad in 1802. At the beginning of the British regime Firozabad was in the Etawah district and later attached to the Aligarh district. When Sadabad district was created in 1832, Firozabad was made a part of it then later in 1833 the town came under the aegis of Agra district. In 1847 the lakh business flourished in Firozabad.
In 1857, the freedom–fighting Chauhans and Aheers of Mainpuri, the Aheers Jamidar, zamindaar of Chandwar and the local Malahs all took active parts in the Indian Rebellion. Noted Urdu poet Munir Shikohabadi was sentenced to Kala pani by the ruling East India Company. People from this city took part in the Khilafat Movement, the Quit India Movement and the Dandi March with some participants jailed. Mahatma Gandhi visited Firozabad 1929 followed by Semant Gandhi in 1935, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru in 1937 and Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose in 1940.
Firozabad district was established on February 4, 1989 by an executive order passed by the Government of Uttar Pradesh. Previously, the areas had been part of Agra district and Mainpuri district.
== Demographics ==
According to the 2011 census Firozabad district has a population of 2,498,156, roughly equal to the nation of Kuwait or the US state of Nevada. This gives it a ranking of 173rd in India (out of a total of 640). The district has a population density of 1,044 inhabitants per square kilometre (2,700/sq mi) . Its population growth rate over the decade 2001-2011 was 21.62%. Firozabad has a sex ratio of 867 females for every 1000 males, and a literacy rate of 74.6%. 33.35% of the population lives in urban areas. Scheduled Castes make up 18.97% of the population.
At the time of the 2011 Census of India, 97.03% speaks Hindi as their first language and 2.6% Urdu as their first language. The local language of the district is Brajbhasha.
Firozabad is a primarily rural district, with 66.6% of the population living in rural areas and 33.4% living in urban areas as of 2011. At the sub-district level, this is reversed in the case of Firozabad tehsil, where 63.2% of the population lives in urban areas.
== Culture ==
The city is home to popular Hindu temples, mainly Vaishno Devi Dham, Kela Devi Temple, and Gopal Ashram (Hanuman Temple). There are many Jain temples in Firozabad including the well-known Chadamilal Jain temple, Shri Shuparshnath Jain Mandir in Gher Khokal (Mahaveer Chowk) and Chandprabhu Jain Mandir in Khidki. The two temples of Gherkhokal and Khidki are approximately 250–300 years old. The old name of Chandwar was taken from the idol of Chandprabhu made at the time of Prithviraj Chauhan. Muhammad of Ghor attacked a holy Jain location situated 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) from Firozabad 19 times. An annual fair was held in Chandwar on October 2. The Jama Masjid, founded by the 16th century Mughal Emperor Akbar is the oldest mosque.
== Notable people ==
Banarsidas Chaturvedi
Totaram Sanadhya
Anurag Verma
Rajeshwar Prasad
Raj Babbar
Chandrasen Jadon
== Education ==
=== University ===
J.S. University
F.S. University
C.L. Jain College
== Geography ==
The District is connected by rail and bus to major cities. The nearest Airport is in Agra.
Longitude is 78 degree east and latitude 27 degrees north at a height of 164.467 metres (539.59 ft) above mean sea level.
The district borders Etah district
to the North and Mainpuri and Etawah to the East with the Yamuna River forming the southern boundary. The area of the district accounts for about 0.8 percent of the total area of Uttar Pradesh and 1.1 percent of its population. Approximately 73.6 percent of people live in rural areas. Most of the district lies on a plain sloping from north west to south.
Firozabad has been ranked 1st best “National Clean Air City” under (Category 2 3-10L Population cities) in India according to 'Swachh Vayu Survekshan 2024 Results'
== Transportation ==
Firozabad district has good transportation links due to National Highway 19 linking Delhi with Kolkata & Yammuna Express Way passing through it as does the busy railway route from Delhi to Kolkata. Agra is 44 km (27 mi) away, Kanpur is 250 km (160 mi) away, Delhi is 250 km (160 mi) away.
The nearest airport is in Agra which is a domestic airport.
The nearest railway stations are Firozabad railway station in the center of Firozabad and one in Tundla named Tundla Junction.
== Local industries ==
Firozabad has a major glass industry producing products that include glass bangles and glass hardware so it is also known as Suhag Nagari. .
Various work is done on bangles in many places known locally as godam.
== Administration ==
Firozabad district is divided into 5 tehsils and more than 10 community development blocks, as follows:
Tundla tehsil
Tundla block
Firozabad block (part)
Firozabad tehsil
Kotla block
Firozabad block
Jasrana tehsil
Eka block
Kheragarh block
Jasrana block
Shikohabad tehsil
Shikohabad block
Araon block
Madanpur block
Sirsaganj tehsil
== Municipalities ==
Firozabad district has 6 statutory towns, including 4 nagar palika parishads (municipal boards) and 2 nagar panchayats. There are also 3 non-statutory census towns in the district. The district's towns are as follows:
== Villages ==
Nagla Beech
Nagla Buddh Singh
Parham
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Moscone | George Moscone | George Richard Moscone ( mə-SKOH-nee; November 24, 1929 – November 27, 1978) was an American attorney and politician who served as the 37th mayor of San Francisco from January 1976 until his assassination in November 1978.
He was known as "The People's Mayor", who opened up City Hall and its commissions to reflect the diversity of San Francisco, appointing African Americans, Asian Americans, and gay people. A member of the Democratic Party, Moscone served in the California State Senate from 1967 until becoming mayor; in the Senate he served as majority leader. He is remembered for being an advocate of civil progressivism.
== Early life ==
George Richard Moscone was born in the Italian-American enclave of San Francisco's Marina District. The Moscone family comes from Piedmont and Liguria. His father was George Joseph Moscone, a corrections officer at nearby San Quentin, and his mother, Lena, was a homemaker who later went to work to support herself and her son after she separated from her husband.
Moscone attended St. Brigid's and then St. Ignatius College Preparatory, where he was a noted debater and an all-city basketball star. He then attended College of the Pacific on a basketball scholarship and played basketball for the Tigers. He received a Bachelor of Arts in sociology in 1953.
Moscone then studied at University of California, Hastings College of the Law, where he received his law degree. He married Gina Bondanza, whom he had known since she was in grade school, in 1954. The Moscones would go on to have four children. After serving in the United States Navy, Moscone started private practice in 1956.
== Career ==
As a young man playing basketball and as a young lawyer, Moscone became close friends with John Burton, who would later become a member of the U.S. House of Representatives. John's older brother, Phillip, a member of the California State Assembly, recruited Moscone to run for an Assembly seat in 1960 as a Democrat. Though he lost that race, Moscone would go on to win a seat on the San Francisco Board of Supervisors in 1963. On the Board, Moscone was known for his defense of poor people, racial minorities and small business owners, as well as supporting the first successful fight in San Francisco to block construction of a proposed freeway that would have cut through Golden Gate Park and several neighborhoods.
=== California State Senator ===
In 1966 Moscone ran for and won a seat in the California State Senate, representing the 10th District in San Francisco County. Moscone was quickly rising through the ranks of the California Democratic Party and became closely associated with a loose alliance of progressive politicians in San Francisco led by the Burton brothers. This alliance was known as the Burton Machine and included John Burton, Phillip Burton, and Assemblyman Willie Brown. Soon after his election to the State Senate, Moscone was elected by his party to serve as Majority Leader. He was reelected to the 10th District seat in 1970 and to the newly redistricted 6th District seat, representing parts of San Francisco and San Mateo Counties, in 1974. He successfully sponsored legislation to institute a school lunch program for California students, as well as a bill legalizing abortion that was signed into law by Governor Ronald Reagan. In 1974 Moscone briefly considered a run for governor of California, but dropped out after a short time in favor of California Secretary of State Jerry Brown.
Moscone also was an early proponent of gay rights. In conjunction with his friend and ally in the Assembly, Willie Brown, Moscone managed to pass a bill repealing California's sodomy law. The repeal was signed into law by California Governor Jerry Brown.
=== Mayor of San Francisco ===
On December 19, 1974, Moscone announced he would run for mayor of San Francisco in the 1975 race. In a close race in November 1975, Moscone placed first, with conservative city supervisor John Barbagelata second and supervisor Dianne Feinstein coming in third. Moscone and Barbagelata thus both advanced to the mandated runoff election in December where Moscone narrowly defeated the conservative supervisor by fewer than 5,000 votes. Liberals also won the city's other top executive offices that year as Joseph Freitas was elected district attorney and Richard Hongisto was re-elected to his office of sheriff.
Moscone ran a grassroots mayoral campaign which drew volunteers from organizations like Glide Methodist Memorial Church, Delancey Street (a rehabilitation center for ex-convicts) and the Peoples Temple which was initially known as a church preaching racial equality and social justice but turned into a fanatical political cult. For the rest of his life, Barbagelata maintained that the Peoples Temple had committed massive election fraud on behalf of Moscone by busing people in from out of town to vote multiple times under the names of deceased San Francisco residents.
Moscone passed legislation reducing marijuana sentences, granting abortion rights, establishing a school meals program and overturning the state's anti-sodomy laws.
The Peoples Temple also worked to get out the vote in precincts where Moscone received a 12-to-1 vote margin over Barbagelata. After the Peoples Temple's work and votes by Temple members were instrumental in delivering a close victory for Moscone, Moscone appointed Temple leader Jim Jones as chairman of the San Francisco Housing Commission.
Moscone's first year as mayor was spent preventing the San Francisco Giants professional baseball team from moving to Toronto and advocating a citywide ballot initiative in favor of district election to the board of supervisors. Moscone was the first mayor to appoint large numbers of women, homosexuals and racial minorities to city commissions and advisory boards. In 1977, he appointed Del Martin, the first lesbian woman, and Kathleen Hardiman Arnold, now Kathleen Rand Reed, the first Black woman, as commissioners on the San Francisco Commission on the Status of Women (SFCOSW). Moscone also appointed liberal Oakland Police Chief Charles Gain to head the San Francisco Police Department. Gain (and by extension Moscone) became highly unpopular among rank and file San Francisco police officers for proposing a settlement to a lawsuit brought by minorities claiming discriminatory recruiting practices by the police force.
In April 1977, Moscone stood up to officials in Washington by supporting a 25-day occupation of San Francisco's federal building by a group of over 100 people with disabilities demanding their civil rights in what would become known as the 504 Sit-in. While federal officials hoped to starve out the protesters, the mayor visited them and arranged to have portable showers and towels brought in. Thanks in part to Moscone's support, the occupation was successful, and helped pave the way for passing the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) thirteen years later.
In 1977 Moscone, Freitas and Hongisto all easily survived a recall election pushed by defeated Moscone opponent John Barbagelata along with business interests. It was a political vindication for Moscone, who won in a landslide. Barbagelata announced he was retiring from politics. That year also marked the passage of the district election system by San Francisco voters. The city's first district elections for board of supervisors took place in November 1977. Among those elected were the city's first openly gay supervisor, Harvey Milk, single mother and attorney Carol Ruth Silver, Chinese-American Gordon Lau, and fireman and police officer Dan White. Milk, Silver and Lau along with John Molinari and Robert Gonzales made up Moscone's allies on the board, while White, Dianne Feinstein, Quentin Kopp, Ella Hill Hutch, Lee Dolson, and Ron Pelosi formed a loosely organized coalition to oppose Moscone and his initiatives. Feinstein was elected president of the board of supervisors on a 6–5 vote, with Moscone's supporters backing Lau. It was generally believed that Feinstein, having twice lost election to the office of mayor, would support Kopp against Moscone in the 1979 election and retire rather than run for the board again.
==== Refusal to investigate Peoples Temple ====
In August 1977, after Peoples Temple leader Jim Jones fled to Jonestown following media scrutiny alleging criminal wrongdoing, Moscone announced that his office would not investigate Jones or Peoples Temple. The later mass murder-suicide at Jonestown dominated national headlines at the time of Moscone's death.
After the massacre, Temple members revealed to The New York Times that the Temple had arranged for "busloads" of members to be bused in from Redwood Valley to San Francisco to vote in the 1975 election. A former Temple member stated that many of those members were not registered to vote in San Francisco, while another former member said "Jones swayed elections." Prior to leaving San Francisco, Jones claimed to have bribed Moscone with sexual favors from female Temple members, including one who was underage; his son, Jim Jones, Jr., later remembered how Moscone frequented Temple parties "with a cocktail in his hand and doing some ass grabbing".
== Assassination ==
Late in 1978, Dan White resigned from the board of supervisors. His resignation would allow Moscone to choose White's successor, which could tip the board's balance of power in Moscone's favor. Recognizing this, those who supported a more conservative agenda and opposed integration of the police and fire departments talked White into changing his mind. White then requested that Moscone re-appoint him to his former seat.
Moscone originally indicated a willingness to reconsider, but more liberal city leaders, including supervisor Harvey Milk, lobbied him against the idea. Moscone ultimately decided not to appoint White. On November 27, 1978, three days after Moscone's 49th birthday, White went to San Francisco City Hall to meet with Moscone and purportedly to make a final plea for appointment. White sneaked into City Hall through a basement window to avoid the metal detector at the main door. He carried his old police revolver. When Moscone agreed to talk with him in a private room, White pulled the gun out of his suit jacket and shot and killed Moscone. White then re-loaded his gun and walked across City Hall to Milk's office, where White shot and killed Milk as well.
Dianne Feinstein, president of the board of supervisors, was sworn in as the city's new mayor and in the following years would emerge as one of California's most prominent politicians.
Six thousand mourners attended a service for Moscone at St. Mary's Cathedral.
White later turned himself in at the police station where he was formerly an officer. The term "Twinkie defense" has its origins in the murder trial that followed. White was convicted of the lesser crime of manslaughter, due in part to his claim of severe depression, which White's attorneys argued was evidenced by his consumption of Twinkies and other junk foods. Outrage over White's lenient sentence provoked a mass riot in San Francisco, during which police cars were set on fire by angry protestors. White was released from prison and then shortly afterward committed suicide in 1985.
Vigils are held annually to commemorate the assassinations of Moscone and Milk.
== Legacy ==
Moscone is interred at Holy Cross Cemetery in Colma, California alongside his mother Lena.
Moscone Center, San Francisco's largest convention center and exhibition hall, is named in his honor. Moscone and Milk also have schools named after them: George Moscone Elementary, Harvey Milk Elementary and Harvey Milk High School.
Moscone's main political legacy is his opening up San Francisco City Hall to be a more diverse and inclusive place with political appointments that represented the full spectrum of the population, including minorities and the growing gay community. Despite a backlash from the political old guard and conservatives, and despite the double assassination of Mayor Moscone and Supervisor Harvey Milk, both leading progressives, the city never retreated from Moscone's more inclusive view of politics.
In 1980, sculptor Robert Arneson was commissioned to create a monument to Moscone to be installed in the new Moscone Convention Center. The bust portraying Moscone was done in Arneson's California Funk style and was accepted by San Francisco's Art Commission. Arneson included as part of the sculpture on the pedestal the likeness of a pistol, and references to Harvey Milk, the assassinations, the "Twinkie Defense", the White Night riots, and Dianne Feinstein's mayoral succession. Arneson refused to make alterations to the work, the commission was returned to him, and it was later resold to the SF Museum of Modern Art. In a critique of the event, Frederic Stout wrote that "Arneson's mistake was in presenting the city mothers/fathers with something honest, engaging and provoking, that is to say, a work of art. What they wanted, of course, was not a work of art at all. They wanted an object of ritual magic: the smiling head of a dead politician." In 1994, a new bust by San Francisco artist Spero Anargyros was unveiled, depicting Moscone holding a pen, below which are words from Moscone: "San Francisco is an extraordinary city, because its people have learned to live together with one another, to respect each other, and to work with each other for the future of their community. That's the strength and beauty of this city – it's the reason why the citizens who live here are the luckiest people in the world."
Moscone was portrayed by Victor Garber in Gus Van Sant's Harvey Milk biopic, Milk. Their murders were also the subject of the Dead Kennedys' version of the Sonny Curtis song "I Fought the Law". Moscone's son Jonathan, aged 14 at the time of his father's murder, later co-wrote the play Ghost Light with Tony Taccone about the effects the assassination had on him. It premiered at the Oregon Shakespeare Festival in 2011. A public television documentary about Moscone's political career, Moscone: A Legacy of Change, debuted in November 2018, the 40th anniversary of Moscone's death. Produced by Nat Katzman, written by Stephen Talbot and narrated by Peter Coyote.
== See also ==
List of assassinated American politicians
== References ==
Weiss, Mike (2010). Double Play: The Hidden Passions Behind the Double Assassination of George Moscone and Harvey Milk. Vince Emery Productions. ISBN 978-0982565056.
Saxon, Wolfgang (November 28, 1978). "George Moscone, a Firm Mayor Who Stressed Anticrime Effort". The New York Times. p. B12.
Turner, Wallace (November 28, 1978). "San Francisco Mayor is Slain; City Supervisor Also Killed; Ex-Official Gives Up to Police". The New York Times. p. A1.
"A Son Confronts Moscone's 'Ghost' On Stage". All Things Considered. September 3, 2011. NPR.
Ghost Light - Oregon Shakespeare Festival
LaGumina, Salvatore J.; Frank J. Cavaioli; Salvatore Primeggia; Joseph A. Varacalli (1999). The Italian American Experience: An Encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0203801147.
== External links ==
Moscone: A Legacy of Change film in the George Moscone Archives, University of the Pacific
Controversial commissioned bust of George Moscone by Robert Arneson
The George Moscone Digital Collection and George Moscone Collection available at Holt-Atherton Special Collections.
Join California George Moscone |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Morgan,_Baroness_Hunsdon | Anne Morgan, Baroness Hunsdon | Anne Morgan, Baroness Hunsdon (c. 1529 – 19 January 1607) was an English official. She was the wife of Henry Carey, 1st Baron Hunsdon, by whom she had a total of 13 children. On 14 December 1595, she was appointed by Queen Elizabeth I of England to the office of Keeper of Somerset House; a post which she held for life. She also served the Queen as a Lady of the Privy Chamber.
== Family ==
Anne was born c. 1529 at Arkestone, Herefordshire, the daughter of Sir Thomas Morgan and Anne Elizabeth Whitney, herself the daughter of Sir James Whitney and Blanche Milbourne. The Morgan family was of Welsh origin.
== Marriage and issue ==
On 21 May 1545, a licence was obtained for the marriage of Anne to Henry Carey, son of Sir William Carey and Mary Boleyn, the elder sister of Queen consort Anne Boleyn. As Carey's mother had once been the mistress of King Henry VIII, many people, including John Hales, vicar of Isleworth, speculated that he was in point of fact, the King's illegitimate son.
Carey was created Baron Hunsdon on 13 January 1559; from that time onward, Anne was styled Baroness Hunsdon. Following her elevation to the rank of a peer's wife, Anne was appointed a Lady of the Privy Chamber to Queen Elizabeth I, who was also her husband's first cousin and held the couple in high favour. Carey was soon afterward appointed Captain of the Gentlemen-at-Arms, making him in actuality, the Queen's personal bodyguard.
A painting by an unknown artist was done to commemorate a visit by the Queen to Anne and Carey at their manor, Hunsdon House in Hertfordshire in September 1571; Anne is believed to be depicted among the Queen's Ladies in the royal procession, as the foremost lady dressed in white.
Anne's portrait was painted by a follower of George Gower, and is displayed at Hatfield House.
Henry Carey and Anne Morgan's marriage resulted in the birth of thirteen children, two of whom died in infancy.
Sir George Carey, 2nd Baron Hunsdon (1547 – 8 September 1603). He was married on 29 December 1574 to Elizabeth Spencer, daughter of Sir John Spencer, Member of Parliament representing Northamptonshire, and Katherine Kitson.
Michael Carey (1550–1581)
Catherine Carey (c. 1550 – 25 February 1603). She was wife to Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Nottingham.
Sir John Carey, 3rd Baron Hunsdon (25 Dec 1551 – buried 7 Apr 1617). He was married on 20 December 1576 to Mary Hyde, daughter of Leonard Hyde of Throcking, Hertfordshire. They were parents of Henry Carey, 1st Earl of Dover.
William Carey.(b. ?1552-)
William Carey (1 July 1553 – 1593)
Thomas Carey. (1555) Died in infancy.
Thomas Carey. (11 October 1556) Presumably named after deceased brother. Still active in 1587.
Sir Edmund Carey (c. 1558– 12 Sept 1637). He was married three times. First to Mary Crocker, second to Elizabeth Neville and third to Judith Humphrey. He was father to a younger Sir Robert Carey but it is not certain which wife gave birth to him.
Robert Carey, 1st Earl of Monmouth (1560 – 12 April 1639). He was married on 20 August 1593 to Elizabeth Trevannion, daughter of Sir Hugh Trevannion and Sybilla Morgan. They were parents to Henry Carey, 2nd Earl of Monmouth.
Henry Carey. (d. 1599) MP for Berwick and Buckingham.
Philadelphia Carey, Lady Scrope (December 1563 – 1629) She was married to Thomas Scrope, 10th Baron Scrope and was mother to Emanuel Scrope, 1st Earl of Sunderland.
Margaret Carey (30 Nov 1564 – 30 Nov 1605) She was married to Sir Edward Hoby, son of Thomas Hoby and Elizabeth Cooke
Anne's husband had several illegitimate children, including Valentine Carey. One of his mistresses was Emilia Bassano, believed by some, including A. L. Rowse to have been the inspiration for William Shakespeare's sonnet The Dark Lady, due to her black hair and dark complexion. Her son Henry, born in 1592 was possibly mothered
by her, although she was 63 years old at the time of the child's birth.
== Widowhood ==
When Anne's husband died on 23 July 1596, he left his family in debt. Queen Elizabeth paid for his funeral expenses, and gave Anne a gift of £400, as well as an annual pension of £200 from the Exchequer. Anne used some of the money to erect a monument to her husband in Westminster Abbey.
On 14 December 1595, seven months before Carey's death, Queen Elizabeth had appointed Anne to the office of Keeper of Somerset House, a royal residence where the Queen had lived prior to her accession to the throne; Anne held the post for life. In 1574, her husband had been made Keeper.
Anne died on 19 January 1607, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Her will, which was dated 10 January 1607, was proved on 22 January.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Summer_Olympics_medal_table#Medal_table | 2004 Summer Olympics medal table | The 2004 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XXVIII Olympiad, were a summer multi-sport event held in Athens, the capital city of Greece, from 13 to 29 August 2004. A total of 10,625 athletes from a record 201 countries represented by National Olympic Committees (NOC) participated in these games. The games featured featured 301 events in 28 sports and 39 disciplines, including the Olympic debuts of women's wrestling and women's sabre. Kiribati and Timor Leste competed for the first time in these Olympic Games. It was the second time after 1896 that Athens had hosted the Summer Olympics in the modern era.
Athletes from 74 countries won at least one medal and 56 of them won at least one gold medal. The United States led the medal table both in number of gold medals won and in overall medals, winning 36 and 101 respectively. It was the third consecutive Summer Olympic Games that the United States led the medal count in both gold and overall medals. The United Arab Emirates, Paraguay and Eritrea won their first ever Olympic medals. Israel, Chile, Dominican Republic, Georgia, Chinese Taipei and the United Arab Emirates won their first Olympic gold medals. American swimmer Michael Phelps won the most gold medals among individual participants with six and the most total medals with eight (six gold and two bronze), equalling the record held by Soviet gymnast Alexander Dityatin in 1980 for the most medals won at an Olympic Games.
During and after the Games, some athletes who were caught doping, or tested positive for banned substances, were disqualified from competition and had their medals rescinded.
== Medal table ==
The medal table is based on information provided by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and is consistent with IOC convention in its published medal tables. The table uses the Olympic medal table sorting method. By default, the table is ordered by the number of gold medals the athletes from a nation have won, where a nation is an entity represented by a NOC. The number of silver medals is taken into consideration next and then the number of bronze medals. If teams are still tied, equal ranking is given and they are listed alphabetically by their IOC country code.
Events in boxing result in a bronze medal being awarded to each of the two competitors who lose their semi-final matches, as opposed to fighting in a third place tie breaker. Another combat sport, judo, uses a repechage system which also results in two bronze medals being awarded. In the women's 200 metre backstroke, there were ties for third place which resulted in two bronze medals being awarded.
Key
‡ Changes in medal standings (see below)
* Host nation (Greece)
== Changes in medal standings ==
== See also ==
All-time Olympic Games medal table
2004 Summer Paralympics medal table
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
"Athens 2004". Olympics.com. International Olympic Committee.
"2004 Summer Olympics". Olympedia.com. Archived from the original on 9 May 2021. Retrieved 24 February 2021.
"Olympic Analytics/2004_1". olympanalyt.com. Archived from the original on 2 September 2020. Retrieved 21 August 2020. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tantalum | Tantalum | Tantalum is a chemical element; it has symbol Ta and atomic number 73. It is named after Tantalus, a figure in Greek mythology. Tantalum is a very hard, ductile, lustrous, blue-gray transition metal that is highly corrosion-resistant. It is part of the refractory metals group, which are widely used as components of strong high-melting-point alloys. It is a group 5 element, along with vanadium and niobium, and it always occurs in geologic sources together with the chemically similar niobium, mainly in the mineral groups tantalite, columbite, and coltan.
The chemical inertness and very high melting point of tantalum make it valuable for laboratory and industrial equipment such as reaction vessels and vacuum furnaces. It is used in tantalum capacitors for electronic equipment such as computers. It is being investigated for use as a material for high-quality superconducting resonators in quantum processors.
== History ==
Tantalum was discovered in Sweden in 1802 by Anders Ekeberg, in two mineral samples – one from Sweden and the other from Finland. One year earlier, Charles Hatchett had discovered columbium (now niobium). In 1809, the English chemist William Hyde Wollaston compared the oxides of columbium and tantalum, columbite and tantalite. Although the two oxides had different measured densities of 5.918 g/cm3 and 7.935 g/cm3, he concluded that they were identical and kept the name tantalum. After Friedrich Wöhler confirmed these results, it was thought that columbium and tantalum were the same element. This conclusion was disputed in 1846 by the German chemist Heinrich Rose, who argued that there were two additional elements in the tantalite sample, and he named them after the children of Tantalus: niobium (from Niobe), and pelopium (from Pelops). The supposed element "pelopium" was later identified as a mixture of tantalum and niobium, and it was found that the niobium was identical to the columbium already discovered in 1801 by Hatchett.
The differences between tantalum and niobium were demonstrated unequivocally in 1864 by Christian Wilhelm Blomstrand, and Henri Etienne Sainte-Claire Deville, as well as by Louis J. Troost, who determined the empirical formulas of some of their compounds in 1865. Further confirmation came from the Swiss chemist Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac, in 1866, who proved that there were only two elements. These discoveries did not stop scientists from publishing articles about the so-called ilmenium until 1871. De Marignac was the first to produce the metallic form of tantalum in 1864, when he reduced tantalum chloride by heating it in an atmosphere of hydrogen. Early investigators had only been able to produce impure tantalum, and the first relatively pure ductile metal was produced by Werner von Bolton in Charlottenburg in 1903. Wires made with metallic tantalum were used for light bulb filaments until tungsten replaced it in widespread use.
The name tantalum was derived from the name of the mythological Tantalus, the father of Niobe in Greek mythology. In the story, he had been punished after death by being condemned to stand knee-deep in water with perfect fruit growing above his head, both of which eternally tantalized him. (If he bent to drink the water, it drained below the level he could reach, and if he reached for the fruit, the branches moved out of his grasp.) Anders Ekeberg wrote "This metal I call tantalum ... partly in allusion to its incapacity, when immersed in acid, to absorb any and be saturated."
For decades, the commercial technology for separating tantalum from niobium involved the fractional crystallization of potassium heptafluorotantalate away from potassium oxypentafluoroniobate monohydrate, a process that was discovered by Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac in 1866. This method has been supplanted by solvent extraction from fluoride-containing solutions of tantalum.
== Characteristics ==
=== Physical properties ===
Tantalum is dark (blue-gray), dense, ductile, very hard, easily fabricated, and highly conductive of heat and electricity. The metal is highly resistant to corrosion by acids: at temperatures below 150 °C tantalum is almost completely immune to attack by the normally aggressive aqua regia. It can be dissolved with hydrofluoric acid or acidic solutions containing the fluoride ion and sulfur trioxide, as well as with molten potassium hydroxide. Tantalum's high melting point of 3017 °C (boiling point 5458 °C) is exceeded among the elements only by tungsten, rhenium, and osmium for metals, and carbon.
Tantalum exists in two crystalline phases, alpha and beta. The alpha phase is stable at all temperatures up to the melting point and has body-centered cubic structure with lattice constant a = 0.33029 nm at 20 °C. It is relatively ductile, has Knoop hardness 200–400 HN and electrical resistivity 15–60 μΩ⋅cm. The beta phase is hard and brittle; its crystal symmetry is tetragonal (space group P42/mnm, a = 1.0194 nm, c = 0.5313 nm), Knoop hardness is 1000–1300 HN and electrical resistivity is relatively high at 170–210 μΩ⋅cm. The beta phase is metastable and converts to the alpha phase upon heating to 750–775 °C. Bulk tantalum is almost entirely alpha phase, and the beta phase usually exists as thin films obtained by magnetron
sputtering, chemical vapor deposition or electrochemical deposition from a eutectic molten salt solution.
=== Isotopes ===
Natural tantalum consists of two stable isotopes: 180mTa (0.012%) and 181Ta (99.988%). 180mTa (m denotes a metastable state) is predicted to decay in three ways: isomeric transition to the ground state of 180Ta, beta decay to 180W, or electron capture to 180Hf. However, radioactivity of this nuclear isomer has never been observed, and only a lower limit on its half-life of 2.9×1017 years has been set. The ground state of 180Ta has a half-life of only 8 hours. Among primordial nuclides (half-life > 108 years) 180mTa is the only nuclear isomer and the rarest of all (calculated from the elemental abundance of tantalum and the isotopic abundance of 180mTa within it).
Tantalum has been examined theoretically as a "salting" material for nuclear weapons (cobalt is the better-known hypothetical salting material). An external shell of tantalum would be irradiated by the intense neutron flux from the weapon, transmuting it into the radioactive isotope 182Ta, whose gamma rays would significantly increase the radioactivity of the fallout for months. Such "salted" weapons are not known to have been built, tested, or used.
Tantalum is used as a target material for spallation by high-energy proton beams for the production of a large number of isotopes including 8Li, 80Rb, and 160Yb.
== Chemical compounds ==
Tantalum forms compounds in oxidation states −3 to +5. Most commonly encountered are oxides of Ta(V), which includes all minerals. The chemical properties of Ta and Nb are very similar. In aqueous media, Ta only exhibits the +5 oxidation state. Like niobium, tantalum is barely soluble in dilute solutions of hydrochloric, sulfuric, nitric and phosphoric acids due to the precipitation of hydrous Ta(V) oxide. In basic media, Ta can be solubilized due to the formation of polyoxotantalate species.
=== Oxides, nitrides, carbides, sulfides ===
Tantalum pentoxide (Ta2O5) is the most important compound from the perspective of applications. Oxides of tantalum in lower oxidation states are numerous, including many defect structures, and are lightly studied or poorly characterized.
Tantalates, compounds containing [TaO4]3− or [TaO3]− are numerous. Lithium tantalate (LiTaO3) adopts a perovskite structure. Lanthanum tantalate (LaTaO4) contains isolated TaO3−4 tetrahedra.
As in the cases of other refractory metals, the hardest known compounds of tantalum are nitrides and carbides. Tantalum carbide, TaC, like the more commonly used tungsten carbide, is a hard ceramic that is used in cutting tools. Tantalum(III) nitride is used as a thin film insulator in some microelectronic fabrication processes.
The best studied chalcogenide is Tantalum sulfide (TaS2), a layered semiconductor, as seen for other transition metal dichalcogenides. A tantalum-tellurium alloy forms quasicrystals.
=== Halides ===
Tantalum halides span the oxidation states of +5, +4, and +3. Tantalum pentafluoride (TaF5) is a white solid with a melting point of 97.0 °C. The anion [TaF7]2- is used for its separation from niobium. The chloride TaCl5, which exists as a dimer, is the main reagent in synthesis of new Ta compounds. It hydrolyzes readily to an oxychloride. The lower halides TaX4 and TaX3, feature Ta-Ta bonds.
=== Organotantalum compounds ===
Organotantalum compounds include pentamethyltantalum, mixed alkyltantalum chlorides, alkyltantalum hydrides, alkylidene complexes, as well as cyclopentadienyl derivatives of the same. Diverse salts and substituted derivatives are known for the hexacarbonyl [Ta(CO)6]− and related isocyanides.
== Occurrence ==
Tantalum is estimated to make up about 1 ppm or 2 ppm of the Earth's crust by weight. There are many species of tantalum minerals, only some of which are so far being used by industry as raw materials: tantalite (a series consisting of tantalite-(Fe), tantalite-(Mn), and tantalite-(Mg)), microlite (now a group name), wodginite, euxenite (actually euxenite-(Y)), and polycrase (actually polycrase-(Y)). Tantalite (Fe, Mn)Ta2O6 is the most important mineral for tantalum extraction. Tantalite has the same mineral structure as columbite (Fe, Mn) (Ta, Nb)2O6; when there is more tantalum than niobium it is called tantalite and when there is more niobium than tantalum is it called columbite (or niobite). The high density of tantalite and other tantalum containing minerals makes the use of gravitational separation the best method. Other minerals include samarskite and fergusonite.
Australia was the main producer of tantalum prior to the 2010s, with Global Advanced Metals (formerly known as Talison Minerals) being the largest tantalum mining company in that country. They operate two mines in Western Australia, Greenbushes in the southwest and Wodgina in the Pilbara region. The Wodgina mine was reopened in January 2011 after mining at the site was suspended in late 2008 due to the 2008 financial crisis. Less than a year after it reopened, Global Advanced Metals announced that due to again "... softening tantalum demand ...", and other factors, tantalum mining operations were to cease at the end of February 2012. Wodgina produces a primary tantalum concentrate which is further upgraded at the Greenbushes operation before being sold to customers. Whereas the large-scale producers of niobium are in Brazil and Canada, the ore there also yields a small percentage of tantalum. Some other countries such as China, Ethiopia, and Mozambique mine ores with a higher percentage of tantalum, and they produce a significant percentage of the world's output of it. Tantalum is also produced in Thailand and Malaysia as a by-product of the tin mining there. During gravitational separation of the ores from placer deposits, not only is cassiterite (SnO2) found, but a small percentage of tantalite also included. The slag from the tin smelters then contains economically useful amounts of tantalum, which is leached from the slag.
World tantalum mine production has undergone an important geographic shift since the start of the 21st century when production was predominantly from Australia and Brazil. Beginning in 2007 and through 2014, the major sources of tantalum production from mines dramatically shifted to the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, and some other African countries. Future sources of supply of tantalum, in order of estimated size, are being explored in Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Greenland, China, Mozambique, Canada, Australia, the United States, Finland, and Brazil.
== Status as a conflict resource ==
Tantalum is considered a conflict resource. Coltan, the industrial name for a columbite–tantalite mineral from which niobium and tantalum are extracted, can also be found in Central Africa, which is why tantalum is being linked to warfare in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (formerly Zaire). According to an October 23, 2003 United Nations report, the smuggling and exportation of coltan has helped fuel the war in the Congo, a crisis that has resulted in approximately 5.4 million deaths since 1998 – making it the world's deadliest documented conflict since World War II. Ethical questions have been raised about responsible corporate behavior, human rights, and endangering wildlife, due to the exploitation of resources such as coltan in the armed conflict regions of the Congo Basin. The United States Geological Survey reports in its yearbook that this region produced a little less than 1% of the world's tantalum output in 2002–2006, peaking at 10% in 2000 and 2008. USGS data published in January 2021 indicated that close to 40% of the world's tantalum mine production came from the Democratic Republic of the Congo, with another 18% coming from neighboring Rwanda and Burundi.
== Production and fabrication ==
Several steps are involved in the extraction of tantalum from tantalite. First, the mineral is crushed and concentrated by gravity separation. This is generally carried out near the mine site.
=== Refining ===
The refining of tantalum from its ores is one of the more demanding separation processes in industrial metallurgy. The chief problem is that tantalum ores contain significant amounts of niobium, which has chemical properties almost identical to those of Ta. A large number of procedures have been developed to address this challenge.
In modern times, the separation is achieved by hydrometallurgy. Extraction begins with leaching the ore with hydrofluoric acid together with sulfuric acid or hydrochloric acid. This step allows the tantalum and niobium to be separated from the various non-metallic impurities in the rock. Although Ta occurs as various minerals, it is conveniently represented as the pentoxide, since most oxides of tantalum(V) behave similarly under these conditions. A simplified equation for its extraction is thus:
Ta2O5 + 14 HF → 2 H2[TaF7] + 5 H2O
Completely analogous reactions occur for the niobium component, but the hexafluoride is typically predominant under the conditions of the extraction.
Nb2O5 + 12 HF → 2 H[NbF6] + 5 H2O
These equations are simplified: it is suspected that bisulfate (HSO4−) and chloride compete as ligands for the Nb(V) and Ta(V) ions, when sulfuric and hydrochloric acids are used, respectively. The tantalum and niobium fluoride complexes are then removed from the aqueous solution by liquid-liquid extraction into organic solvents, such as cyclohexanone, octanol, and methyl isobutyl ketone. This simple procedure allows the removal of most metal-containing impurities (e.g. iron, manganese, titanium, zirconium), which remain in the aqueous phase in the form of their fluorides and other complexes.
Separation of the tantalum from niobium is then achieved by lowering the ionic strength of the acid mixture, which causes the niobium to dissolve in the aqueous phase. It is proposed that oxyfluoride H2[NbOF5] is formed under these conditions. Subsequent to removal of the niobium, the solution of purified H2[TaF7] is neutralised with aqueous ammonia to precipitate hydrated tantalum oxide as a solid, which can be calcined to tantalum pentoxide (Ta2O5).
Instead of hydrolysis, the H2[TaF7] can be treated with potassium fluoride to produce potassium heptafluorotantalate:
H2[TaF7] + 2 KF → K2[TaF7] + 2 HF
Unlike H2[TaF7], the potassium salt is readily crystallized and handled as a solid.
K2[TaF7] can be converted to metallic tantalum by reduction with sodium, at approximately 800 °C in molten salt.
K2[TaF7] + 5 Na → Ta + 5 NaF + 2 KF
In an older method, called the Marignac process, the mixture of H2[TaF7] and H2[NbOF5] was converted to a mixture of K2[TaF7] and K2[NbOF5], which was then separated by fractional crystallization, exploiting their different water solubilities.
=== Electrolysis ===
Tantalum can also be refined by electrolysis, using a modified version of the Hall–Héroult process. Instead of requiring the input oxide and output metal to be in liquid form, tantalum electrolysis operates on non-liquid powdered oxides. The initial discovery came in 1997 when Cambridge University researchers immersed small samples of certain oxides in baths of molten salt and reduced the oxide with electric current. The cathode uses powdered metal oxide. The anode is made of carbon. The molten salt at 1,000 °C (1,830 °F) is the electrolyte. The first refinery has enough capacity to supply 3–4% of annual global demand.
=== Fabrication and metalworking ===
All welding of tantalum must be done in an inert atmosphere of argon or helium in order to shield it from contamination with atmospheric gases. Tantalum is not solderable. Grinding tantalum is difficult, especially so for annealed tantalum. In the annealed condition, tantalum is extremely ductile and can be readily formed as metal sheets.
== Applications ==
=== Electronics ===
The major use for tantalum, as the metal powder, is in the production of electronic components, mainly capacitors and some high-power resistors. Tantalum electrolytic capacitors exploit the tendency of tantalum to form a protective oxide surface layer, using tantalum powder, pressed into a pellet shape, as one "plate" of the capacitor, the oxide as the dielectric, and an electrolytic solution or conductive solid as the other "plate". Because the dielectric layer can be very thin (thinner than the similar layer in, for instance, an aluminium electrolytic capacitor), a high capacitance can be achieved in a small volume. Because of the size and weight advantages, tantalum capacitors are attractive for portable telephones, personal computers, automotive electronics and cameras.
=== Alloys ===
Tantalum is also used to produce a variety of alloys that have high melting points, strength, and ductility. Alloyed with other metals, it is also used in making carbide tools for metalworking equipment and in the production of superalloys for jet engine components, chemical process equipment, nuclear reactors, missile parts, heat exchangers, tanks, and vessels. Because of its ductility, tantalum can be drawn into fine wires or filaments, which are used for evaporating metals such as aluminium.
Tantalum is inert against most acids except hydrofluoric acid and hot sulfuric acid, and hot alkaline solutions also cause tantalum to corrode. This property makes it a useful metal for chemical reaction vessels and pipes for corrosive liquids. Heat exchanging coils for the steam heating of hydrochloric acid are made from tantalum. Tantalum was extensively used in the production of ultra high frequency electron tubes for radio transmitters. Tantalum is capable of capturing oxygen and nitrogen by forming nitrides and oxides and therefore helped to sustain the high vacuum needed for the tubes when used for internal parts such as grids and plates.
=== Surgical uses ===
Tantalum is widely used in surgery because of two unique characteristics of tantalum. Tantalum's hardness and ductility is useful in making sharp, durable surgical instruments and also for monofilament sutures. However, a completely unrelated use for tantalum in surgery arises from its unique ability to form a lasting and durable structural bond with human hard tissue, making it uniquely useful for bone and dental implants. Tantalum coatings are increasingly used in the construction of complex tantalum-coated titanium surgical implants due to the tantalum plating's ability to form a strong and biologically stable bond to hard tissue. An incidental consequence of its use for durable surgical implants is that tantalum implants are considered to be acceptable for patients undergoing MRI procedures because tantalum is a non-ferrous, non-magnetic metal.
=== Other uses ===
Tantalum was used by NASA to shield components of spacecraft, such as Voyager 1 and Voyager 2, from radiation. The high melting point and oxidation resistance led to the use of the metal in the production of vacuum furnace parts. Tantalum is extremely inert and is therefore formed into a variety of corrosion resistant parts, such as thermowells, valve bodies, and tantalum fasteners. Due to its high density, shaped charge and explosively formed penetrator liners have been constructed from tantalum. Tantalum greatly increases the armor penetration capabilities of a shaped charge due to its high density and high melting point. It is also occasionally used in precious watches e.g. from Audemars Piguet, F. P. Journe, Hublot, Montblanc, Omega, and Panerai. Tantalum oxide is used to make special high refractive index glass for camera lenses. Spherical tantalum powder, produced by atomizing molten tantalum using gas or liquid, is commonly used in additive manufacturing due to its uniform shape, excellent flowability, and high melting point.
== Environmental issues ==
Tantalum receives far less attention in the environmental field than it does in other geosciences. Upper Crust Concentration (UCC) and the Nb/Ta ratio in the upper crust and in minerals are available because these measurements are useful as a geochemical tool. The latest value for upper crust concentration is 0.92 ppm, and the Nb/Ta(w/w) ratio stands at 12.7.
Little data is available on tantalum concentrations in the different environmental compartments, especially in natural waters where reliable estimates of 'dissolved' tantalum concentrations in seawater and freshwaters have not even been produced. Some values on dissolved concentrations in oceans have been published, but they are contradictory. Values in freshwaters fare little better, but, in all cases, they are probably below 1 ng L−1, since 'dissolved' concentrations in natural waters are well below most current analytical capabilities. Analysis requires pre-concentration procedures that, for the moment, do not give consistent results. And in any case, tantalum appears to be present in natural waters mostly as particulate matter rather than dissolved.
Values for concentrations in soils, bed sediments and atmospheric aerosols are easier to come by. Values in soils are close to 1 ppm and thus to UCC values. This indicates detrital origin. For atmospheric aerosols the values available are scattered and limited. When tantalum enrichment is observed, it is probably due to loss of more water-soluble elements in aerosols in the clouds.
Pollution linked to human use of the element has not been detected. Tantalum appears to be a very conservative element in biogeochemical terms, but its cycling and reactivity are still not fully understood.
== Precautions ==
Compounds containing tantalum are rarely encountered in the laboratory. The metal is highly biocompatible and is used for body implants and coatings, therefore attention may be focused on other elements or the physical nature of the chemical compound.
People can be exposed to tantalum in the workplace by breathing it in, skin contact, or eye contact. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit (permissible exposure limit) for tantalum exposure in the workplace as 5 mg/m3 over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 5 mg/m3 over an 8-hour workday and a short-term limit of 10 mg/m3. There is a paradox arising because of tantalum's ability to form a strong and permanent bond with bone tissue: at levels of 2500 mg/m3, tantalum dust becomes immediately dangerous to life and health if tantalum dust accidentally bonds with the wrong tissue.
== References ==
== External links ==
Tantalum-Niobium International Study Center
CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithophane_viridipallens#:~:text=Lithophane%20viridipallens%2C%20the%20pale%20green,Augustus%20Radcliffe%20Grote%20in%201877. | Lithophane viridipallens | Lithophane viridipallens, the pale green pinion moth, is a moth of the family Noctuidae that is native to North America. It is listed as a species of special concern in the US state of Connecticut. It was described by Augustus Radcliffe Grote in 1877.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis | Tuberculosis | Tuberculosis (TB) (RP: tew-BER-kew-loh-sis, also tew-bər-kew-LOH-sis), also known colloquially as the "white death", or historically as consumption, is a contagious disease usually caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) bacteria. Tuberculosis generally affects the lungs, but it can also affect other parts of the body. Most infections show no symptoms, in which case it is known as inactive or latent tuberculosis. A small proportion of latent infections progress to active disease that, if left untreated, can be fatal. Typical symptoms of active TB are chronic cough with blood-containing mucus, fever, night sweats, and weight loss. Infection of other organs can cause a wide range of symptoms.
Tuberculosis is spread from one person to the next through the air when people who have active TB in their lungs cough, spit, speak, or sneeze. People with latent TB do not spread the disease. A latent infection is more likely to become active in those with weakened immune systems. There are two principal tests for TB: interferon-gamma release assay (IGRA) of a blood sample, and the tuberculin skin test.
Prevention of TB involves screening those at high risk, early detection and treatment of cases, and vaccination with the bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine. Those at high risk include household, workplace, and social contacts of people with active TB. Treatment requires the use of multiple antibiotics over a long period of time.
Tuberculosis has been present in humans since ancient times. In the 1800s, when it was known as consumption, it was responsible for an estimated quarter of all deaths in Europe. The incidence of TB decreased during the 20th century with improvement in sanitation and efficient vaccination campaigns. However, since the 1980s, antibiotic resistance has become a growing problem, with increasing rates of drug-resistant tuberculosis. It is estimated that one quarter of the world's population have latent TB. In 2024, TB is estimated to have newly infected 10.7 million people and caused 1.23 million deaths, making it the leading cause of death from an infectious disease.
== History ==
Tuberculosis has existed since antiquity. Skeletal remains show some prehistoric humans (4000 BC) had TB, and researchers have found tubercular decay in the spines of Egyptian mummies dating from 3000 to 2400 BC. Genetic studies suggest the presence of TB-like bacteria in Southern America from about AD 140.
=== Identification ===
Although Richard Morton established the pulmonary form associated with tubercles as a pathology in 1689, due to the variety of its symptoms, TB was not identified as a single disease until the 1820s. Benjamin Marten conjectured in 1720 that consumptions were caused by microbes which were spread by people living close to each other. In 1819, René Laennec claimed that tubercles were the cause of pulmonary tuberculosis. J. L. Schönlein first published the name "tuberculosis" (German: Tuberkulose) in 1832.
In 1865, Jean Antoine Villemin demonstrated that tuberculosis could be transmitted, via inoculation, from humans to animals and among animals. Villemin's findings were confirmed in 1867 and 1868 by John Burdon-Sanderson.
Robert Koch identified and described the bacillus causing tuberculosis, M. tuberculosis, on 24 March 1882. In 1905, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for this discovery.
=== Development of treatments ===
In Europe, rates of tuberculosis began to rise in the early 1600s to a peak level in the 1800s, when it caused nearly 25% of all deaths. In the 18th and 19th century, tuberculosis had become epidemic in Europe, showing a seasonal pattern. Tuberculosis caused widespread public concern in the 19th and early 20th centuries as the disease became common among the urban poor. In 1815, one in four deaths in England was due to "consumption". By 1918, TB still caused one in six deaths in France.
Between 1838 and 1845, John Croghan, the owner of Mammoth Cave in Kentucky from 1839 onwards, brought a number of people with tuberculosis into the cave in the hope of curing the disease with the constant temperature and purity of the cave air; each died within a year.
Hermann Brehmer opened the first TB sanatorium in 1859 in Görbersdorf (now Sokołowsko) in Silesia. After TB was determined to be contagious, in the 1880s, it was put on a notifiable-disease list in Britain. Campaigns started to stop people from spitting in public places, and the infected poor were "encouraged" to enter sanatoria that resembled prisons. The sanatoria for the middle and upper classes offered excellent care and constant medical attention. Whatever the benefits of the "fresh air" and labor in the sanatoria, even under the best conditions, 50% of those who entered died within five years (c. 1916).
Robert Koch did not believe the cattle and human tuberculosis diseases were similar, which delayed the recognition of infected milk as a source of infection. During the first half of the 1900s, the risk of transmission from this source was dramatically reduced after the application of the pasteurization process. Koch announced a glycerine extract of the tubercle bacilli as a "remedy" for tuberculosis in 1890, calling it "tuberculin". Although it was not effective, it was later successfully adapted as a screening test for the presence of pre-symptomatic tuberculosis. World Tuberculosis Day is marked on 24 March each year, the anniversary of Koch's original scientific announcement. When the Medical Research Council formed in Britain in 1913, it initially focused on tuberculosis research.
Albert Calmette and Camille Guérin achieved the first genuine success in immunization against tuberculosis in 1906, using attenuated bovine-strain tuberculosis. It was called bacille Calmette–Guérin (BCG). The BCG vaccine was first used on humans in 1921 in France, but achieved widespread acceptance in the US, Great Britain, and Germany only after World War II.
In 1946, the development of the antibiotic streptomycin made effective treatment and cure of TB a reality. Prior to the introduction of this medication, the only treatment was surgical intervention, including the "pneumothorax technique", which involved collapsing an infected lung to "rest" it and to allow tuberculous lesions to heal.
By the 1950s, mortality in Europe had decreased about 90%. Improvements in sanitation, vaccination, and other public-health measures began significantly reducing rates of tuberculosis even before the arrival of streptomycin and other antibiotics, although the disease remained a significant threat.
=== Drug resistant tuberculosis ===
A few years after the first antibiotic treatment for TB in 1943, some strains of the TB bacteria developed resistance to the standard drugs (streptomycin, para-aminosalicylic acid, and isoniazid).
Between 1970 and 1990, there were numerous outbreaks of drug-resistant tuberculosis involving strains resistant to two or more drugs; these strains are called multi-drug resistant TB (MDR-TB). The resurgence of tuberculosis, caused in part by drug resistance and in part by the HIV pandemic, resulted in the declaration of a global health emergency by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1993.
Treatment of MDR-TB requires treatment with second-line drugs, which in general are less effective, more toxic and more expensive than first-line drugs.
Treatment regimes can run for two years, compared to the six months of first-line drug treatment.
== Signs and symptoms ==
There is a popular misconception that tuberculosis is purely a disease of the lungs that manifests as coughing. Tuberculosis may infect many organs, even though it most commonly occurs in the lungs (known as pulmonary tuberculosis). Extrapulmonary TB occurs when tuberculosis develops in organs other than the lungs; it may coexist with pulmonary TB.
General signs and symptoms include fever, chills, night sweats, loss of appetite, weight loss, and fatigue.
=== Latent tuberculosis ===
The majority of individuals with TB infection show no symptoms, a state known as inactive or latent tuberculosis. This condition is not contagious, and can be detected by the tuberculin skin test (TST) and the interferon-gamma release assay (IGRA); other tests should be conducted to eliminate the possibility of active TB. Without treatment, an estimated 5% to 15% of cases will progress into active TB during the person's lifetime.
=== Pulmonary ===
If a tuberculosis infection does become active, it most commonly involves the lungs (in about 90% of cases). Symptoms may include chest pain, a prolonged cough producing sputum which may be bloody, tiredness, temperature, loss of appetite, wasting and general malaise. In very rare cases, the infection may erode into the pulmonary artery or a Rasmussen aneurysm, resulting in massive bleeding.
Tuberculosis may cause extensive scarring of the lungs, which persists after successful treatment of the disease. Survivors continue to experience chronic respiratory symptoms such as cough, sputum production, and shortness of breath.
=== Extrapulmonary ===
In 15–20% of active cases, the infection spreads outside the lungs, causing other kinds of TB. These are collectively denoted as extrapulmonary tuberculosis. Extrapulmonary TB occurs more commonly in people with a weakened immune system and young children. In those with HIV, this occurs in more than 50% of cases. Notable extrapulmonary infection sites include the pleura (in tuberculous pleurisy), the central nervous system (in tuberculous meningitis), the lymphatic system (in scrofula of the neck), the genitourinary system (in urogenital tuberculosis), and the bones and joints (in Pott disease of the spine), among others. A potentially more serious, widespread form of TB is called "disseminated tuberculosis"; it is also known as miliary tuberculosis. Miliary TB currently makes up about 10% of extrapulmonary cases.
Symptoms of extrapulmonary TB usually include the general signs and symptoms as above, with additional symptoms related to the part of the body which is affected. Urogenital tuberculosis, however, typically presents differently, as this manifestation most commonly appears decades after the resolution of pulmonary symptoms. Most patients with chronic urogenital TB do not have pulmonary symptoms at the time of diagnosis. Urogenital tuberculosis most commonly presents with urinary 'storage symptoms' such as increased frequency and/or urgency of urination, flank pain, hematuria, and nonspecific symptoms such as fever and malaise.
== Causes ==
=== Mycobacteria ===
The main cause of TB is Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB), a small, aerobic, nonmotile bacillus. It divides every 16 to 20 hours, which is slow compared with other bacteria, which usually divide in less than an hour. Mycobacteria have a complex, lipid-rich cell envelope, with the high lipid content of the outer membrane acting as a robust barrier contributing to their drug resistance. If a Gram stain is performed, MTB either stains very weakly "Gram-positive" or does not retain dye as a result of the high lipid and mycolic acid content of its cell wall. MTB can withstand weak disinfectants and survive in a dry state for weeks. In nature, the bacterium can grow only within the cells of a host organism, but M. tuberculosis can be cultured in the laboratory.
The term M. tuberculosis complex describes a genetically related group of Mycobacterium species that can cause tuberculosis in humans or other animals. It includes four other TB-causing mycobacteria: M. bovis, M. africanum, M. canettii, and M. microti. M. bovis causes bovine TB and was once a common cause of human TB, but the introduction of pasteurized milk has almost eliminated this as a public health problem in developed countries. M. africanum is not widespread, but it is a significant cause of human TB in parts of Africa. M. canettii is rare and seems to be limited to the Horn of Africa, although a few cases have been seen in African emigrants. M. microti appears to have a natural reservoir in small rodents such as mice and voles, but can infect larger mammals. It is rare in humans and is seen almost only in immunodeficient people, although its prevalence may be significantly underestimated.
There are other known mycobacteria which cause lung disease resembling TB. M. avium complex is an environmental microorganism found in soil and water sources worldwide, which tends to present as an opportunistic infection in immunocompromised people. The natural reservoir of M. kansasii is unknown, but it has been found in tap water; it is most likely to infect humans with lung disease or who smoke. These two species are classified as "nontuberculous mycobacteria".
=== Transmission ===
Tuberculosis spreads through the air when people with active pulmonary TB cough, sneeze, speak, or sing, releasing tiny airborne droplets containing the bacteria. Anyone nearby can breathe in these droplets and become infected. The droplets can remain airborne and infective for several hours, and are more likely to persist in poorly ventilated areas.
=== Risk factors ===
Risk factors for TB include exposure to droplets from people with active TB and environmental-related and health-condition related factors that decrease a person's immune system response such as HIV or taking immunosuppressant medications.
==== Close contact ====
Prolonged, frequent, or close contact with people who have active TB is a high high risk factor for becoming infected; this group includes health care workers and children where a family member is infected. Transmission is most likely to occur from only people with active TB – those with latent infection are not thought to be contagious. Environmental risk factors which put a person at closer contact with infective droplets from a person infected with TB are overcrowding, poor ventilation, or close proximity to a potentially infective person.
==== Immunodeficiencies ====
The most important risk factor globally for developing active TB is concurrent human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection; in 2023, 6.1% of those becoming infected with TB were also infected with HIV. Sub-Saharan Africa has a particularly high burden of HIV-associated TB. Of those without HIV infection who are infected with tuberculosis, about 5–15% develop active disease during their lifetimes; in contrast, 30% of those co-infected with HIV develop the active disease. People living with HIV are estimated 16 times more likely to fall ill with TB than people without HIV; TB is the leading cause of death among people with HIV.
Another important risk factor is use of medications which suppress the immune system. These include (but are not limited to), chemotherapy; medication after an organ transplant; and medication for lupus or rheumatoid arthritis. Other risk factors include: heavy alcohol use, diabetes mellitus, silicosis, tobacco smoking, recreational drug use, severe kidney disease, head and neck cancer, and low body weight. Children, especially those under age five, have undeveloped immune systems and are at higher risk.
Environmental factors which weaken the body's protective mechanisms and may put a person at additional risk of contracting TB include air pollution, exposure to smoke (including tobacco smoke), and exposure (often occupational) to dust or particulates.
== Pathogenesis ==
TB infection begins when a M. tuberculosis bacterium, inhaled from the air, penetrates the lungs and reaches the alveoli. Here it encounters an alveolar macrophage, a cell which is part of the body's immune system, which attempts to destroy it. However, M. tuberculosis is able to neutralise and colonise the macrophage, leading to persistent infection.
The defence mechanism of the macrophage begins when a foreign body, such as a bacterial cell, binds to receptors on the surface of the macrophage. The macrophage then stretches itself around the bacterium and engulfs it. Once inside this macrophage, the bacterium is trapped in a compartment called a phagosome; the phagosome subsequently merges with a lysosome to form a phagolysosome. The lysosome is an organelle which contains digestive enzymes; these are released into the phagolysosome and kill the invader.
The M. tuberculosis bacterium is able to subvert the normal process by inhibiting the development of the phagosome and preventing it from fusing with the lysosome. The bacterium is able to survive and replicate within the phagosome; it will eventually destroy its host macrophage, releasing progeny bacteria which spread the infection.
In the next stage of infection, macrophages, epithelioid cells, lymphocytes and fibroblasts aggregate to form a granuloma, which surrounds and isolates the infected macrophages. This does not destroy the tuberculosis bacilli, but contains them, preventing spread of the infection to other parts of the body. They are nevertheless able to survive within the granuloma. In tuberculosis, the granuloma contains necrotic tissue at its centre, and appears as a small white nodule, also known as a tubercle, from which the disease derives its name.
Granulomas are most common in the lung, but they can appear anywhere in the body. As long as the infection is contained within granulomas, there are no outward symptoms and the infection is latent. However, if the immune system is unable to control the infection, the disease can progress to active TB, which can cause significant damage to the lungs and other organs.
If TB bacteria gain entry to the blood stream from an area of damaged tissue, they can spread throughout the body and set up many foci of infection, all appearing as tiny, white tubercles in the tissues. This severe form of TB disease, most common in young children and those with HIV, is called miliary tuberculosis. People with this disseminated TB have a high fatality rate even with treatment (about 30%).
In many people, the infection waxes and wanes. Tissue destruction and necrosis are often balanced by healing and fibrosis. Affected tissue is replaced by scarring and cavities filled with caseous necrotic material. During active disease, some of these cavities are joined to the air passages (bronchi) and this material can be coughed up. It contains living bacteria and thus can spread the infection. Treatment with appropriate antibiotics kills bacteria and allows healing to take place. Upon cure, affected areas are eventually replaced by scar tissue.
== Diagnosis ==
Diagnosis of tuberculosis is often difficult. Symptoms manifest slowly, and are generally non-specific, e.g. cough, fatigue, fever which could be caused by a number of other factors. The conclusive test for pulmonary TB is a bacterial culture taken from a sample of sputum, but this is slow to give a result, and does not detect latent TB. Extra-pulmonary TB infection can affect the kidneys, spine, brain, lymph nodes, or bones - a sample cannot easily be obtained for culture. Tests based on the immune response are sensitive but are likely to give false negatives in those with weak immune systems such as very young patients and those coinfected with HIV. Another issue affecting diagnosis in many parts of the world is that TB infection is most common in resource-poor settings where sophisticated laboratories are rarely available.
A diagnosis of TB should be considered in those with signs of lung disease or constitutional symptoms lasting longer than two weeks. Diagnosis of TB, whether latent or active, starts with medical history and physical examination. Subsequently a number of tests can be performed to refine the diagnosis: A chest X-ray and multiple sputum cultures for acid-fast bacilli are typically part of the initial evaluation.
=== Mantoux test ===
The Mantoux tuberculin skin test is often used to screen people at high risk for TB such as health workers or close contacts of TB patients, who may not display symptoms of infection. In the Mantoux test, a small quantity of tuberculin antigen is injected intradermally on the forearm. The result of the test is read after 48 to 72 hours. A person who has been exposed to the bacteria would be expected to mount an immune response; the reaction is read by measuring the diameter of the raised area. Vaccination with Bacille Calmette-Guerin (BCG) may result in a false-positive result. Several factors may lead to false negatives; these include HIV infection, some viral illnesses, and overwhelming TB disease.
=== Interferon-Gamma Release Assay ===
The Interferon Gamma Release Assay (IGRA) is recommended in those who are positive to the Mantoux test. This test mixes a blood sample with antigenic material derived from the TB bacterium. If the patient has developed an immune response to a TB infection, white blood cells in the sample will release interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), which can be measured. This test is more reliable than the Mantoux test, and does not give a false positive after BCG vaccination; however it may give a positive result in case of infection by the related bacteria M. szulgai, M. marinum, and M. kansasii.
=== Chest radiograph ===
In active pulmonary TB, infiltrates (opaque areas) or scarring are visible in the lungs on a chest X-ray. Infiltrates are suggestive but not necessarily diagnostic of TB. Other lung diseases can mimic the appearance of TB; and this test will not detect extrapulmonary infection or a recent infection.
=== Microbiological studies ===
A definitive diagnosis of tuberculosis can be made by detecting Mycobacterium tuberculosis organisms in a specimen taken from the patient (most often sputum, but may also be pus, cerebrospinal fluid, biopsied tissue, etc.). The specimen is examined by fluorescence microscopy. The bacterium is slow growing so a cell culture may take several weeks to yield a result.
=== Other tests ===
Nucleic acid amplification tests (NAAT) and adenosine deaminase testing may allow rapid diagnosis of TB. In December 2010, the World Health Organization endorsed the Xpert MTB/RIF system (a NAAT) for diagnosis of tuberculosis in endemic countries.
Blood tests to detect antibodies are not specific or sensitive, so they are not recommended.
Polymerase chain reaction testing of urine for Mycobacterium tuberculosis is often required for the diagnosis of urogenital tuberculosis and may also be used to diagnose tuberculosis in biopsy samples from tissues. It is highly sensitive and specific with good turnaround time.
== Prevention ==
The main strategies to prevent infection with TB are treatment of both active and latent TB, as well as vaccination of children who are at risk.
Although latent TB is not infective, it should be treated in order to prevent its development into active pulmonary TB, which is infective. The cascade of person-to-person spread can be circumvented by segregating those with active ("overt") TB and putting them on anti-TB drug regimens. After about two weeks of effective treatment, subjects with nonresistant active infections generally do not remain contagious to others; however it is important to complete the full course of treatment which is usually six months.
=== Vaccines ===
The only available vaccine as of 2021 is bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG). In areas where tuberculosis is not common, only children at high risk are typically immunized, while suspected cases of tuberculosis are individually tested for and treated. In countries where tuberculosis is common, one dose is recommended in healthy babies as soon after birth as possible. A single dose is given by intradermal injection. Administered to children under 5, it decreases the risk of getting the infection by 20% and the risk of infection turning into active disease by nearly 60%. It is not effective if administered to adults.
=== Public health ===
The first International Congress on Tuberculosis was held at Berlin in 1899. It was known by this time that tuberculosis was caused by a bacillus, thought to be passed by phlegm coughed up by a sick person, dried into dust and then inhaled by a healthy person. Milk was known to be an important means of infection. Means of prevention included free ventilation of houses and wholesome and abundant food. Milk should be boiled, and meat should be carefully inspected, or else the cattle tested for infection. Cures for the disease included abundant food, particularly of a fatty nature, and life in the open air.
TB was made a notifiable disease in Britain; there were campaigns to stop spitting in public places, and the infected poor were pressured to enter sanatoria that resembled prisons. In the United States, concern about the spread of tuberculosis played a role in the movement to prohibit public spitting except into spittoons.
==== Worldwide campaigns ====
The World Health Organization (WHO) declared TB a "global health emergency" in 1993, and in 2006, the Stop TB Partnership developed a Global Plan to Stop Tuberculosis that aimed to save 14 million lives between its launch and 2015. A number of targets they set were not achieved by 2015, mostly due to the increase in HIV-associated tuberculosis and the emergence of multi-drug resistant tuberculosis.
In 2014, the WHO adopted the "End TB" strategy which aims to reduce TB incidence by 80% and TB deaths by 90% by 2030. The strategy contains a milestone to reduce TB incidence by 20% and TB deaths by 35% by 2020. However, by 2020 only a 9% reduction in incidence per population was achieved globally, with the European region achieving 19% and the African region achieving 16% reductions. Similarly, the number of deaths only fell by 14%, missing the 2020 milestone of a 35% reduction, with some regions making better progress (31% reduction in Europe and 19% in Africa). Correspondingly, also treatment, prevention and funding milestones were missed in 2020, for example only 6.3 million people were started on TB prevention short of the target of 30 million.
The goal of tuberculosis elimination is being hampered by the lack of rapid testing, short and effective treatment courses, and completely effective vaccines.
== Management ==
Treatment of TB uses antibiotics to kill the bacteria. Effective TB treatment is difficult, due to the unusual structure and chemical composition of the mycobacterial cell wall, which hinders the entry of drugs and makes many antibiotics ineffective.
=== Latent TB ===
People with latent infections are treated to prevent them from progressing to active TB disease later in life. Treatment comprises a course of one or more of isoniazid, rifampin (also known as rifampicin) and rifapentine; the treatment regimen may last for between 3 and 9 months. Completing treatment is crucial to eliminate the bacteria completely, prevent recurrence, and avoid the development of drug resistance.
=== New onset ===
Active TB is best treated with combinations of several antibiotics to reduce the risk of the bacteria developing antibiotic resistance. The recommended treatment of new-onset pulmonary tuberculosis is a combination of antibiotics comprising rifampicin, isoniazid, pyrazinamide, and ethambutol for the first two months, followed by four months of only rifampicin and isoniazid; a total of six months. If the symptoms do not improve, further testing is necessary to establish if the infection is drug-resistant, and the treatment regime should be adjusted if necessary.
=== Recurrent disease ===
If tuberculosis recurs, testing to determine which antibiotics it is sensitive to is important before determining treatment. If multi-drug resistant TB (MDR-TB) is detected, treatment with at least four effective antibiotics for 18 to 24 months is recommended. A treatment regimen for MDR-TB must take into account the patient's drug-resistance profile as well as individual factors such as age and localization of the disease. The duration of treatment can vary from 6 months to 18 months or longer.
=== Adherence and support ===
It can be difficult for patients to adhere to their TB treatment regimen. Several drugs must be taken daily for a long period, often with unpleasant side effects. There is often a rapid improvement in symptoms, so that patients stop taking medication even though the infection is still active and likely to reassert symptoms after a period. In areas without public health systems, prolonged treatment is expensive. Failure to complete a course of treatment can result in the emergence of drug-resistant tuberculosis.
Public health bodies recommend that patients be given support during the period of treatment. One form of support is directly observed therapy - a healthcare worker watches the TB patient swallow the drugs, either in person or online. Other forms of support include having an assigned case manager, digital monitoring, health education, counseling, and community support.
=== Drug resistance ===
Treatment for drug-resistant TB is longer and requires more expensive drugs than drug-susceptible TB. Drug-resistant tuberculosis (TB) disease is caused by TB bacteria that are resistant to at least one of the most effective TB medicines used in treatment regimens.
Drug resistance to TB can come in two forms: primary and secondary. Primary drug resistance is caused by person-to-person transmission of drug-resistant TB bacteria. Secondary drug resistance (also called acquired resistance) develops during TB treatment. A person with fully drug-susceptible TB may develop secondary (acquired) resistance during therapy because of inadequate treatment, not taking the prescribed regimen appropriately (lack of compliance), or using low-quality drugs.
Rifampicin resistant TB (RR-TB) is resistant to the drug rifampicin. Multi-drug resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) is defined as resistance to the two most effective first-line TB drugs: rifampicin and isoniazid. Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (XDR-TB) is resistant to rifampicin (and may also be resistant to isoniazid), and is also resistant to at least one fluoroquinolone (levofloxacin or moxifloxacin) and to at least one other Group A drug (bedaquiline or linezolid). A further categorization, totally drug resistant tuberculosis, has been used to describe strains with even greater drug resistance. As of 2025, it has no accepted definition, but it is most commonly described as 'resistance to all first- and second-line drugs used to treat TB'. It was first observed in 2003 in Italy, but not widely reported until 2012, and has also been found in Iran, India, and South Africa.
Treatment for both MDR-TB and XDR-TB involves combinations of several drugs, typically including second-line anti-TB medications like bedaquiline, linezolid, and fluoroquinolones. Treatment regimens are individualized based on drug susceptibility testing and patient-specific factors, and may extend for up to 20 months.
As of 2023, the WHO estimates that 3.2% of new TB infections globally are RR-TB or MDR-TB; this is a decrease from 4.0% in 2015. Among those who have been previously treated for TB, the proportion of people with RR-TB or MDR-TB has also decreased from 25% in 2015 to an estimated 16% in 2023.
To fully identify drug resistance and guide treatment, drug susceptibility testing (DST) determines which drugs can kill TB bacteria. WHO guidelines recommend a rapid molecular test, Xpert MTB/RIF, to diagnose TB and simultaneously detect rifampicin resistance. Antibiotic sensitivity testing is crucial for fully identifying drug resistance and guiding treatment.
Treatment of MDR-TB is significantly more costly than treating regular TB. As an example, in the UK in 2013 the cost of standard TB treatment was estimated at £5,000 while the cost of treating MDR-TB was estimated to be more than 10 times greater, ranging from £50,000 to £70,000 per case.
In low income countries, the impact of MDR-TB on the families of its victims is severe, affecting income, mental health, and social well-being. Families may become impoverished due to the financial strain of MDR-TB treatment, with studies reporting that a significant portion of household income can be spent on healthcare.
== Prognosis ==
Tuberculosis (TB) is generally curable with prompt and appropriate treatment, but can be fatal if left untreated. The prognosis depends on factors like disease stage, drug resistance, and a person's overall health. While treatment is effective, delays or inadequate treatment can lead to severe illness and death.
Without treatment, about two-thirds of people with TB will die of the disease, on average within 3 years of diagnosis.
Progression from TB infection to overt TB disease occurs when the bacilli overcome the immune system defenses and begin to multiply. In some 1–5% of cases this occurs soon after the initial infection. However, in the majority of cases, a latent infection occurs with no obvious symptoms. Over an individual's lifetime these dormant bacilli produce active tuberculosis in 5–10% of these latent cases, often many years after infection.
The risk of reactivation increases in those whose immune system becomes weakened, such as may be caused by certain drug treatments, or by infection with HIV. In people coinfected with M. tuberculosis and HIV, the risk of reactivation increases to 10% per year.
Tuberculosis (TB) prognosis is significantly worsened by HIV co-infection, leading to higher mortality rates and poorer treatment outcomes. People with HIV are much more susceptible to developing active TB, and even with treatment, they face increased risks of unsuccessful treatment and death compared to those without HIV.
== Epidemiology ==
Reports of tuberculosis can be found throughout recorded history. In Europe, Hippocrates, writing around 400 BCE describes phthisis; in India, the Vedas (composed 1500–1200 BCE) refer to yaksma; both of these are generally equated with tuberculosis. Earlier evidence of tuberculosis has been found in prehistoric human remains in Europe, Africa, Asia and the Americas, with the earliest dating to the early Neolithic era (approximately 10,000-11,000 years ago).
Phylogenetic analysis of DNA lineages indicate that the ancestors of the tuberculosis bacterium adapted to human hosts in Africa around 70,000 years ago, and spread across the globe with migrating humans.
The World Health Organization estimates that roughly one-quarter of the world's population carry infection with M. tuberculosis (prevalence), with new infections occurring in about 11 million people each year (incidence). Most infections with M. tuberculosis do not cause disease, and 90–95% of infections remain asymptomatic.
TB infection disproportionally affects low-income populations and countries. Factors like poverty, inadequate living conditions, and poor nutrition contribute to higher TB prevalence and incidence in these settings. Globally, the highest burden of TB is concentrated in low-income countries.
People living with HIV have a significantly higher risk of developing tuberculosis (TB) compared to those without HIV. HIV weakens the immune system, making individuals more susceptible to TB infection and increasing the likelihood of progression from latent to active TB. TB is also a leading cause of death among people with HIV.
To a certain extent, newly diagnosed TB infections tend to cluster in spring and summer; this is attributed in part to lower levels of vitamin D and indoor crowding during the colder seasons, combined with a lag between infection and diagnosis. The strength of seasonality varies with latitude, with stronger patterns observed in regions farther from the equator.
=== At-risk groups ===
Tuberculosis is closely linked to both overcrowding and malnutrition, making it one of the principal diseases of poverty. Those at high risk thus include: people who inject illicit drugs, inhabitants and employees of locales where vulnerable people gather (e.g., prisons and homeless shelters), medically underprivileged and resource-poor communities, high-risk ethnic minorities, children in close contact with high-risk category patients, and health-care providers serving these patients.
Socioeconomic status (SES) strongly affects TB risk. People of low SES are both more likely to contract TB and to be more severely affected by the disease. Those with low SES are more likely to be affected by risk factors for developing TB (e.g., malnutrition, indoor air pollution, HIV co-infection, etc.), and are additionally more likely to be exposed to crowded and poorly ventilated spaces. Inadequate healthcare also means that people with active disease who facilitate spread are not diagnosed and treated promptly; sick people thus remain in the infectious state and (continue to) spread the infection.
People with HIV are at significantly higher risk of developing tuberculosis (TB) than those without HIV; they are estimated to be 16 times more likely to fall ill. TB is a leading cause of death among people with HIV. HIV weakens the immune system, making individuals more susceptible to TB infection and progression from latent to active TB.
Globally, TB occurs mainly in adults 15 years and older; men are more likely to be infected than women. There is some evidence that, in countries with a low burden of TB such as Britain, Canada and the US, incidence rates among those 65 and older are consistently higher than in other age groups. A large portion of active TB cases in this age group are thought to be due to the reactivation of previously dormant TB infections.
In Canada and Australia, tuberculosis is many times more common among the Indigenous peoples. Factors contributing to this include smoking, food insecurity, higher prevalence of health conditions such as diabetes, overcrowding and poverty.
=== Global trends ===
Since the late 19th century, a combination of improved living conditions, public health measures resulted in declines in case and mortality rates in western Europe and North America. This trend accelerated in the 1950s when effective drug treatments first became available. However progress stalled and even reversed in some regions after the 1990s due to factors like drug resistance and the HIV/AIDS pandemic.
Global monitoring of TB incidence is primarily done through annual reports by the World Health Organization (WHO), which has been collecting data and publishing comprehensive reports on the disease since 1997.
=== Geographical epidemiology ===
The distribution of tuberculosis is not uniform across the globe; it is concentrated in low- and middle-income countries, with high-burden regions including the WHO South-East Asia, African, and Western Pacific regions. High incidence of TB is strongly correlated with poor literacy and sex (male). Hopes of totally controlling the disease have been dramatically dampened because of many factors, including the difficulty of developing an effective vaccine, the expensive and time-consuming diagnostic process, the necessity of many months of treatment, the increase in HIV-associated tuberculosis, and the emergence of drug-resistant cases in the 1980s.
As of 2023, eight countries accounted for more than two thirds of global TB cases: India (26%), Indonesia (10%), China (6.8%), the Philippines (6.8%), Pakistan (6.3%), Nigeria (4.6%), Bangladesh (3.5%) and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (3.1%).
Countries with the highest incidence rates for TB are Marshall Islands (692 cases per 100,000 population), Lesotho (664), Philippines (643), Myanmar(558), and Central African Republic (540).
==== India ====
It is estimated that approximately 40% of the population of India carry tuberculosis infection. This is attributed to widespread poverty, malnutrition, overcrowding, and poor hygiene, which facilitate transmission and disease development. Factors like stigma, lack of awareness, delayed diagnosis, and the high financial burden of treatment hinder progress. The emergence of multi-drug resistant TB together with weak healthcare infrastructure contribute to the persistence of the disease, despite national control programs. Overall, the rate of TB incidence (the annual total of new infections) in India has decreased from nearly 300 per 100,000 population in 2010 to 200 in 2023.
==== Indonesia ====
TB is a major health challenge in Indonesia, with an estimated one million cases annually and around 134,000 deaths each year. Factors contributing to this include a family history of TB, malnutrition, inappropriate ventilation, diabetes mellitus, smoking behavior, and low income level. Incidence of TB infection increased in 2020 and subsequent years; this has been attributed to strain on health systems caused by the COVID-19 pandemic.
==== China ====
Incidence of TB in China has decreased over time, from 67 new cases per 100,000 of population in 2010 to 40 in 2023. TB risk is not uniform across the country, with higher relative risks observed in the poorer western and southwestern regions, such as Xinjiang and Tibet. Quality of care is inconsistent, despite efforts by the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention to improve diagnosis, referral and treatment nationwide.
==== Lesotho ====
Lesotho has an estimated 664 new infections per 100,000 population in 2023. This compares favourably with the figure of 1,184 in 2010, but it is still one of the highest TB incidence rates globally. A major factor is the extremely high prevalence of HIV in the adult population (around 23%), with many TB patients being co-infected. Other factors include lack of funding, mountainous territory making access to care difficult, and poor adherence to therapy regimes.
== Society and culture ==
=== Names ===
Tuberculosis has been known by many names from the technical to the familiar. Phthisis (φθίσις) in ancient Greek translates to decay or wasting disease, presumed to refer to pulmonary tuberculosis; around 460 BCE, Hippocrates described phthisis as a disease of dry seasons. The abbreviation TB is short for tubercle bacillus. Consumption was the most common nineteenth century English word for the disease, and was also in use well into the twentieth century. The Latin root con meaning 'completely' is linked to sumere meaning 'to take up from under'. In The Life and Death of Mr Badman by John Bunyan, the author calls consumption "the captain of all these men of death." "Great white plague" has also been used.
=== Art and literature ===
Tuberculosis was for centuries associated with poetic and artistic qualities among those infected, and was also known as "the romantic disease". Major artistic figures such as the poets John Keats, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and Edgar Allan Poe, the composer Frédéric Chopin, the playwright Anton Chekhov, the novelists Franz Kafka, Katherine Mansfield, Charlotte Brontë, Fyodor Dostoevsky, Thomas Mann, W. Somerset Maugham, George Orwell, and Robert Louis Stevenson, and the artists Alice Neel, Jean-Antoine Watteau, Elizabeth Siddal, Marie Bashkirtseff, Edvard Munch, Aubrey Beardsley and Amedeo Modigliani either had the disease or were surrounded by people who did. A widespread belief was that tuberculosis assisted artistic talent. Physical mechanisms proposed for this effect included the slight fever and toxaemia that it caused, allegedly helping them to see life more clearly and to act decisively.
Tuberculosis formed an often-reused theme in literature, as in Thomas Mann's The Magic Mountain, set in a sanatorium; in music, as in Van Morrison's song "T.B. Sheets"; in opera, as in Puccini's La bohème and Verdi's La Traviata; in art, as in Munch's painting of his ill sister; and in film, such as the 1945 The Bells of St. Mary's starring Ingrid Bergman as a nun with tuberculosis.
=== Folklore ===
In 19th century New England, tuberculosis deaths were associated with vampires. When one member of a family died from the disease, the other infected members would lose their health slowly. People believed this was caused by the original person with TB draining the life from the other family members.
=== Law ===
Historically, some countries, including Czech Republic, England, Estonia, Germany, Israel, Norway, Russia and Switzerland had legislation to involuntarily detain or examine those suspected to have tuberculosis, or involuntarily treat them if infected. As of 2025, many countries require TB cases to be notified to a national surveillance organisation (UK, US, European Union.). Many countries make either short term or long term entry visas for potential migrants conditional on a negative TB test.
== Global programs ==
The World Health Organization has formulated and promoted a number of strategies to combat TB globally. The first of these, launched in 1995, was DOTS (Directly Observed Treatment, Short-course) which promoted a standard course of treatment together with the appropriate resources and state support. The DOTS program, implemented by the member nations of the World Health Organization, led to significant reductions in TB incidence and mortality by improving case detection and treatment success rates.
In 2006, WHO adopted the Stop TB Strategy which implemented millennium development goal 6c (by 2015, to halt and reverse the incidence major diseases). This included and continued the DOTS program, with additional emphasis on sustainable financing, improved technology, and improved emphasis on drug resistance and HIV co-infection. This program ran from 2006 (when TB incidence was estimated at 8.8 million new cases) to 2014, when TB incidence was estimated at 9.6 million new cases.
The Stop TB Strategy was followed in 2014 by the End TB Strategy. This sets targets of a 90% reduction in TB deaths and 80% reduction in TB incidence by 2030, followed by reductions of 95% and 90%, respectively by 2035. A third target is that no TB-affected households experience catastrophic costs due to the disease by 2020. This incorporated the principles of the previous strategies, while introducing objectives for prevention based on the identification and treatment of individuals with latent TB infection.
In 2012, The World Health Organization (WHO), the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, and the U.S. government subsided a fast-acting diagnostic tuberculosis test, Xpert MTB/RIF, for use in low- and middle-income countries. This is a rapid molecular test used to diagnose TB and simultaneously detect rifampicin resistance. It provides results in about two hours, which is much faster than traditional TB culture methods. The test is designed for use with the GeneXpert System.
== Stigma ==
Tuberculosis stigma is discrimination experienced by many people with TB, which acts as a major barrier to health-seeking, treatment adherence, and overall disease control. Depending on the setting, between 42% and 82% of people with TB report experience of stigma. This prejudice leads to social exclusion, delayed diagnosis, poor adherence to treatment regimes, and thus poor treatment outcomes.
Slow progress in preventing the disease may in part be due to stigma associated with TB. Stigma may result in delays in seeking treatment, lower treatment compliance, and family members keeping diagnosis and cause of death secret – allowing the disease to spread further. Stigma may be due to misconceptions about the disease's transmissibility, cultural myths, association with poverty or (in Africa) HIV/AIDS. Studies in Ghana have found that individuals with TB may be banned from attending public gatherings, and may be assigned junior staff in health facilities. In India, people with TB may lose their job or be unable to marry.
== Research ==
As part of the End TB strategy, the WHO has identified four areas where research-based innovations are needed. These are 1) diagnostics, 2) treatment of active TB, 3) treatment of latent TB, and 4) vaccines.
=== Diagnostics ===
Diagnosis of TB infection is difficult, slow and expensive. This is particularly true of latent TB infection, or infection elsewhere than the lungs. Diagnostics can be improved by developing faster, more sensitive tests, preferably based on molecular testing of a blood sample rather than traditional cultivation of a sputum smear; as well as creating ultra-portable diagnostic devices for point-of-care use.
=== Treatment ===
Treatment for TB generally involves taking a cocktail of (sometimes expensive) drugs daily over a period of months. It is not surprising that people forget to take their medication or drop out entirely before completing a course of treatment. Shorter and simpler treatment regimes, as well as the introduction of new drugs, have the potential to improve adherence and thus improve outcomes.
There are two specific areas where research can lead to improvements in treatment. The first is treatment of active tuberculosis, both drug susceptible and drug resistant strains. The introduction of safer, easier, and shorter treatment regimes would improve availability and adherence, giving better outcomes. The second area is the treatment and elimination of latent TB infection in order to prevent it developing into the active form; again, improved treatment regimes would lead to better outcomes.
However there is limited evidence that improved treatment regimes would improve outcomes. It will also be necessary to improve health literacy and support structures for persons with TB.
=== Vaccines ===
Despite the fact that it was originally developed over a century ago, as of 2025, BCG remains the only vaccine which is licensed for use; this is despite it having highly variable effectiveness. A promising vaccine candidate, MVA85A, failed in 2019 to demonstrate effectiveness in clinical trials. There is an urgent need for improved vaccines, which could be effective both before exposure to TB and also post exposure.
=== Other areas of research ===
Fundamental research needs to continue into topics such as the interaction between the bacterium and its human host, details of the chain of steps which culminate in TB transmission, and the social and political obstacles to effective implementation of the elimination strategy.
== Other animals ==
Members of the genus Mycobacterium infect many different animals, including birds, fish, rodents, and reptiles. The species Mycobacterium tuberculosis, though, is rarely present in wild animals. An effort to eradicate bovine tuberculosis caused by Mycobacterium bovis from the cattle and deer herds of New Zealand has been relatively successful. Efforts in Great Britain have been less successful.
As of 2015, tuberculosis appears to be widespread among captive elephants in the US. It is believed that the animals originally acquired the disease from humans, a process called reverse zoonosis. Because the disease can spread through the air to infect both humans and other animals, it is a public health concern affecting circuses and zoos.
== See also ==
Post-tuberculosis lung disease
List of deaths due to tuberculosis
Bibliography of tuberculosis
International Congress on Tuberculosis
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Sources ==
== Further reading ==
Green J (March 2025). Everything Is Tuberculosis. Penguin Group. ISBN 978-0-525-55657-2.
== External links ==
"Tuberculosis (TB)". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 24 October 2018.
"Tuberculosis (TB)". London: Health Protection Agency. Archived from the original on 5 July 2007.
WHO global 2016 TB report (infographic)
WHO tuberculosis country profiles
"Tuberculosis Among African Americans", 1990-11-01, In Black America; KUT Radio, American Archive of Public Broadcasting (WGBH and the Library of Congress)
Working Group on New TB drugs, tracking clinical trials and drug candidates |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willer_Bordon | Willer Bordon | Willer Bordon (16 January 1949 – 14 July 2015) was an Italian academic, businessman and politician who served in different cabinet posts at the end of the 1990s and 2000s.
== Early life ==
Bordon was born in Muggia, Province of Trieste, on 16 January 1949.
== Career ==
Bordon was the mayor of Muggia for eleven years. In 1987, he was elected to the Italian parliament, being a deputy for Trieste. He founded Democratic Alliance, a small centre-left party, in 1992. He resigned from the party in June 1994 following the poor achievement in the general election. Later he joined the Margherita party. From 1998 to 1999 he served as the minister for public works. He was appointed minister of environment to the cabinet led by Prime Minister Giuliano Amato in April 2000. Bordon replaced Edo Ronchi as minister of environment.
Bordon also served as the member of the Italian Senate. In 2008 Bordon retired from the Senate. After leaving politics, he became the president of the Enalg SpA. In addition, he also began to work as a professor of political science at La Sapienza University.
== Death ==
Bordon died at the age of 66 on 14 July 2015.
== Electoral history ==
Source:
== References ==
== External links ==
Media related to Willer Bordon at Wikimedia Commons |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghulam_Ishaq_Khan#Initial_public_service | Ghulam Ishaq Khan | Ghulam Ishaq Khan (20 January 1915 – 27 October 2006), commonly known by his initials GIK, was a Pakistani bureaucrat, politician and statesman who served as the seventh president of Pakistan from 1988 to 1993. He previously served as chairman of the Senate from 1985 to 1988 under president Zia-ul-Haq, and assumed the presidency in accordance with the constitutional line of succession following Zia's death .
Raised in Bannu, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Khan graduated from Peshawar University and entered the Indian Civil Service, opting for Pakistan after the independence in 1947. Appointed the first chairman of the Water and Power Development Authority by President Ayub Khan in 1961, Ghulam Ishaq also served as Finance Secretary from 1966 to 1970. A year later, he was appointed Governor of the State Bank by President Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, before being made Defence Secretary in 1975, assisting with Pakistan's atomic bomb programme. He was retained by President Zia-ul-Haq as Finance Minister in 1977, overseeing the country's highest GDP growth average. Elected Chairman of the Senate in 1985, Khan was elevated to the presidency after Zia's death in an air crash on 17 August 1988. He was elected president on 13 December, as the consensus candidate of the Islami Jamhoori Ittehad and Pakistan People's Party.
The oldest person to serve as president, Ghulam Ishaq Khan played a hawkish role against Communist Afghanistan, while relations with the United States deteriorated following the Pressler amendment. Domestically, Khan's term faced challenges: ethnic riots flared in Karachi, and Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto accused him of frustrating her government as part of an alliance with conservative opposition leader Nawaz Sharif and the post-Zia military establishment. Khan invoked the Eighth Amendment and dismissed Benazir's government after just 20 months, on charges of rampant corruption and misgovernance. Sharif was elected Prime Minister in 1990, but Khan dismissed his government on similar charges three years later. The Supreme Court overturned the dismissal, but the gridlock ultimately led to both men resigning in 1993. He was the founder of his namesake Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute.
Retiring from public service, Khan served as rector of the GIK Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology in his native province, dying from pneumonia in 2006. He is viewed contentiously by Pakistani historians; he is credited with personal austerity, but criticized for wielding an autocratic presidency that ousted two governments.
== Early life and education ==
Ghulam Ishaq Khan was born in Ismail Khel, a rural locality on the outskirts of Bannu District, both villages in the North-West Frontier Province of the British Indian Empire, now Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa Province, Pakistan. He was a Pashtun of the Bangash tribe. His family remains active in politics; his son-in-law is former federal minister Anwar Saifullah Khan while another son-in-law is former Sindh minister and advisor, Irfanullah Khan Marwat. A granddaughter of his, Samar Haroon Bilour, was married to Haroon Bilour of the ANP and another to Omar Ayub Khan, the grandson of former military dictator Ayub Khan and son of politician Gohar Ayub Khan.
After his schooling in Bannu, Khan first attended the Islamia College before making transfer to Peshawar University. He obtained double BSc, in Chemistry and in Botany.
Initially looking for a university job, Khan joined the Indian Civil Service in 1941, serving in various provincial assignments on behalf of British India. After independence in 1947, Khan opted for Pakistan and was assigned to the bureaucracy of the provincial government of North-West Frontier Province in 1947. He took over the provincial secretariat as the secretary of the irrigation department, which he held until 1955.
== Initial public service ==
In 1956, Khan was appointed in the provincial government of Sindh as the Home Secretary, but was later appointed Secretary of Department of Development and Irrigation by the Sindh government. In 1958, he was elevated to federal government level, and assigned to the secretariat control of the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA), an appointment approved by the President Ayub Khan. Since 1958, Khan had been serving on the Board of Governors of the Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA), before being elevated to chairman in 1961. As Chairman, he played a vital role in the construction and financial development of Mangla Dam and Warsak Dam.
In 1966, Khan left the chairmanship to be appointed the Federal Finance Secretary to the Government of Pakistan until 1970, which he relinquished to incoming Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. After Pakistan's loss to India in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, Khan was called to administer all retail and commercial services pertaining to the national economy tattered by war. In 1971, Bhutto appointed him Governor of State Bank of Pakistan when he was tasked to formulate and administer monetary and credit policy in accordance with Government policy with influence of socialism. In the latter position, he questioned the wisdom of many of the economic policies of then-Prime Minister Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto who was keen to intensify his nationalization and socialist influence in the financial institutions that marked the slow down of the economy.
== Defence Secretary (1975–77) ==
In 1975, Prime Minister Bhutto transferred him from Governor of the State Bank to the Ministry of Defence as Defence Secretary. It was a fortuitous move in that it brought him into close contact with the Pakistani military establishment and enabled him to closely manage the nuclear weapons program. Though an unusual assignment for a financial expert, this appointment made him a powerful bureaucrat in the country. During that time, Khan became closer to General Zia-ul-Haq and had later coveted for General Zia-ul-Haq's appointment as the chief of army staff.
As Defence Secretary, he helped manage Pakistan's atomic bomb project and had been directly associated with the program. Khan was a vehement supporter of the program and saw it as a "national priority". He backed the advocacy of theorist Abdul Qadeer Khan and helped establishing the Engineering Research Laboratories in Kahuta. He headed the Uranium Coordination Board (UCB) which consisted of AGN Kazi, Munir Ahmad and Agha Shahi. Khan recommended S A Nawab for the Hilal-i-Imtiaz medal in recognition of Nawab's work in establishing Khan Research Laboratories. Later, in the 1980s Khan helped consolidate the efforts at ERL under Lt. Gen. Zahid Ali Akbar as its first military director. He approved the survey by field officer, Brigadier Akbar in 1976. Khan also helped secure the funds for the ERL and lobbying for General Akbar's promotion as the Engineer-in-Chief in 1980. Khan cemented close relations with Dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan and Munir Ahmad Khan, and remained Qadeer Khan's staunch loyal.
His involvement and support earned him the nickname "Mr Nuke" by the U.S. diplomats, while the new media dubbed him as "Baba Atom Bomb". On the contrary, Khan did not have the directorial role in the atomic bomb program until Munir Ahmad Khan retired. However, he maintained complete logistic and operational control over ERL project from the time of its inception using Major General S A Nawab who reported to Ghulam Ishaq at the Ministry of Defence. After Munir Ahmad Khan took retirement from Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC), President Ghulam Ishaq Khan eventually consolidated the entire program under the civic-military control, and supervised the classified projects of the program.
== Minister of Finance (1977–85) ==
After Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto was ousted in a staged coup d'état in 1977, Khan played a crucial role in the event of stabilizing chief of army staff General Zia-ul-Haq, in Bhutto's capacity. After meeting with the military leadership at the JS HQ, Khan reportedly marked that: "this action was going to harm the country, but since it could not be reversed, they should do their best to salvage whatever they could." He was immediately elevated as Finance Minister by General Zia-ul-Haq, who acted as the Chief Martial Law Administrator (CMLA). A team of economic experts and technocrats were assembled in the management of Khan, giving him the authority over the Planning Commission, Economic Coordination Committee, and Executive Committee of the Space Research Council. Khan worked towards controlling the national economy while harnessing the damaged Private sector. In 1977, Khan endorsed General Haq's bid for becoming the President of Pakistan, who tightened the grip of martial law in the country.
In the 1980s, Khan backed the implementation of the economic Islamization by introducing the risk-free interest rate system as well as establishing the corporatization in the industrial sector. Khan managed the revenue collection and provided the modern shape in the state–owned enterprises (SOEs) that were established in a nationalization in the 1970s. His policies and economic expertise ultimately resulted in the improvement in GDP and GNP progress, helping Pakistan's economy become among the fastest-growing in South Asia.
He maintained his ties with the nuclear society and gave strong priority for the nuclear deterrence as channelling financial funds for the development of the atomic bomb projects. Khan gave tax free status to the Bank of Credit and Commerce International (BCCI). In 1983, Khan was among the invited secret dignitaries who witnessed the first Cold fission test, Kirana-I; along with attendees General Zahid Ali (E-in-C), General KM Arif (COAS), AVM MJ O'Brian (AOC)), and Munir Ahmad (Chair PAEC). In 1984, Khan supported the referendum for Islamization held by President Zia.
== Senate Chairman (1985–88) ==
After the non-partisan general elections held in 1985, Khan was succeeded by Mahbub ul Haq– an economist. Khan decided to participate in the upcoming indirect senate elections as an independent. In 1985, he became the Chairman of the Senate and remained intact in that capacity until 1988.
After the controversial and mysterious aviation accident occurred in Bahawalpur, Khan appeared on national television and announced the death of General Zia-ul-Haq. According to the Constitution of Pakistan, Khan was the second in the line of succession to the President of Pakistan. However, General Mirza Aslam Beg called out for the general elections in 1988. Until the elections, Khan served as an acting president in accordance with the Constitutional rules of succession.
== President of Pakistan (1988–93) ==
Reaching the mutual understanding with the leftist Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP), Khan participated in presidential elections on a PPP platform. Khan secured 608 votes in the elections, competing against four other candidates; he was also supported by the conservative IDA led by Nawaz Sharif. At the time of assuming the office of president, he became the oldest president of Pakistan.
As president, Khan was marred with political struggle with Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto who attempted for pushing the bill to reverse the Eighth Amendment to the Constitution of Pakistan. Furthermore, Khan was in a conflict with Prime Minister Bhutto in two areas; the appointment of the military chiefs of staff and the Justices of the Supreme Court of Pakistan. Khan consolidated his position in controlling the nuclear deterrence program, keeping all the control over its direction. Problems arose when Prime Minister Bhutto made contact with Munir Ahmad and Abdul Qadeer Khan over the program's direction, which frustrated Khan. Economic growth slowed down and introduction of the US Embargo on Pakistan caused a great economic panic in the country. In the 1990s, Khan and Bhutto failed to arrest the 30% fall in the value of ₨. from 21 to 30 to the US $.
Khan struggled to control the law and order in the country after witnessing the Soviet troops' withdrawal from Afghanistan. Although, he maintained an ally of the United States.
=== Judicial and military appointments ===
Soon after assuming the presidency, President Ghulam Ishaq Khan's conflict arise with Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto's invalid and inappropriate appointments in nation's court system, which were primarily political rather than meeting merit. Many of Benazir government's recommendations for judicial appointments were voided and the judicial appointments made by the President himself became a controversial issue in the nation.
The appointments of chiefs of staff in the command of the military was another issue where the President Khan was in conflict with the Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto in 1989. President Khan also confirmed Admiral Yastur-ul-Haq Malik as the Chief of Naval staff and raised no objections.
Although, President Ghulam Ishaq Khan confirmed the nomination of Admiral Iftikhar Ahmed Sirohey as Chairman joint chiefs and General Mirza Aslam Beg as chief of army staff in 1988, President Khan notably used his presidential powers to retain Admiral Sirohey as Chairman joint chiefs and defused any attempts made by Prime Minister Bhutto for General Beg as the new chairman joint chiefs to control the military.
In 1990, President Ghulam Ishaq Khan reportedly denied the term extension of General Mirza Aslam Beg despite Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif's urging. He also raised objections and further vetoed the appointment of Lieutenant-General Hamid Gul, former DG ISI, as Chief of Army Staff of Pakistan Army. Instead, he favoured appointing General Asif Nawaz as Chief of Army Staff. On the advice of Prime Minister Sharif, he confirmed Air Chief Marshal Farooq Feroze as Chief of Air Staff of Pakistan Air Force.
=== Dismissal of Bhutto and Sharif governments ===
As economic and law and order crises deepened, Khan used the Eighth Amendment to the Constitution of Pakistan to dismiss Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto's government over corruption charges and deteriorating law and order situation and called fresh elections. After holding the general elections in 1993, he supported Nawaz Sharif as the Prime Minister and his IDA government.
Problems with Sharif arose with the issue of reversing the Eighth Amendment when Sharif tried to pass the bill. Eventually, he used the same Amendment to dismiss Sharif's government on similar charges. However, Sharif retaliated by bringing a lawsuit against him in the Supreme Court of Pakistan. President Khan's attempt to use the Eighth Amendment was deemed illegal by the Court and Sharif was reinstated as the Prime Minister. The political deadlock persisted and after the joint intervention of the judiciary and the military, both Khan and Sharif were forced to resign.
== Philanthropy, retirement and death ==
In 1988, Khan founded the Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology, which runs programmes in engineering, science and technology. The university was established with the financial support from the BCCI. He invited A Q Khan who took the professorship of physics and delegated Asghar Qadir, a PAEC mathematician, to take professorship in mathematics.
He again negotiated with the PPP for the presidency but eventually dropped as a candidate in favour of Farooq Leghari in general elections held in 1993. He retired from the national politics and avoided contact with international and domestic news media. He died on 27 October 2006, after a bout of pneumonia.
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Ghulam Ishaq Khan Profile Archived 4 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine Story of Pakistan
Ghulam Ishaq Khan taking oath as the President of Pakistan
In depth history of Khan's presidency
BBC News report of his death
"Ghulam Ishaq Khan passes away" Report on the Dawn Newspaper website
Chacko, Arun (31 January 1992). "With President Ghulam Ishaq Khan losing ground, new equations are being thrashed out". India Today. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Miguel_de_Sema | San Miguel de Sema | San Miguel de Sema is a town and municipality in Boyacá Department, Colombia, part of the subregion of the Western Boyacá Province. It is one of the 123 municipalities of the department of Boyacá, Colombia, located to the west of the department with the urban centre at an altitude of 2,615 metres (8,579 ft). It is bordered by the municipalities Chiquinquirá, Simijaca, Fúquene (Cundinamarca), and the Boyacá municipalities Ráquira and Tinjacá.
== Etymology ==
The name San Miguel de Sema is a combination of the Spanish name for the archangel Saint Michael and the name of a tribe who lived in the area before the Spanish conquest; Sema or Semita.
== History ==
The area of San Miguel de Sema, located in the valley of Chiquinquirá-Ubaté, was inhabited by the Muisca, organised in a loose confederation. The rule over San Miguel de Sema was by a cacique of Chiquinquirá, loyal to the zaque, based in Hunza.
The town was founded on November 8, 1915 and recognized as a municipality on the year of 1960. In 1925 was group of judges conformed by the paths old cattle ranch, Sirigay, Quintone and Peñablanca. Luis Alberto Ospina was the leader who managed the creation from the Municipality to his death his children continued the foundation process that occurred in 1960.
== Economy ==
The main source of income of the municipality is the milk cattle ranch, especially Holstein cattle. Its production is so important that nowadays some of the producing companies of milk derivatives have installed storing centers. Zones of the municipality still exist where the main line continues to be agriculture, primarily of potatoes and corn.
== Tourism ==
The church is tributed to Saint Michael the Archangel (San Miguel Arcángel) is only one of the most beautiful in the department. San Miguel de Sema gives access to Lake Fúquene.
== Celebrations ==
Fairs and celebrations made in the second week of November, 10, 11 and 12, summon to the inhabitants and neighbors of the region by means of run of bulls and horse and bovine shows. The patronal saint of the village is San Miguel Arcángel.
== Gallery ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radcliffe_College | Radcliffe College | Radcliffe College was a women's liberal arts college in Cambridge, Massachusetts, that was founded in 1879. In 1999, it was fully incorporated into Harvard College. The college was named for the early Harvard benefactor Anne Mowlson (née Radcliffe) and was one of the Seven Sisters colleges.
For the first 70 years of its existence, Radcliffe conferred undergraduate and graduate degrees. Beginning in 1963, it awarded joint Harvard-Radcliffe diplomas to undergraduates. In 1977, Radcliffe signed a formal "non-merger merger" agreement with Harvard, and completed a full integration with Harvard in 1999.
Within Harvard University, Radcliffe's former administrative campus, Radcliffe Yard, is home to the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study. Former Radcliffe housing at the Radcliffe Quadrangle, including Pforzheimer House, Cabot House, and Currier House, has been incorporated into Harvard College's house system. Under the terms of the 1999 consolidation, Radcliffe Yard and the Radcliffe Quadrangle retain the "Radcliffe" designation in perpetuity.
== History ==
=== 19th century ===
The "Harvard Annex," a private program for the instruction of women by Harvard faculty, was founded in 1879 after prolonged efforts by women to gain access to Harvard College. Arthur Gilman, a Cambridge resident, banker, philanthropist and writer, was the founder of what became The Annex/Radcliffe. At a time when higher education for women was a sharply controversial topic, Gilman hoped to establish a higher educational opportunity for his daughter that exceeded what was generally available in female seminaries and the new women's colleges such as Vassar and Wellesley. These schools were in their early years and had substantial numbers of faculty who were not university trained.
In conversations with the chair of Harvard College's classics department, Gilman outlined a plan to have Harvard faculty deliver instruction to a small group of Cambridge and Boston women. He approached Harvard President Charles William Eliot with the idea, and Eliot approved. Gilman and Eliot recruited a group of prominent and well-connected Cambridge women to manage the plan. These women were Elizabeth Cary Agassiz, Mary H. Cooke, Stella Scott Gilman, Mary B. Greenough, Ellen Hooper Gurney, Alice Mary Longfellow, and Lillian Horsford.
Building upon Gilman's premise, the committee convinced 44 members of the Harvard faculty to consider giving lectures to female students in exchange for extra income paid by the committee. The program came to be known informally as "The Harvard Annex." The course of study for the first year included 51 courses in 13 subject areas, an "impressive curriculum with greater diversity than that of any other women's college at its inception. Courses were offered in Greek, Latin, English, German, French, Italian, and Spanish; philosophy, political economy, history, music, mathematics, physics, and natural history." The first graduation ceremonies took place in the library of Longfellow House on Brattle Street, just above where George Washington's generals had slept a century earlier.
The committee members hoped that by raising an endowment for The Annex, they could persuade Harvard to admit women directly into Harvard College, but the university resisted. In his 1869 inaugural address as president of Harvard, Charles Eliot summed up the official Harvard position toward female students when he said,
"The world knows next to nothing about the capacities of the female sex. Only after generations of civil freedom and social equality will it be possible to obtain the data necessary for an adequate discussion of woman's natural tendencies, tastes, and capabilities...It is not the business of the University to decide this mooted point."
==== Harvard Examinations for Women ====
From 1874 to 1881, Harvard administered the Harvard Examinations for Women to increase women's educational opportunities, after being pressured by the Women's Education Association of Boston. During these seven years, 107 women participated; 36 received certificates. The low number of certificates received by women led Harvard to change the exam in 1881. At the time, women could also be admitted into the "Harvard Annex", the women's version of a college education. The "Harvard Examinations for Women" included subjects such as history; literature of Shakespeare and Chaucer; languages such as Latin, French, and German; botany; and mathematics. These tests were similar to the admittance exam given to men applying to Harvard College. When a woman passed a subject, she would receive a signed certificate from Harvard's president acknowledging her passing mark.
The Harvard Examinations for Women were ended two years after "Harvard Annex" officially became Radcliffe College, the women's equivalent to Harvard College.
When confronted in 1883 with the notion of females receiving Harvard degrees, the university's treasurer stated, "I have no prejudice in the matter of education of women and am quite willing to see Yale or Columbia take any risks they like, but I feel bound to protect Harvard College from what seems to me a risky experiment."
In 1888, Harvard President Eliot communicated to a faculty member he intended to hire, that "There is no obligation to teach at The Annex. Those professors who on general grounds take an interest in the education of women...feel some obligation but there are many professors who think it their duty NOT to teach there, in which opinion some of the Corporation and Overseers agree."
Eliot was strongly against co-education, saying, "The difficulties involved in a common residence of hundreds of young men and women of immature character and marriageable age are very grave. The necessary police regulations are exceedingly burdensome."
In December 1893, The Boston Globe reported, "President of Harvard To Sign Parchments of the Fair Graduates". Students seeking admission to the new women's college were required to sit for the same entrance examinations required of Harvard College students.
The committee persevered despite Eliot's skepticism. The project proved to be a success, attracting a growing number of students. As a result, the Annex was incorporated in 1882 as the Society for the Collegiate Instruction of Women, with Elizabeth Cary Agassiz, widow of Harvard professor Louis Agassiz, as president. This society awarded certificates to students but did not have the power to confer academic degrees.
In subsequent years, ongoing discussions with Harvard about admitting women directly into the university still came to a dead end. Instead, Harvard and the Annex negotiated the creation of a degree-granting institution, with Harvard professors serving as its faculty and visiting body. This modification of the Annex was chartered by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts as Radcliffe College in 1894.
By 1896, the Globe could headline a story: "Sweet Girls. They Graduate in Shoals at Radcliffe. Commencement Exercises at Sanders Theatre. Galleries Filled with Fair Friends and Students. Handsome Mrs. Agassiz Made Fine Address. Pres Eliot Commends the Work of the New Institution." The Globe said, "Eliot stated that the percentage of graduates with distinction is much higher at Radcliffe than at Harvard" and that although "[i]t is to yet to be seen whether the women have the originality and pioneering spirit which will fit them to be leaders, perhaps they will when they have had as many generations of thorough education as men."
=== 20th century ===
In 1904, historian Mary Caroline Crawford wrote the following about the founding and early days of Radcliffe College:
"...it set up housekeeping in two unpretending rooms in the Appian Way, Cambridge....Probably in all the history of colleges in America there could not be found a story so full of color and interest as that of the beginning of this woman's college. The bathroom of the little house was pressed into service as a laboratory for physics, students and instructors alike making the best of all inconveniences. Because the institution was housed with a private family, generous mothering was given to the girls when they needed it."
In the first two decades of the 20th century, Radcliffe championed the beginnings of its own campus, consisting of the Radcliffe Yard and the Radcliffe Quadrangle in Cambridge, Massachusetts, not far from Harvard University. The original Radcliffe gymnasium and library, and the Bertram, Whitman, Eliot, and Barnard dormitories were constructed during this period. With the 1920s and 1930s, dormitories Briggs Hall (1924) and Cabot Hall (1937) were built on the Quadrangle, and in the Radcliffe Yard, the administrative building Byerly Hall (1932) and the classroom building Longfellow Hall (1930). Mary Almy was the architect.
English professor Barrett Wendell warned his colleagues about continued cooperation with Radcliffe, saying that Harvard could "suddenly find itself committed to coeducation somewhat as unwary men lay themselves open to actions for breach of promise." In Wendell's view, Harvard needed to remain "purely virile."
In 1923, Ada Comstock, a leader in the movement to provide women with higher education, who hailed from the University of Minnesota and Smith College, became the college's third president. She was a key figure in the college's early 20th-century development. Speaking of her, one alumna remembers that "we were in awe of 'Miss Comstock... and knew even then that we had been touched by a vanishing breed of female educator. Ada Comstock had an extraordinary presence—she radiated dignity, strength, and decisiveness." In the early 1940s, she negotiated a new relationship with Harvard that vastly expanded women's access to the full Harvard course catalog.
==== Growth ====
David McCord set the college apart from the other Seven Sister institutions, saying "there is one respect in which Radcliffe differs from her sisters, and this should be made clear. Although she divides with Barnard, Bryn Mawr, and Wellesley all advantages of a large city, and enjoys the further privilege of being front-fence neighbor to Harvard University, Radcliffe alone has had from the first the strength of a university faculty....Thus, from the beginning, Radcliffe has been a woman's Harvard. It is still a separate institution, with its own corporation, receiving from Harvard no financial aid." Because it had a university – as opposed to "collegiate" – faculty, Radcliffe was unique among the Seven Sisters in being able to provide a graduate program with a wide number of opportunities for students to pursue advanced studies.
M. Carey Thomas, the second president and chief visionary of Bryn Mawr College, lobbied against the conversion of the Society for the Collegiate Instruction of Women into Radcliffe College precisely because the Cambridge rival's access to a university faculty competed with Bryn Mawr's own academic ambitions. Between 1890 and 1963, Radcliffe awarded more than 750 PhDs and more than 3000 masters degrees to women. During the 1950s, the school conferred more PhDs to women than any schools other than Columbia and the University of Chicago. In 1955–56, the college produced more female PhDs than any other institution in the United States.
Because Radcliffe's faculty was Harvard's, in the college's first 50 years, professors from Harvard, each under individual contracts with the Radcliffe administration – duplicated lectures, providing them first for men in the Harvard Yard and then crossing the Cambridge Common to provide the same lectures to women in the Radcliffe Yard. Professor Elwood Byerly wrote that he "always found the spirit, industry, and ability of the girls admirable—indeed, the average has been higher in my mathematics classes in the Annex than in my classes at the college.
In March 1915, The New York Times reported in 1915 that all of the prizes offered in a playwriting competition at Harvard and Radcliffe that year were won by Radcliffe students. One of the Harvard contributions received honorable mention.
In the early 1960s, the newspaper also reported that "taking the same courses and exams as Harvard, 60 percent of Radcliffe's girls [sic] were on the Dean's List as compared with 42 percent of Harvard men [sic]."
Dorothy Howells noted that, "Allegations were made that Radcliffe was a "vampire" and a "temptress" enticing the teacher from his career-advancing research and publication with the lure of additional income."
Ruth Hubbard, a member of the Harvard faculty from 1974 to 1990 and a member of the Radcliffe class of 1944, noted that "the senior (Harvard) professors were less than thrilled to have to repeat their lectures at Radcliffe. The lower rank faculty members, who were sometimes detailed off to teach the introductory science courses at Radcliffe instead of teaching Harvard students, felt even more declasse."
Marion Cannon Schlesinger, Radcliffe Class of 1934, noted that "there were, to be sure, certain professors who looked with horror at the incursions of women into the sacred precincts of Harvard College, even at the safe distance of the Radcliffe Yard, and would have nothing to do with the academic arrangements by which their colleagues taught the Radcliffe girls. Professor Roger Merriman, for example, the first master of Eliot House and a professor of history, would not have been caught dead teaching a Radcliffe class.".
During World War II, declines in male enrollment at Harvard and heightened sensitivity about the use of resources called for a new, more efficient arrangement concerning faculty time. Under the leadership of President Comstock, Radcliffe and Harvard signed an agreement that for the first time allowed Radcliffe and Harvard students to attend the same classes in the Harvard Yard, officially beginning joint instruction in 1943. Equally significant, the agreement ended the era in which individual faculty members at Harvard could choose whether to enter contracts with Radcliffe.
The agreement instead opened the entire Harvard catalogue to Radcliffe students, in exchange for which Radcliffe made a payment to Harvard of a fixed portion of Radcliffe tuitions. President Comstock noted that the agreement was "the most significant event since our charter was granted in 1894." All Harvard faculty, whether interested or not, had a legal obligation to teach Radcliffe students. In practice a few holdouts on the Harvard faculty maneuvered around this obligation by announcing that their classes had "limited enrollment" and then limiting enrollment solely to male students. At the time, both Harvard and Radcliffe were adamant in telling the press that this arrangement was "joint instruction" but not "coeducation." Reacting to the agreement, Harvard President James Bryant Conant said, "Harvard was not coeducational in theory, only in practice." Indeed, Radcliffe continued to maintain a separate admissions office which, by general acknowledgment, was more stringent in its academic requirements of applicants than Harvard's. Most extra-curricular activities at the two colleges remained separate.
Following World War II, Radcliffe negotiated a higher ceiling on its student enrollment. This success was orchestrated in tandem with additional housing construction. Moors Hall was completed in 1949, Holmes Hall in 1952, the Cronkhite Graduate Center in 1956, and Comstock Hall in 1958. The added dormitory space and national recruiting campaigns led to an increasingly national and international student body.
In 1961, the Jordan Cooperative Houses, an option for students to engage in more communal living, with student responsibility for shopping for food, preparing meals and housekeeping, were built, and the college purchased Wolbach Hall, an apartment building also known as 124 Walker Street, in 1964. Radcliffe constructed Hilles Library in 1966 and the Radcliffe Quadrangle Athletic Center in 1982.
Also in 1961, then President Mary Bunting reorganized the autonomous Radcliffe dormitories into "houses," mirroring Harvard's houses and Yale University's residential colleges.
The three houses (North, South, and East) were eventually consolidated into two (North and South). In 1970, the college completed construction of Currier House, the first Radcliffe House designed with the "House Plan" in mind. South House eventually was renamed Cabot House in 1984 while North House became Pforzheimer House in 1995.
Bunting felt that the house system would give Radcliffe students an intellectual community comparable to what Harvard students were getting, bringing together faculty and students in a way the free-standing Radcliffe dormitories did not, and allowing all to see with greater clarity the aspirations, capabilities, and interests of undergraduate women. Speaking generally about her philosophy for Radcliffe, President Bunting noted that "part of our special purpose is to convey to our students and through them to others that there is no basic conflict between being intellectual and being feminine."
Bunting also established the Radcliffe Institute in 1961. The institute – a precursor to the current Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study – gave financial support, access to research libraries and facilities, and recognition to scholarly women who had taken time away from intellectual pursuits to focus on home and family. In providing women with a venue to return to academia, Bunting was recognizing that traditional academic institutions were premised on a male life trajectory where a scholar's domestic concerns were taken care of by someone else (usually a wife).
The Radcliffe Institute, later renamed the Bunting Institute, was an institution premised on the needs of a female life trajectory, providing opportunities that might otherwise have been truncated by women's decisions during early adulthood to leave academia to raise children.
In the 1930s, Harvard president A. Lawrence Lowell took a dim view of Radcliffe, maintaining that the time Harvard professors spent providing lectures to women distracted the faculty from their scholarship, and providing Radcliffe women access to research facilities and Harvard museums was – in his view – an unnecessary burden on the university's resources. He threatened to scuttle the relationship between the two institutions. Radcliffe was forced to agree to a limitation on the size of its student body, with 750 spaces for undergraduates and 250 for graduate students.
A ceiling on enrollment of women when compared to the enrollment of men was renegotiated upward at various points throughout the relationship with Harvard and remained constant in Radcliffe's operations until it began its ultimate incorporation into Harvard University in 1977.
== Presidents of Radcliffe College ==
The office of the president was created with the incorporation of the Society for the Collegiate Instruction of Women in 1882. The society became Radcliffe College in 1894.
The following persons have led Radcliffe College until it was absorbed by Harvard University in 1999:
Table notes:
== Graduate and post-graduate opportunities ==
Radcliffe staff were invested in assisting women graduates with career planning and placement, as well as providing a number of different programs to provide post-graduate study for women. The Harvard-Radcliffe Program in Business Administration was begun as career training for alums interested in business. It grew to become a vehicle for women to pursue study at Harvard's Business School.
Other post-graduate courses of study at Radcliffe grew as the undergraduate women students became more a part of Harvard University. The Radcliffe Publishing Course offered students experience in editing and other skills needed to enter the field of publishing. The Radcliffe Seminars Program in Landscape Design gave students a chance to study landscape design before it was a course of study at the Harvard Design School, and in a less formal environment.
Radcliffe first granted PhDs starting in 1902. Between 1894 and 1902, multiple students completed all course and thesis requirements for a PhD degree in the department of zoology, working in the Radcliffe Zoological Laboratory, without receiving the title.
== Student life and notable extracurricular activities ==
Beyond the life of the mind, another appeal of Radcliffe was the comparative freedom that its undergraduates enjoyed compared to students at other women's colleges. Cambridge and Boston provided diversions that were denied to women at more geographically isolated institutions. In his history of the college, David McCord noted that "the music, theaters and museums were surprisingly close." While students at many women's colleges only had social interactions with men on weekends, Radcliffe students saw men in town and, after 1943, in classes and laboratories on a daily basis while still having their own institution, student organizations and activities, and space. In the 1950s, an era of "in loco parentis" at many postsecondary institutions, it was common at women's colleges for housemothers to keep diligent watch of the time when women returned to their dorms, locking the doors when check-in hour had arrived and punishing women who missed their check-in times. Radcliffe students, by contrast, had their own dormitory keys and filled out sign-in sheets when they arrived in the evening. Their lives were not as cloistered as those of some of their counterparts at the sister schools, and according to an article in Mademoiselle Magazine, "it was the richness and freedom of life at Radcliffe" which left its mark on the student body. One graduate of the class of 1934 noted, "We were getting the best education in the country, and besides, we weren't banished to the sticks to rusticate. Weekends at Yale and Princeton may have been the answer to a maiden's prayer at Vassar, but we did not have to wait for ceremonial weekends for our entertainment: there were those among the Harvard population who recognized our "merits." A student from the early 1960s picked up on this theme, contrasting the Radcliffe experience with that of Smith. "There are smart girls at Smith, all right," she said. "But they don't seem to get much out of them there. Four years later they don't seem to be any brighter. And they have this crazy week-end system. You spend all week in Bermuda shorts, with your hair in curlers, worrying over who's going to take you to Amherst or New Haven Friday night. It seems to me that sort of thing actually retards you in the long run." (Conversely, the greater seclusion of places such as Smith, Vassar and Mt. Holyoke sometimes made these latter institutions more attractive to socially conservative families.)
Reflecting on her time at Radcliffe, writer Alison Lurie stated that "most of the time we were in a mild state of euphoria...our lives were luxurious by modern undergraduate standards...We had private rooms, cleaned and tidied by tolerant Irish maids; a laundry called for our dirty clothes every week and returned them carefully washed and ironed; we ate off of china in our own dining room and sat in drawing rooms that resembled those of a good women's club."
"Pluck" was a quality attributed to some Radcliffe students. Beth Gutcheon of the class of 1967 wrote in a reminiscence that "One night a classmate of mine was leaving the library alone at eleven when somebody jumped her from behind and knocked her to the ground. She yelled, 'Oh, Christ, I don't have time for this. I have an exam tomorrow!' and after a disappointed pause, her attacker got up and went away."
Throughout most of the college's history, residential life and student activities at Radcliffe remained separate from those at Harvard, with separate dormitories and dining facilities (located on the Radcliffe Quadrangle), newspapers (The Radcliffe News, Percussion), radio stations (WRRB and WRAD, a.k.a. Radio Radcliffe), drama society (The Idler), student government (Radcliffe Student Government Association and later, The Radcliffe Union of Students), yearbooks, athletic programs, choral associations (The Radcliffe Choral Society, the Cliffe Clefs, and later the Radcliffe Pitches), etc. (located in the Radcliffe Yard). Radcliffe had greater diversity in housing options than Harvard, with college-owned frame houses, an apartment building, and co-operative housing for students who were not interested in immersion in dormitory life or life within the House System.
Dances were popular features of undergraduate life. "At different times there were class dances, club dances, junior and senior proms, sophomore tea dances, Christmas dances, and spring formals. Dormitory-based dances were known as 'jolly-ups.'" One particularly popular event during the 1950s was the Radcliffe Grant in Aid show, which was sponsored by the student government. The show raised money for scholarships and always ended with a student kick-line in red shorts. Perhaps because of the shorts, Harvard students were particularly drawn to the event.
The Radcliffe Choral Society was a popular and influential student group. Started in 1899 and conducted by Marie Gillison, a German-born singing teacher, the group cultivated an interest in sophisticated classical music at a time when many collegiate choral groups were devoted to college songs and more popular ditties. Archibald Davidson, who took up the reins of conducting the Choral Society after Gillison (he also conducted the Harvard Glee Club), stated, "I sometimes wonder how much, if anything, Harvard realizes that it owes to Radcliffe... Harvard...should not forget that while its Glee Club was slowly progressing toward enlightenment, Radcliffe, just across the Common, had for a long time under Mrs. Gillison's direction set an example of devotion to the best music." Davidson added that "without the early and enthusiastic cooperation of 'the young ladies of Radcliffe' the impressive tradition of college choral singing, which is now nationwide and which is always associated first with Cambridge, would almost certainly have been established much later here or would have originated elsewhere." Arranged by Mrs. Gillison, the 1917 Choral Society concert with the Harvard Glee Club and the Boston Symphony Orchestra was a footnote in music history, the first time a university chorus sang with a major orchestra. The concert became an annual tradition for many years.
The Radcliffe Crew is the oldest women's rowing program in the Ivy League. Even after the merger of Harvard and Radcliffe, the team maintains the Radcliffe name and Radcliffe colors as a sign of respect for the tradition of Radcliffe and the women who fought to establish the rowing program. The crew has a distinguished history. The team won the national championship in 1973 and thus got to represent the United States at the Eastern European Championships in Moscow. In 1974, the Eastern Association of Women's Rowing Colleges (EAWRC) was formed. In both 1974 and 1975, Radcliffe won consecutive Eastern Sprints titles. In 1987, Radcliffe's heavyweight varsity eight completed an undefeated season with a victory at Eastern Sprints and an Ivy championship title. Six of the crew's eight rowers went on to compete in the Olympic Games. In 1989, Radcliffe was also undefeated with a Sprints championship and Ivy title. The season finale was a victory in the Open Eight at the Henley Women's Regatta in England.
== Growing consolidation with Harvard ==
The parallel Radcliffe and Harvard student universes—with formal intersections only in the classroom—continued until the 1960s. At this point, awareness of the comparative benefits of Radcliffe vis-a-vis the other Seven Sisters was increasingly eclipsed by growing sensitivity to the disadvantages that Radcliffe students had vis-a-vis Harvard students. Harvard students lived closer to the Harvard Yard, while Radcliffe students had a longer walk to Yard-based classes from the Radcliffe Quadrangle. Harvard housing was more luxurious than Radcliffe dormitories, and much more of the schools' shared intellectual life took place on the Harvard campus. Financial aid and student prizes at Harvard were larger than those at Radcliffe, even though students from the two schools were enrolled in the same courses. By the late 1950s, the terms of the "joint instruction" agreement still imposed a ceiling on the enrollment of Radcliffe students, with Harvard males getting four times the number of spots in a freshman class that Radcliffe students got. And at the end of four years of study, students at Harvard received a diploma from Harvard while Radcliffe students taking the same courses received a diploma from Radcliffe.
These asymmetries did not bother all students, as some viewed the differences as a matter of course between two different institutions. This perspective was particularly strong with Radcliffe students who graduated before the turbulent 1960s. One alumna from the 1940s mused that at Radcliffe "we were supremely happy in our own environment. For us, Harvard remained 'the other.' Most of us felt no connection to it;...instead, we enjoyed our own collegiate activities and traditions. Another graduate from the class of 1949 noted that she was "having my cake and eating it, too. In addition to my Harvard education, I was enjoying the benefits of a small women's college. The Radcliffe Quadrangle was quiet and peaceful, life in the dormitories was friendly and gracious. ... The women who had chosen to come to Radcliffe all were intelligent, quite independent, and concerned with the world around them." Additionally, Radcliffe offered a cultural advantage over Harvard: even when enrolled in the same courses, Harvard and Radcliffe student took exams separately, as Radcliffe College's honor code necessitated a vastly different exam-taking environment: "Where the men's exam rituals included proctors, dress codes, and a strict requirement of silence, the Radcliffe women took un-proctored exams, relished the chance to wear informal pants instead of skirts, and could enter and exit the building as they wished so long as they did not cheat." Similarly, the Radcliffe honor code provided for more generous library and campus space privileges (for student groups) than the more bureaucratic Harvard systems allowed.
However, some people within the Radcliffe community were less sanguine about the differences between the two schools, seeing the relationship with Harvard as an institutionalized separate but unequal experience for women. Writer Alison Lurie reflected that "for Radcliffe students of my time the salient fact about Harvard was that it so evidently was not ours. Our position was like that of poor relations living just outside the walls of a great estate: patronized by some of our grand relatives, tolerated by others, and snubbed or avoided by the rest."
Famed poet Adrienne Rich, class of 1951, described receiving an "insidious double message" when she was at Radcliffe. Radcliffe students "were told that we were the most privileged college women in America," but "while intellectual and emotional life went on with intensity in all-female dorms, and we had our own newspaper, our own literary magazine, clubs, and student government, we knew that the real power (and money) were invested in Harvard's institutions, from which we were excluded."
Acceptance of the 19th-century rationales for this exclusion was fading, particularly as during the 1960s, a nationwide movement for co-education grew. Reflecting this movement, many Radcliffe students began to insist upon receiving Harvard diplomas for their academic work and upon merging Radcliffe and Harvard extra-curricular activities. Growing budgetary problems at Radcliffe encouraged this insistence. The Radcliffe Graduate School merged with Harvard's in 1963, and from that year onward Radcliffe undergraduates received Harvard University diplomas signed by the presidents of Radcliffe and Harvard. (Harvard students' diplomas were signed only by the president of Harvard.) Radcliffe students were fully and permanently admitted to Harvard's Lamont Library in 1967.
Many Radcliffe and Harvard student groups combined during the 1960s and joint commencement exercises between the two institutions began in 1970. In 1971, largely in response to gains made by newly co-ed Princeton and Yale in their respective yields of students admitted to Harvard, Yale and Princeton, and to comparable admissions competition posed by the increasing national popularity of co-ed Stanford, Harvard president Derek Bok reduced the admissions ratio of Harvard students to Radcliffe students from 4:1 to 5:2. That same year, several Harvard and Radcliffe dormitories began swapping students through an experimental program, and in 1972 full co-residence between the two colleges was instituted. The schools' departments of athletics merged shortly thereafter.
By the late 1960s there were open discussions between Radcliffe and Harvard about complete merger of the two institutions—which in truth meant abolition of Radcliffe. However, a merger study committee of the Radcliffe Alumnae Association recommended caution. In a prepared statement, the committee reported that "it would be a mistake to dissolve Radcliffe at this time. Women's self-awareness is increasing as the 'women's liberation movement develops and as moderate groups call attention to the life styles and problems particular to women. This is precisely the wrong time to abolish a prestigious women's college which should be giving leadership to women as they seek to define and enlarge their role in society."
Instead of a complete merger, in 1977 Radcliffe president Matina Horner and Harvard president Derek Bok signed an agreement that, through their admission to Radcliffe, put undergraduate women entirely in Harvard College. The so-called "non-merger merger" combined the Radcliffe and Harvard admissions offices and ended the forced ceiling on female enrollment. In practice most of the energies of Radcliffe (which remained an autonomous institution) were then devoted to the institution's research initiatives and fellowships, rather than to female undergraduates. The Harvard and Radcliffe undergraduate communities and classes came to be known officially as "Harvard and Radcliffe" or "Harvard-Radcliffe", and female students continued to be awarded degrees signed by both presidents. Radcliffe continued to own its campus and provided financial aid, undergraduate prizes, and externship and fellowship opportunities to Radcliffe students, and the college continued to sponsor academic access programs for high school girls and continuing education opportunities for people outside the traditional college age. The college also continued to support programs and workshops targeting female undergraduates.
In practice, though, Radcliffe at this point had minimal impact on the average undergraduate's day to day experiences at the university. This minimal role fueled still more talk about a full merger of the two schools. Conversely, supporters of the "non-merger merger" maintained that the agreement gave Radcliffe students the full benefits of Harvard citizenship while allowing maintenance of the proud Radcliffe identity, an institution with its own mission, programs, financial resources and alumnae network.
On October 1, 1999, Radcliffe College was fully absorbed into Harvard University; female undergraduates were henceforward members only of Harvard College while Radcliffe College evolved into the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study.
== Radcliffe after the merger ==
The Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, now a division of Harvard University, carries on many of the research and professional development programs that Radcliffe College pioneered and has introduced other programs to the worldwide community of scholars. The end of Radcliffe's role as an undergraduate institution, however, still has its detractors. "Although I realize the merger was inevitable," a member of the class of 1959 commented, "...I nevertheless regret the loss of my college, which gave me so much. Another noted that she "feels sad that Radcliffe College no longer exists. It, far more than Harvard, defined my college experience. I can't remember a single Harvard classmate, but two of my best friends are fellow Cliffies and I exchange correspondence with about a dozen more." Indeed, many Radcliffe alumnae feel their institution has relinquished its distinguished identity in favor of a male-oriented one that remains steadfastly dismissive of women's concerns. This latter perspective gained some traction when, in a voice reminiscent of Presidents Eliot and Lowell, Harvard's early 21st-century president Lawrence Summers publicly stated that women were not as capable in the sciences as men. Additionally, shortly after full merger of the two schools, Harvard undergraduate women feeling a void in Harvard's support for women's intellectual and personal development started to lobby Harvard to create a women's center. Perhaps not surprisingly, memories of Harvard's historical indifference to women have led many Radcliffe alumnae to maintain primary ties to Radcliffe College and not to Harvard University. "Womenless history has been a Harvard specialty," Laurel Thatcher Ulrich noted. The Annex gained some vindication against Presidents Eliot, Lowell, and Summers when Drew Gilpin Faust, Dean of the Radcliffe Institute, replaced Summers and became Harvard's first female president.
Radcliffe College alumnae continue to press Harvard on the question of the university's commitment to women, and increasing the number of female faculty members at Harvard is a particular alumnae interest. Former Radcliffe president Matina Horner once told the New York Times of her surprise when she first delivered a lecture at Harvard in 1969 and four male students approached her. One of these students told her that they "just wanted to see what it felt like to be lectured by a woman and if a woman could be articulate." Picking up on the perceived common Harvard blind-eye to women's intellectual competence and reflecting on the fact that while at Radcliffe they had had very few female faculty members, in the late 1990s a group of Radcliffe alumnae established the Committee for The Equality of Women at Harvard. The group chose to boycott Harvard's fundraising campaigns and sent letters to all 27,000 Radcliffe alumnae and to 13,000 Harvard alumni asking them to shift their donations to an escrow account until the university stepped up its efforts to add women to its tenured faculty. The group has not established quotas that it wants Harvard to meet. Rather, it has stated that individual Harvard departments should measure their percentage of tenured women faculty against a "realistically available pool" and create a plan to increase the number of women if that percentage falls short. The group also said that when departments do so, the escrow account (now called the Harvard Women's Faculty Fund) will be turned over to Harvard.
In the meantime, enriched by hundreds of millions of dollars that Harvard conferred unto Radcliffe at the time of the full merger, the Radcliffe Institute today awards dozens of annual fellowships to prominent academics. Although it does not focus solely on women returning to academe, it is a major research center within Harvard University. Its Schlesinger Library is one of America's largest repositories of manuscripts and archives relating to the history of women.
Several undergraduate student organizations in Harvard College still refer to Radcliffe in their names, (for example the Radcliffe Union of Students, Harvard's feminist organization; the Radcliffe Choral Society, Harvard's female choir (now one of the Holden Choirs), which has alumnae from both Radcliffe and Harvard and maintains a repertoire of Radcliffiana; the Harvard Radcliffe Orchestra; the Harvard-Radcliffe Gilbert and Sullivan Players; the Radcliffe Pitches, a female a cappella singing group; and the Harvard-Radcliffe Dramatic Club). Two athletic teams still compete under the Radcliffe name: varsity crew, which still rows with Radcliffe's black-and-white oarblades and uniforms instead of Harvard's crimson-and-white (in 1973 the team had been the only varsity team which voted not to adopt the Harvard name); and club rugby union. In addition, the Harvard University Band still plays a Radcliffe fight song.
== Notable alumnae ==
A number of Radcliffe alumnae have gone on to become notable in their respective fields:
== In popular culture ==
=== Literature ===
Rona Jaffe's novel Class Reunion and Alice Adams' novel Superior Women both deal with the lives of Radcliffe women in their college years and afterwards.
Love with a Harvard Accent is a 1962 novel written jointly by Bill Bayer and Nancy Jenkin under the pen name Leonie St. John. It tells the stories of three Radcliffe students coming of age along the bridge between the late 50s and early 1960s. The Harvard Crimson reviewed the book when it was published in an article entitled "Radcliffe's New Catalog."
Splendor & Misery is a 1983 novel by Faye Levine that follows the college experience of Sarah Galbreath, a Radcliffe student in Cambridge in the early and mid 1960s.
A Small Circle of Friends is a film set at Harvard and Radcliffe in the Vietnam era. In it Karen Allen plays Jessica Bloom, a Radcliffe student caught up with two Harvard students in the activism and feminist awakening of the time.
Phillip Roth's novel Goodbye, Columbus is set in part at Radcliffe. The movie version was filmed in part at the college.
Tom Miller's fantasy novel The Philosopher's Flight is about a male student at Radcliffe in 1917.
=== Writing ===
In 1963, as a Radcliffe undergraduate, Faye Levine wrote an article for the Harvard Crimson that became a classic and thereafter frequently quoted characterization of Radcliffe undergraduates, entitled "The Three Flavors of Radcliffe." The three flavors were peach, chocolate, and lime.
=== Film ===
The film and novel versions of Love Story are set partly at Radcliffe and involve a student named Jennifer Cavalleri and her romance with Harvard student Oliver Barrett IV. The movie was filmed in part at Radcliffe.
Katey Miller, the protagonist of Dirty Dancing: Havana Nights, is a star student who aspires to attend Radcliffe.
A large part of Professor Marston and the Wonder Women is based on and portrays events which occurred at the college.
== See also ==
Radcliffe Choral Society
Radcliffe Pitches
Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study
Schlesinger Library
List of coordinate colleges
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Baker, Liva (1976). I'm Radcliffe. Fly Me! The Seven Sisters and the Failure of Women's Education. MacMillan Publishing.
Howells, Dorothy Elia (1978). A Century to Celebrate: Radcliffe College, 1879–1979.
Horowitz, Helen Lefkowitz. Alma Mater: Design and Experience in the Women's Colleges from Their Nineteenth-Century Beginnings to the 1930s. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1993 (2nd edition).
Horowitz, Helen Lefkowitz (1999). The Passion of M. Carey Thomas. University of Illinois Press.
Kendall, Elaine. Peculiar Institutions: An Informal History of the Seven Sister Colleges, G.P. Putnam and Sons, NY, 1975.
McCord, David (1958). An Acre for Education: Being Notes on the History of Radcliffe College. Radcliffe College.
Salie, Robert Douglas. The Harvard Annex Experiment in the Higher Education of Women: Separate but Equal? Ph.D. dissertation, Emory U. 1976. 399 pp.
Schwager, Sally. "Harvard Women": A History of the Founding of Radcliffe College. Ed.D. diss., Harvard University, 1982.
Sollors, Werner; Titcomb, Caldwell; and Underwood, Thomas A., eds. (1993). Blacks at Harvard: A Documentary History of African-American Experience at Harvard and Radcliffe. 548 pp.
Ulrich, Laurel Thatcher, ed. (2004). Yards and Gates: Gender in Harvard and Radcliffe History. 337 pp.
Books about Radcliffe
Dowst, Henry Payson; John Albert Seaford (1913). Radcliffe College. H. B. Humphrey Company. Brief text; content is mostly illustrations by John Albert Seaford. Online page images and PDF at Google Books.
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matvey_Blanter#Childhood_and_education | Matvey Blanter | Matvey Isaakovich Blanter (10 February [O.S. 28 January] 1903 – 27 September 1990) was a Soviet composer, and one of the most prominent composers of popular songs and film music in the Soviet Union. Among many other works, he wrote the famous "Katyusha" (1938), performed to this day internationally. He was active as a composer until 1975, producing more than two thousand songs.
== Childhood and education ==
Blanter, the son of a Jewish craftsman, was born in the town of Pochep, then in the Chernigov Governorate of the Russian Empire. He studied piano and violin at the Kursk Higher Music School. From 1917 to 1919, he continued his education in Moscow, studying violin and composition.
== Career ==
Blanter's first songs were composed in the 1920s. At the time, he wrote light dance and jazz music, including "John Gray" (1923), a foxtrot that became a major hit. In the 1930s, as Soviet culture grew more ideologically strict, Blanter shifted toward writing Soviet propaganda songs. He emerged as one of the creators of the Soviet "mass song".
Some of Blanter's 1930s songs were styled after the Red Army songs of the Russian Civil War (1918–1921) and mythologized the war's Bolshevik heroes. The most famous among these are "The Song of Shchors" (1935), telling the tale of Ukrainian Red Army commander Nikolai Shchors, and "Partisan Zheleznyak" (1936), which combines the energetic rhythms of a military marching song with elements of a mournful ballad as it describes Commander Zheleznyak's heroic death in battle (the song opens and closes with a stanza about Zheleznyak's lonely burial mound in the steppes).
Other notable Blanter songs from that period include "Youth" (1937), a cheerful marching song asserting that "right now, everyone is young in our young, beautiful country"; "Stalin Is Our Battle-Glory" (1937), a widely performed hymn to Joseph Stalin; and "The Football March" (1938), music from which is still performed at the start of every football match in Russia.
In 1938, Blanter began his long-lasting collaboration with the poet Mikhail Isakovsky. Their first song, undoubtedly the most famous of Blanter's works, was the world-renowned "Katyusha". In it, Blanter combined elements of the heroic, upbeat battle song and of a peasant song representing a woman's lamentation for an absent lover. Standing on a high riverbank, a young woman, Katyusha, sings of her beloved (compared to "a gray eagle of the steppes"), who is far away serving on the Soviet border. The theme of the song is that the soldier will protect the Motherland and its people while his girl will preserve their love. While the song is joyful and filled with the imagery of a fertile, blooming land, it also conveys the sense that the motherland is under threat. "Katyusha" gained fame during World War II as an inspiration to defend one's land from the enemy.
In 1937, Pravda published a request for thousands of Soviet girls to go to work in the far east of the county, to help construct military defences. Blanter was commissioned to write the highly-popular operetta On the Bank of the Amur River to celebrate the initiative: the premiere took place at Moscow Operetta Theatre in 1939, and the work was broadcast by Moscow Radio as well as taken up by operatic companies throughout the country.
Blanter accompanied the Red Army to Berlin in early 1945. He was commissioned by Stalin to compose a symphony about the capture of Berlin. However, when Vasily Chuikov was meeting with a German delegation led by Hans Krebs to negotiate their surrender following Hitler's suicide, Chuikov had several uniformed war correspondents pretend to be members of his general staff in order to appear more professional and intimidating at the negotiations. But Blanter was also meeting with Chuikov at the time the delegation arrived and he could not pass as a Red Army officer as he was wearing civilian clothes. Thus, Chuikov shoved him into a closet just before the delegate entered the room. While he remained there for most of the conference, he eventually lapsed into unconsciousness from a lack of air, collapsing out of the closet and into the room just as the delegates were preparing to leave, embarrassing Chuikov and astonishing the Germans.
Blanter wrote several other highly popular wartime songs. His 1945 song, "The Enemy Burned Down His Home", about a soldier who returns from the front to find his entire family dead, became controversial when the authorities deemed it too pessimistic and banned its performance; it was performed for the first time in 1961.
Blanter's postwar songs include "The Migratory Birds Are Flying" (1949), a patriotic Soviet song in which the narrator watches migratory birds fly away and asserts that he can think of no better place to be than the Motherland, and "Dark-Eyed Cossack Girl" (Russian: Черноглазая казачка), written especially for the bass-baritone Leonid Kharitonov.
In 1983, Blanter became a member of the Anti-Zionist Committee of the Soviet Public, an organization created by the Soviet Union as an anti-Zionist propaganda tool. He died in Moscow in 1990 and was buried at Novodevichy Cemetery, Moscow.
== Awards and honors ==
Stalin Prize (1946) (for the songs "Under the Balkan Stars", "In a way, a path far", "My beloved", "In the forest, front-line")
People's Artist of the RSFSR (1965)
Order of the Badge of Honour (1967)
People's Artist of the USSR (1975)
Hero of Socialist Labour (1983)
== References in popular culture ==
Ayn Rand's 1936 novel We the Living, set in Petrograd between 1923 and 1925, has a passage devoted to the huge popularity of "John Gray."
In the 1966 novel The Last Battle, Cornelius Ryan records that Blanter accompanied the Red Army into Berlin during the last days of the war and the collapse of Nazi power.
In the 2004 film, Downfall, Blanter plays a small role and is portrayed by Boris Schwarzmann. In the film, he is stuffed into the closet of Vasily Chuikov's office, who is in a rush to meet the Nazi general, Hans Krebs.
== Notes ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janet_Hubert | Janet Hubert | Janet Louise Hubert (born January 13, 1956) is an American film and television actress and dancer. She is best known for playing the role of the original Vivian Banks on the sitcom The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air from its first season in 1990 until the end of its third season in 1993. Hubert was nominated for an NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Actress in a Comedy Series for her role in 1991. Her performance as Mignon on the digital series King Ester garnered her first Daytime Emmy Award nomination in 2020.
== Early life ==
Hubert was born in Chicago, Illinois and spent her early days growing up on Chicago's South Side. At the age of nine she moved with her family to rural Chicago. She won a scholarship to the Juilliard School in New York City, but did not complete her studies.
== Career ==
After performing in the national tour of Dancin', Hubert made her Broadway debut in 1981, in the ensemble of The First, a short-lived musical about Jackie Robinson. Hubert created the role of Tantomile in the original Broadway production of Cats, and also understudied Grizabella and Demeter. She left Cats in April 1983 to star in the national tour of Sophisticated Ladies, opposite Dee Dee Bridgewater and Gregg Burge. Hubert played Aunt Viv on The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air, the role she is most known for. After she was allegedly fired by the makers of The Fresh Prince, Hubert's character was recast and played by Daphne Maxwell Reid for the remainder of the show's run. At the time, Will Smith, the show's star, claimed that Hubert "brought her problems to work." Rumors then speculated that Smith had fired her following her departure. Hubert has since denied this, explaining that she had left the show after being informed that she had two months and a half of remaining on set and that she could not work on another project. Her role as Aunt Viv was subsequently played by actress Daphne Maxwell Reid.
Hubert was featured in a 2002 episode of Friends as Chandler's boss. In 2005, she began playing the recurring role of Lisa Williamson, mother of attorney Evangeline Williamson, on One Life to Live. Her character has made occasional appearances since then. She was featured as Michel Gerard's mother in an episode of the CW show Gilmore Girls. She has made appearances on episodes of All My Children, NYPD Blue, The Bernie Mac Show, and Tyler Perry's House of Payne, among others. In November 2018, it was announced that Hubert had been cast on the daytime soap opera, General Hospital; she made her debut as Yvonne on December 7, 2018.
Hubert appeared in The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air Reunion on HBO Max in November 2020. During the special, she and Smith spoke for the first time since her departure from the show. Hubert discussed issues regarding her personal life, which included domestic violence, and revealed she had not been fired from the show as largely believed. Smith admitted that he was neither "sensitive" nor "perceptive" to Hubert's situation and attributed his behavior to being "very young" and "immature" at the time. He has insisted that being a parent has taught him how to understand what she was dealing with and apologized for his actions. Hubert then joined the rest of the guests at the reunion.
Hubert appeared on FX's Pose in season 3 as a family member of Billy Porter's character, Pray Tell, alongside Jackée Harry and Anna Maria Horsford. In 2022, she appeared on The Ms. Pat Show as the title character's mother-in-law, Jewell.
== Personal life ==
In 1990, Hubert married James Whitten, who was verbally and physically abusive towards her until their split in 1994. From this marriage, she gave birth to a boy, Elijah Isaac Whitten. Hubert has been married to Larry Kraft since 2005.
She suffers from osteoporosis and is the ambassador of the National Osteoporosis Foundation.
== Filmography ==
=== Film ===
=== Television ===
=== Music videos ===
=== Stage ===
=== Video games ===
== Awards ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Janet Hubert at IMDb
"Smith, Whitten feud over her 'Fresh Prince' exit". Jet. Johnson Publishing Company. 1993-08-30.
"Ex-Aunt Vivian Has Her Own Studio and a Little Fresh Prince". The Los Angeles Times. 1993-08-23.
"Whitten Riled By Recent Firing From NBC-TVs 'Fresh Prince Of Bel-Air'". Jet. Johnson Publishing Company. 1993-08-09.
"'Bel-Air's' Smith sued". Variety. 1993-12-15. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frida_Kahlo#Solo_exhibitions | Frida Kahlo | Magdalena Carmen Frida Kahlo y Calderón (Spanish pronunciation: [ˈfɾiða ˈkalo]; 6 July 1907 – 13 July 1954) was a Mexican painter known for her many portraits, self-portraits, and works inspired by the nature and artifacts of Mexico. Inspired by the country's popular culture, she employed a naïve folk art style to explore questions of identity, postcolonialism, gender, class, and race in Mexican society. Her paintings often had strong autobiographical elements and mixed realism with fantasy. In addition to belonging to the post-revolutionary Mexicayotl movement, which sought to define a Mexican identity, Kahlo has been described as a surrealist or magical realist. She is also known for painting about her experience of chronic pain. Her 1940 self-portrait titled The Dream (The Bed) holds the record for the most expensive work by a female artist ever auctioned at $54.7 million.
Born to a German father and a mestiza mother (of Purépecha descent), Kahlo spent most of her childhood and adult life at La Casa Azul, her family home in Coyoacán – now publicly accessible as the Frida Kahlo Museum. Although she was disabled by polio as a child, Kahlo had been a promising student headed for medical school until being injured in a bus accident at the age of 18, which caused her lifelong pain and medical problems. During her recovery, she returned to her childhood interest in art with the idea of becoming an artist.
Kahlo's interests in politics and art led her to join the Mexican Communist Party in 1927, through which she met fellow Mexican artist Diego Rivera. The couple married in 1929 and spent the late 1920s and early 1930s travelling together in Mexico and the United States. During this time, she developed her artistic style, drawing her main inspiration from Mexican folk culture, and painted mostly small self-portraits that mixed elements from pre-Columbian and Catholic beliefs. Her paintings raised the interest of surrealist artist André Breton, who arranged for Kahlo's first solo exhibition at the Julien Levy Gallery in New York in 1938; the exhibition was a success and was followed by another in Paris in 1939. While the French exhibition was less successful, the Louvre purchased a painting from Kahlo, The Frame, making her the first Mexican artist to be featured in their collection. Throughout the 1940s, Kahlo participated in exhibitions in Mexico and the United States and worked as an art teacher. She taught at the Escuela Nacional de Pintura, Escultura y Grabado ("La Esmeralda") and was a founding member of the Seminario de Cultura Mexicana. Kahlo's always-fragile health began to decline in the same decade. While she had had solo exhibitions elsewhere, she had her first solo exhibition in Mexico in 1953, shortly before her death in 1954 at the age of 47.
Kahlo's work as an artist remained relatively unknown until the late 1970s, when her work was rediscovered by art historians and political activists. By the early 1990s, not only had she become a recognized figure in art history, but she was also regarded as an icon for Chicanos, the feminism movement, and the LGBTQ+ community. Kahlo's work has been celebrated internationally as emblematic of Mexican national and Indigenous traditions and by feminists for what is seen as its uncompromising depiction of the female experience and form.
== Artistic career ==
=== Early career ===
Kahlo enjoyed art from an early age, receiving drawing instruction from printmaker Fernando Fernández (who was her father's friend) and filling notebooks with sketches. In 1925, she began to work outside of school to help her family. After briefly working as a stenographer, she became a paid engraving apprentice for Fernández. He was impressed by her talent, although she did not consider art as a career at this time.
A severe bus accident at the age of 18 left Kahlo in lifelong pain. Confined to bed for three months following the accident, Kahlo began to paint. She started to consider a career as a medical illustrator, as well, which would combine her interests in science and art. Her mother provided her with a specially-made easel, which enabled her to paint in bed, and her father lent her some of his oil paints. She had a mirror placed above the easel, so that she could see herself. Painting became a way for Kahlo to explore questions of identity and existence. She explained, "I paint myself because I am often alone and I am the subject I know best." She later stated that the accident and the isolating recovery period made her desire "to begin again, painting things just as [she] saw them with [her] own eyes and nothing more."
Most of the paintings Kahlo made during this time were portraits of herself, her sisters, and her schoolfriends. Her early paintings and correspondence show that she drew inspiration especially from European artists, in particular Renaissance masters such as Sandro Botticelli and Bronzino and from avant-garde movements such as Neue Sachlichkeit and Cubism.
On moving to Morelos in 1929 with her husband Diego Rivera, Kahlo was inspired by the city of Cuernavaca where they lived. She changed her artistic style and increasingly drew inspiration from Mexican folk art. Art historian Andrea Kettenmann states that she may have been influenced by Adolfo Best Maugard's treatise on the subject, for she incorporated many of the characteristics that he outlined – for example, the lack of perspective and the combining of elements from pre-Columbian and colonial periods of Mexican art. Her identification with La Raza, the people of Mexico, and her profound interest in its culture remained important facets of her art throughout the rest of her life.
=== Work in the United States ===
When Kahlo and Rivera moved to San Francisco in 1930, Kahlo was introduced to American artists such as Edward Weston, Ralph Stackpole, Timothy L. Pflueger, and Nickolas Muray. The six months spent in San Francisco were a productive period for Kahlo, who further developed the folk art style she had adopted in Cuernavaca. In addition to painting portraits of several new acquaintances, she made Frieda and Diego Rivera (1931), a double portrait based on their wedding photograph, and The Portrait of Luther Burbank (1931), which depicted the eponymous horticulturist as a hybrid between a human and a plant. Although she still publicly presented herself as simply Rivera's spouse rather than as an artist, she participated for the first time in an exhibition, when Frieda and Diego Rivera was included in the Sixth Annual Exhibition of the San Francisco Society of Women Artists in the Palace of the Legion of Honor.
On moving to Detroit with Rivera, Kahlo experienced numerous health problems related to a failed pregnancy. Despite these health problems, as well as her dislike for the capitalist culture of the United States, Kahlo's time in the city was beneficial for her artistic expression. She experimented with different techniques, such as etching and frescos, and her paintings began to show a stronger narrative style. She also began placing emphasis on the themes of "terror, suffering, wounds, and pain". Despite the popularity of the mural in Mexican art at the time, she adopted a diametrically opposed medium, votive images or retablos, religious paintings made on small metal sheets by amateur artists to thank saints for their blessings during a calamity. Amongst the works she made in the retablo manner in Detroit are Henry Ford Hospital (1932), My Birth (1932), and Self-Portrait on the Border of Mexico and the United States (1932). While none of Kahlo's works were featured in exhibitions in Detroit, she gave an interview to the Detroit News on her art; the article was condescendingly titled "Wife of the Master Mural Painter Gleefully Dabbles in Works of Art".
=== Return to Mexico City and international recognition ===
Upon returning to Mexico City in 1934 Kahlo made no new paintings, and only two in the following year, due to health complications. In 1937 and 1938, however, Kahlo's artistic career was extremely productive, following her divorce and then reconciliation with Rivera. She painted more "than she had done in all her eight previous years of marriage", creating such works as My Nurse and I (1937), Memory, the Heart (1937), Four Inhabitants of Mexico (1938), and What the Water Gave Me (1938). Although she was still unsure about her work, the National Autonomous University of Mexico exhibited some of her paintings in early 1938. She made her first significant sale in the summer of 1938 when film star and art collector Edward G. Robinson purchased four paintings at $200 each. Even greater recognition followed when French Surrealist André Breton visited Rivera in April 1938. He was impressed by Kahlo, immediately claiming her as a surrealist and describing her work as "a ribbon around a bomb". He not only promised to arrange for her paintings to be exhibited in Paris but also wrote to his friend and art dealer, Julien Levy, who invited her to hold her first solo exhibition at his gallery on the East 57th Street in Manhattan.
In October, Kahlo traveled alone to New York, where her colorful Mexican dress "caused a sensation" and made her seen as "the height of exotica". The exhibition opening in November was attended by famous figures such as Georgia O'Keeffe and Clare Boothe Luce and received much positive attention in the press, although many critics adopted a condescending tone in their reviews. For example, Time wrote that "Little Frida's pictures ... had the daintiness of miniatures, the vivid reds, and yellows of Mexican tradition and the playfully bloody fancy of an unsentimental child". Despite the Great Depression, Kahlo sold half of the 25 paintings presented in the exhibition. She also received commissions from A. Conger Goodyear, then the president of the MoMA, and Clare Boothe Luce, for whom she painted a portrait of Luce's friend, socialite Dorothy Hale, who had committed suicide by jumping from her apartment building. During the three months she spent in New York, Kahlo painted very little, instead focusing on enjoying the city to the extent that her fragile health allowed. She also had several affairs, continuing the one with Nickolas Muray and engaging in ones with Levy and Edgar Kaufmann, Jr.
In January 1939, Kahlo sailed to Paris to follow up on André Breton's invitation to stage an exhibition of her work. When she arrived, she found that he had not cleared her paintings from the customs and no longer even owned a gallery. With the aid of Marcel Duchamp, she was able to arrange for an exhibition at the Renou et Colle Gallery. Further problems arose when the gallery refused to show all but two of Kahlo's paintings, considering them too shocking for audiences, and Breton insisted that they be shown alongside photographs by Manuel Alvarez Bravo, pre-Columbian sculptures, 18th- and 19th-century Mexican portraits, and what she considered "junk": sugar skulls, toys, and other items he had bought from Mexican markets.
The exhibition opened in March, but received much less attention than she had received in the United States, partly due to the looming Second World War, and made a loss financially, which led Kahlo to cancel a planned exhibition in London. Regardless, the Louvre purchased The Frame, making her the first Mexican artist to be featured in their collection. She was also warmly received by other Parisian artists, such as Pablo Picasso and Joan Miró, as well as the fashion world, with designer Elsa Schiaparelli designing a dress inspired by her and Vogue Paris featuring her on its pages. However, her overall opinion of Paris and the Surrealists remained negative; in a letter to Muray, she called them "this bunch of coocoo lunatics and very stupid surrealists" who "are so crazy 'intellectual' and rotten that I can't even stand them anymore".
In the United States, Kahlo's paintings continued to raise interest. In 1941, her works were featured at the Institute of Contemporary Art in Boston, and, in the following year, she participated in two high-profile exhibitions in New York, the Twentieth-Century Portraits exhibition at the MoMA and the Surrealists' First Papers of Surrealism exhibition. In 1943, she was included in the Mexican Art Today exhibition at the Philadelphia Museum of Art and Women Artists at Peggy Guggenheim's The Art of This Century gallery in New York.
Kahlo gained more appreciation for her art in Mexico as well. She became a founding member of the Seminario de Cultura Mexicana, a group of twenty-five artists commissioned by the Ministry of Public Education in 1942 to spread public knowledge of Mexican culture. As a member, she took part in planning exhibitions and attended a conference on art. In Mexico City, her paintings were featured in two exhibitions on Mexican art that were staged at the English-language Benjamin Franklin Library in 1943 and 1944. She was invited to participate in "Salon de la Flor", an exhibition presented at the annual flower exposition. An article by Rivera on Kahlo's art was also published in the journal published by the Seminario de Cultura Mexicana.
In 1943, Kahlo accepted a teaching position at the recently reformed, nationalistic Escuela Nacional de Pintura, Escultura y Grabado "La Esmeralda". She encouraged her students to treat her in an informal and non-hierarchical way and taught them to appreciate Mexican popular culture and folk art and to derive their subjects from the street. When her health problems made it difficult for her to commute to the school in Mexico City, she began to hold her lessons at La Casa Azul. Four of her students – Fanny Rabel, Arturo García Bustos, Guillermo Monroy, and Arturo Estrada – became devotees, and were referred to as "Los Fridos" for their enthusiasm. Kahlo secured three mural commissions for herself and her students.
Kahlo struggled to make a living from her art until the mid to late 1940s, as she refused to adapt her style to suit her clients' wishes. She received two commissions from the Mexican government in the early 1940s. She did not complete the first one, possibly due to her dislike of the subject, and the second commission was rejected by the commissioning body. Nevertheless, she had regular private clients, such as engineer Eduardo Morillo Safa, who ordered more than thirty portraits of family members over the decade. Her financial situation improved when she received a 5000-peso national prize for her painting Moses (1945) in 1946 and when The Two Fridas was purchased by the Museo de Arte Moderno in 1947. According to art historian Andrea Kettenmann, by the mid-1940s, her paintings were "featured in the majority of group exhibitions in Mexico". Further, Martha Zamora wrote that she could "sell whatever she was currently painting; sometimes incomplete pictures were purchased right off the easel".
=== Later years ===
Even as Kahlo was gaining recognition in Mexico, her health was declining rapidly, and an attempted surgery to support her spine failed. Her paintings from this period include Broken Column (1944), Moses (1945), Without Hope (1945), Tree of Hope, Stand Fast (1946), and The Wounded Deer (1946), reflecting her poor physical state. During her last years, Kahlo was mostly confined to the Casa Azul. She painted mostly still lifes, portraying fruit and flowers with political symbols such as flags or doves. She was concerned about being able to portray her political convictions, stating that "I have a great restlessness about my paintings. Mainly because I want to make it useful to the revolutionary communist movement... until now I have managed simply an honest expression of my own self ... I must struggle with all my strength to ensure that the little positive my health allows me to do also benefits the Revolution, the only real reason to live." She also altered her painting style: her brushstrokes, previously delicate and careful, were now hastier, her use of color more brash, and the overall style more intense and feverish.
Photographer Lola Alvarez Bravo understood that Kahlo did not have long to live, and thus staged her first solo exhibition in Mexico at the Galería Arte Contemporaneo in April 1953. Though Kahlo was initially not due to attend the opening, as her doctors had prescribed bed rest for her, she ordered her four-poster bed to be moved from her home to the gallery. To the surprise of the guests, she arrived in an ambulance and was carried on a stretcher to the bed, where she stayed for the duration of the party. The exhibition was a notable cultural event in Mexico and also received attention in mainstream press around the world. The same year, the Tate Gallery's exhibition on Mexican art in London featured five of her paintings.
In 1954, Kahlo was again hospitalized in April and May. That spring, she resumed painting after a one-year interval. Her last paintings include the political Marxism Will Give Health to the Sick (c. 1954) and Frida and Stalin (c. 1954) and the still-life Viva La Vida (1954).
=== Self-portraits ===
Self-portraiture
Self-portrait on the Border of Mexico and the United States (1932)
Henry Ford Hospital (1932)
Self-Portrait Dedicated to Leon Trotsky (1937)
The Two Fridas (1939)
The Dream (The Bed) (1940). In 2025, this painting sold for $54.7m, setting a record for the highest sale price at auction for any work by any female artist.
Self-Portrait with Thorn Necklace and Hummingbird (1940)
Self-Portrait with Cropped Hair
== Style and influences ==
Estimates vary on how many paintings Kahlo made during her life, with figures ranging from fewer than 150 to around 200. Her earliest paintings, which she made in the mid-1920s, show influence from Renaissance masters and European avant-garde artists such as Amedeo Modigliani. Towards the end of the decade, Kahlo derived more inspiration from Mexican folk art, drawn to its elements of "fantasy, naivety, and fascination with violence and death". The style she developed mixed reality with surrealistic elements and often depicted pain and death.
One of Kahlo's earliest champions was Surrealist artist André Breton, who claimed her as part of the movement as an artist who had supposedly developed her style "in total ignorance of the ideas that motivated the activities of my friends and myself". This was echoed by Bertram D. Wolfe, who wrote that Kahlo's was a "sort of 'naïve' Surrealism, which she invented for herself". Although Breton regarded her as mostly a feminine force within the Surrealist movement, Kahlo brought postcolonial questions and themes to the forefront of her brand of Surrealism. Breton also described Kahlo's work as "wonderfully situated at the point of intersection between the political (philosophical) line and the artistic line". While she subsequently participated in Surrealist exhibitions, she stated that she "detest[ed] Surrealism", which to her was "bourgeois art" and not "true art that the people hope from the artist". Some art historians have disagreed whether her work should be classified as belonging to the movement at all. According to Andrea Kettenmann, Kahlo was a symbolist concerned more in portraying her inner experiences. Emma Dexter has argued that, as Kahlo derived her mix of fantasy and reality mainly from Aztec mythology and Mexican culture instead of Surrealism, it is more appropriate to consider her paintings as having more in common with magical realism, or an unrelated movement known as New Objectivity. It combined reality and fantasy and employed similar style to Kahlo's, such as flattened perspective, clearly outlined characters and bright colours.
=== Mexicanidad ===
Similarly to many other contemporary Mexican artists, Kahlo was heavily influenced by Mexicanidad, a romantic nationalism that had developed in the aftermath of the revolution. The Mexicanidad movement claimed to resist the "mindset of cultural inferiority" created by colonialism, and placed special importance on Indigenous cultures. Before the revolution, Mexican folk culture – a mixture of Indigenous and European elements – was disparaged by the elite, who claimed to have purely European ancestry and regarded Europe as the definition of civilization which Mexico should imitate. Kahlo's artistic ambition was to paint for the Mexican people, and she stated that she wished "to be worthy, with my paintings, of the people to whom I belong and to the ideas which strengthen me". To enforce this image, she preferred to conceal the education she had received in art from her father and Ferdinand Fernandez and at the preparatory school. Instead, she cultivated an image of herself as a "self-taught and naive artist".
When Kahlo began her career as an artist in the 1920s, muralists dominated the Mexican art scene. They created large public pieces in the vein of Renaissance masters and Russian socialist realists: they usually depicted masses of people, and their political messages were easy to decipher. Although she was close to muralists such as Rivera, José Clemente Orozco and David Alfaro Siquieros and shared their commitment to socialism and Mexican nationalism, the majority of Kahlo's paintings were self-portraits of relatively small size. Particularly in the 1930s, her style was especially indebted to votive paintings or retablos, which were postcard-sized religious images made by amateur artists. Their purpose was to thank saints for their protection during a calamity, and they normally depicted an event, such as an illness or an accident, from which its commissioner had been saved. The focus was on the figures depicted, and they seldom featured a realistic perspective or detailed background, thus distilling the event to its essentials. Kahlo had an extensive collection of approximately 2,000 retablos, which she displayed on the walls of La Casa Azul. According to Laura Mulvey and Peter Wollen, the retablo format enabled Kahlo to "develop the limits of the purely iconic and allowed her to use narrative and allegory".
Many of Kahlo's self-portraits mimic the classic bust-length portraits that were fashionable during the colonial era, but they subverted the format by depicting their subject as less attractive than in reality. She concentrated more frequently on this format towards the end of the 1930s, thus reflecting changes in Mexican society. Increasingly disillusioned by the legacy of the revolution and struggling to cope with the effects of the Great Depression, Mexicans were abandoning the ethos of socialism for individualism. This was reflected by the "personality cults", which developed around Mexican film stars such as Dolores del Río. According to Schaefer, Kahlo's "mask-like self-portraits echo the contemporaneous fascination with the cinematic close-up of feminine beauty, as well as the mystique of female otherness expressed in film noir." By always repeating the same facial features, Kahlo drew from the depiction of goddesses and saints in Indigenous and Catholic cultures.
Out of specific Mexican folk artists, Kahlo was especially influenced by Hermenegildo Bustos, whose works portrayed Mexican culture and peasant life, and José Guadalupe Posada, who depicted accidents and crime in satiric manner. She also derived inspiration from the works of Hieronymus Bosch, whom she called a "man of genius", and Pieter Bruegel the Elder, whose focus on peasant life was similar to her own interest in the Mexican people. Another influence was the poet Rosario Castellanos, whose poems often chronicle a woman's lot in the patriarchal Mexican society, a concern with the female body, and tell stories of immense physical and emotional pain.
=== Symbolism and iconography ===
Kahlo's paintings often feature root imagery, with roots growing out of her body to tie her to the ground. This reflects in a positive sense the theme of personal growth; in a negative sense of being trapped in a particular place, time and situation; and in an ambiguous sense of how memories of the past influence the present for good and/or ill. In My Grandparents and I, Kahlo painted herself as a ten-year old, holding a ribbon that grows from an ancient tree that bears the portraits of her grandparents and other ancestors while her left foot is a tree trunk growing out of the ground, reflecting Kahlo's view of humanity's unity with the earth and her own sense of unity with Mexico. In Kahlo's paintings, trees serve as symbols of hope, of strength and of a continuity that transcends generations. Additionally, hair features as a symbol of growth and of the feminine in Kahlo's paintings and in Self-Portrait with Cropped Hair, Kahlo painted herself wearing a man's suit and shorn of her long hair, which she had just cut off. Kahlo holds the scissors with one hand menacingly close to her genitals, which can be interpreted as a threat to Rivera – whose frequent unfaithfulness infuriated her – and/or a threat to harm her own body like she has attacked her own hair, a sign of the way that women often project their fury against others onto themselves. Moreover, the picture reflects Kahlo's frustration not only with Rivera, but also her unease with the patriarchal values of Mexico as the scissors symbolize a malevolent sense of masculinity that threatens to "cut up" women, both metaphorically and literally. In Mexico, the traditional Spanish values of machismo were widely embraced, but Kahlo was always uncomfortable with machismo.
As she suffered for the rest of her life from the bus accident in her youth, Kahlo spent much of her life in hospitals and undergoing surgery, much of it performed by quacks who Kahlo believed could restore her back to where she had been before the accident. Many of Kahlo's paintings are concerned with medical imagery, which is presented in terms of pain and hurt, featuring Kahlo bleeding and displaying her open wounds. Many of Kahlo's medical paintings, especially dealing with childbirth and miscarriage, have a strong sense of guilt, of a sense of living one's life at the expense of another who has died so one might live.
Although Kahlo featured herself and events from her life in her paintings, they were often ambiguous in meaning. She did not use them only to show her subjective experience but to raise questions about Mexican society and the construction of identity within it, particularly gender, race, and social class. Historian Liza Bakewell has stated that Kahlo "recognized the conflicts brought on by revolutionary ideology":
What was it to be a Mexican? – modern, yet pre-Columbian; young, yet old; anti-Catholic yet Catholic; Western, yet New World; developing, yet underdeveloped; independent, yet colonized; mestizo, yet not Spanish nor Indian.
To explore these questions through her art, Kahlo developed a complex iconography, extensively employing pre-Columbian and Christian symbols and mythology in her paintings. In most of her self-portraits, she depicts her face as mask-like, but surrounded by visual cues which allow the viewer to decipher deeper meanings for it. Aztec mythology features heavily in Kahlo's paintings in symbols including monkeys, skeletons, skulls, blood, and hearts; often, these symbols referred to the myths of Coatlicue, Quetzalcoatl, and Xolotl. Other central elements that Kahlo derived from Aztec mythology were hybridity and dualism. Many of her paintings depict opposites: life and death, pre-modernity and modernity, Mexican and European, male and female.
In addition to Aztec legends, Kahlo frequently depicted two central female figures from Mexican folklore in her paintings: La Llorona and La Malinche as interlinked to the hard situations, the suffering, misfortune or judgement, as being calamitous, wretched or being "de la chingada". For example, when she painted herself following her miscarriage in Detroit in Henry Ford Hospital (1932), she shows herself as weeping, with dishevelled hair and an exposed heart, which are all considered part of the appearance of La Llorona, a woman who murdered her children. The painting was traditionally interpreted as simply a depiction of Kahlo's grief and pain over her failed pregnancies. But with the interpretation of the symbols in the painting and the information of Kahlo's actual views towards motherhood from her correspondence, the painting has been seen as depicting the unconventional and taboo choice of a woman remaining childless in Mexican society.
Kahlo often featured her own body in her paintings, presenting it in varying states and disguises: as wounded, broken, as a child, or clothed in different outfits, such as the Tehuana costume, a man's suit, or a European dress. She used her body as a metaphor to explore questions on societal roles. Her paintings often depicted the female body in an unconventional manner, such as during miscarriages, and childbirth or cross-dressing. In depicting the female body in graphic manner, Kahlo positioned the viewer in the role of the voyeur, "making it virtually impossible for a viewer not to assume a consciously held position in response".
According to Nancy Cooey, Kahlo made herself through her paintings into "the main character of her own mythology, as a woman, as a Mexican, and as a suffering person ... She knew how to convert each into a symbol or sign capable of expressing the enormous spiritual resistance of humanity and its splendid sexuality". Similarly, Nancy Deffebach has stated that Kahlo "created herself as a subject who was female, Mexican, modern, and powerful", and who diverged from the usual dichotomy of roles of mother/whore allowed to women in Mexican society. Due to her gender and divergence from the muralist tradition, Kahlo's paintings were treated as less political and more naïve and subjective than those of her male counterparts up until the late 1980s. According to art historian Joan Borsa
the critical reception of her exploration of subjectivity and personal history has all too frequently denied or de-emphasized the politics involved in examining one's own location, inheritances and social conditions ... Critical responses continue to gloss over Kahlo's reworking of the personal, ignoring or minimizing her interrogation of sexuality, sexual difference, marginality, cultural identity, female subjectivity, politics and power.
== Personal life ==
=== 1907–1924: Family and childhood ===
Magdalena Carmen Frida Kahlo y Calderón was born on 6 July 1907 in Coyoacán, a village on the outskirts of Mexico City. Kahlo stated that she was born at the family home, La Casa Azul (The Blue House), but according to the official birth registry, the birth took place at the nearby home of her maternal grandmother. Kahlo's parents were photographer Guillermo Kahlo (1871–1941) and Matilde Calderón y González (1876–1932), and they were thirty-six and thirty, respectively, when they had her. Originally from Germany, Guillermo had immigrated to Mexico in 1891, after epilepsy caused by an accident ended his university studies. Although Kahlo said her father was Jewish and her paternal grandparents were Jews from the city of Arad, this claim was challenged in 2006 by a pair of German genealogists who found he was instead a Lutheran. Matilde was born in Oaxaca to an Indigenous father and a mother of Spanish descent. In addition to Kahlo, the marriage produced daughters Matilde (c. 1898–1951), Adriana (c. 1902–1968), and Cristina (c. 1908–1964). She had two half-sisters from Guillermo's first marriage, María Luisa and Margarita, but they were raised in a convent.
Kahlo later described the atmosphere in her childhood home as often "very, very sad". Both parents were often sick, and their marriage was devoid of love. Her relationship with her mother, Matilde, was extremely tense. Kahlo described her mother as "kind, active and intelligent, but also calculating, cruel and fanatically religious". Her father Guillermo's photography business suffered greatly during the Mexican Revolution, as the overthrown government had commissioned works from him, and the long civil war limited the number of private clients.
When Kahlo was six years old, she contracted polio, which eventually made her right leg grow shorter and thinner than the left. The illness forced her to be isolated from her peers for months, and she was bullied. While the experience made her reclusive, it made her Guillermo's favorite due to their shared experience of living with disability. Kahlo credited him for making her childhood "marvelous ... he was an immense example to me of tenderness, of work (photographer and also painter), and above all in understanding for all my problems." He taught her about literature, nature, and philosophy, and encouraged her to play sports to regain her strength, despite the fact that most physical exercise was seen as unsuitable for girls. He also taught her photography, and she began to help him retouch, develop, and color photographs.
Due to polio, Kahlo began school later than her peers. Along with her younger sister Cristina, she attended the local kindergarten and primary school in Coyoacán and was homeschooled for the fifth and sixth grades. While Cristina followed their sisters into a convent school, Kahlo was enrolled in a German school due to their father's wishes. She was soon expelled for disobedience and was sent to a vocational teachers school. Her stay at the school was brief, as she was sexually abused by a female teacher.
In 1922, Kahlo was accepted to the elite National Preparatory School, where she focused on natural sciences with the aim of becoming a physician. The institution had only recently begun admitting women, with only 35 girls out of 2,000 students. She performed well academically, was a voracious reader, and became "deeply immersed and seriously committed to Mexican culture, political activism and issues of social justice". The school promoted indigenismo, a new sense of Mexican identity that took pride in the country's Indigenous heritage and sought to rid itself of the colonial mindset of Europe as superior to Mexico. Particularly influential to Kahlo at this time were nine of her schoolmates, with whom she formed an informal group called the "Cachuchas" – many of them would become leading figures of the Mexican intellectual elite. They were rebellious and against everything conservative and pulled pranks, staged plays, and debated philosophy and Russian classics. To mask the fact that she was older and to declare herself a "daughter of the revolution", she began saying that she had been born on 7 July 1910, the year the Mexican Revolution began, which she continued throughout her life. She fell in love with Alejandro Gomez Arias, the leader of the group and her first love. Her parents did not approve of the relationship. Arias and Kahlo were often separated from each other, due to the political instability and violence of the period, so they exchanged passionate love letters.
=== 1925–1930: Bus accident and marriage to Diego Rivera ===
On 17 September 1925, Kahlo and her boyfriend, Arias, were on their way home from school. They boarded one bus, but they got off the bus to look for an umbrella that Kahlo had left behind. They then boarded a second bus, which was crowded, and they sat in the back. The driver attempted to pass an oncoming electric streetcar. The streetcar crashed into the side of the wooden bus, dragging it a few feet. Several passengers were killed in the accident. While Arias only suffered minor injuries, Frida was impaled by an iron handrail that went through her pelvis. She later described the injury as "the way a sword pierces a bull". The handrail was removed by Arias and others, which was incredibly painful for Kahlo.
Kahlo suffered many injuries: her pelvic bone had been fractured, her abdomen and uterus had been punctured by the rail, her spine was broken in three places, her right leg was broken in eleven places, her right foot was crushed and dislocated, her collarbone was broken, and her shoulder was dislocated. She spent a month in hospital and two months recovering at home before being able to return to work. As she continued to experience fatigue and back pain, her doctors ordered X-rays, which revealed that the accident had also displaced three vertebrae. As treatment she had to wear a plaster corset which confined her to bed rest for the better part of three months.
The accident ended Kahlo's dreams of becoming a physician and caused her pain and illness for the rest of her life; her friend Andrés Henestrosa stated that Kahlo "lived dying". Kahlo's bed rest was over by late 1927, and she began socializing with her old schoolfriends, who were now at university and involved in student politics. She joined the Mexican Communist Party (PCM) and was introduced to a circle of political activists and artists, including the exiled Cuban communist Julio Antonio Mella and the Italian-American photographer Tina Modotti.
At one of Modotti's parties in June 1928, Kahlo was introduced to Diego Rivera. They had met briefly in 1922 when he was painting a mural at her school. Shortly after their introduction in 1928, Kahlo asked him to judge whether her paintings showed enough talent for her to pursue a career as an artist. Rivera recalled being impressed by her works, stating that they showed "an unusual energy of expression, precise delineation of character, and true severity ... They had a fundamental plastic honesty, and an artistic personality of their own ... It was obvious to me that this girl was an authentic artist".
Kahlo soon began a relationship with Rivera, who was 21 years her senior and had two common-law wives. Kahlo and Rivera were married in a civil ceremony at the town hall of Coyoacán on 21 August 1929. Her mother opposed the marriage, and both parents referred to it as a "marriage between an elephant and a dove", referring to the couple's differences in size; Rivera was tall and overweight while Kahlo was petite and fragile. Regardless, her father approved of Rivera, who was wealthy and therefore able to support Kahlo, who could not work and had to receive expensive medical treatment. The wedding was reported by the Mexican and international press, and the marriage was subject to constant media attention in Mexico in the following years, with articles referring to the couple as simply "Diego and Frida".
Soon after the marriage, in late 1929, Kahlo and Rivera moved to Cuernavaca in the rural state of Morelos, where he had been commissioned to paint murals for the Palace of Cortés. Around the same time, she resigned her membership of the PCM in support of Rivera, who had been expelled shortly before the marriage for his support of the leftist opposition movement within the Third International.
During the civil war Morelos had seen some of the heaviest fighting, and life in the Spanish-style city of Cuernavaca sharpened Kahlo's sense of a Mexican identity and history. Similar to many other Mexican women artists and intellectuals at the time, Kahlo began wearing traditional Indigenous Mexican peasant clothing to emphasize her mestiza ancestry: long and colorful skirts, huipils and rebozos, elaborate headdresses and masses of jewelry. She especially favored the dress of women from the allegedly matriarchal society of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, who had come to represent "an authentic and indigenous Mexican cultural heritage" in post-revolutionary Mexico. The Tehuana outfit allowed Kahlo to express her feminist and anti-colonialist ideals.
=== 1931–1933: Travels in the United States ===
After Rivera had completed the commission in Cuernavaca in late 1930, he and Kahlo moved to San Francisco, where he painted murals for the Luncheon Club of the San Francisco Stock Exchange and the California School of Fine Arts. The couple was "feted, lionized, [and] spoiled" by influential collectors and clients during their stay in the city. Her long love affair with Hungarian-American photographer Nickolas Muray most likely began around this time.
Kahlo and Rivera returned to Mexico for the summer of 1931, and in the fall traveled to New York City for the opening of Rivera's retrospective at the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA). In April 1932, they headed to Detroit, where Rivera had been commissioned to paint murals for the Detroit Institute of Arts. By this time, Kahlo had become bolder in her interactions with the press, impressing journalists with her fluency in English and stating on her arrival to the city that she was the greater artist of the two of them.
Of course he [Rivera] does well for a little boy, but it is I who am the big artist
The year spent in Detroit was a difficult time for Kahlo. Although she had enjoyed visiting San Francisco and New York City, she disliked aspects of American society, which she regarded as colonialist, as well as most Americans, whom she found "boring". She disliked having to socialize with capitalists such as Henry and Edsel Ford, and was angered that many of the hotels in Detroit refused to accept Jewish guests. In a letter to a friend, she wrote that "although I am very interested in all the industrial and mechanical development of the United States", she felt "a bit of a rage against all the rich guys here, since I have seen thousands of people in the most terrible misery without anything to eat and with no place to sleep, that is what has most impressed me here, it is terrifying to see the rich having parties day and night while thousands and thousands of people are dying of hunger." Kahlo's time in Detroit was also complicated by a pregnancy. Her doctor agreed to perform an abortion, but the medication used was ineffective. Kahlo was deeply ambivalent about having a child and had already undergone an abortion earlier in her marriage to Rivera. Following the failed abortion, she reluctantly agreed to continue with the pregnancy, but miscarried in July, which caused a serious hemorrhage that required her being hospitalized for two weeks. Less than three months later, her mother died from complications of surgery in Mexico.
Kahlo and Rivera returned to New York in March 1933, for he had been commissioned to paint a mural for the Rockefeller Center. During this time, she only worked on one painting, My Dress Hangs There (1933). She also gave further interviews to the American press. In May, Rivera was fired from the Rockefeller Center project and was instead hired to paint a mural for the New Workers School. Although Rivera wished to continue their stay in the United States, Kahlo was homesick, and they returned to Mexico soon after the mural's unveiling in December 1933.
=== 1934–1949: La Casa Azul and declining health ===
Back in Mexico City, Kahlo and Rivera moved into a new house in the wealthy neighborhood of San Ángel. Commissioned from Le Corbusier's student Juan O'Gorman, it consisted of two sections joined by a bridge; Kahlo's was painted blue and Rivera's pink and white. The bohemian residence became an important meeting place for artists and political activists from Mexico and abroad.
Kahlo once again experienced health problems – undergoing an appendectomy, two abortions, and the amputation of gangrenous toes – and her marriage to Rivera had become strained. He was not happy to be back in Mexico and blamed Kahlo for their return. While he had been unfaithful to her before, he now embarked on an affair with her younger sister Cristina, which deeply hurt Kahlo's feelings. After discovering the affair in early 1935, she moved to an apartment in central Mexico City and considered divorcing him. She also had an affair of her own with American artist Isamu Noguchi.
Kahlo was reconciled with Rivera and Cristina later in 1935 and moved back to San Ángel. She became a loving aunt to Cristina's children, Isolda and Antonio. Despite the reconciliation, both Rivera and Kahlo continued their infidelities. She also resumed her political activities in 1936, joining the Fourth International and becoming a founding member of a solidarity committee to provide aid to the Republicans in the Spanish Civil War. She and Rivera successfully petitioned the Mexican government to grant asylum to former Soviet leader Leon Trotsky and offered La Casa Azul for him and his wife Natalia Sedova as a residence. The couple lived there from January 1937 until April 1939, with Kahlo and Trotsky not only becoming good friends but also having a brief affair. Kahlo painted Self-Portrait Dedicated to Leon Trotsky in 1937 during their time together in Mexico City, including a written inscription to Trotsky in the painting on a letter that Kahlo's figure holds.
After opening an exhibition in Paris, Kahlo sailed back to New York. She was eager to be reunited with Muray, but he decided to end their affair, as he had met another woman whom he was planning to marry. Kahlo traveled back to Mexico City, where Rivera requested a divorce from her. The exact reasons for his decision are unknown, but he stated publicly that it was merely a "matter of legal convenience in the style of modern times ... there are no sentimental, artistic, or economic reasons". According to their friends, the divorce was mainly caused by their mutual infidelities. He and Kahlo were granted a divorce in November 1939, but remained friendly; she continued to manage his finances and correspondence.
Following her separation from Rivera, Kahlo moved back to La Casa Azul and, determined to earn her own living, began another productive period as an artist, inspired by her experiences abroad. Encouraged by the recognition she was gaining, she moved from using the small and more intimate tin sheets she had used since 1932 to large canvases, as they were easier to exhibit. She also adopted a more sophisticated technique, limited the graphic details, and began to produce more quarter-length portraits, which were easier to sell. She painted several of her most famous pieces during this period, such as The Two Fridas (1939), Self-portrait with Cropped Hair (1940), The Wounded Table (1940), and Self-Portrait with Thorn Necklace and Hummingbird (1940). Three exhibitions featured her works in 1940: the fourth International Surrealist Exhibition in Mexico City, the Golden Gate International Exposition in San Francisco, and Twenty Centuries of Mexican Art in MoMA in New York.
On 21 August 1940, Trotsky was assassinated in Coyoacán, where he had continued to live after leaving La Casa Azul. Kahlo was briefly suspected of being involved, as she knew the murderer, and was arrested and held for two days with her sister Cristina. The following month, Kahlo traveled to San Francisco for medical treatment for back pain and a fungal infection on her hand. Her continuously fragile health had increasingly declined since her divorce and was exacerbated by her heavy consumption of alcohol.
Rivera was also in San Francisco after he fled Mexico City following Trotsky's murder and accepted a commission. Although Kahlo had a relationship with art dealer Heinz Berggruen during her visit to San Francisco, she and Rivera were reconciled. They remarried in a simple civil ceremony on 8 December 1940. Kahlo and Rivera returned to Mexico soon after their wedding. The union was less turbulent than before for its first five years. Both were more independent, and while La Casa Azul was their primary residence, Rivera retained the San Ángel house for use as his studio and second apartment. Both continued having extramarital affairs; Kahlo had affairs with both men and women, with evidence suggesting her male lovers were more important to Kahlo than her female lovers.
Despite the medical treatment she had received in San Francisco, Kahlo's health problems continued throughout the 1940s. Due to her spinal problems, she wore twenty-eight separate supportive corsets, varying from steel and leather to plaster, between 1940 and 1954. She experienced pain in her legs, the infection on her hand had become chronic, and she was also treated for syphilis. The death of her father in April 1941 plunged her into a depression. Her ill health made her increasingly confined to La Casa Azul, which became the center of her world. She enjoyed taking care of the house and its garden, and was kept company by friends, servants, and various pets, including spider monkeys, Xoloitzcuintlis, and parrots.
While Kahlo was gaining recognition in her home country, her health continued to decline. By the mid-1940s, her back had worsened to the point that she could no longer sit or stand continuously. In June 1945, she traveled to New York for an operation which fused a bone graft and a steel support to her spine to straighten it. The difficult operation was a failure. According to biographer Hayden Herrera, Kahlo also sabotaged her recovery by not resting as required and by once physically re-opening her wounds in a fit of anger. Her paintings from this period, such as The Broken Column (1944), Without Hope (1945), Tree of Hope, Stand Fast (1946), and The Wounded Deer (1946), reflect her declining health.
=== 1950–1954: Last years and death ===
In 1950, Kahlo spent most of the year in Hospital ABC in Mexico City, where she underwent a new bone graft surgery on her spine. It caused a difficult infection and necessitated several follow-up surgeries. After being discharged, she was mostly confined to La Casa Azul, using a wheelchair and crutches to be ambulatory. During these final years of her life, Kahlo dedicated her time to political causes to the extent that her health allowed. She had rejoined the Mexican Communist Party in 1948 and campaigned for peace, for example, by collecting signatures for the Stockholm Appeal.
Kahlo's right leg was amputated at the knee due to gangrene in August 1953. She became severely depressed and anxious, and her dependence on painkillers escalated. When Rivera began yet another affair, she attempted suicide by overdose. She wrote in her diary in February 1954, "They amputated my leg six months ago, they have given me centuries of torture and at moments I almost lost my reason. I keep on wanting to kill myself. Diego is what keeps me from it, through my vain idea that he would miss me. ... But never in my life have I suffered more. I will wait a while..."
In her last days, Kahlo was mostly bedridden with bronchopneumonia, though she made a public appearance on 2 July 1954, participating with Rivera in a demonstration against the CIA invasion of Guatemala. She seemed to anticipate her death, as she spoke about it to visitors and drew skeletons and angels in her diary. The last drawing was a black angel, which biographer Hayden Herrera interprets as the Angel of Death. It was accompanied by the last words she wrote, "I joyfully await the exit – and I hope never to return – Frida" ("Espero Alegre la Salida – y Espero no Volver jamás").
The demonstration worsened her illness, and on the night of 12 July 1954, Kahlo had a high fever and was in extreme pain. At approximately 6 a.m. on 13 July 1954, her nurse found her dead in her bed. Kahlo was 47 years old. The official cause of death was pulmonary embolism, although no autopsy was performed. Herrera has argued that Kahlo, in fact, committed suicide. The nurse, who counted Kahlo's painkillers to monitor her drug use, stated that Kahlo had taken an overdose the night she died. She had been prescribed a maximum dose of seven pills but had taken eleven. She had also given Rivera a wedding anniversary present that evening, over a month in advance.
On the evening of 13 July, Kahlo's body was taken to the Palacio de Bellas Artes, where it lay in state under a Communist flag. The following day, it was carried to the Panteón Civil de Dolores, where friends and family attended an informal funeral ceremony. Hundreds of admirers stood outside. In accordance with her wishes, Kahlo was cremated in a fittingly spectacular fashion that, according to legend, saw the mourners witness her hair catching fire, her corpse sitting up, and her face forming one last seductive grin. Rivera, who stated that her death was "the most tragic day of my life", died three years later, in 1957. Kahlo's ashes are displayed in a pre-Columbian urn at La Casa Azul, which opened as a museum in 1958.
== Posthumous recognition and "Fridamania" ==
The Tate Modern considers Kahlo "one of the most significant artists of the twentieth century". Art historian Elizabeth Bakewell, has stated that Kahlo is "one of Mexico's most important twentieth-century figures". Kahlo's reputation as an artist developed late in her life and grew even further posthumously, as during her lifetime she was primarily known as the wife of Diego Rivera and as an eccentric personality among the international cultural elite. She gradually gained more recognition in the late 1970s when feminist scholars began to question the exclusion of female and non-Western artists from the art historical canon and the Chicano Movement lifted her as one of their icons. The first two books about Kahlo were published in Mexico by Teresa del Conde and Raquel Tibol in 1976 and 1977, respectively, and, in 1977, The Tree of Hope Stands Firm (1944) became the first Kahlo painting to be sold in an auction, netting $19,000 at Sotheby's. These milestones were followed by the first two retrospectives staged on Kahlo's oeuvre in 1978, one at the Palacio de Bellas Artes in Mexico City and another at the Museum of Contemporary Art in Chicago.
Two events were instrumental in raising interest in her life and art for the general public outside Mexico. The first was a joint retrospective of her paintings and Tina Modotti's photographs at the Whitechapel Gallery in London, which was curated and organized by Peter Wollen and Laura Mulvey. It opened in May 1982, and later traveled to Sweden, Germany, the United States, and Mexico. The second was the publication of art historian Hayden Herrera's international bestseller Frida: A Biography of Frida Kahlo in 1983.
By 1984, Kahlo's reputation as an artist had grown to such extent that Mexico declared her works part of the national cultural heritage, prohibiting their export from the country. As a result, her paintings seldom appear in international auctions, and comprehensive retrospectives are rare. Regardless, her paintings have still broken records for Latin American art in the 1990s and 2000s. In 1990, she became the first Latin American artist to break the one-million-dollar threshold when Diego and I was auctioned by Sotheby's for $1,430,000. In 2006, Roots (1943) reached US$5.6 million, and in 2016, Two Nudes in a Forest (1939) sold for $8 million.
Kahlo has attracted popular interest to the extent that the term "Fridamania" has been coined to describe the phenomenon. She is considered "one of the most instantly recognizable artists", whose face has been "used with the same regularity, and often with a shared symbolism, as images of Che Guevara or Bob Marley". Her life and art have inspired a variety of merchandise, and her distinctive look has been appropriated by the fashion world. A Hollywood biopic, Julie Taymor's Frida, was released in 2002. Based on Herrera's biography and starring Salma Hayek (who co-produced the film) as Kahlo, it grossed US$56 million worldwide and earned six Academy Award nominations, winning for Best Makeup and Best Original Score. The 2017 Disney-Pixar animation Coco also features a fictionalized Kahlo as a supporting character, voiced by Natalia Cordova-Buckley.
Kahlo's popular appeal is seen to stem first and foremost from a fascination with her life story, especially its painful and tragic aspects. She has become an icon for several minority groups and political movements, such as feminists, the LGBTQ community, and Chicanos. Oriana Baddeley has written that Kahlo has become a signifier of non-conformity and "the archetype of a cultural minority", who is regarded simultaneously as "a victim, crippled and abused" and as "a survivor who fights back". Edward Sullivan stated that Kahlo is hailed as a hero by so many because she is "someone to validate their own struggle to find their own voice and their own public personalities". According to John Berger, Kahlo's popularity is partly due to the fact that "the sharing of pain is one of the essential preconditions for a refinding of dignity and hope" in twenty-first century society. Kirk Varnedoe, the former chief curator of MoMA, has stated that Kahlo's posthumous success is linked to the way in which "she clicks with today's sensibilities – her psycho-obsessive concern with herself, her creation of a personal alternative world carries a voltage. Her constant remaking of her identity, her construction of a theater of the self are exactly what preoccupy such contemporary artists as Cindy Sherman or Kiki Smith and, on a more popular level, Madonna... She fits well with the odd, androgynous hormonal chemistry of our particular epoch."
Kahlo's posthumous popularity and the commercialization of her image have drawn criticism from many scholars and cultural commenters, who think that, not only have many facets of her life been mythologized, but the dramatic aspects of her biography have also overshadowed her art, producing a simplistic reading of her works in which they are reduced to literal descriptions of events in her life. According to journalist Stephanie Mencimer, Kahlo "has been embraced as a poster child for every possible politically correct cause" and
like a game of telephone, the more Kahlo's story has been told, the more it has been distorted, omitting uncomfortable details that show her to be a far more complex and flawed figure than the movies and cookbooks suggest. This elevation of the artist over the art diminishes the public understanding of Kahlo's place in history and overshadows the deeper and more disturbing truths in her work. Even more troubling, though, is that by airbrushing her biography, Kahlo's promoters have set her up for the inevitable fall so typical of women artists, that time when the contrarians will band together and take sport in shooting down her inflated image, and with it, her art."
Baddeley has compared the interest in Kahlo's life to the interest in the troubled life of Vincent van Gogh but has also stated that a crucial difference between the two is that most people associate Van Gogh with his paintings, whereas Kahlo is usually signified by an image of herself – an intriguing commentary on the way male and female artists are regarded. Similarly, Peter Wollen has compared Kahlo's cult-like following to that of Sylvia Plath, whose "unusually complex and contradictory art" has been overshadowed by simplified focus on her life.
=== Commemorations and characterizations ===
Kahlo's legacy has been commemorated in several ways. La Casa Azul, her home in Coyoacán, was opened as a museum in 1958, and has become one of the most popular museums in Mexico City, with approximately 25,000 visitors monthly. Also in Mexico City, Casa Roja, also called Museo Casa Kahlo, is where Kahlo's parents and later her sister Cristina once lived now turned into a museum focusing on Kahlo's family life. Mexico City also dedicated a park, Parque Frida Kahlo, to her in Coyoacán in 1985. The park features a bronze statue of Kahlo. In the United States, she became the first Hispanic woman to be honored with a U.S. postage stamp in 2001, and was inducted into the Legacy Walk, an outdoor public display in Chicago that celebrates LGBT history and people, in 2012.
Kahlo received several commemorations on the centenary of her birth in 2007, and some on the centenary of the birthyear she attested to, 2010. These included the Bank of Mexico releasing a new MXN$ 500-peso note, featuring Kahlo's painting titled Love's Embrace of the Universe, Earth, (Mexico), I, Diego, and Mr. Xólotl (1949) on the reverse of the note and Diego Rivera on the front. The largest retrospective of her works at Mexico City's Palacio de Bellas Artes attracted approximately 75,000 visitors.
In addition to other tributes, Kahlo's life and art have inspired artists in various fields. In 1984, Paul Leduc released a biopic titled Frida, naturaleza viva, starring Ofelia Medina as Kahlo. She is the protagonist of three fictional novels, Barbara Mujica's Frida (2001), Slavenka Drakulic's Frida's Bed (2008), and Barbara Kingsolver's The Lacuna (2009). In 1994, American jazz flautist and composer James Newton released an album titled Suite for Frida Kahlo. Scottish singer/songwriter, Michael Marra, wrote a song in homage to Kahlo titled "Frida Kahlo's Visit to the Taybridge Bar". In 2017, author Monica Brown and illustrator John Parra published a children's book on Kahlo, Frida Kahlo and her Animalitos, which focuses primarily on the animals and pets in Kahlo's life and art. In the visual arts, Kahlo's influence has reached wide and far: In 1996, and again in 2005, the Mexican Cultural Institute in Washington, DC coordinated an "Homage to Frida Kahlo" exhibition which showcased Kahlo-related artwork by artists from all over the world in Washington's Fraser Gallery. Additionally, notable artists such as Marina Abramovic, Alana Archer, Gabriela Gonzalez Dellosso, Yasumasa Morimura, Cris Melo, Rupert Garcia, and others have used or appropriated Kahlo's imagery into their own works.
Kahlo has also been the subject of several stage performances. Annabelle Lopez Ochoa choreographed a one-act ballet titled Broken Wings for the English National Ballet, which debuted in 2016, Tamara Rojo originated Kahlo in the ballet. Dutch National Ballet then commissioned Lopez Ochoa to create a full-length version of the ballet, Frida, which premiered in 2020, with Maia Makhateli as Kahlo. She also inspired three operas: Robert Xavier Rodriguez's Frida, which premiered at the American Music Theater Festival in Philadelphia in 1991; Kalevi Aho's Frida y Diego, which premiered at the Helsinki Music Centre in Helsinki, Finland in 2014; and Gabriela Lena Frank's El último sueño de Frida y Diego, which premiered at the San Diego Opera in 2022.
Kahlo was the main character in several plays, including Dolores C. Sendler's Goodbye, My Friduchita (1999), Robert Lepage and Sophie Faucher's La Casa Azul (2002), Humberto Robles' Frida Kahlo: Viva la vida! (2009), and Rita Ortez Provost's Tree of Hope (2014).
In 2018, Mattel unveiled seventeen new Barbie dolls in celebration of International Women's Day, including one of Kahlo. Critics objected to the doll's slim waist and noticeably missing unibrow.
In 2014 Kahlo was one of the inaugural honorees in the Rainbow Honor Walk, a walk of fame in San Francisco's Castro neighborhood noting LGBTQ people who have "made significant contributions in their fields".
In 2018, San Francisco Board of Supervisors unanimously voted to rename Phelan Avenue to Frida Kahlo Way. Frida Kahlo Way is the home of City College of San Francisco and Archbishop Riordan High School.
In 2019, a temporary mural of and called “Frida Kahlo” was painted by Rafael Blanco, for which he won a third-place prize at the Reno Mural Festival in Nevada.
Also in 2019, Frida's “Fantasmones Siniestros” (“Sinister Ghosts”) was burned to ashes, publicizing an Ethereum NFT.
Also in 2019, Time created 89 new covers to celebrate women of the year starting from 1920; it chose Kahlo for 1938.
In 2022, as part of a collaboration with Centre Pompidou, Swatch released a watch based on The Frame.
== Solo exhibitions ==
6 September 2025 – 4 January 2026: Frida Kahlo: Through the Lens of Nickolas Muray at Museum of the Shenandoah Valley, Winchester, Virginia, displayed 50 photographs of Kahlo from 1937 to 1946.
14 June–5 October 2025: Frida Kahlo: Picturing an Icon at Washington County Museum of Fine Arts, Hagerstown and Museum of Fine Arts, Houston 18 January–17 May 2026.
16 May–1 November 2025: Frida Kahlo: Art, Garden, Life at the New York Botanical Garden examined her connection with the natural world.
29 March–13 July 2025: Frida Kahlo’s Month in Paris: A Friendship with Mary Reynolds at the Art Institute of Chicago which focused on Kahlo's short friendship with Mary Reynolds.
18 August 2024 – 23 February 2025: Frida: Beyond the Myth at Dallas Museum of Art consisted of more than 60 pieces including paintings, drawings, prints, and photos, intends to provide a fresh interpretation of the artist's persona. The exhibition was shown at the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts from 5 April–28 September 2025. The exhibit was co-curated by the both museums.
4 January 2022–present: Frida Kahlo: The Life of an Icon at Barangaroo Reserve, Sydney. Audio visual exhibition created by the Frida Kahlo Corporation.
13 August–5 December 2021: Frida and Me, Norton Museum of Art exhibit that showed Kahlo's influence on other artists.
6 March–30 May 2021: Frida Kahlo—An Intimate Portrait: The Photographic Albums at The Frick Art Museum, Pittsburgh, shows Kahlo in photographs taken by family and friends.
27 February–19 June 2019: Frida Kahlo and Arte Popular at Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, examined the influence of Mexican folk art on Kahlo's work.
8 February–12 May 2019: Frida Kahlo: Appearances Can Be Deceiving at the Brooklyn Museum. This was the largest U.S. exhibition in a decade devoted solely to the painter and the only U.S. show to feature her Tehuana clothing, hand-painted corsets and other never-before-seen items that had been locked away after the artist's death and rediscovered in 2004.
2019-2022: Frida Kahlo, Diego Rivera, and Mexican Modernism from the Jacques and Natasha Gelman Collection exhibited at the following:
6 July–11 September 2022 Philbrook Museum of Art
19 February 2022 – 5 June 2022 Portland Art Museum, Portland, Oregon
23 October 2021 – 6 February 2022 Norton Museum of Art
25 October 2020 – 25 January 2021 Denver Art Museum
13 February 2020 – 7 September 2020 Musée national des beaux-arts du Québec
12 October 2019 – 2 February 2020 North Carolina Museum of Art
24 May–2 September 2019 Frist Art Museum
16 June–18 November 2018: Frida Kahlo: Making Her Self Up at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London. The basis for the later Brooklyn Museum exhibit.
25 October 2016 – 8 January 2017: Paint the Revolution: Mexican Modernism, 1910–1950, Philadelphia Museum of Art and Museum of Fine Arts, Houston 25 June–1 October 2017
3 February–30 April 2016: Frida Kahlo: Paintings and Graphic Art From Mexican Collections at the Faberge Museum, St. Petersburg. Russia's first retrospective of Kahlo's work.
15 March–12 July 2015: Diego Rivera and Frida Kahlo in Detroit, Detroit Institute of Arts, Detroit, Michigan
14 February–12 May 2013: Frida & Diego: Passion, Politics, and Painting at High Museum of Art, Atlanta.
27 October 2007 – 20 January 2008: Frida Kahlo an exhibition at the Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, Philadelphia Museum of Art, 20 February–18 May 2008; and the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, 16 June–28 September 2008.
1–15 November 1938: Frida's first solo exhibit and New York debut at the Museum of Modern Art. Georgia O'Keeffe, Isamu Noguchi, and other prominent American artists attended the opening; approximately half of the paintings were sold.
== Gallery ==
== See also ==
Anahuacalli Museum
List of paintings by Frida Kahlo
== Notes ==
== References ==
=== Citations ===
=== Bibliography ===
== External links ==
Official website
Frida Kahlo in the collection of The Museum of Modern Art
Frida Kahlo. Museum of Fine Arts, Houston: ICAA.
"Frida Kahlo" (MP3). In Our Time. BBC Radio 4. 9 July 2015.
Kahlo at the National Museum of Women in the Arts
Kahlo's paintings at the Art History Archive
Kahlo's painting at the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art
This could be Kahlo's voice according to the Department of Culture in Mexico
The Frida Kahlo papers at the National Museum of Women in the Arts |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man_Ray | Man Ray | Man Ray (born Emmanuel Radnitzky; August 27, 1890 – November 18, 1976) was an American visual artist who spent most of his career in Paris. He was a significant contributor to the Dada and Surrealist movements, although his ties to each were informal. He produced major works in a variety of media but considered himself a painter above all.
He was a photography innovator as well as a fashion and portrait photographer, and is noted for his work with photograms, which he called "rayographs" in reference to himself.
== Biography ==
=== Background and early life ===
During his career, Man Ray allowed few details of his early life or family background to be known to the public. He even refused to acknowledge that he even had a name other than Man Ray, and his 1963 autobiography Self-Portrait contains few dates.
Man Ray was born Emmanuel Radnitzky in South Philadelphia on August 27, 1890. He was the eldest child of Russian Jewish immigrants Melach "Max" Radnitzky, a tailor, and Manya "Minnie" Radnitzky (née Lourie or Luria). He had a brother, Sam, and two sisters, Dorothy "Dora" and Essie (or Elsie), the youngest born in 1897 shortly after they settled at 372 Debevoise St. in Williamsburg, Brooklyn. In early 1912, the Radnitzky family changed their surname to Ray; Sam chose this surname in reaction to the antisemitism prevalent at the time. Emmanuel, who was nicknamed "Manny", changed his first name to Man and gradually began to use Man Ray as his name.
Man Ray's father worked in a garment factory and ran a small tailoring business out of the family home. He enlisted his children to assist him from an early age. Man Ray's mother enjoyed designing the family's clothes and inventing patchwork items from scraps of fabric. Man Ray wished to distance himself from his family background, but tailoring left an enduring mark on his art. Mannequins, flat irons, sewing machines, needles, pins, threads, swatches of fabric, and other items related to tailoring appear in much of his work, and art historians have noted similarities between Ray's collage and painting techniques and styles used for tailoring.
Mason Klein, curator of the exhibition Alias Man Ray: The Art of Reinvention at the Jewish Museum in New York, suggests that Man Ray may have been "the first Jewish avant-garde artist."
Man Ray was the uncle of the photographer Naomi Savage, who learned some of his techniques and incorporated them into her own work.
=== First artistic endeavors ===
Man Ray displayed artistic and mechanical abilities during childhood. His education at Brooklyn's Boys' High School from 1904 to 1909 provided him with solid grounding in drafting and other basic art techniques. While he attended school, he educated himself with frequent visits to local art museums. After his graduation, Ray was offered a scholarship to study architecture but chose to pursue a career as an artist. Man Ray's parents were disappointed by his decision to pursue art, but they agreed to rearrange the family's modest living quarters so that Ray's room could be his studio. The artist remained in the family home over the next four years. During this time, he worked steadily towards becoming a professional painter. Man Ray earned money as a commercial artist and was a technical illustrator at several Manhattan companies.
The surviving examples of his work from this period indicate that he attempted mostly paintings and drawings in 19th-century styles. He was already an avid admirer of contemporary avant-garde art, such as the European modernists he saw at Alfred Stieglitz's 291 gallery and works by the Ashcan School. However, he was not yet able to integrate these trends into much of his own work. The art classes he sporadically attended, including stints at the National Academy of Design and the Art Students League, were of little apparent benefit to him. When he enrolled at the Ferrer Centre in the autumn of 1912, he began a period of intense and rapid artistic development. The Centre, established and run by anarchists in memory of the executed Catalan anarchist educationalist Francisco Ferrer, provided classes in drawing and lectures on art-criticism. Anarchist writer Emma Goldman noted "a spirit of freedom in the art class which probably did not exist anywhere else in New York at that time" there. Man Ray exhibited works in the Centre's 1912-13 group exhibition, with his painting A Study in Nudes reproduced in a review of the show in the Centre's associated magazine The Modern School. This may have been his first published art work, and the magazine would go on to print his first published poem (Travail) in 1913. During this period he also contributed illustrations to radical publications, including providing the cover-art for two 1914 issues of Goldman's journal Mother Earth.
Man Ray's work at this time was influenced by the avant-garde practices of European contemporary artists he was introduced to at the 1913 Armory Show. His early paintings display facets of cubism. After befriending Marcel Duchamp, who was interested in showing movement in static paintings, his works began to depict movement of the figures. An example is the repetitive positions of the dancer's skirts in The Rope Dancer Accompanies Herself with Her Shadows (1916).
In 1915, Man Ray had his first solo show of paintings and drawings after taking up residence at an art colony in Grantwood, New Jersey. His first proto-Dada object, an assemblage titled Self-Portrait, was exhibited the following year. He produced his first significant photographs in 1918, after initially picking up the camera to document his own artwork.
Man Ray abandoned conventional painting to involve himself with the radical Dada movement. He published two Dadaist periodicals, that each only had one issue, The Ridgefield Gazook (1915) and TNT (1919), the latter co-edited by Adolf Wolff and Mitchell Dawson. He started making objects and developed unique mechanical and photographic methods of making images. For the 1918 version of Rope Dancer, he combined a spray-gun technique with a pen drawing. Like Duchamp, he worked with readymades—ordinary objects that are selected and modified. His readymade The Gift (1921) is a flatiron with metal tacks attached to the bottom, and Enigma of Isidore Ducasse is an unseen object (a sewing machine) wrapped in cloth and tied with cord. Aerograph (1919), another work from this period, was done with airbrush on glass.
In 1920, Man Ray helped Duchamp make his Rotary Glass Plates, one of the earliest examples of kinetic art. It was composed of glass plates turned by a motor. That same year, Man Ray, Katherine Dreier, and Duchamp founded the Société Anonyme, an itinerant collection that was the first museum of modern art in the U.S. In 1941 the collection was donated to Yale University Art Gallery.
Man Ray teamed up with Duchamp to publish one issue of New York Dada in 1920. For Man Ray, Dada's experimentation was no match for the environment of New York; he wrote that "Dada cannot live in New York. All New York is dada, and will not tolerate a rival."
In 1913, Man Ray met his first wife, the Belgian poet Adon Lacroix (Donna Lecoeur) (1887–1975), in New York. They married in 1914, separated in 1919, and formally divorced in 1937.
=== Paris ===
In July 1921, Man Ray went to live and work in Paris, settling in the Montparnasse quarter favored by many artists. His accidental rediscovery of the cameraless photogram, which he called "rayographs", resulted in images hailed by Tristan Tzara as "pure Dada creations".
Shortly after arriving in Paris, he met and fell in love with Alice Prin (popularly known as "Kiki de Montparnasse"), an artists' model and celebrated character in Paris bohemian circles. Prin was Man Ray's companion for most of the 1920s, and became the subject of some of his most famous photographic images. She also starred in his experimental films Le Retour à la raison and L'Étoile de mer.
In 1929, he began a love affair with the Surrealist photographer Lee Miller. She was also his photographic assistant and, together, they reinvented the photographic technique of solarization. Miller left him in 1932.
From late 1934 until August 1940, Man Ray was in a relationship with Guadeloupean dancer Ady Fidelin, who appeared in many of his photographs. When Ray fled the Nazi occupation in France, Adrienne chose to stay behind to care for her family. Unlike the artist's other significant muses, Fidelin had until 2022 largely been written out of his life story.
Man Ray was a pioneering photographer in Paris for two decades between the wars. Many significant members of the art world, including Pablo Picasso, Tristan Tzara, James Joyce, Gertrude Stein, Jean Cocteau, Salvador Dalí, Peggy Guggenheim, Alice Rahon, Bridget Bate Tichenor, Luisa Casati, and Antonin Artaud, posed for his camera. His international fame as a portrait photographer is reflected in a series of photographs of Maharajah Yashwant Rao Holkar II and his wife Sanyogita Devi from their visit to Europe in 1927. In the winter of 1933, surrealist artist Méret Oppenheim, known for her fur-covered teacup, posed nude for Man Ray in a well-known series of photographs depicting her standing next to a printing press.
His practice of photographing African objects in the Paris collections of Paul Guillaume and Charles Ratton and others led to several iconic photographs, including Noire et blanche. As Man Ray scholar Wendy A. Grossman has illustrated, "no one was more influential in translating the vogue for African art into a Modernist photographic aesthetic than Man Ray."
Man Ray was represented in the first Surrealist exhibition with Jean Arp, Giorgio de Chirico, Max Ernst, Georges Malkine, André Masson, Joan Miró, and Pablo Picasso at the Galerie Pierre in Paris in 1925. Important works from this time were a metronome with an eye, originally titled Object to Be Destroyed, and the Violon d'Ingres, a photograph of Kiki de Montparnasse styled after the painter/musician Ingres. Violon d'Ingres is a popular example of how Man Ray could juxtapose disparate elements in his photography to generate meaning.
Man Ray directed a number of influential avant-garde short films, known as Cinéma Pur. He directed Le Retour à la Raison (2 mins, 1923); Emak-Bakia (16 mins, 1926); L'Étoile de Mer (15 mins, 1928); and Les Mystères du Château de Dé (27 mins, 1929). Man Ray also assisted Marcel Duchamp with the cinematography of his film Anemic Cinema (1926), and Ray personally manned the camera on Fernand Léger's Ballet Mécanique (1924). In René Clair's film Entr'acte (1924), Man Ray appeared in a brief scene playing chess with Duchamp. Duchamp, Man Ray, and Francis Picabia were all friends and collaborators, connected by their experimental, entertaining, and innovative art.
=== Hollywood ===
The Second World War forced Man Ray to return to the United States. He lived in Los Angeles from 1940 to 1951, where he focused his creative energy on painting. One of his residences was the Chateau des Fleurs, another was Villa Elaine Apartments, both in Hollywood. A few days after arriving in Los Angeles, he met Juliet Browner, a first-generation American of Romanian-Jewish lineage. She was a trained dancer who studied dance with Martha Graham, and an experienced artists' model. They married in 1946 in a double wedding with their friends Max Ernst and Dorothea Tanning; Browner took the name "Juliet Man Ray". They were also close friends with Black Dahlia suspect George Hodel and his second wife Dorothy Harvey (also known as Dorero). George Hodel’s son Steve Hodel even proposes that the staging of the murder was an homage to Man Ray’s surrealist creations. In 1948 Ray had a solo exhibition at the Copley Galleries in Beverly Hills, which brought together a wide array of work and featured his newly painted canvases of the Shakespearean Equations series.
=== Later life ===
Man Ray returned to Paris in 1951, and settled with Juliet into a studio at 2 bis rue Férou near the Jardin du Luxembourg, where he continued his creative practice across mediums. During the last quarter century of his life, he returned to a number of his iconic earlier works, recreating them in new form. He also directed the production of limited-edition replicas of several of his objects, working first with Marcel Zerbib and later Arturo Schwarz.
In 1963, he published his autobiography, Self-Portrait (republished in 1999).
Ray continued to work on new paintings, photographs, collages and art objects until his death from a lung infection, in Paris, on November 18, 1976. He was interred in the Cimetière du Montparnasse in Paris, his epitaph reads "Unconcerned, but not indifferent". When Juliet died in 1991, she was interred in the same tomb. Her epitaph reads "Together again". The grave site has now fallen into disrepair and the memorial stone is removed or missing. Juliet organized a trust for Ray's work and donated much of his work to museums. Her plans to restore the studio as a public museum proved too expensive; such was the structure's disrepair. Most of its contents were stored at the Centre Pompidou museum in Paris.
== Innovations ==
Man Ray was responsible for several technical innovations in modern art, filmmaking, and photography. These included his use of photograms to produce surrealist images he called "rayographs", and solarization (rediscovered with Lee Miller). His 1923 experimental film Le Retour à la raison was the first 'cine-rayograph', a motion picture made without the use of a camera. Ray's 1935 Space Writing (Self-Portrait) was the first light painting, predating Picasso's 1949 light paintings, photographed by Gjon Mili, by fourteen years.
== Accolades ==
In 1974, Man Ray received the Royal Photographic Society's Progress Medal and Honorary Fellowship "in recognition of any invention, research, publication or other contribution which has resulted in an important advance in the scientific or technological development of photography or imaging in the widest sense." In 1999, ARTnews magazine named Man Ray one of the 25 most influential artists of the 20th century. The publication cited his groundbreaking photography, "his explorations of film, painting, sculpture, collage, assemblage and prototypes of what would eventually be called performance art and conceptual art." ARTnews further stated that "Man Ray offered artists in all media an example of a creative intelligence that, in its 'pursuit of pleasure and liberty', unlocked every door it came to and walked freely where it would."
== Art market ==
Man Ray's Le Violon d'Ingres (1924), a famed photograph depicting a nude Alice Prin's back overlaid with a violin's f-holes, sold for $12.4 million on May 14, 2022, setting a new world record as the most expensive photograph ever to be sold at auction. The sale came after a drawn-out bidding period that lasted nearly ten minutes during Christie's New York's auction dedicated to Surrealist art.
On November 9, 2017, Man Ray's Noire et Blanche (1926), formerly in the collection of Jacques Doucet, was purchased at Christie's Paris for €2,688,750 (US$3,120,658), becoming (at that time) the 14th most expensive photograph to ever sell at auction. This was a record not only for Man Ray's work in the photographic medium but also for the sale at auction of any vintage photograph.
Only two other works by Man Ray in any medium have commanded more at auction than the price captured by the 2017 sale of Noire et blanche. His 1916 canvas Promenade sold for $5,877,000 on November 6, 2013, at the Sotheby's New York Impressionist & Modern Art Sale. And on November 13, 2017, his assemblage titled Catherine Barometer (1920), sold for $3,252,500 at Christie's in New York.
== Legacy ==
Self-Portrait was republished in 1999.
In March 2013, Man Ray's photograph Noire et Blanche (1926) was featured in the US Postal Service's "Modern Art in America" series of stamps.
Irish actor Frank Bourke is set to play Man Ray in the 2025 television series This Is Not A Murder Mystery.
== Selected publications ==
Man Ray and Tristan Tzara (1922). Champs délicieux: album de photographies. Paris: [Société générale d'imprimerie et d'édition].
Man Ray (1926). Revolving doors, 1916–1917: 10 planches. Paris: Éditions Surrealistes.
Man Ray (1934). Man Ray: photographs, 1920–1934, Paris. Hartford, Connecticut: James Thrall Soby.
Éluard, Paul, and Man Ray (1935). Facile. Paris: Éditions G.L.M.
Man Ray and André Breton (1937). La photographie n'est pas l'art. Paris: Éditions G.L.M.
Man Ray and Paul Éluard (1937). Les mains libres: dessins. Paris: Éditions Jeanne Bucher.
Man Ray (1948). Alphabet for adults. Beverly Hills, California: Copley Galleries.
Man Ray (1963). Self portrait. London: Andre Deutsch.
Man Ray and L. Fritz Gruber (1963). Portraits. Gütersloh, Germany: Sigbert Mohn Verlag.
== References ==
=== Citations ===
=== Sources ===
Alexandrian, Sarane. Man Ray; J. P. O'Hara; ISBN 0-87955-603-X (1973).
Allan, Kenneth R. "Metamorphosis in 391: A Cryptographic Collaboration by Francis Picabia, Man Ray, and Erik Satie" in Art History 34, No. 1 (February 2011): 102–125.
Baldwin, Neil. Man Ray: American Artist; Da Capo Press; ISBN 0-306-81014-X (1988, 2000).
Coleman, A. D. "Willful Provocateur"; ARTnews, May 1999.
Foresta, Merry, et al. Perpetual Motif: The Art of Man Ray. Washington: National Museum of American Art; New York: Abbeville Press, 1988.
Grossman, Wendy A., Adina Kamien, Edouard Sebline, and Andrew Strauss. Man Ray—Human Equations: A Journey From Mathematics to Shakespeare; Hatje Cantz; ISBN 978-3775739207 (2015).
Heyd, Milly. "Man Ray/Emmanuel Radnitsky: Who is Behind the Enigma of Isidore Ducasse?"; in Complex Identities: Jewish Consciousness and Modern Art; ed. Matthew Baigell and Milly Heyd; Rutgers University Press; ISBN 0-8135-2869-0 (2001).
Klein, Mason. Alias Man Ray: The Art of Reinvention; Yale University Press; ISBN 978-0300146837 (2009).
Knowles, Kim, A Cinematic Artist: The Films of Man Ray. Bern; Oxford: Peter Lang; ISBN 9783039118847 (2009).
Mileaf, Janine. "Between You and Me: Man Ray's Object to be Destroyed," Art Journal 63, No. 1 (Spring 2004): 4–23.
Naumann, Francis. Conversion to Modernism: The Early Work of Man Ray; Rutgers University Press; ISBN 0-8135-3148-9 (2003).
== External links ==
Man Ray Trust Digital Photo Library. Searchable; over 1,000 photos
Man Ray Trust
Man Ray at the National Gallery of Victoria (NGV), Melbourne, Australia
Man Ray at the Museum of Modern Art
"Man Ray Laid Bare" from Tate Magazine
Man Ray's Subtle Surrealistic Genius Women
Works by or about Man Ray at the Internet Archive
Works by Man Ray at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
Collection of Man Ray short films
Man Ray at IMDb
Man Ray letters and album, 1922–1976. Research Library at the Getty Research Institute. Los Angeles
Man Ray in the National Gallery of Australia's Kenneth Tyler collection
Man Ray in American public collections, on the French Sculpture Census website
Man Ray at The Jewish Museum
Man Ray: African Art and the Modernist Lens 2009-2010 exhibition at The Phillips Collection
Man Ray–Human Equations: A Journey from Mathematics to Shakespeare 2015 exhibition at The Phillips Collection
Man Ray: When Objects Dream 2025 exhibit at the Metropolitan Museum of Art |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Moog#Personal_life_and_death | Robert Moog | Robert Arthur Moog ( MOHG; May 23, 1934 – August 21, 2005) was an American engineer and electronic music pioneer. He was the founder of the synthesizer manufacturer Moog Music and the inventor of the first commercial synthesizer, the Moog synthesizer, which debuted in 1964. In 1970, Moog released a more portable model, the Minimoog, described as the most famous and influential synthesizer in history. Among Moog's honors are a Technical Grammy Award, received in 2002, and an induction into the National Inventors Hall of Fame.
By 1963, Moog had been designing and selling theremins for several years while working toward a PhD in engineering physics at Cornell University. He developed his synthesizer in response to demand for more practical and affordable electronic-music equipment, guided by suggestions and requests from composers. Moog's principal innovation was the voltage-controlled oscillator, which uses voltage to control pitch. He also introduced fundamental synthesizer concepts such as modularity, envelope generation and the pitch wheel. He is credited with introducing synthesizers to a wider audience and influencing the development of popular music.
Moog pursued his work as a hobby, and he is regarded as a poor businessman. His only patent was on his transistor ladder filter design; commentators have speculated that he would have become extremely wealthy had he patented his other innovations, but that their availability in the public domain helped the synthesizer industry flourish.
In 1971, Moog sold Moog Music to Norlin Musical Instruments, where he remained as a designer until 1977. In 1978, he founded the company Big Briar, and in 2002 he renamed it Moog Music after reacquiring the rights to the name. In later years, Moog taught at the University of North Carolina at Asheville and continued designing instruments for the revived Moog Music. He died at the age of 71 in Asheville from a brain tumor.
== Early life and education ==
Robert Moog was born at Flushing Hospital in New York City on May 23, 1934. His father was George Conrad Moog, of German descent. His mother was Shirley (Jacobs) Moog, of Polish-Jewish descent. He was raised in Flushing, Queens.
When he was a boy, Moog's mother forced him to study the piano. He was active in the Boy Scouts, and especially enjoyed spending time with his father, a Consolidated Edison engineer, visiting Manhattan's Radio Row and working on radio and electronics projects. He became fascinated by the theremin, an electronic instrument controlled by moving the hands over radio antennae. In 1949, at the age of 14, he built a theremin from plans printed in Electronics World.
He graduated from the Bronx High School of Science in 1952. He earned a Bachelor of Science in physics from Queens College of the City University of New York in 1955, and a Bachelor of Science in electrical engineering from the Columbia University School of Engineering and Applied Science under a 3-2 engineering program in 1957. He earned a PhD in engineering physics from Cornell University in 1965.
== Career ==
=== Theremins and R.A. Moog Co. ===
In 1953, Moog produced his own theremin design, and in the following year, he published an article on the theremin in Radio and Television News. That same year, he founded R.A. Moog Co., building theremins and theremin kits in his parents' home and selling them via mail order. In 1956, Moog and his father visited Raymond Scott's Manhattan Research facility, and Scott purchased a Moog Model 305 theremin. Scott rewired the Moog theremin to be controlled by a keyboard, dubbing his creation the Clavivox. Moog married in 1958 and continued building and selling theremin kits from his own home in Ithaca, before establishing the company's first commercial space at 41 East Main Street in Trumansburg, New York in 1963, all while continuing to pursue his postgraduate education.
=== Moog synthesizer ===
At Cornell, Moog began work on his first synthesizer components with composer Herb Deutsch. At the time, synthesizers were enormous, room-filling instruments; Moog hoped to build a more compact synthesizer that would appeal to musicians. He believed that practicality and affordability were the most important parameters.
In 1964, Moog began creating the Moog modular synthesizer. It was composed of separate modules that created and shaped sounds, connected by patch cords. Previous synthesizers, such as the RCA Mark II, had created sound from hundreds of vacuum tubes. Instead, Moog used recently available silicon transistors with an exponential relationship between input voltage and output current. With these, he created the voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO), which generates a waveform with a pitch that could be adjusted by changing the voltage. Similarly, he used voltage to control loudness with voltage-controlled amplifiers (VCAs). One innovative feature was its envelope, which controls how notes swell and fade. According to the Guardian, Moog's 1964 paper Voltage-Controlled Music Modules, in which he proposed the Moog synthesizer modules, invented the modern concept of the analog synthesizer.
Moog debuted the instrument at the 1964 Audio Engineering Society convention in New York. It was much smaller than other synthesizers, such as the RCA Synthesizer introduced a decade earlier, and much cheaper, at US$10,000, as compared to the six-figure sums of other synthesizers. Whereas the RCA Synthesizer was programmed with punchcards, Moog's synthesizer could be programmed with knobs and patch cables and played via keyboard, making it attractive to musicians. New Scientist described it as the first commercial synthesizer.
At this time, Moog and then Fred Cochran constructed the so-called Moogtonium for the composer Max Brand. It is still operational and exhibited in the Langenzersdorf Museum near Vienna (Austria).
Moog described himself as a toolmaker designing things for his users, not himself. His development was driven by requests and suggestions from various musicians, including Deutsch (who devised the instrument's keyboard interface), Richard Teitelbaum, Vladimir Ussachevsky (credited with devising the ADSR envelope shape), and Wendy Carlos. His other early customers included choreographer and composer Alwin Nikolais and composer John Cage. Universities established electronic music studios with Moog synthesizers. In 1970, Moog released the portable fixed-architecture Minimoog, described as the most famous and influential synthesizer in history.
=== Company decline ===
Though commentators have praised Moog's engineering abilities, some have also described him as a poor businessman. Moog had pursued the development of his synthesizer as a hobby, stressing that he was regarded as a businessman but had not known what a balance sheet was. He likened the experience to a theme park ride: "You know you're not going to get hurt too badly because nobody would let you do that, but you're not quite in control."
Moog only patented his filter design; David Borden, one of the first users of the Minimoog, felt that if Moog had patented his pitch wheel design, he would have become extremely wealthy. According to Sound on Sound, if Moog had created a monopoly on other synthesizer ideas that he created, such as modularity, envelope generation and voltage control, "it's likely the synth industry as we know it today would never have happened."
Beginning in 1971, Moog Music absorbed investors, merged with Norlin Musical Instruments and moved to "less than ideal" premises near Buffalo, New York, amid a debilitating recession. Moog remained employed as a designer at the company until 1977. He said that he would have left earlier if his contract had not required him to remain employed there for four years to cash his stock. By the end of the decade, Moog Music was facing competition from cheaper, easier-to-use instruments by competitors including ARP, Aries, Roland, Sequential Circuits, and E-mu.
=== Big Briar, return of Moog Music ===
In 1978, Moog moved to North Carolina and founded a new electronic instrument company, Big Briar. He also worked as a consultant and vice president for new product research at Kurzweil Music Systems from 1984 to 1988. In the early 1990s, he was a research professor of music at the University of North Carolina at Asheville. In 2002, he renamed Big Briar to Moog Music after retrieving the rights to the name. In later years, he continued to design electronic instruments, including a touchscreen-operated piano.
== Personal life and death ==
Moog married Shirley May Leigh on June 15, 1958. They had four children, Laura (1961), Renée (1963), Michelle (1967), and Matthew (1970). They divorced in 1994. On May 19, 1996 Moog married Ileana Grams.
Moog was diagnosed with a glioblastoma multiforme brain tumor on April 28, 2005. He died on August 21, 2005, at the age of 71 in Asheville, North Carolina. He was survived by his second wife Ileana, four children, one stepdaughter and five grandchildren.
== Legacy ==
Moog has had a lasting influence on music. The BBC describes him as a pioneer of synthesized sound. According to the Guardian, his inventions "changed the complexion of the pop and classical music worlds." Moog's name became so associated with electronic music that it was sometimes used as a generic term for any synthesizer.
Moog's awards include honorary doctorates from Polytechnic Institute of New York University (New York City), Lycoming College (Williamsport, Pennsylvania) and Berklee College of Music. He received a Grammy Trustees Award for lifetime achievement in 1970, the Polar Music Prize in 2001 and a Special Merit/Technical Grammy Award in 2002. In 2012, to celebrate Moog's birthday, Google created an interactive version of the Minimoog as its Google Doodle. In 2013, Moog was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame.
=== Museum ===
On July 18, 2013, Moog's widow Ileana Grams-Moog announced plans to donate Moog's archives, maintained by the Bob Moog Foundation, to Cornell University. The foundation offered her $100,000 but Grams-Moog would not sell the archives. She felt that Cornell could provide better access for researchers and that the foundation had not made enough progress toward a planned museum to be worthy of maintaining the collection. The foundation responded that it had sufficiently preserved the collection and had made efforts to improve storage, although it could not yet afford to build the museum.
In August 2019, the Bob Moog Foundation opened the Moogseum, a museum dedicated to Moog's work, in Asheville, North Carolina. The displays include rare theremins, prototype synthesizer modules and Moog's documents.
=== Media ===
Moog has been the subject of books about his life and work, including the 2004 book Analog Days: The Invention and Impact of the Moog Synthesizer by Trevor Pinch and Frank Trocco and the 2023 biography Switched On: Bob Moog and the Synthesizer Revolution by Albert Glinsky. Moog had contributed the foreword to Glinsky's first book, Theremin: Ether Music and Espionage, about Leon Theremin, who was a principal inspiration to Moog.
Moog was also the subject of Moog, a 2004 documentary directed by Hans Fjellestad, who said that Moog "embodies the archetypal American maverick inventor."
== References ==
== External links ==
Moog Music — official website
The Bob Moog Memorial Foundation for Electronic Music
The Moogseum
Robert Moog discography at Discogs
Moog Archives illustrated history of company and products
Moog resources bibliography
Dr. Robert Moog interview at NAMM Oral History Program |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiosis#:~:text=In%20metaphase%20II%2C%20the%20centromeres%20contain%20two%20kinetochores%20that%20attach%20to%20spindle%20fibers%20from%20the%20centrosomes%20at%20opposite%20poles.%20The%20new%20equatorial%20metaphase%20plate%20is%20rotated%20by%2090%20degrees%20when%20compared%20to%20meiosis%20I%2C%20perpendicular%20to%20the%20previous%20plate.%5B32%5D | Meiosis | Meiosis ( ) is a special type of cell division of germ cells in sexually-reproducing organisms that produces the gametes, the sperm or egg cells. It involves two rounds of division that ultimately result in four cells, each with only one copy of each chromosome (haploid). Additionally, prior to the division, genetic material from the paternal and maternal copies of each chromosome is crossed over, creating new combinations of code on each chromosome. Later on, during fertilisation, the haploid cells produced by meiosis from a male and a female will fuse to create a zygote, a cell with two copies of each chromosome.
Errors in meiosis resulting in aneuploidy (an abnormal number of chromosomes) are the leading known cause of miscarriage and the most frequent genetic cause of developmental disabilities.
In meiosis, DNA replication is followed by two rounds of cell division to produce four daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes as the original parent cell. The two meiotic divisions are known as meiosis I and meiosis II. Before meiosis begins, during S phase of the cell cycle, the DNA of each chromosome is replicated so that it consists of two identical sister chromatids, which remain held together through sister chromatid cohesion. This S-phase can be referred to as "premeiotic S-phase" or "meiotic S-phase". Immediately following DNA replication, meiotic cells enter a prolonged G2-like stage known as meiotic prophase. During this time, homologous chromosomes pair with each other and undergo genetic recombination, a programmed process in which DNA may be cut and then repaired, which allows them to exchange some of their genetic information. A subset of recombination events results in crossovers, which create physical links known as chiasmata (singular: chiasma, for the Greek letter Chi, Χ) between the homologous chromosomes. In most organisms, these links can help direct each pair of homologous chromosomes to segregate away from each other during meiosis I, resulting in two haploid cells that have half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
During meiosis II, the cohesion between sister chromatids is released and they segregate from one another, as during mitosis. In some cases, all four of the meiotic products form gametes such as sperm, spores or pollen. In female animals, three of the four meiotic products are typically eliminated by extrusion into polar bodies, and only one cell develops to produce an ovum. Because the number of chromosomes is halved during meiosis, gametes can fuse (i.e. fertilization) to form a diploid zygote that contains two copies of each chromosome, one from each parent. Thus, alternating cycles of meiosis and fertilization enable sexual reproduction, with successive generations maintaining the same number of chromosomes. For example, diploid human cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes including 1 pair of sex chromosomes (46 total), half of maternal origin and half of paternal origin. Meiosis produces haploid gametes (ova or sperm) that contain one set of 23 chromosomes. When two gametes (an egg and a sperm) fuse, the resulting zygote is once again diploid, with the mother and father each contributing 23 chromosomes. This same pattern, but not the same number of chromosomes, occurs in all organisms that utilize meiosis.
Meiosis occurs in all sexually reproducing single-celled and multicellular organisms (which are all eukaryotes), including animals, plants, and fungi. It is an essential process for oogenesis and spermatogenesis.
== Overview ==
Although the process of meiosis is related to the more general cell division process of mitosis, it differs in two important respects:
Meiosis begins with a diploid cell, which contains two copies of each chromosome, termed homologs. First, the cell undergoes DNA replication, so each homolog now consists of two identical sister chromatids. Then each set of homologs pair with each other and exchange genetic information by homologous recombination often leading to physical connections (crossovers) between the homologs. In the first meiotic division, the homologs are segregated to separate daughter cells by the spindle apparatus. The cells then proceed to a second division without an intervening round of DNA replication. The sister chromatids are segregated to separate daughter cells to produce a total of four haploid cells. Female animals employ a slight variation on this pattern and produce one large ovum and three small polar bodies. Because of recombination, an individual chromatid can consist of a new combination of maternal and paternal genetic information, resulting in offspring that are genetically distinct from either parent. Furthermore, an individual gamete can include an assortment of maternal, paternal, and recombinant chromatids. This genetic diversity resulting from sexual reproduction contributes to the variation in traits upon which natural selection can act.
Meiosis uses many of the same mechanisms as mitosis, the type of cell division used by eukaryotes to divide one cell into two identical daughter cells. In some plants, fungi, and protists meiosis results in the formation of spores: haploid cells that can divide vegetatively without undergoing fertilization. Some eukaryotes, like bdelloid rotifers, do not have the ability to carry out meiosis and have acquired the ability to reproduce by parthenogenesis.
Meiosis does not occur in archaea or bacteria, which generally reproduce asexually via binary fission. However, a "sexual" process known as horizontal gene transfer involves the transfer of DNA from one bacterium or archaeon to another and recombination of these DNA molecules of different parental origin.
== History ==
Meiosis was discovered and described for the first time in sea urchin eggs in 1876 by the German biologist Oscar Hertwig. It was described again in 1883, at the level of chromosomes, by the Belgian zoologist Edouard Van Beneden, in Ascaris roundworm eggs. The significance of meiosis for reproduction and inheritance, however, was described only in 1890 by German biologist August Weismann, who noted that two cell divisions were necessary to transform one diploid cell into four haploid cells if the number of chromosomes had to be maintained. In 1911, the American geneticist Thomas Hunt Morgan detected crossovers in meiosis in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, which helped to establish that genetic traits are transmitted on chromosomes.
The term "meiosis" is derived from the Greek word μείωσις, meaning 'lessening'. It was introduced to biology by J.B. Farmer and J.E.S. Moore in 1905, using the idiosyncratic rendering "maiosis":
We propose to apply the terms Maiosis or Maiotic phase to cover the whole series of nuclear changes included in the two divisions that were designated as Heterotype and Homotype by Flemming.
The spelling was changed to "meiosis" by Koernicke (1905) and by Pantel and De Sinety (1906) to follow the usual conventions for transliterating Greek.
== Phases ==
Meiosis is divided into meiosis I and meiosis II which are further divided into Karyokinesis I, Cytokinesis I, Karyokinesis II, and Cytokinesis II, respectively. The preparatory steps that lead up to meiosis are identical in pattern and name to interphase of the mitotic cell cycle. Interphase is divided into three phases:
Growth 1 (G1) phase: In this very active phase, the cell synthesizes its vast array of proteins, including the enzymes and structural proteins it will need for growth. In G1, each of the chromosomes consists of a single linear molecule of DNA.
Synthesis (S) phase: The genetic material is replicated; each of the cell's chromosomes duplicates to become two identical sister chromatids attached at a centromere. This replication does not change the ploidy of the cell since the centromere number remains the same. The identical sister chromatids have not yet condensed into the densely packaged chromosomes visible with the light microscope. This will take place during prophase I in meiosis.
Growth 2 (G2) phase: G2 phase as seen before mitosis is not present in meiosis. Meiotic prophase corresponds most closely to the G2 phase of the mitotic cell cycle.
Interphase is followed by meiosis I and then meiosis II. Meiosis I separates replicated homologous chromosomes, each still made up of two sister chromatids, into two daughter cells, thus reducing the chromosome number by half. During meiosis II, sister chromatids decouple, and the resultant daughter chromosomes are segregated into four daughter cells. For diploid organisms, the daughter cells resulting from meiosis are haploid and contain only one copy of each chromosome. In some species, cells enter a resting phase known as interkinesis between meiosis I and meiosis II.
Meiosis I and II are each divided into prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase stages, similar in purpose to their analogous subphases in the mitotic cell cycle. Therefore, meiosis includes the stages of meiosis I (prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I, telophase I) and meiosis II (prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II, telophase II).
During meiosis, specific genes are more highly transcribed. In addition to strong meiotic stage-specific expression of mRNA, there are also pervasive translational controls (e.g. selective usage of preformed mRNA), regulating the ultimate meiotic stage-specific protein expression of genes during meiosis. Thus, both transcriptional and translational controls determine the broad restructuring of meiotic cells needed to carry out meiosis.
=== Meiosis I ===
Meiosis I segregates homologous chromosomes, which are joined as tetrads (2n, 4c), producing two haploid cells (n chromosomes, 23 in humans) which each contain chromatid pairs (1n, 2c). Because the ploidy is reduced from diploid to haploid, meiosis I is referred to as a reductional division. Meiosis II is an equational division analogous to mitosis, in which the sister chromatids are segregated, creating four haploid daughter cells (1n, 1c).
==== Prophase I ====
Prophase I is by far the longest phase of meiosis (lasting 13 out of 14 days in mice). During prophase I, homologous maternal and paternal chromosomes pair, synapse, and exchange genetic information (by homologous recombination), forming at least one crossover per chromosome. These crossovers become visible as chiasmata (plural; singular chiasma). This process facilitates stable pairing between homologous chromosomes and hence enables accurate segregation of the chromosomes at the first meiotic division. The paired and replicated chromosomes are called bivalents (two chromosomes) or tetrads (four chromatids), with one chromosome coming from each parent. Prophase I is divided into a series of substages which are named according to the appearance of chromosomes.
===== Leptotene =====
The first stage of prophase I is the leptotene stage, also known as leptonema, from Greek words meaning "thin threads". In this stage of prophase I, individual chromosomes—each consisting of two replicated sister chromatids—become "individualized" to form visible strands within the nucleus. The chromosomes each form a linear array of loops mediated by cohesin, and the lateral elements of the synaptonemal complex assemble forming an "axial element" from which the loops emanate. Recombination is initiated in this stage by the enzyme SPO11 which creates programmed double strand breaks (around 300 per meiosis in mice). This process generates single stranded DNA filaments coated by RAD51 and DMC1 which invade the homologous chromosomes, forming inter-axis bridges, and resulting in the pairing/co-alignment of homologues (to a distance of ~400 nm in mice).
===== Zygotene =====
Leptotene is followed by the zygotene stage, also known as zygonema, from Greek words meaning "paired threads", which in some organisms is also called the bouquet stage because of the way the telomeres cluster at one end of the nucleus. In this stage the homologous chromosomes become much more closely (~100 nm) and stably paired (a process called synapsis) mediated by the installation of the transverse and central elements of the synaptonemal complex. Synapsis is thought to occur in a zipper-like fashion starting from a recombination nodule. The paired chromosomes are called bivalent or tetrad chromosomes.
===== Pachytene =====
The pachytene stage ( PAK-i-teen), also known as pachynema, from Greek words meaning "thick threads". is the stage at which all autosomal chromosomes have synapsed. In this stage homologous recombination, including chromosomal crossover (crossing over), is completed through the repair of the double strand breaks formed in leptotene. Most breaks are repaired without forming crossovers resulting in gene conversion. However, a subset of breaks (at least one per chromosome) form crossovers between non-sister (homologous) chromosomes resulting in the exchange of genetic information. The exchange of information between the homologous chromatids results in a recombination of information; each chromosome has the complete set of information it had before, and there are no gaps formed as a result of the process. Because the chromosomes cannot be distinguished in the synaptonemal complex, the actual act of crossing over is not perceivable through an ordinary light microscope, and chiasmata are not visible until the next stage.
===== Diplotene =====
During the diplotene stage, also known as diplonema, from Greek words meaning "two threads", the synaptonemal complex disassembles and homologous chromosomes separate from one another a little. However, the homologous chromosomes of each bivalent remain tightly bound at chiasmata, the regions where crossing-over occurred. The chiasmata remain on the chromosomes until they are severed at the transition to anaphase I to allow homologous chromosomes to move to opposite poles of the cell.
In human fetal oogenesis, all developing oocytes develop to this stage and are arrested in prophase I before birth. This suspended state is referred to as the dictyotene stage or dictyate. It lasts until meiosis is resumed to prepare the oocyte for ovulation, which happens at puberty or even later.
===== Diakinesis =====
Chromosomes condense further during the diakinesis stage, from Greek words meaning "moving through". This is the first point in meiosis where the four parts of the tetrads are actually visible. Sites of crossing over entangle together, effectively overlapping, making chiasmata clearly visible. Other than this observation, the rest of the stage closely resembles prometaphase of mitosis; the nucleoli disappear, the nuclear membrane disintegrates into vesicles, and the meiotic spindle begins to form.
===== Meiotic spindle formation =====
Unlike mitotic cells, human and mouse oocytes do not have centrosomes to produce the meiotic spindle. In mice, approximately 80 MicroTubule Organizing Centers (MTOCs) form a sphere in the ooplasm and begin to nucleate microtubules that reach out towards chromosomes, attaching to the chromosomes at the kinetochore. Over time, the MTOCs merge until two poles have formed, generating a barrel shaped spindle. In human oocytes spindle microtubule nucleation begins on the chromosomes, forming an aster that eventually expands to surround the chromosomes. Chromosomes then slide along the microtubules towards the equator of the spindle, at which point the chromosome kinetochores form end-on attachments to microtubules.
==== Metaphase I ====
Homologous pairs move together along the metaphase plate: As kinetochore microtubules from both spindle poles attach to their respective kinetochores, the paired homologous chromosomes align along an equatorial plane that bisects the spindle, due to continuous counterbalancing forces exerted on the bivalents by the microtubules emanating from the two kinetochores of homologous chromosomes. This attachment is referred to as a bipolar attachment. The physical basis of the independent assortment of chromosomes is the random orientation of each bivalent along with the metaphase plate, with respect to the orientation of the other bivalents along the same equatorial line. The protein complex cohesin holds sister chromatids together from the time of their replication until anaphase I. In mitosis, the force of kinetochore microtubules pulling in opposite directions creates tension. The cell senses this tension and does not progress with anaphase until all the chromosomes are properly bi-oriented. In meiosis, establishing tension ordinarily requires at least one crossover per chromosome pair in addition to cohesin between sister chromatids. (see Chromosome segregation)
==== Anaphase I ====
Kinetochore microtubules shorten, pulling homologous chromosomes (which each consist of a pair of sister chromatids) to opposite poles. Non-kinetochore microtubules lengthen, pushing the centrosomes farther apart. The cell elongates in preparation for division down the center. Unlike in mitosis, only the cohesin from the chromosome arms is degraded while the cohesin surrounding the centromere remains protected by a protein named Shugoshin (Japanese for "guardian spirit"), which prevents the sister chromatids from separating. This allows the sister chromatids to remain together while homologs are segregated.
==== Telophase I ====
The first meiotic division effectively ends when the chromosomes arrive at the poles. Each daughter cell now has half the number of chromosomes but each chromosome consists of a pair of chromatids. The microtubules that make up the spindle network disappear, and a new nuclear membrane surrounds each haploid set. Cytokinesis, the pinching of the cell membrane in animal cells or the formation of the cell wall in plant cells, occurs, completing the creation of two daughter cells. However, cytokinesis does not fully complete resulting in "cytoplasmic bridges" which enable the cytoplasm to be shared between daughter cells until the end of meiosis II. Sister chromatids remain attached during telophase I.
Cells may enter a period of rest known as interkinesis or interphase II. No DNA replication occurs during this stage.
=== Meiosis II ===
Meiosis II is the second meiotic division, and usually involves equational segregation, or separation of sister chromatids. Mechanically, the process is similar to mitosis, though its genetic results are fundamentally different. The result is the production of four haploid cells (n chromosomes; 23 in humans) from the two haploid cells (with n chromosomes, each consisting of two sister chromatids) produced in meiosis I. The four main steps of meiosis II are: prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II, and telophase II.
In prophase II, the disappearance of the nucleoli and the nuclear envelope is seen again as well as the shortening and thickening of the chromatids. Centrosomes move to the polar regions and arrange spindle fibers for the second meiotic division.
In metaphase II, the centromeres contain two kinetochores that attach to spindle fibers from the centrosomes at opposite poles. The new equatorial metaphase plate is rotated by 90 degrees when compared to meiosis I, perpendicular to the previous plate.
This is followed by anaphase II, in which the remaining centromeric cohesin, not protected by Shugoshin anymore, is cleaved, allowing the sister chromatids to segregate. The sister chromatids by convention are now called sister chromosomes as they move toward opposing poles.
The process ends with telophase II, which is similar to telophase I, and is marked by decondensation and lengthening of the chromosomes and the disassembly of the spindle. Nuclear envelopes re-form and cleavage or cell plate formation eventually produces a total of four daughter cells, each with a haploid set of chromosomes.
Meiosis is now complete and ends up with four new daughter cells.
== Origin and function ==
=== Origin of meiosis ===
Meiosis appears to be a fundamental characteristic of eukaryotic organisms and to have been present early in eukaryotic evolution. Eukaryotes that were once thought to lack meiotic sex have recently been shown to likely have, or once have had, this capability. As one example, Giardia intestinalis, a common intestinal parasite, was previously considered to have descended from a lineage that predated the emergence of meiosis and sex. However, G. intestinalis has now been found to possess a core set of meiotic genes, including five meiosis specific genes. Also evidence for meiotic recombination, indicative of sexual reproduction, was found in G. intestinalis. Another example of organisms previously thought to be asexual are parasitic protozoa of the genus Leishmania, which cause human disease. However, these organisms were shown to have a sexual cycle consistent with a meiotic process. Although amoeba were once generally regarded as asexual, evidence has been presented that most lineages are anciently sexual and that the majority of asexual groups probably arose recently and independently. Dacks and Rogers proposed, based on a phylogenetic analysis, that facultative sex was likely present in the common ancestor of eukaryotes.
=== Genetic variation ===
The new combinations of DNA created during meiosis are a significant source of genetic variation alongside mutation, resulting in new combinations of alleles, which may be beneficial. Meiosis generates gamete genetic diversity in two ways: (1) Law of Independent Assortment. The independent orientation of homologous chromosome pairs along the metaphase plate during metaphase I and orientation of sister chromatids in metaphase II, this is the subsequent separation of homologs and sister chromatids during anaphase I and II, it allows a random and independent distribution of chromosomes to each daughter cell (and ultimately to gametes); and (2) Crossing Over. The physical exchange of homologous chromosomal regions by homologous recombination during prophase I results in new combinations of genetic information within chromosomes. However, such physical exchange does not always occur during meiosis. In the oocytes of the silkworm Bombyx mori, meiosis is completely achiasmate (lacking crossovers). Although synaptonemal complexes are present during the pachytene stage of meiosis in B. mori, crossing-over homologous recombination is absent between the paired chromosomes.
=== Prophase I arrest ===
Female mammals and birds are born possessing all the oocytes needed for future ovulations, and these oocytes are arrested at the prophase I stage of meiosis. In humans, as an example, oocytes are formed between three and four months of gestation within the fetus and are therefore present at birth. During this prophase I arrested stage (dictyate), which may last for decades, four copies of the genome are present in the oocytes. The arrest of ooctyes at the four genome copy stage was proposed to provide the informational redundancy needed to repair damage in the DNA of the germline. The repair process used appears to involve homologous recombinational repair Prophase I arrested oocytes have a high capability for efficient repair of DNA damage, particularly exogenously induced double-strand breaks. DNA repair capability appears to be a key quality control mechanism in the female germ line and a critical determinant of fertility.
=== Meiosis as an adaptation for repairing germline DNA ===
Genetic recombination can be viewed as fundamentally a DNA repair process, and that when it occurs during meiosis it is an adaptation for repairing the genomic DNA that is passed on to progeny. Experimental findings indicate that a substantial benefit of meiosis is recombinational repair of DNA damage in the germline, as indicated by the following examples. Hydrogen peroxide is an agent that causes oxidative stress leading to oxidative DNA damage. Treatment of the yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe with hydrogen peroxide increased the frequency of mating and the formation of meiotic spores by 4 to 18-fold. Volvox carteri, a haploid multicellular, facultatively sexual green algae, can be induced by heat shock to reproduce by meiotic sex. This induction can be inhibited by antioxidants indicating that the induction of meiotic sex by heat shock is likely mediated by oxidative stress leading to increased DNA damage.
== Occurrence ==
=== In life cycles ===
Meiosis occurs in eukaryotic life cycles involving sexual reproduction, consisting of the cyclical process of growth and development by mitotic cell division, production of gametes by meiosis and fertilization. At certain stages of the life cycle, germ cells produce gametes. Somatic cells make up the body of the organism and are not involved in gamete production.
Cycling meiosis and fertilization events results in alternation between haploid and diploid states. The organism phase of the life cycle can occur either during the diploid state (diplontic life cycle), during the haploid state (haplontic life cycle), or both (haplodiplontic life cycle), in which there are two distinct organism phases, one with haploid cells and the other with diploid cells.
In the diplontic life cycle (with pre-gametic meiosis), as in humans, the organism is multicellular and diploid, grown by mitosis from a diploid cell called the zygote. The organism's diploid germ-line stem cells undergo meiosis to make haploid gametes (the spermatozoa in males and ova in females), which fertilize to form the zygote. The diploid zygote undergoes repeated cellular division by mitosis to grow into the organism.
In the haplontic life cycle (with post-zygotic meiosis), the organism is haploid, by the proliferation and differentiation of a single haploid cell called the gamete. Two organisms of opposing sex contribute their haploid gametes to form a diploid zygote. The zygote undergoes meiosis immediately, creating four haploid cells. These cells undergo mitosis to create the organism. Many fungi and many protozoa utilize the haplontic life cycle.
In the haplodiplontic life cycle (with sporic or intermediate meiosis), the living organism alternates between haploid and diploid states. Consequently, this cycle is also known as the alternation of generations. The diploid organism's germ-line cells undergo meiosis to produce spores. The spores proliferate by mitosis, growing into a haploid organism. The haploid organism's gamete then combines with another haploid organism's gamete, creating the zygote. The zygote undergoes repeated mitosis and differentiation to produce a new diploid organism. The haplodiplontic life cycle can be considered a fusion of the diplontic and haplontic life cycles.
=== In plants and animals ===
Meiosis occurs in all animals and plants. The result, the production of gametes with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell, is the same, but the detailed process is different. In animals, meiosis produces gametes directly. In land plants and some algae, there is an alternation of generations such that meiosis in the diploid sporophyte generation produces haploid spores instead of gametes. When they germinate, these spores undergo repeated cell division by mitosis, developing into a multicellular haploid gametophyte generation, which then produces gametes directly (i.e. without further meiosis).
In both animals and plants, the final stage is for the gametes to fuse to form a zygote in which the original number of chromosomes is restored.
=== In mammals ===
In females, meiosis occurs in cells known as oocytes (singular: oocyte). Each primary oocyte divides twice in meiosis, unequally in each case. The first division produces a daughter cell, and a much smaller polar body which may or may not undergo a second division. In meiosis II, division of the daughter cell produces a second polar body, and a single haploid cell, which enlarges to become an ovum. Therefore, in females each primary oocyte that undergoes meiosis results in one mature ovum and two or three polar bodies.
There are pauses during meiosis in females. Maturing oocytes are arrested in prophase I of meiosis I and lie dormant within a protective shell of somatic cells called the follicle. At this stage, the oocyte nucleus is called the germinal vesicle. At the beginning of each menstrual cycle, FSH secretion from the anterior pituitary stimulates a few follicles to mature in a process known as folliculogenesis. During this process, the maturing oocytes resume meiosis and continue until metaphase II of meiosis II, where they are again arrested just before ovulation. The breakdown of the germinal vesicle, condensation of chromosomes, and assembly of the bipolar metaphase I spindle are all clear indications that meiosis has resumed. If these oocytes are fertilized by sperm, they will resume and complete meiosis. During folliculogenesis in humans, usually one follicle becomes dominant while the others undergo atresia. The process of meiosis in females occurs during oogenesis, and differs from the typical meiosis in that it features a long period of meiotic arrest known as the dictyate stage and lacks the assistance of centrosomes.
In males, meiosis occurs during spermatogenesis in the seminiferous tubules of the testicles. Meiosis during spermatogenesis is specific to a type of cell called spermatocytes, which will later mature to become spermatozoa. Meiosis of primordial germ cells happens at the time of puberty, much later than in females. Tissues of the male testis suppress meiosis by degrading retinoic acid, proposed to be a stimulator of meiosis. This is overcome at puberty when cells within seminiferous tubules called Sertoli cells start making their own retinoic acid. Sensitivity to retinoic acid is also adjusted by proteins called nanos and DAZL. Genetic loss-of-function studies on retinoic acid-generating enzymes have shown that retinoic acid is required postnatally to stimulate spermatogonia differentiation which results several days later in spermatocytes undergoing meiosis, however retinoic acid is not required during the time when meiosis initiates.
In female mammals, meiosis begins immediately after primordial germ cells migrate to the ovary in the embryo. Some studies suggest that retinoic acid derived from the primitive kidney (mesonephros) stimulates meiosis in embryonic ovarian oogonia and that tissues of the embryonic male testis suppress meiosis by degrading retinoic acid. However, genetic loss-of-function studies on retinoic acid-generating enzymes have shown that retinoic acid is not required for initiation of either female meiosis which occurs during embryogenesis or male meiosis which initiates postnatally.
=== Flagellates ===
While the majority of eukaryotes have a two-divisional meiosis (though sometimes achiasmatic), a very rare form, one-divisional meiosis, occurs in some flagellates (parabasalids and oxymonads) from the gut of the wood-feeding cockroach Cryptocercus.
== Role in human genetics and disease ==
Recombination among the 23 pairs of human chromosomes is responsible for redistributing not just the actual chromosomes, but also pieces of each of them. There is also an estimated 1.6-fold more recombination in females relative to males. In addition, average, female recombination is higher at the centromeres and male recombination is higher at the telomeres. On average, 1 million bp (1 Mb) correspond to 1 cMorgan (cm = 1% recombination frequency). The frequency of cross-overs remain uncertain. In yeast, mouse and human, it has been estimated that ≥200 double-strand breaks (DSBs) are formed per meiotic cell. However, only a subset of DSBs (~5–30% depending on the organism), go on to produce crossovers, which would result in only 1-2 cross-overs per human chromosome.
In humans, recombination rates differ between maternal and paternal DNA:
Maternal DNA: Recombines approximately 42 times on average.
Paternal DNA: Recombines approximately 27 times on average.
=== Nondisjunction ===
Errors during meiosis, particularly nondisjunction, can result in gametes with an abnormal number of chromosomes, potentially leading to chromosomal disorders.
The normal separation of chromosomes in meiosis I or sister chromatids in meiosis II is termed disjunction. When the segregation is not normal, it is called nondisjunction. This results in the production of gametes which have either too many or too few of a particular chromosome, and is a common mechanism for trisomy or monosomy. Nondisjunction can occur in the meiosis I or meiosis II, phases of cellular reproduction, or during mitosis.
Most monosomic and trisomic human embryos are not viable, but some aneuploidies can be tolerated, such as trisomy for the smallest chromosome, chromosome 21. Phenotypes of these aneuploidies range from severe developmental disorders to asymptomatic. Medical conditions include but are not limited to:
Down syndrome – trisomy of chromosome 21
Patau syndrome – trisomy of chromosome 13
Edwards syndrome – trisomy of chromosome 18
Klinefelter syndrome – extra X chromosomes in males – i.e. XXY, XXXY, XXXXY, etc.
Turner syndrome – lacking of one X chromosome in females – i.e. X0
Triple X syndrome – an extra X chromosome in females
Jacobs syndrome – an extra Y chromosome in males.
The probability of nondisjunction in human oocytes increases with increasing maternal age, presumably due to loss of cohesin over time.
== Comparison to mitosis ==
In order to understand meiosis, a comparison to mitosis is helpful. The table below shows the differences between meiosis and mitosis.
== Molecular regulation ==
Maturation promoting factor (MPF) seems to have a role in meiosis based on experiments with Xenopus laevis oocytes. Mammalian oocyte MPF induced germinal vesicle breakdown (GVB) in starfish and Xenopus laevis oocytes. MPF is active prior to GVB but falls off toward the end of meiosis I. CDK1 and cyclin B levels are correlated with oocyte GVB competence and are likely under translational rather than transcriptional control. In meiosis II, MPF reappears ahead of metaphase II, and its activity remains high up to fertilization.
In mammals, meiotic arrest begins with natriuretic peptide type C (NPPC) from mural granulosa cells, which activates production of cyclic guanosine 3′,5′-monophosphate (cGMP) in concert with natriuretic peptide receptor 2 (NPR2) on cumulus cells. cGMP diffuses into oocytes and halts meiosis by inhibiting phosphodiesterase 3A (PDE3A) and cyclic adenosine 3′,5′-monophosphate (cAMP) hydrolysis. In the oocyte, G-protein-coupled receptor GPR3/12 activates adenylyl cyclase to generate cAMP. cAMP stimulates protein kinase A (PKA) to activate the nuclear kinase WEE2 by phosphorylation. PKA also assists in phosphorylation of the CDK1 phosphatase CDC25B to keep it in the cytoplasm; in its unphosphorylated form, CDC25B migrates to the nucleus. Protein kinase C (PKC) may also have a role in inhibiting meiotic progression to metaphase II. Overall, CDK1 activity is suppressed to prevent resumption of meiosis. Oocytes further promote expression of NPR2 and inosine monophosphate dehydrogenase (and thereby the production of cGMP) in cumulus cells. Follicle-stimulating hormone and estradiol likewise promote expression of NPPC and NPR2. Hypoxanthine, a purine apparently originating in the follicle, also inhibits in vitro oocyte meiosis. A spike in luteinizing hormone (LH) spurs oocyte maturation, in which oocytes are released from meiotic arrest and progress from prophase I through metaphase II. LH-induced epidermal growth factor-like factors like amphiregulin and epiregulin synthesized in mural granulosa cells reduce levels of cGMP in oocytes by restricting cGMP transport through cumulus cell-oocyte gap junctions and lowering NPPC levels and NPR2 activity. In fact, LH-induced epidermal growth factor-like factors may cause the destabilization and breakdown of gap junctions altogether. LH-induced epidermal growth factor-like factors may trigger production of additional oocyte maturation factors like steroids and follicular fluid-derived meiosis-activating sterol (FF-MAS) in cumulus cells. FF-MAS promotes progression from metaphase I to metaphase II, and it may help stabilize metaphase II arrest. Meiosis resumption is reinforced by the exit of WEE2 from the nucleus due to CDK1 activation. Phosphodiesterases (PDEs) metabolize cAMP and may be temporarily activated by PKA-mediated phosphorylation. Longer-term regulation of phosphodiesterases may require modulation of protein expression. For example, hypoxanthine is a PDE inhibitor that may stymie cAMP metabolism. Kinases like protein kinase B, Aurora kinase A, and polo-like kinase 1 contribute to the resumption of meiosis. There are similarities between the mechanisms of meiotic prophase I arrest and resumption and the mitotic G2 DNA damage checkpoint: CDC14B-based activation of APC-CDH1 in arrest and CDC25B-based resumption. Meiotic arrest requires inhibitory phosphorylation of CDK1 at amino acid residues Thr-14 and Tyr-15 by MYT1 and WEE1 as well as regulation of cyclin B levels facilitated by the anaphase-promoting complex (APC). CDK1 is regulated by cyclin B, whose synthesis peaks at the end of meiosis I. At anaphase I, cyclin B is degraded by an ubiquitin-dependent pathway. Cyclin B synthesis and CDK1 activation prompt oocytes to enter metaphase, while entry into anaphase follows ubiquitin-mediated cyclin B degradation, which brings down CDK1 activity. Proteolysis of adhesion proteins between homologous chromosomes is involved in anaphase I, while proteolysis of adhesion proteins between sister chromatids is involved in anaphase II. Meiosis II arrest is effected by cytostatic factor (CSF), whose elements include the MOS protein, mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MAPKK/MEK1), and MAPK. The protein kinase p90 (RSK) is one critical target of MAPK and may help block entry into S-phase between meiosis I and II by reactivating CDK1. There's evidence that RSK aids entry into meiosis I by inhibiting MYT1, which activates CDK1. CSF arrest might take place through regulation of the APC as part of the spindle assembly checkpoint.
In the budding yeast S. cerevisiae, Clb1 is the main meiotic regulatory cyclin, though Clb3 and Clb4 are also expressed during meiosis and activate a p34cdc28-associated kinase immediately prior to the first meiotic division. The IME1 transcription factor drives entry into meiotic S-phase and is regulated according to inputs like nutrition. a1/α2 represses a repressor of IME1, initiating meiosis. Numerous S. cerevisiae meiotic regulatory genes have been identified. A few are presented here. IME1 enables sporulation of non-a/α diploids. IME2/SME1 enables sporulation when nitrogen is present, supports recombination in a/α cells expressing RME1, an inhibitor of meiosis, and encodes a protein kinase homolog. MCK1 (meiosis and centromere regulatory kinase) also supports recombination in a/α cells expressing RME1 and encodes a protein kinase homolog. SME2 enables sporulation when ammonia or glucose are present. UME1-5 enable expression of certain early meiotic genes in vegetative, non-a/α cells.
In the fission yeast S. pombe, the Cdc2 kinase and Cig2 cyclin together initiate the premeiotic S phase, while cyclin Cdc13 and the CDK activator Cdc25 are necessary for both meiotic divisions. However, the Pat1-Mei2 system is at the heart of S. pombe meiotic regulation. Mei2 is the major meiotic regulator. It moves between the nucleus and cytoplasm and works with meiRNA to promote meiosis I. Moreover, Mei2 is implicated in exit from mitosis and induction of premeiotic S phase. Mei2 may inactivate the DSR-Mmi1 system through sequestration of Mmi1 to stabilize meiosis-specific transcript expression. Mei2 may stall growth and bring about G1 arrest. Pat1 is a Ser/Thr protein kinase that phosphorylates Mei2, an RNA-binding protein, on residues Ser438 and Thr527. This phosphorylation may decrease the half-life of Mei2 by making it more likely to be destroyed by a proteasome working with E2 Ubc2 and E3 Ubr1. The Mei4 transcription factor is necessary to transcriptionally activate cdc25 in meiosis, and the mei4 mutant experiences cell cycle arrest. Mes1 inhibits the APC/C activator Slp1 such that the Cdc2-Cdc13 MPF activity can drive the second meiotic division.
It has been suggested that Yeast CEP1 gene product, that binds centromeric region CDE1, may play a role in chromosome pairing during meiosis-I.
Meiotic recombination is mediated through double stranded break, which is catalyzed by Spo11 protein. Also Mre11, Sae2 and Exo1 play role in breakage and recombination. After the breakage happen, recombination take place which is typically homologous. The recombination may go through either a double Holliday junction (dHJ) pathway or synthesis-dependent strand annealing (SDSA). (The second one gives to noncrossover product).
Seemingly there are checkpoints for meiotic cell division too. In S. pombe, Rad proteins, S. pombe Mek1 (with FHA kinase domain), Cdc25, Cdc2 and unknown factor is thought to form a checkpoint.
In vertebrate oogenesis, maintained by cytostatic factor (CSF) has role in switching into meiosis-II.
== See also ==
== References ==
=== Footnotes ===
=== Citations ===
=== Cited texts ===
Freeman S (2005). Biological Science (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-140941-5.
== External links ==
Meiosis Flash Animation Archived 2010-08-23 at the Wayback Machine
Animations from the U. of Arizona Biology Dept.
Meiosis at Kimball's Biology Pages
Khan Academy, video lecture
CCO The Cell-Cycle Ontology
Stages of Meiosis animation
"Abby Dernburg Seminar: Chromosome Dynamics During Meiosis" |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanzan_Ishibashi#Life | Tanzan Ishibashi | Tanzan Ishibashi (石橋 湛山, Ishibashi Tanzan; 25 September 1884 – 25 April 1973) was a Japanese journalist and politician who served as prime minister of Japan from 1956 to 1957.
Born in Tokyo, Ishibashi became a journalist after graduating from Waseda University in 1907. In 1911, he joined the Tōyō Keizai Shimpo ("Eastern Economic Journal") and served as its editor-in-chief from 1925 to 1946 and president from 1941. In the 1930s, Ishibashi was one of the few critics of Japanese imperialism, and became well known as a liberal economist. From 1946 to 1947, Ishibashi served as finance minister under Shigeru Yoshida. He was elected into the National Diet in 1947, but was purged for openly opposing the U.S. occupation policies; he returned to the Diet in 1952, after which he allied with Ichiro Hatoyama and served as his minister of international trade and industry. Ishibashi succeeded Hatoyama as prime minister in 1956, simultaneously serving as director of the Defense Agency, but resigned soon after due to ill health.
== Life ==
Ishibashi was born in the Shibanihonenoki district of Azabu ward, Tokyo in 1884, the eldest son of Sugita Tansei (1856–1931), a Nichiren Buddhist priest and the 81st head of Kuon-ji temple in Yamanashi prefecture. Ishibashi, who took on his mother's surname, would later become a Nichiren priest himself. As a member of the Nichiren-shū sect of Nichiren Buddhism, Tanzan was his Buddhist name; his birth name was Seizō (省三). He studied philosophy and graduated from Waseda University's literature department in 1907.
He worked as a journalist at the Mainichi Shimbun for a while. After he finished military service, he joined the staff of the Tōyō Keizai Shimpo ("Eastern Economic Journal"), later becoming its editor-in-chief and finally company president in 1941. For the Tōyō Keizai, Ishibashi wrote about Japanese financial policy, developing over time a new liberal perspective.
Ishibashi had a liberal political view and was one of the most consistent proponents of individualism during the Taishō Democracy movement. In this regard, he also promoted a feminist perspective, advocating comprehensive "legal, political, educational, and economic" equality for women so that they could better thrive in the competitive modern society, in contrast to the stratified conditions of feudal life. Ishibashi was also one of the rare personalities who opposed Japanese imperialism. Instead, he advocated a "Small Japan" policy (小日本主義, shō-Nihon-shugi), which advocated the abandonment of Manchuria and Japanese colonies to refocus efforts on Japan's own economic and cultural development. In addition, he allied himself with Tanaka Ōdō in arguing for free trade and international cooperation over militarism and colonialism.
After World War II Ishibashi received an offer from the Japan Socialist Party to run for the National Diet as their candidate. However, Ishibashi declined, and instead accepted a post of "advisor" to the newly formed Liberal Party. Ishibashi then served as Minister of Finance in Shigeru Yoshida's first cabinet from 1946 to 1947. Ishibashi was elected to the Diet for the first time in the April 1947 general election, representing Shizuoka's second district, but less than one month later he was purged and forced to resign for having openly opposed U.S. Occupation policies. Following his de-purging in 1951, Ishibashi allied with Ichirō Hatoyama and joined the movement against Yoshida's cabinet. In 1953, Hatoyama became prime minister, and Ishibashi was appointed Minister of Industry. Around this time, Ishibashi became known as a supporter of revising Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution and remilitarizing Japan. In 1955, the new Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) was established as a combination of smaller conservative parties, with Ishibashi as a founding member.
=== Prime minister ===
When Hatoyama retired in 1956, the LDP held a vote for their new president. At first Nobusuke Kishi was considered the most likely candidate, but Ishibashi allied himself with another candidate, Mitsujirō Ishii, and won the election, becoming the new Prime Minister of Japan. In the postwar period, a practice had developed whereby each prime minister would attempt to achieve a major foreign policy objective. Shigeru Yoshida had secured the peace treaty which ended the Occupation, Hatoyama had negotiated the resumption of diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union, and now Ishibashi stated that his main objective would be resuming diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China. Ishibashi also signaled that he would endeavor to take a cooperative approach to the political opposition, resulting in high public approval ratings. He became sick and resigned two months later, with Kishi taking over as prime minister.
=== Post-premiership ===
Even after Ishibashi resigned the posts of prime minister and president of LDP, he remained a powerful faction boss and prominent figure among ex-Liberal Party politicians in the LDP. Ishibashi opposed Kishi's efforts to force through a revised version of the U.S.-Japan Security Treaty in 1960, which he felt were too extreme. When Kishi had opposition lawmakers physically removed from the Diet by police and rammed the new treaty through on May 19, 1960, Ishibashi was one of several LDP faction bosses who boycotted the vote in protest.
Ishibashi also remained a major figure in Japan's ongoing efforts to engage with the People's Republic of China, making a personal visit to China in 1963. From 1952 to 1968 he was also the president of Rissho University. Tanzan Ishibashi died on April 24, 1973.
Waseda University later introduced the Waseda Journalism Award In Memory of Ishibashi Tanzan in 2001.
== Political philosophy, ideology and views ==
Ishibashi's views were based on new liberalism, individualism and feminism. Ishibashi was opposed to Japanese imperialism, colonialism and militarism. Because of his anti-imperalist views he advocated for a "Small Japan" policy (小日本主義, shō-Nihon-shugi), which advocated the abandonment of Manchuria and Japanese colonies to refocus efforts on Japan's own economic and cultural development. In addition to that, he allied with Tanaka Ōdō to support free trade and international cooperation.
== Honors ==
From the corresponding article in the Japanese Wikipedia
Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun (29 April 1964)
Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun with Paulownia Flowers (25 April 1973; posthumous)
== References ==
=== Citations ===
=== Sources cited ===
Inoki, Takenori (2016). "Ishibashi Tanzan: A Coherent Liberal Thinker". In Watanabe, Akio (ed.). The Prime Ministers of Postwar Japan, 1945-1995. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books. pp. 87–97. ISBN 978-1-4985-1001-1.
Kapur, Nick (2018). Japan at the Crossroads: Conflict and Compromise after Anpo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674984424.
=== Further reading ===
Liberalism in Modern Japan: Ishibashi Tanzan and His Teachers, 1905-1960, by Sharon H. Nolte, Published by University of California Press, 1986
Ishibashi Tanzan's World Economic Theory - The War Resistance of an Economist in the 1930s, Princeton University (http://www.princeton.edu/~collcutt/doc/Keshi_English.pdf) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Creed#Exhibitions | Martin Creed | Martin Creed (born 21 October 1968) is a British artist, composer and performer. He won the Turner Prize in 2001 for exhibitions during the preceding year, with the jury praising his audacity for exhibiting a single installation, Work No. 227: The lights going on and off, in the Turner Prize show. Creed lives and works in London.
== Life and education ==
Martin Creed was born in Wakefield, England. He moved with his family to Glasgow at age 3 when his silversmith father got a job teaching there. He grew up revering art and music. His parents were Quakers, and he was taken often to Quaker meetings. He attended Lenzie Academy, and studied art at the Slade School of Art at University College London from 1986 to 1990. Since then he has lived in London, apart from a period (2000—2004) living in Alicudi, an island off Sicily in the South of Italy. He currently lives and works back in London.
== Artwork ==
Films, installations, paintings, theatre and live-action sculptures are all characteristic of his work. Making use of whatever medium seems suitable. Since 1987 he has numbered each of his works, and most of his titles are descriptive: for example Work No. 79: some Blu-tack kneaded, rolled into a ball and depressed against a wall (1993) and Work No. 88, a sheet of A4 paper crumpled into a ball (1995). Creed's work Work No. 200: Half the air in a given space (1998) is a room which has half of its cubic space filled with balloons.
One of Creed's earlier works is Work No. 19: An Intrusion And A Protrusion From A Wall; an installation originally exhibited at Slade School of Fine Art in 1989, and who in the next year, still at Slade School of Fine Art, got "replaced" by an installation of mere the (almost) exact name (but with slightly different content) - Work No. 21: An Intrusion And A Protrusion From A Wall - challenging the notion of reproducibility and authenticness in art.
=== Projects ===
Creed won the 2001 Turner Prize for two exhibitions, Martin Creed Works and Art Now: Martin Creed shown across England during the preceding year. His submission for the Turner Prize show at the Tate Gallery was Work No. 227: The lights going on and off. The work was an empty room in which the lights switched on and off at 5-second intervals. This created a great deal of press attention, most of it questioning whether something as minimalist as this could be considered art at all. Nevertheless, the jury praised this work, saying they "admired the audacity in presenting a single work in the exhibition and noted its strength, rigour, wit and sensitivity to the site".
Work No. 1197: All the bells in the country rung as quickly and as loudly as possible for three minutes was commissioned to herald the start of the 2012 Summer Olympics.
In 2009, he wrote and choreographed Work No. 1020: Ballet, a live performance of Creed's music, ballet, words and film, originally produced by Sadler's Wells, London and performed in the Lilian Baylis Studio. In 2010, Work No. 1020: Ballet was performed at the Traverse Theatre, Edinburgh as part of the Edinburgh Festival Fringe and at The Kitchen, New York, in December 2013. Work No. 1020 was also performed in 2014 at the Queen Elizabeth Hall in connection with Creed's retrospective at the Hayward Gallery, London. He designed a work for Victoria Beckham's store on Dover Street in Mayfair, London in 2015.
=== Painting ===
His work has often excited controversy: a visitor threw eggs at the walls of Creed's empty room as a protest against the prize, declaring that Creed's presentations were not real art and that "painting is in danger of becoming an extinct skill in this country". In recent years Creed has been exhibiting paintings in nearly every exhibition he has done (for example, Work No. 1768).
=== Public Works ===
Many of his public works may be freely viewed, such as The Scotsman Steps in Edinburgh, DON'T WORRY at St Peter's Church, Cologne, the singing lifts at The Royal Festival Hall, London and at the Centro Botin in Santander, and the huge spinning "MOTHERS" sign on a roof in Fort Worth, Texas.
Creed's works are found in museum collections worldwide, including at the Colleccion Jumex in Mexico City, and The Lights Going On and Off at the Museum of Modern Art in New York.
Work No. 1000 consists of 1,000 hand prints made with broccoli, and exemplifies Creed's comical, child-like approach to art. He also frequently gives talks, and performs live with his band.
=== Permanent installations ===
Creed's Work No. 975, Everything is Going to be Alright, was installed on the facade of the Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art in November 2009. Although Work No. 975 is a unique sculpture, the phrase has been used on several related works, each assigned its own work number. Previous to Work No. 975, a red neon text appeared in New York's Times Square (Work No.225 1999, commissioned by Public Art Fund), a thirty-metre-long version was installed in Detroit (Work No.790 2007), and another text in white neon ran the 23 metre length of the Rennie Museum's façade in Vancouver's Chinatown (Work No.851 2008). Most recently, a 46-metre multicoloured version was commissioned for Christchurch Art Gallery, in the advent of its reopening after almost five years of earthquake-related closure.
In 2011, Creed was commissioned by Fruitmarket Gallery to make a work as part of the restoration of the historic Scotsman Steps in Edinburgh. Creed's Work No. 1059 was subsequently installed, cladding each of the 104 steps and landings in a different type of marble. Guardian art critic Jonathan Jones called it "a generous, modest masterpiece of contemporary public art".
In 2012, Creed was the first artist to participate in the long-term programme of artist-conceived restaurants at Sketch, London. Together with a series of paintings and wall drawings, Creed specifically created Work No. 1343 where every single piece of cutlery, glass, chair and table was different and brought together a mix of the mass-produced and hand-crafted, from classic antiques to contemporary design from all around the world. Work No. 1347, still on display at the restaurant, consists of 96 different types of marble, in a herringbone formation across the floor.
In 2019, Work No. 2950: WHATEVER was placed on the roof of a building in Auckland, New Zealand. It is a large multicoloured neon sign showing the word “WHATEVER”.
== Music ==
Creed's first band, Owada, was formed in 1994 with Adam McEwen and Keiko Owada. In 1997, they released their first CD, Nothing, on David Cunningham's Piano label. Sound has also featured in his gallery-based work, with pieces using doorbells, drum machines and metronomes. Since 1999 he has not used the band name "Owada". In 2000, he published a recording of his songs titled I Can't Move under his own name with the arts publisher Art Metropole, in Toronto. A solo concert in 2004 achieved the rare privilege of a zero star review in The Guardian.
In 2010, he provided the cover art for a Futuristic Retro Champions single, while supporting its launch with an appearance with his own band with Keiko Owada on bass, Genevieve Murphy on keyboards, Ben Kane on drums and Anouchka Grose on steel guitar.[1]
Creed started his own label, Telephone Records, and released the single "Thinking/ Not Thinking" in early 2011, following it up with the single "Where You Go" in 2012. Releases accelerated in 2012, with the Double AA Side single "Fuck Off" and "Die" coming out on Moshi Moshi Records in May 2012, in advance of the album Love To You, released on Moshi Moshi in July 2012. The album is produced by David Cunningham, Martin Creed and The Nice NIce Boys (Andrew Knowles of Johnny Marr & The Healers and Nick McCarthy of Franz Ferdinand). The Vinyl Factory worked with Creed to produce a limited edition of the release which featured hand-painted covers by Creed. The single "You're The One For Me" came out at the same time as the album.
January 2014 saw the release Mind Trap, an album that featured songs alongside instrumental pieces for orchestra. Creed sings and plays the instruments, supported by gospel singers Dee Alexander and Yvonne Gage (who have worked with The Police, Madonna and R.Kelly) and Andy Knowles (musical credits include stints with the Fiery Furnaces & Franz Ferdinand) playing drums on If You're Lonely, You Return and Don't Tell Me. Keiko Owada plays bass on Gift Attack / Don't Won't. Co-produced by Martin with Andy Knowles, the album was recorded in London, Chicago and the Czech Republic. Nick McCarthy of Franz Ferdinand and Mark Ralph (who works with Hot Chip) provided additional production. The Chicago songs, which form the heart of the album, were recorded all-analogue at John McEntire's (Tortoise) Soma Studios. Engineered by Bill Skibbe (The Kills/Franz Ferdinand). It also includes 3 specially commissioned orchestral works: Work No. 955 was originally written for the Birmingham Symphony Orchestra, Work No. 994 was composed for the Hiroshima Symphony Orchestra and Work No. 1375 was commissioned by the London Sinfonietta. These pieces were recorded for the album by the Brno Philharmonic Orchestra conducted by Mikel Toms. All lyrics and music on the album are written by Martin Creed, with the exception of the New Shutters which is Martin's arrangement of a traditional Neapolitan folk song. The album sleeve features one of Martin's paintings, Work No. 1674: Anouchka and was designed by Andy Knowles, who has recently directed videos for Franz Ferdinand and The Cribs. Martin Creed is also much loved by Franz Ferdinand - regular attendees at his gigs and co-producers on his album 'Mind Trap' - as well as Moshi Moshi label-mates Slow Club.
A new body of audiovisual work was released in late November 2015 in response to the Syrian refugee crisis. The double A-side single “Let Them In / Border Control” was made available via Telephone Records as free downloads on SoundCloud. Both songs are accompanied by videos which Creed made himself.
In July 2016, Martin Creed released a new album entitled Thoughts Lined Up. The album includes the singles "Understanding" and "Princess Taxi Girl" for which accompanying videos have been released.
=== Discography ===
=== On art ===
In an interview published in the 2002 book Art Now: Interviews with Modern Artists, Creed explains that he used to 'make paintings' but never liked having to decide what to paint. He decided to stop making paintings and instead to think about what it meant, and why he wanted to make things. He says:
The only thing I feel like I know is that I want to make things. Other than that, I feel like I don’t know. So the problem is in trying to make something without knowing what I want. [...] I think it’s all to do with wanting to communicate. I mean, I think I want to make things because I want to communicate with people, because I want to be loved, because I want to express myself.
Creed says that he makes art works not as part of an academic exploration of 'conceptual' art, but rather from a wish to connect with people, 'wanting to communicate and wanting to say hello'. The work is therefore primarily emotional:
To me it’s emotional. Aye. To me that’s the starting point. I mean, I do it because I want to make something. I think that’s a desire, you know, or a need. I think that I recognise that I want to make something, and so I try to make something. But then you get to thinking about it and that’s where the problems start because you can’t help thinking about it, wondering whether it’s good or bad. But to me it’s emotional more than anything else.
== Exhibitions ==
In 1996, Richard Long and Roger Ackling selected Creed to exhibit at EASTinternational. In the decade since winning the Turner Prize he has exhibited extensively throughout the world, including large survey shows at Trussardi Foundation, Milan ('I Like Things'), Bard College, New York ('Feelings'), and a touring exhibition which started at Ikon Gallery Birmingham and toured to Hiroshima and Seoul.
The first major survey show of Creed's, 'What's the point of it?', took place at the Hayward Gallery, London, in January 2014. The exhibition included a number of his best-known works, from the installation Work No. 227 The Lights Going On and Off (2000), Work No. 293 A sheet of paper crumpled into a ball (2003), to his epic sculpture Work No. 1092 MOTHERS (2011). Coinciding with the exhibition at the Hayward, the Southbank Centre commissioned Martin to compose a new piece for the Royal Festival Hall organ, resulting in Work No. 1815, a performance alongside some of J.S Bach's greatest organ works.
Creed's largest survey show to date took place at Park Avenue Armory, New York from June - August 2016, curated by Tom Eccles and Hans-Ulrich Obrist. Entitled The Back Door, using both the Wade Thompson Drill Hall and the historic interiors of the building, the show brought together a sequence of works from Creed's more than 20-year career.
In 2017 he had an exposition in Museum Voorlinden in the Netherlands titled Say Cheese. In this exhibition he showed a wall with 1000 broccoli prints in various colors, he filled a room with blue balloons for walking through. In another room he showed many metronomes were ticking at different speeds.
In 2019, the Centro Botín Centre held an exhibition called Amigos. It ran from 6 April to 9 June and features several new installations including one put amongst some trees which surround the building.
In 2019, the Museum of Recent Art held an exhibition called Thinking / Not Thinking. It ran from 12 February to 2 May and features several installations.
== Notes and references ==
== Further reading ==
Grosenick, Uta; Riemschneider, Burkhard, eds. (2005). Art Now (25th anniversary ed.). Köln: Taschen. pp. 68–71. ISBN 9783822840931. OCLC 191239335.
== External links ==
Official site
Artkrush.com interview with Martin Creed (April 2006) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_J._Mrazek | Robert J. Mrazek | Robert Jan Mrazek (born November 6, 1945) is an American author, filmmaker, and former politician. He served as a Democratic member of the United States House of Representatives, representing New York's 3rd congressional district on Long Island for most of the 1980s. Since leaving Congress, Mrazek has authored twelve books, earning the W. Y. Boyd Literary Award for Excellence in Military Fiction from the American Library Association, the Michael Shaara award for Civil War fiction, and Best Book (American History) from the Washington Post. He also wrote and co-directed the 2016 feature film The Congressman, which received the Breakout Achievement Award at the AARP's Film Awards in 2017.
== Biography ==
Mrazek was born in Newport to Harold Richard Mrazek (1919-2008) and Blanche Rose (née Slezak, 1915-2007), both of Czech descent. Blanche's maternal grandmother Anna Svašková (1862-1946) was born in Strážovice. Robert grew up in Huntington, New York. He graduated from Cornell University in 1967 with a major in political science, then attended the London Film School in 1968.
He joined the United States Navy in 1967 to serve in the Vietnam War, but was disabled by a training injury at Officer Candidate School in Newport. After a period of hospitalization with wounded Marines, he turned against the war. After his 1968 discharge, he was an aide to U.S. Senator Vance Hartke (1969–1971).
In 1993, he became the founding chairman of the Alaska Wilderness League, an organization dedicated to protecting Alaska's wild lands. He still serves as Honorary Chair with former President Jimmy Carter.
In the mid-1990s he was one of the co-founders of the United Baseball League (UBL) which was a planned third major league.
== Politics ==
=== Elected service ===
He was elected to the Suffolk County Legislature, 1975–1982 and became its minority leader. He was a delegate to the Democratic National Convention in 1980, 1988, and 1992.
Democrat Mrazek was first elected in 1982 to the 98th United States Congress, defeating John LeBoutillier, a one-term Conservative Republican Congressman in the 3rd district. (The districts had been redrawn to reflect the 1980 U.S. Census.)
Mrazek served in the United States House of Representatives from 1983 until he retired in 1993. Freshman members usually do not sit on the House Appropriations Committee, but Mrazek persuaded Speaker of the House of Representatives Tip O'Neill to make an exception for him. After being elected to his fifth term in Congress, Mrazek announced that he would not stand for re-election, choosing instead to explore a run for the United States Senate in 1992. He abandoned this race after being implicated in the House banking scandal.
=== Legislation ===
Mrazek wrote laws to preserve 3,000,000 acres (12,000 km2) of old-growth forest in Alaska's Tongass National Forest and to protect the Manassas Civil War battlefield in Virginia. In international affairs, he wrote a law to hamper the U.S. Government's ability to intervene in Nicaragua; he also wrote the Amerasian Homecoming Act, which brought the children of American military personnel from Vietnam home to the USA. His National Film Preservation Act established the National Film Registry in the Library of Congress.
Edwards Substitute Amendment to Title II, HR 5052 regarding Nicaragua was passed in June 1986; it limited the Reagan Administration's use of $100,000,000 Congress had approved for military assistance to Contras seeking to overthrow the Sandinista National Liberation Front. Four amendments were proposed to put restrictions on the aid; in offering his, Mrazek raised concern that a Gulf of Tonkin type of incident could be exploited by the Reagan Administration to widen the course of the war, since the Contra camps were located along the border between Honduras and Nicaragua, and firefights between the Contras and the Sandanistas erupted regularly along the border. Mrazek argued that if American troops were killed in one of the camps, the Reagan Administration might send American forces into Nicaragua itself. Eventual declassification of secret White House memoranda revealed Mrazek's concerns were justified. Of the four amendments being considered in the House of Representatives to put restrictions on the aid, the only one to win passage was the Mrazek amendment, which banned all U.S. personnel involved in training Contras from coming within 20 miles (32 km) of the Nicaraguan border.
Amerasian Homecoming Act became law in December 1987. In the wake of its passage, approximately 25,000 children fathered by American servicemen during the Vietnam War were brought to the United States. Called bui doi ("children of the dust") by the Vietnamese because their faces and skin color were painful reminders of the war, they faced terrible discrimination in their homeland; often they were even prevented from going to school. By the mid-1980s, thousands were living in the streets. The United States at first refused to take responsibility for them, but in 1987, at the behest of high school students in his Congressional District who wrote a diplomatically worded letter to the Vietnamese mission in NYC, Mrazek went to Vietnam and brought out an American-Vietnamese child named Le Van Minh, who was a beggar in Ho Chi Minh City (Saigon). While in Vietnam, he met dozens of other Amerasian children, many of whom begged to "go to the land of my father." As a result, Mrazek authored the bill, which became law. Since its passage, many of the Amerasians brought to the United States by the bill have found success after graduation from college, as teachers, entrepreneurs, and business people.
Manassas Battlefield Protection Act: With Representative Michael Andrews (D-TX), Mrazek led the fight in the House of Representatives to prevent the Civil War battlefield at Manassas, Virginia, from being turned into a shopping mall. In April, 1988, he inserted an amendment into an appropriations bill that prohibited federal funds from being used to plan and design a needed interchange near the 542-acre (2.19 km2) tract of land. He and Andrews then introduced H.R. 4526, which authorized the federal government to acquire the land and add it to the battlefield park. In the contentious battle over the legislation, Donald Hodel, President Ronald Reagan's Secretary of the Interior, launched personal attacks on Mrazek and Andrews, accusing them of "playing politics" with the battlefield. Nevertheless, the bill drafted by Mrazek was signed into law by President Ronald Reagan in November, 1988.
National Film Preservation Act: In 1988, as classic films like High Noon and Casablanca were being colorized and other early films were being "time-compressed" by television broadcasters to allow the insertion of more commercials, Mrazek introduced a proposal to protect classic American films from significant alteration without the permission of the films' creators. While the proposal was being considered, the "Mrazek Amendment" generated an intense lobbying campaign against its passage, led on behalf of the major film studios by Jack Valenti, President of the Motion Picture Association. At one point, Valenti said the proposal "...puts a spike in the eye of normal House procedure and creates a group which is something out of 1984." The legislation was backed by many members of Hollywood's creative community, including actors Burt Lancaster and James Stewart, directors Steven Spielberg and George Lucas, all of whom wanted to see the integrity of their work preserved without alteration. Ultimately the "moral rights" of the Mrazek amendment prevailed in Congress; its final provisions included the establishment of the National Film Registry, in which 25 films per year deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant" are protected by the Library of Congress. The law also set up the National Film Preservation Board to explore new approaches to saving endangered work. It was signed into law by President Reagan on September 27, 1988.
The Tongass Timber Reform Act, which affected logging operations in the nation's largest national forest, was signed into law by President George H. W. Bush in 1990. First introduced by Mrazek in 1986, the proposed law was the subject of several years of contentious debate between its author and members of the Alaska Congressional delegation, including Representative Don Young (R-AK). After being defeated in a House vote on a Mrazek amendment in 1990, Young allegedly "went berserk," tracked Mrazek down in a House corridor and threatened him with a knife. Mrazek's landmark conservation law revoked the artificially high timber cutting targets, protecting over 2,000,000 acres (8,100 km2) of Tongass's old-growth forest and watershed acreage, and mandated broad buffers for all salmon and resident fishing streams.
=== Awards ===
For his conservation and preservation work, the Directors Guild of America awarded Mrazek its first Legislative Achievement Award in 1987. In 1988, Mrazek, along with Andrews, was named a Conservationist of the Year by the NPCA, the National Parks Conservation Association, for their efforts to protect Manassas National Battlefield from adjacent land development. The Governor of New York gave Mrazek the Commissioner's Preservationist Award in 1990.
In 2017, Mrazek was named one of the Four Legends of Civil War Battlefield Preservation by the American Battlefield Trust.
== Author ==
Since retiring from Congress, Mrazek has published twelve books, including eight novels, and four works of non-fiction; he also wrote the screenplay for the 2016 feature film, The Congressman.
Stonewall's Gold was published by St. Martin's Press in 1999. It won the 1999 Michael Shaara Award for Excellence in Civil War Fiction.
Unholy Fire, Mrazek's second Civil War novel, was published by St. Martin's Press in 2003.
The Deadly Embrace was Mrazek's third novel, a World War II murder/mystery published by Viking Press in 2006. In 2007, The Deadly Embrace earned the W.Y. Boyd Literary Award for Excellence in Military Fiction from the American Library Association as the best military fiction of 2006.
A Dawn Like Thunder: The True Story of Torpedo Squadron Eight, Mrazek's first non-fiction work, was published by Little, Brown & Co., in 2008. A Dawn Like Thunder was named as a "Best Book of 2009 (American History)" by the Washington Post.
The Art Pottery of Joseph Mrazek: A Collector's Guide, was published by Wingspan Press in 2009, and tells the story of Mrazek's grandfather, the noted painter, inventor, and maker of hand-painted Czech pottery between the two world wars.
To Kingdom Come: An Epic Saga of Survival in the Air War Over Germany, published by NAL-Penguin in 2011, is an account of the ill-fated bombing mission of the American Air Force "Flying Fortress" team sent to raid Stuttgart in September, 1943. It was chosen as a main selection of the Military and History Book Club.
Valhalla, a contemporary thriller involving the discovery of an ancient Viking ship and its crew beneath the Greenland Ice Cap, was published by Penguin/Random House in 2014.
The Bone Hunters, the sequel to Valhalla, also published by Penguin/Random House in 2014, tells the story of the search for the legendary fossil, Peking Man, which disappeared during the Japanese occupation of Peking in December, 1941, and has never been found.
And the Sparrow Fell, published by Cornell University Press in 2017, is a coming-of-age tale set against the backdrop of the Vietnam War.
Dead Man's Bridge: A Jake Cantrell Mystery, published by Crooked Lane Books on August 8, 2017, is the first installment of the Jake Cantrell mystery series.
The Indomitable Florence Finch: The Untold Story of a War Widow Turned Resistance Fighter and Savior of American POWs, published by Hachette Books on July 21, 2020, tells the story of an unsung World War II heroine who saved countless American lives in the Philippines.
The Dark Circle, published by Crooked Lane Books on August 12, 2022, is the second installment in the highly praised Jake Cantrell mystery series.
== Filmmaking ==
Mrazek, who attended the London Film School in 1968, wrote and co-directed his first feature film, The Congressman, which premiered in Washington, D.C., in April 2016. The film stars Treat Williams, Elizabeth Marvel, Ryan Merriman, George Hamilton, Jayne Atkinson, Fritz Weaver, and Marshall Bell.
== Publications ==
Robert J., Mrazek (2015). The Bone Hunters. Signet. ISBN 9780451468734. OCLC 907167280.
Mrazek, Robert J. (2014). Valhalla: A contemporary thriller involving the discovery of an ancient Viking ship and its crew beneath the Greenland Ice Cap (1st ed.). New York: Penguin Books/Random House. ISBN 978-0-45-146872-7.
Mrazek, Robert J. (2008). A Dawn Like Thunder: The True Story of Torpedo Squadron Eight (1st ed.). New York: Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 978-0-316-02139-5.
Mrazek, Robert J. (2006). The Deadly Embrace: A Novel of World War II. New York: Viking Press. ISBN 0-670-03478-9. OCLC 61240657.
Mrazek, Robert J. (2003). Unholy Fire: A Novel of the Civil War (1st ed.). New York: Thomas Dunne Books. ISBN 0-312-30673-3.
Mrazek, Robert J. (1999). Stonewall's Gold: A Novel. maps by Martie Holmer (1st ed.). New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-20024-2.
Adapted for audio (six cassettes), read by Jeff Woodman, Recorded Books, 1999.
== References ==
== External links ==
Robert J. Mrazek's website
United States Congress. "Robert J. Mrazek (id: M001057)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress.
Appearances on C-SPAN |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldsboro,_North_Carolina | Goldsboro, North Carolina | Goldsboro, originally Goldsborough, is a city in and the county seat of Wayne County, North Carolina, United States. The population was 33,657 at the 2020 census. It is the principal city of and is included in the Goldsboro, North Carolina Metropolitan Statistical Area. The nearby town of Waynesboro was founded in 1787, and Goldsboro was incorporated in 1847.
The city is situated in North Carolina's Coastal Plain and is bordered on the south by the Neuse River and the west by the Little River, approximately 40 miles (64 km) southwest of Greenville, 50 miles (80 km) southeast of Raleigh, the state capital, and 75 miles (121 km) north of Wilmington in Southeastern North Carolina. Seymour Johnson Air Force Base is located in Goldsboro.
== History ==
Around 1787, when Wayne County was formed, a town named Waynesborough grew around the county's courthouse. In 1787, William Whitfield III (son of William Whitfield II) and his son were appointed "Directors and Trustees"
for designing and building the town. Located on the east bank of the Neuse River, the town became the county seat. Population growth in Waynesborough continued through the 1830s. However, this changed once the Wilmington and Weldon Railroad was completed in the early 1840s. By then, a hotel had been built at the intersection of the railroad and New Bern Road, which grew into a community after the train started to transport passengers from there.
More and more citizens soon relocated from Waynesborough to this growing village, named eventually "Goldsborough's Junction" after Major Matthew T. Goldsborough, an Assistant Chief Engineer with the railroad line. Later this was shortened simply to Goldsborough. In 1847, the town was incorporated and became the new Wayne County seat following a vote of the citizens of Wayne County. Local legend has it the Goldsborough supporters put moonshine in the town's well to encourage people to vote for Goldsborough.
In the following decades, Goldsborough's growth continued in part by new railroad connections to Charlotte and Beaufort. By 1861, the town's population was estimated to be 1,500. It was the trading center of a rural area that started with yeoman farmers. By this time, it had been developed as large cotton plantations dependent on the labor of enslaved African Americans, as the invention of the cotton gin had enabled profitable cultivation of short-staple cotton in the up-counties.
Because of its importance as railroad junction, Goldsborough played a significant role in the Civil War, both for stationing Confederate troops and for transporting their supplies. The town also provided hospitals for soldiers wounded in nearby battles.
In December 1862, the Battle of Goldsborough Bridge was waged, in which both sides fought for possession of the strategically significant Wilmington and Weldon Railroad Bridge. Union General John Foster arrived with his troops on December 17, aiming to destroy this bridge in order to put an end to the vital supply chain from the port of Wilmington. He succeeded on that same day, his troops overpowering the small number of defending Confederate soldiers and burning down the bridge. On their way back to New Bern, Foster's men were attacked again by Confederate troops, but they survived with fewer casualties than the enemy. The important bridge at Goldsborough was rebuilt in a matter of weeks.
Goldsborough was the scene of another Union offensive in 1865, during Union General Sherman's Carolinas campaign. After the battles of Bentonville and Wyse Fork, Sherman's forces met with the armies of Schofield, their troops taking over the city in March. During the following three weeks, Goldsborough was occupied by over 100,000 Union soldiers. After the war was over, some of these troops continued to stay in the city.
In 1869, the spelling of the city was officially changed to Goldsboro. Wayne County was part of North Carolina's 2nd congressional district following the Civil War, when it was known as the "Black Second", for its majority-black population. This district elected four Republican African Americans to Congress in the 19th century, three of them after the Reconstruction era. The attorney George Henry White was the last to serve, being elected in 1894 and serving two terms.
The Democrat-dominated legislature established legal racial segregation in public facilities. To further this, in the 1880s it authorized a facility to serve the black mentally ill, the State Hospital in Goldsboro. In 1899 the legislature authorized an addition but did not appropriate sufficient funds. This operated until after passage of civil rights legislation requiring integration of public facilities. In addition, the hospital was affected by the 1970s movement to de-institutionalize care for the mentally ill. Most states have failed to adequately support community programs to replace such facilities.
During World War II the North Carolina congressional delegation was successful in gaining the present-day Seymour Johnson Air Force Base, which opened on the outskirts of Goldsboro in April 1942 as a US Army Air Forces installation named Seymour Johnson Field. From this point on, the city's population and businesses increased as a result of the federal defense installation. The base's name was changed to Seymour Johnson AFB in 1947 following the establishment of the US Air Force as an independent service.
The city is home to Goldsboro Milling Company, the 10th largest producer of hogs in the U.S., and also a major producer of turkeys.
The Borden Manufacturing Company, First Presbyterian Church, L. D. Giddens and Son Jewelry Store, Goldsboro Union Station, Harry Fitzhugh Lee House, Odd Fellows Lodge, and Solomon and Henry Weil Houses are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
=== Nuclear accident ===
In 1961, two 3.8 megaton hydrogen bombs were dropped accidentally on the village of Faro, 12 miles (19 km) north of Goldsboro, after a B-52 aircraft broke up in mid air. The two Mark 39 nuclear bombs were released after the crew abandoned a B-52 bomber which had suffered mid-flight structural failure. Both bombs went through several steps in the arming sequence, but neither detonated. One bomb was recovered. Although much of the second bomb was also recovered, a missing piece containing uranium was believed to have sunk deep into the swampy earth and could not be recovered. The piece remains in land that the Air Force eventually purchased in order to prevent any land use or digging. In 2013, it was revealed that three safety mechanisms on one bomb had failed, leaving just one low-voltage switch preventing detonation.
== Geography ==
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 24.8 square miles (64 km2), of which 24.8 square miles (64 km2) is land and 0.04 square miles (0.10 km2) (0.08%) is water.
The Neuse River defines the southern boundary of the city.
Little River is a class WS-III river that provides the water source for Goldsboro.
It runs through the west of the city, and joins the Neuse River about 2 miles (3.2 km) south of US 70.
Stoney Creek runs through the east of the city between downtown and the Seymour Johnson Air Force Base.
As of 1982 the Goldsboro waste-water treatment plant accounted for 59% of total effluent discharged into the Neuse between Clayton and Kinston.
The closest lakes to the city center are McArthur Lake, 3.3 miles (5.3 km) to the southwest, Cedar Lake, 4.6 miles (7.4 km) to the north and Quaker Neck Lake, 4.7 miles (7.6 km) to the west.
Quaker Neck Lake is an artificial lake that supplies cooling water to the H.F. Lee Energy Complex.
The closest reservoirs are Cogdells Pond, 2.6 miles (4.2 km) to the northeast and Wills Pond, 5.4 miles (8.7 km) to the west.
Wills Pond is also known as Bear Creek W/S Lake Number Four.
Wills Pond impounds Old Mill Branch, a tributary of Bear Creek that flows east and enters Bear Creek near its headwaters.
=== Climate ===
Goldsboro's location on the Atlantic Coastal Plain lends it a Humid subtropical climate, with hot humid summers and cool winters. The hottest month is July, with an average high temperature of 91 °F (31 °C), and an average low of 71 °F (22 °C). The coldest month is January, with an average high of 54 °F (11 °C), and an average low of 34 °F (0 °C). Annual total rainfall is 52.53 inches (1,334 mm), falling relatively evenly with a slight wet season in the late summer/early fall. Some light to moderate snowfall can take place in winter, but amounts can fluctuate greatly and can range from no snow to totals over one foot (30 cm) in some years.
== Demographics ==
=== 2020 census ===
As of the 2020 United States census, there were 33,657 people, 14,404 households, and 8,320 families residing in the city.
=== 2019 ===
As of 2019 census estimates, there were 34,186 people and 14,339 households residing in the city. The population density was 1,214.9 inhabitants per square mile (469.1/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 52.7% African American, 39.9% White, 0.3% Native American, 2.2% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, and 4.4% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5.8% of the population.
The median income for a household in the city was $33,043, and the median income for a family was $59,844. Males had a median income of $55,223 versus $56,850 for females. The per capita income for the city was $21,666. About 26.2% of the population were below the poverty line.
== Arts and culture ==
=== Sites of interest ===
Cliffs of the Neuse State Park is a state park located near the city. It covers 751 acres (3.04 km2) along the southern banks of the Neuse River. It has a swimming area, several hiking trails, fishing areas, a nature museum, and picnic areas. The cliffs rise 90 feet above the Neuse River.
Waynesborough Historical Village is a reconstructed "village" located near the original site of the town of Waynesborough. It is home to historical Wayne County buildings ranging from various periods of time. These buildings include a family home, a medical office, a one-room school, a law office, and a Quaker Meeting House.
Herman Park includes a recreational center, miniature train, tennis courts, picnic shelters, a turn-of-the-century park house, gazebo, goldfish pond, fountain, and children's playground.
The Oheb Shalom synagogue's Romanesque Revival building is one of fewer than a hundred nineteenth-century synagogues still standing in the United States, and the second oldest synagogue building in the state.
== Government ==
Chuck Allen served as the city's Mayor, succeeding Alfonzo "Al" King in 2016 who succeeded Hal Plonk in 2002. As mayor, Allen was the official and ceremonial head of city government and presides at all City Council meetings. The mayor and the city council are elected to office for a four-year term. Goldsboro has a council-manager government. As of 2020, the city manager is Tim Salmon.
In June 2021, Allen abruptly resigned citing health issues. As of 2022, the city's mayor is Charles Gaylor.
=== City council ===
1st District: Hiawatha Jones
2nd District: Bill Broadway
3rd District: Taj Polak
4th District: Brandi Matthews
5th District: Charles Gaylor
6th District: Greg Batts
=== Federal representatives ===
Goldsboro has been in North Carolina's 7th congressional district since January 3, 2017, and is currently represented by Republican David Rouzer. Beginning on January 3, 2021, Goldsboro was placed in North Carolina's 1st congressional district and was represented by Democrat G. K. Butterfield.
Goldsboro is represented in the Senate by Republicans Ted Budd and Thom Tillis.
== Education ==
=== Colleges ===
North Carolina Wesleyan College Goldsboro campus
Wayne Community College
=== High schools ===
Eastern Wayne High School
Goldsboro High School
Rosewood High School
Wayne Early/Middle College High School
Wayne School of Engineering
Charles B. Aycock High School
Spring Creek High School
Southern Wayne High School
Wayne School of Technical Arts
=== Middle schools ===
Dillard Middle School
Eastern Wayne Middle School
Greenwood Middle School
Rosewood Middle School
Brogden Middle School
Norwayne Middle School
Spring Creek Middle School
=== Elementary schools ===
Carver Heights Elementary School
Dillard Academy Charter School
Eastern Wayne Elementary School
Grantham Elementary School
Meadow Lane Elementary School
North Drive Elementary School
Rosewood Elementary School
School Street Early Learning Center
Spring Creek Elementary School
Tommy's Road Elementary School
• Northwest Elementary School
• Northeast Elementary School
=== Private schools ===
Faith Christian Academy
Pathway Christian Academy
St. Mary Catholic School
Wayne Christian School
Wayne Country Day School
Wayne Preparatory Academy
== Media ==
=== Newspaper ===
The Goldsboro News-Argus is a paid subscription to Goldsboro's daily newspaper with a circulation of approximately 16,500.
Goldsboro Daily News is a free online daily newspaper.
=== Television ===
Goldsboro supports one television station. WHFL TV 43 is a low-power broadcast station on UHF channel 43 and is also found on two local cable networks. The station is a FamilyNet affiliate and carries religious, local, and family programming. The area is also served by television stations from the Raleigh-Durham and Greenville areas. CBS affiliate WNCN-TV, Channel 17, is licensed to Goldsboro but has its studios in Raleigh. Up until August 2010, a Public, educational, and government access (PEG) cable TV station called PACC-10 TV was available to Time Warner Cable customers. The station aired its own programming as well as City Council and County Commissioner meetings. Time Warner Cable transferred the channel to Wayne County which currently provides local announcements and community interest programming.
=== Radio stations based in Goldsboro ===
WZKT 97.7 FM Country
WFMC 730 AM Spanish CHR (formally Black Gospel; changed in 2025)
WGBR 1150 AM News/Talk
WSSG 1300 AM/92.7 FM JAMZ Urban
== Infrastructure ==
=== Transportation ===
The closest civilian airport is Wayne Executive Jetport, but is only used for general aviation. The nearest public commercial airport is Pitt-Greenville Airport (IATA: PGV) in Greenville about 36 miles northeast of Goldsboro. However, most residents use Raleigh-Durham International Airport for domestic and international travel.
Major highways that run through the city are US 70 (the main thoroughfare through Goldsboro), US 13, US 117, NC 111, and NC 581. I-795 now connects Goldsboro to I-95 in Wilson.
The Goldsboro Bypass which was formerly a route of U.S. 70 was fully opened in May 2016. Previously NC 44 while partially open and under construction, it became US 70 Byp. upon completion and has now been designated as I-42.
The city has a bus system known as Gateway which runs four routes.
Until the 1960s, the Southern Railway and the Seaboard Coast Line ran passenger trains in and out of Goldsboro Union Station to points west, north and south.
=== Hospitals ===
Wayne Memorial Hospital (North Carolina), a medical facility located in Goldsboro, is the county's second-largest employer.
Cherry Hospital is a psychiatric hospital which first started in 1880 as a facility to treat mentally ill African Americans. A museum depicting its history is also part of the hospital campus.
O'Berry Neuro-Medical Center is a North Carolina Department of Health and Human Services hospital providing rehabilitative services to people with intellectual disabilities/ developmental disabilities.
== Notable people ==
George Altman, baseball player for Chicago Cubs
Christopher R. Barron, member of board of directors and co-founder of GOProud
Curtis Hooks Brogden, 19th-century politician
Dan Bullock, United States Marine, Private First Class, Vietnam War
Doris Coley, singer, member of The Shirelles
Annie Dove Denmark, educator
Jimmy Graham, tight end for New Orleans Saints and Seattle Seahawks
Johnny Grant, radio personality, television producer and honorary mayor of Hollywood
Andy Griffith, actor, lived in Goldsboro, teaching English, drama, and music at Goldsboro High School
John W. Gulick, U.S. Army major general
Anne Jeffreys, actress, born Annie Jeffreys Carmichael on January 26, 1923, in Goldsboro, North Carolina
John H. Kerr, III, state senator
Joshua Kindred, US federal judge in Alaska
Clyde King, baseball pitcher and manager of Atlanta Braves and New York Yankees
Jerry Narron, baseball catcher and coach, and manager of Texas Rangers and Cincinnati Reds
Mark O'Meara, golfer who won 1998 Masters and British Open
Jarran Reed, NFL defensive tackle
Kenneth Claiborne Royall, Army general and last Secretary of War
Dave Simmons, football player for four NFL teams
David Thornton, football player for Tennessee Titans and Indianapolis Colts
Big Daddy V, former WWE wrestler. His real name was Nelson Frazier Jr
Greg Warren, long snapper for Pittsburgh Steelers
Joby Warrick, winner of two Pulitzer Prizes
Thomas Washington, an admiral during World War I
William Henry Washington, 19th-century politician
Coby White, NBA basketball player for Chicago Bulls
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Geographic data related to Goldsboro, North Carolina at OpenStreetMap |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaspy#:~:text=Gaspy%20was%20started%20in%202016,of%20Hwem%20to%20potential%20clients. | Gaspy | Gaspy is a crowd-sourced petrol price monitoring application for New Zealand. It based in Tauranga and available for both iPhone and Android. Prices are entered into the app by motorists. As of March 2020 the app has half a million users. A founder of Gaspy says that 97 percent of the app's data is accurate, and that the data is externally audited.
== History ==
Gaspy was started in 2016 by Larry Green and three other directors of Hwem, a technology company. It was a "philanthropic sideproject, 'for kicks'". Originally Gaspy was made to demonstrate engineering capabilities of Hwem to potential clients. It was also created as a game, where members would play as characters who would achieve spy ranks depending on how much they contribute to the app.
Once the app reached 200,000, the Commerce Commission, who was studying fuel prices, used Gaspy's data. The study found that consumers were paying too much for fuel, and made propositions on how to make the market more competitive. In 2020 Gaspy reached 500,000 members.
In 2023 after the 2022 New Zealand fuel tax subsidy was removed, Gaspy membership numbers surged. In one day, it received an increase of 6500 members, compared to its usual 500 new members per day. During this time, Gaspy reached 146,500 active users in a day, compared to numbers averaging between 35,000 and 60,000.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammoth_Cave_National_Park#:~:text=It%20was%20named%20a%20World,Park%20on%20October%2028%2C%202021. | Mammoth Cave National Park | Mammoth Cave National Park is a national park of the United States in south-central Kentucky. It encompasses portions of Mammoth Cave, the longest known cave system in the world. The park's 52,007 acres (21,046 ha) are located primarily in Edmonson County, with small areas extending eastward into Hart and Barren counties. The Green River runs through the park, with a tributary called the Nolin River feeding into the Green just inside the park.
The cave system has formally been known as the Mammoth–Flint Ridge Cave System since 1972, when a connection was discovered between Mammoth Cave and the even longer system under Flint Ridge to the north. As of 2025, more than 426 miles (686 km) of passageways had been surveyed, over 1.5 times longer than the second-longest cave system, Mexico's Sac Actun underwater cave.
The park was established as a national park on July 1, 1941, after oft-contentious eminent domain proceedings whose consequences still affect the region. It was named a World Heritage Site on October 27, 1981; an international Biosphere Reserve on September 26, 1990; and an International Dark Sky Park on October 28, 2021.
== Mission ==
The park's mission is stated in its foundation document:
The purpose of Mammoth Cave National Park is to preserve, protect, interpret, and study the internationally recognized biological and geologic features and processes associated with the longest known cave system in the world, the park’s diverse forested karst landscape, the Green and Nolin rivers, and extensive evidence of human history; and to provide and promote public enjoyment, recreation, and understanding.
== Geology ==
Mammoth Cave developed in thick Mississippian-aged limestone strata capped by a layer of sandstone, which has made the system remarkably stable. It is known to include more than 426 miles (686 km) of passageway. New discoveries and connections add several miles/kilometers to this figure each year.
The upper sandstone member is known as the Big Clifty Sandstone. Thin, sparse layers of limestone interspersed within the sandstone give rise to an epikarstic zone, in which tiny conduits (cave passages too small to enter) are dissolved by the natural acidity of groundwater. The epikarstic zone concentrates local flows of runoff into high-elevation springs which emerge at the edges of ridges. The resurgent water from these springs typically flows briefly on the surface before sinking underground again at the elevation of contact between the sandstone caprock and the underlying massive limestones. It is in these underlying massive limestone layers that the human-explorable caves of the region have naturally developed.
The limestone layers of the stratigraphic column beneath the Big Clifty, in increasing order of depth below the ridgetops, are the Girkin Formation, the Ste. Genevieve Limestone, and the St. Louis Limestone. The large Main Cave passage seen on the Historic Tour is located at the bottom of the Girkin and the top of the Ste. Genevieve Formation.
Each of the primary layers of limestone is divided further into named geological units and sub-units. One area of cave research involves correlating the stratigraphy with the cave survey produced by explorers. This makes it possible to produce approximate three-dimensional maps of the contours of the various layer boundaries without the necessity for test wells and extracting core samples.
The upper sandstone caprock is relatively hard for water to penetrate: the exceptions are where vertical cracks occur. This protective layer means that many of the older, upper passages of the cave system are very dry, with no stalactites, stalagmites, or other formations which require flowing or dripping water to develop.
However, the sandstone caprock layer has been dissolved and eroded at many locations within the park, such as the Frozen Niagara room. The contact between limestone and sandstone can be found by hiking from the valley bottoms to the ridgetops: typically, as one approaches the top of a ridge, one sees the outcrops of exposed rock change in composition from limestone to sandstone at a well-defined elevation.
At one valley bottom in the southern region of the park, a massive sinkhole has developed. Known as Cedar Sink, the sinkhole features a small river entering one side and disappearing back underground at the other side.
== Visiting ==
The National Park Service offers several cave tours to visitors. Some notable features of the cave, such as Grand Avenue, Frozen Niagara, and Fat Man's Misery, can be seen on lighted tours ranging from one to six hours in length. Two tours, lit only by visitor-carried paraffin lamps, are popular alternatives to the electric-lit routes. Several "wild" tours venture away from the developed parts of the cave into muddy crawls and dusty tunnels.
The Echo River Tour, one of the cave's most famous attractions, took visitors on a boat ride along an underground river. The tour was discontinued for logistical and environmental reasons in the early 1990s.
Mammoth Cave headquarters and visitor center is located on Mammoth Cave Parkway. The park can be accessed directly from I-65 at Exit 48. The parkway connects with Kentucky Route 70 from the north and Kentucky Route 255 from the south within the park.
== History ==
=== Prehistory ===
Human activity in Mammoth Cave traces back five thousand years. Several sets of Native American remains have been recovered from Mammoth Cave, or other nearby caves in the region, in both the 19th and 20th centuries. Most were mummies, representing examples of intentional burial, with ample evidence of pre-Columbian funerary practice.
An exception to purposeful burial was discovered when in 1935 the remains of an adult male were found under a large boulder. The boulder had shifted and settled onto the victim, a pre-Columbian miner, who had disturbed the rubble supporting it. The remains of the ancient victim were named "Lost John" and exhibited to the public into the 1970s, when they were interred in a secret location in Mammoth Cave for reasons of preservation as well as emerging political sensitivities with respect to the public display of Native American remains.
Research beginning in the late 1950s led by Patty Jo Watson, of Washington University in St. Louis has done much to illuminate the lives of the late Archaic and early Woodland peoples who explored and exploited caves in the region. Preserved by the constant cave environment, dietary evidence yielded carbon dates enabling Watson and others to determine the age of the specimens. An analysis of their content, also pioneered by Watson, allows determination of the relative content of plant and meat in the diet of either culture over a period spanning several thousand years. This analysis indicates a timed transition from a hunter-gatherer culture to plant domestication and agriculture.
Another technique employed in archaeological research, at Mammoth Cave, was "experimental archaeology" in which modern explorers were sent into the cave using the same technology as that employed by the ancient cultures whose leftover implements lie discarded in many parts of the cave. The goal was to gain insight into the problems faced by the ancient people who explored the cave, by placing the researchers in a similar physical situation.
Ancient human remains and artifacts within the caves are protected by various federal and state laws. One of the most basic facts to be determined about a newly discovered artifact is its precise location and situation. Even slightly moving a prehistoric artifact contaminates it from a research perspective. Explorers are properly trained not to disturb archaeological evidence, and some areas of the cave remain out-of-bounds for even seasoned explorers, unless the subject of the trip is archaeological research on that area.
Besides the remains that have been discovered in the portion of the cave accessible through the historic entrance of Mammoth Cave, the remains of cane torches used by Native Americans as well as other artifacts such as drawings, gourd fragments, and woven grass moccasin slippers are found in the Salts Cave section of the system in Flint Ridge.
=== Earliest written history ===
The 31,000-acre (13,000 ha) tract known as the "Pollard Survey" was sold by indenture on September 10, 1791 in Philadelphia by William Pollard. 19,897 acres (8,052 ha) of the "Pollard Survey" between the North bank of Bacon Creek and the Green River were purchased by Thomas Lang Jr., a British-American merchant from Yorkshire, England, on June 3, 1796, for £4,116/13s/0d (£4,116.65). The land was lost to a local county tax claim during the War of 1812.
Legend has it that the first European to visit Mammoth Cave was either John Houchin or his brother Francis Houchin, in 1797. While hunting, Houchin pursued a wounded bear to the cave's large entrance opening near the Green River. Some Houchin Family tales have John Decatur "Johnny Dick" Houchin as the discoverer of the cave, but this is highly unlikely because Johnny Dick was only 10 years old in 1797 and was unlikely to be out hunting bears at such an age. His father John is the more likely candidate from that branch of the family tree, but the most probable candidate for discoverer of Mammoth Cave is Francis "Frank" Houchin, whose land was much closer to the cave entrance than his brother John's. There is also the argument that their brother Charles Houchin, who was known as a great hunter and trapper, was the man who shot that bear and chased it into the cave. The shadow over Charles's claim is the fact that he was residing in Illinois until 1801. Contrary to this story is Brucker and Watson's The Longest Cave, which asserts that the cave was "certainly known before that time." Caves in the area were known before the discovery of the entrance to Mammoth Cave. Even Francis Houchin had a cave entrance on his land very near the bend in the Green River known as the Turnhole, which is less than a mile from the main entrance of Mammoth Cave.
The land containing this historic entrance was first surveyed and registered in 1798 under the name of Valentine Simon. Simon began exploiting Mammoth Cave for its saltpeter reserves.
=== 19th century ===
In partnership with Valentine Simon, various other individuals would own the land through the War of 1812, when Mammoth Cave's saltpeter reserves became significant due to the Jefferson Embargo Act of 1807 which prohibited all foreign trade. The blockade starved the American military of saltpeter and therefore gunpowder. As a result, the domestic price of saltpeter rose and production based on nitrates extracted from caves such as Mammoth Cave became more lucrative.
In July 1812, the cave was purchased from Simon and other owners by Charles Wilkins and an investor from Philadelphia named Hyman Gratz. Soon the cave was being mined for calcium nitrate on an industrial scale, utilizing a labor force of 70 slaves to build and operate the soil leaching apparatus, as well as to haul the raw soil from deep in the cave to the central processing site.
A half-interest in the cave changed hands for $10,000 (equivalent to over $150,000 in 2020). After the war when prices fell, the workings were abandoned and it became a minor tourist attraction centering on a Native American mummy discovered nearby.
When Wilkins died his estate's executors sold his interest in the cave to Gratz. In the spring of 1838, the cave was sold by the Gratz brothers to Franklin Gorin, who intended to operate Mammoth Cave purely as a tourist attraction, the bottom long having since fallen out of the saltpeter market. Gorin was a slave owner, and used his slaves as tour guides. Stephen Bishop was one of these slaves and would make a number of important contributions to human knowledge of the cave, becoming one of Mammoth Cave's most celebrated historical figures.
Stephen Bishop was an African-American slave and a guide to the cave during the 1840s and 1850s, was one of the first people to make extensive maps of the cave, and named many of the cave's features.
Stephen Bishop was introduced to Mammoth Cave in 1838 by Franklin Gorin. Gorin wrote, after Bishop's death: "I placed a guide in the cave – the celebrated and great Stephen, and he aided in making the discoveries. He was the first person who ever crossed the Bottomless Pit, and he, myself and another person whose name I have forgotten were the only persons ever at the bottom of Gorin's Dome to my knowledge."
"After Stephen crossed the Bottomless Pit, we discovered all that part of the cave now known beyond that point. Previous to those discoveries, all interest centered in what is known as the 'Old Cave' ... but now many of the points are but little known, although as Stephen was wont to say, they were 'grand, gloomy and peculiar'."
In 1839, John Croghan of Louisville bought the Mammoth Cave Estate, including Bishop and its other slaves from their previous owner, Franklin Gorin. Croghan briefly ran an ill-fated tuberculosis hospital in the cave in 1842–43, the vapors of which he believed would cure his patients. A widespread epidemic of the period, tuberculosis would ultimately claim the life of Dr. Croghan in 1849.
In 1866, the first photos from within the Mammoth Cave were taken by Charles Waldack, a photographer from Cincinnati, Ohio, using a very dangerous method of flash photography called magnesium flash photography.
Throughout the 19th century, the fame of Mammoth Cave would grow so that the cave became an international sensation. At the same time, the cave attracted the attention of 19th century writers such as Robert Montgomery Bird, the Rev. Robert Davidson, the Rev. Horace Martin, Alexander Clark Bullitt, Nathaniel Parker Willis (who visited in June 1852), Bayard Taylor (in May 1855), William Stump Forwood (in spring 1867), the naturalist John Muir (early September 1867), the Rev. Horace Carter Hovey, and others. As a result of the growing renown of Mammoth Cave, the cave boasted famous visitors such as actor Edwin Booth (his brother, John Wilkes Booth, assassinated Abraham Lincoln in 1865), singer Jenny Lind (who visited the cave on April 5, 1851), and violinist Ole Bull who together gave a concert in one of the caves. Two chambers in the caves have since been known as "Booth's Amphitheatre" and "Ole Bull's Concert Hall".
=== Early 20th century: The Kentucky Cave Wars ===
The difficulties of farming life in the hardscrabble, poor soil of the cave-country influenced local owners of smaller nearby caves to see opportunities for commercial exploitation, particularly given the success of Mammoth Cave as a tourist attraction. The "Kentucky Cave Wars" was a period of bitter competition between local cave owners for tourist money. Broad tactics of deception were used to lure visitors away from their intended destination to other private show caves. Misleading signs were placed along the roads leading to the Mammoth Cave. A typical strategy during the early days of automobile travel involved representatives (known as "cappers") of other private show caves hopping aboard a tourist's car's running board, and leading the passengers to believe that Mammoth Cave was closed, quarantined, caved in or otherwise inaccessible.
In 1906, Mammoth Cave became accessible by steamboat with the construction of a lock and dam at Brownsville, Kentucky.
In 1908, Max Kämper, a young German mining engineer, arrived at the cave by way of New York. Kämper had just graduated from technical college and his family had sent him on a trip abroad as a graduation present. Originally intending to spend two weeks at Mammoth Cave, Kämper spent several months. With the assistance of Ed Bishop, a Mammoth Cave Guide, Kämper produced a remarkably accurate instrumental survey of many kilometers of Mammoth Cave, including many new discoveries. Reportedly, Kämper also produced a corresponding survey of the land surface overlying the cave: this information was to be useful in the opening of other entrances to the cave, as soon happened with the Violet City entrance.
The Croghan family suppressed the topographic element of Kämper's map, and it is not known to survive today, although the cave map portion of Kämper's work stands as a triumph of accurate cave cartography: not until the early 1960s and the advent of the modern exploration period would these passages be surveyed and mapped with greater accuracy. Kämper returned to Berlin, and from the point of the 1906 construction of the dam at Brownsville, pointing out that this made a full hydrologic study of the cave impossible. Among his precise descriptions of the hydrogeologic setting of Mammoth Cave, Martel offered the speculative conclusion that Mammoth Cave was connected to Salts and Colossal Caves: this would not be proven correct until 60 years after Martel's visit.
In the early 1920s, George Morrison created, via blasting, a number of entrances to Mammoth Cave on land not owned by the Croghan Estate. Absent the data from the Croghan's secretive surveys, performed by Kämper, Bishop, and others, which had not been published in a form suitable for determining the geographic extent of the cave, it was now conclusively shown that the Croghans had been for years exhibiting portions of Mammoth Cave which were not under land they owned. Lawsuits were filed and, for a time, different entrances to the cave were operated in direct competition with each other.
In the early 20th century, Floyd Collins spent ten years exploring the Flint Ridge Cave System (the most important legacy of these explorations was his discovery of Floyd Collins' Crystal Cave and exploration in Salts Cave) before dying at Sand Cave, Kentucky, in 1925. While exploring Sand Cave, he dislodged a rock onto his leg while in a tight crawlway and was unable to be rescued before dying of starvation. Attempts to rescue Collins created a mass media sensation; the resulting publicity would draw prominent Kentuckians to initiate a movement which would result in the formation of Mammoth Cave National Park in 1941.
=== The national park movement (1926–1941) ===
As the last of the Croghan heirs died, advocacy grew among wealthy citizens of Kentucky for the establishment of Mammoth Cave National Park. Private citizens formed the Mammoth Cave National Park Association in 1924. The park was authorized May 25, 1926.
Donated funds were used to purchase some farmsteads in the region, while other tracts within the proposed national park boundary were acquired by right of eminent domain. Unlike national parks in the sparsely populated American West, thousands of people were forced to move to form Mammoth Cave National Park. Eminent domain proceedings were often bitter, with landowners paid what were considered to be inadequate sums. The displacement and resulting acrimony received little notice outside of the affected communities.
For legal reasons, the federal government was prohibited from restoring or developing the cleared farmsteads while the private Association held the land: this regulation was evaded by the operation of "a maximum of four" CCC camps from May 22, 1933 to July 1942.
According to the National Park Service, "By May 22, 1936, 27,402 acres (11,089 ha) of land had been acquired and accepted by the Secretary of the Interior. The area was declared a national park on July 1, 1941, when the minimum of 45,310 acres (18,340 ha) (over 600 parcels) had been assembled."
Superintendent Hoskins later wrote of a summer tanager named Pete who arrived at the guide house on or around every April 20, starting in 1938. The bird ate from food held in the hands of the guides, to the delight of visitors, and provided food to his less-tame mate.
=== Birth of the national park (1941) ===
Mammoth Cave National Park was dedicated on July 1, 1941. The same year saw the incorporation of the National Speleological Society. R. Taylor Hoskins, the second Acting Superintendent under the old Association, became the first official Superintendent, a position he held until 1951.
The New Entrance, closed to visitors since 1941, was reopened on December 26, 1951, becoming the entrance used for the beginning of the Frozen Niagara tour.
=== The longest cave (1954–1972) ===
By 1954, Mammoth Cave National Park's land holdings encompassed all lands within its outer boundary with the exception of two privately held tracts. One of these, the old Lee Collins farm, had been sold to Harry Thomas of Horse Cave, Kentucky, whose grandson, William "Bill" Austin, operated Collins Crystal Cave as a show cave in direct competition with the national park, which was forced to maintain roads leading to the property.
In February 1954, a two-week expedition under the auspices of the National Speleological Society was organized at the invitation of Austin: this expedition became known as C-3, or the Collins Crystal Cave Expedition.
The C-3 expedition drew public interest, first from a photo essay published by Robert Halmi in the July 1954 issue of True Magazine and later from the publication of a double first-person account of the expedition, The Caves Beyond: The Story of the Collins Crystal Cave Expedition by Joe Lawrence Jr. (then president of the National Speleological Society) and Roger Brucker. The expedition proved conclusively that passages in Crystal Cave extended toward Mammoth Cave proper, at least exceeding the Crystal Cave property boundaries. However, this information was closely held by the explorers: it was feared that the National Park Service might forbid exploration were this known.
In 1955, Crystal Cave was connected by survey with Unknown Cave, the first connection in the Flint Ridge system.
Some of the participants in the C-3 expedition wished to continue their explorations past the conclusion of the C-3 Expedition, and organized as the Flint Ridge Reconnaissance under the guidance of Austin, Jim Dyer, John J. Lehrberger and E. Robert Pohl. This organization was incorporated in 1957 as the Cave Research Foundation. The organization sought to legitimize the cave explorers' activity through the support of original academic and scientific research. Notable scientists who studied Mammoth Cave during this period include Patty Jo Watson (see section on prehistory).
In March 1961, the Crystal Cave property was sold to the National Park Service for $285,000. At the same time, the Great Onyx Cave property, the only other remaining private inholding, was purchased for $365,000. The Cave Research Foundation was permitted to continue their exploration through a Memorandum of Understanding with the National Park Service.
Colossal Cave was connected by survey to Salts Cave in 1960 and in 1961 Colossal-Salts cave was similarly connected to Crystal-Unknown cave, creating a single cave system under much of Flint Ridge. By 1972, the Flint Ridge Cave System had been surveyed to a length of 86.5 miles (139.2 km), making it the longest cave in the world.
=== Flint–Mammoth connection (1972) ===
During the 1960s, Cave Research Foundation (CRF) exploration and mapping teams had found passageways in the Flint Ridge Cave System that penetrated under Houchins Valley and came within 800 feet (240 m) of known passages in Mammoth Cave. In 1972, CRF Chief Cartographer John Wilcox pursued an aggressive program to finally connect the caves, fielding several expeditions from the Flint Ridge side as well as exploring leads in Mammoth Cave.
On a July 1972 trip, deep in the Flint Ridge Cave System, Patricia Crowther—with her slight frame of 115 pounds (52 kg) crawled through a narrow canyon later dubbed the "Tight Spot", which acted as a filter for larger cavers. A subsequent trip past the Tight Spot on August 30, 1972, by Wilcox, Crowther, Richard Zopf, and Tom Brucker discovered the name "Pete H" inscribed on the wall of a river passage with an arrow pointing in the direction of Mammoth Cave. The name is believed to have been carved by Warner P. "Pete" Hanson, who was active in exploring the cave in the 1930s. Hanson had been killed in World War II. The passage was named Hanson's Lost River by the explorers.
Finally, on September 9, 1972, a six-person CRF team of Wilcox, Crowther, Zopf, Gary Eller, Stephen Wells, and Cleveland Pinnix (a National Park Service ranger) followed Hanson's Lost River downstream to discover its connection with Echo River in Cascade Hall of Mammoth Cave. With this linking of the Flint Ridge and Mammoth Cave systems, the "Everest of speleology" had been climbed. The integrated cave system contained 144.4 miles (232.4 km) of surveyed passages and had fourteen entrances.
=== Recent discoveries ===
Further connections between Mammoth Cave and smaller caves or cave systems have followed, notably to Proctor/Morrison Cave beneath nearby Joppa Ridge in 1979. Proctor Cave was discovered by Jonathan Doyle, a Union Army deserter during the Civil War, and was later owned by the Mammoth Cave Railroad, before being explored by the CRF. Morrison cave was discovered by George Morrison in the 1920s. This connection pushed the frontier of Mammoth exploration southeastward.
At the same time, discoveries made outside the park by an independent group called the Central Kentucky Karst Coalition or CKKC resulted in the survey of tens of miles in Roppel Cave east of the park. Discovered in 1976, Roppel Cave was briefly on the list of the nation's longest caves before it was connected to the Proctor/Morrison's section of the Mammoth Cave System on September 10, 1983. The connection was made by two mixed parties of CRF and CKKC explorers. Each party entered through a separate entrance and met in the middle before continuing in the same direction to exit at the opposite entrance. The resulting total surveyed length was near 300 miles (480 km).
On March 19, 2005, a connection into the Roppel Cave portion of the system was surveyed from a small cave under Eudora Ridge, adding approximately three miles to the known length of the Mammoth Cave System. The newly found entrance to the cave, now termed the "Hoover Entrance", had been discovered in September 2003, by Alan Canon and James Wells. Incremental discoveries since then have pushed the total to more than 400 miles (640 km).
It is certain that many more miles of cave passages await discovery in the region. Discovery of new natural entrances is a rare event: the primary mode of discovery involves the pursuit of side passages identified during routine systematic exploration of cave passages entered from known entrances.
==== Related and nearby caves ====
At least two other massive cave systems lie short distances from Mammoth Cave: the Fisher Ridge Cave System and the Martin Ridge Cave System. The Fisher Ridge Cave System was discovered in January 1981 by a group of Michigan cavers associated with the Detroit Urban Grotto of the National Speleological Society. So far, the Fisher Ridge Cave System has been mapped to 131 miles (211 km). In 1976, Rick Schwartz discovered a large cave south of the Mammoth Cave park boundary. This cave became known as the Martin Ridge Cave System in 1996, as new exploration connected the 3 nearby caves of Whigpistle Cave (Schwartz's original entrance), Martin Ridge Cave, and Jackpot Cave. As of 2018, the Martin Ridge Cave System had been mapped to a length of 34 miles (55 km), and exploration continued.
Located 7 miles (11 km) from the visitors center is Diamond Caverns. On display there is a stagecoach used to ferry visitors from the nearby Bells Tavern train stop in Park City, Kentucky to both Diamond Caverns and Mammoth Cave.
== Climate ==
According to the Köppen climate classification system, Mammoth Cave National Park has a Humid subtropical climate (Cfa). According to the United States Department of Agriculture, the Plant Hardiness zone at Mammoth Cave National Park Visitor Center at 722 ft (220 m) elevation is 6b with an average annual extreme minimum temperature of -3.2 °F (-19.6 °C).
== Biology and ecosystem ==
The following species of bats inhabit the caverns: Indiana bat (Myotis sodalis), gray bat (Myotis grisescens), little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus), big brown bat (Eptesicus fuscus), and the tricolored bat (Perimyotis subflavus).
All together, these and more rare bat species such as the eastern small-footed bat had estimated populations of 9–12 million just in the Historic Section. While these species still exist in Mammoth Cave, their numbers are now no more than a few thousand at best. Ecological restoration of this portion of Mammoth Cave, and facilitating the return of bats, is an ongoing effort. Not all bat species here inhabit the cave; the red bat (Lasiurus borealis) is a forest-dweller, as found underground only rarely.
Other animals that inhabit the caves include: three species of cave crickets (Hadenoecus subterraneus, Ceuthophilus stygius, and Ceuthophilus latens), a cave beetle (Pseudanophthalmus inexpectatus), various species of fishing spiders (Dolomedes spp.), a cave salamander (Eurycea lucifuga), two species of eyeless cavefish (Typhlichthys subterraneus and Amblyopsis spelaea), a cave crayfish (Orconectes pellucidus), and the Kentucky cave shrimp (Palaemonias ganteri). In addition, some surface animals may take refuge in the entrances of the caves but do not generally venture into the deep portions of the cavern system.
The section of the Green River that flows through the park is legally designated as "Kentucky Wild River" by the Kentucky General Assembly, through the Office of Kentucky Nature Preserves' Wild Rivers Program.
According to the A. W. Kuchler U.S. Potential natural vegetation Types, Mammoth Cave National Park has an Oak/Hickory (100) potential vegetation type with an Eastern Hardwood Temperate broadleaf and mixed forest (25) potential vegetation form.
Common fossils of the cave include crinoids, blastoids, and gastropods. The Mississippian limestone has yielded fossils of more than a dozen species of shark. In 2020, scientists reported the discovery of part of a Saivodus striatus, a species comparable in size to a modern great white shark. The fossil shark species Glikmanius careforum and Troglocladodus trimblei are known exclusively from within the cave.
== Name ==
The cave's name refers to the large width and length of the passages connecting to the Rotunda just inside the entrance. The name was used long before the extensive cave system was more fully explored and mapped, to reveal a mammoth length of passageways. No fossils of the woolly mammoth have ever been found in Mammoth Cave, and the name of the cave has nothing to do with this extinct mammal.
== Cultural references ==
A significant amount of the work of American poet Donald Finkel stems from his experiences caving in Mammoth Cave National Park. Examples include "Answer Back" from 1968, and the book-length Going Under, published in 1978.
The layout for one of the earliest computer games, Will Crowther's 1976 Colossal Cave Adventure, was based partly on the Mammoth Cave system.
The video game Kentucky Route Zero has a standalone expansion, set between its Acts III and IV, called Here And There Along The Echo, which is a fictionalized hotline number providing information about the Echo River for "drifters" and "pilgrims". The game's third act itself also partially takes place within the Mammoth Cave system, and has references to Colossal Cave Adventure.
H. P. Lovecraft's 1905 short story "The Beast in the Cave" (published 1918) is set in "the Mammoth Cave".
American rock band Guided by Voices referenced the cave in the 1990 song "Mammoth Cave" from their album Same Place the Fly Got Smashed.
The "Kentucky Mammoth Cave" is used as a metaphor for a sperm whale's stomach in chapter 75 of Herman Melville's 1851 novel Moby-Dick.
Fiction writer Lillie Devereux Blake writing for The Knickerbocker magazine in 1858 told a fictional story of a woman, Melissa, who murdered her tutor who did not return her love, by abandoning him in the cave without a lamp. According to the story, Melissa goes back into the cave fifteen years later to end her misery. Researcher Joe Nickell writing for Skeptical Inquirer magazine explains that this gives "Credulous believers in ghosts... confirmation of their superstitious beliefs" who tell of hearing Melissa weeping and calling out for her murdered tutor. Nickell states that it is common to hear sounds in caves which "the brain interprets (as words and weeping)... it's called pareidolia". Melissa is pure fiction, but author Blake did visit Mammoth Cave with her husband Frank Umsted, "traveling by train, steamer, and stagecoach".
The rock band Black Stone Cherry reference Mammoth Cave in their 2008 song 'Ghost of Floyd Collins'
== Park superintendents ==
The list is incomplete.
== See also ==
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
=== General references ===
Bridwell, Margaret M. (Bridwell 1952) The Story of Mammoth Cave National Park Kentucky: A Brief History 11th Edition 1971. (First edition copyright 1952.) No ISBN.
Hoskins, R. Taylor Faithful Visitor First Park Superintendent R. Taylor Hoskins describes the yearly visits of "Pete" a tame summer tanager (Piranga rubra). In The Regional Review, Vol VII, 1 and 2 (July–August 1941)
Hovey, Horace Carter (Hovey 1880) One Hundred Miles in Mammoth Cave in 1880: an early exploration of America's most famous cavern. with introductory note by William R. Jones. Golden, Colorado: Outbooks. (Copyright 1982) ISBN 0-89646-054-1
Hovey, Horace Carter Hovey's Handbook of The Mammoth Cave of Kentucky: A Practical Guide to the Regulation Routes. (John P. Morton & Company, Louisville, Kentucky, 1909). Full text transcription.
Montfort, Nick (2005). Twisty Little Passages: An Approach To Interactive Fiction. Cambridge: The MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-13436-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
Watson, Richard A., ed. (Watson 1981) The Cave Research Foundation: Origins and the First Twelve Years 1957–1968 Mammoth Cave, Kentucky: Cave Research Foundation.
=== Brucker series ===
Roger W. Brucker has co-authored four nonfiction books and authored one historical novel on the history and exploration of the Mammoth Cave System. They are presented here not in the order of publication, but in the order in which the events of the books' major narratives took place:
Brucker, Roger W. (2009) Grand, Gloomy, and Peculiar: Stephen Bishop at Mammoth Cave. Cave Books. ISBN 978-0-939748-72-3 (hbk) ISBN 978-0-939748-71-6 (pbk). Based on the true story of Stephen Bishop, the slave who gained fame as a guide and explorer at Mammoth Cave from 1838 until his death in 1857, this historical novel is written from the perspective of Bishop's wife, Charlotte. Although it is a novel, Brucker has claimed the book does not alter any known historical facts.
Brucker, Roger W. and Murray, Robert K. (Brucker and Murray 1983) Trapped: The Story of Floyd Collins. University of Kentucky Press. Told by a scholar of early 20th century journalism and a veteran of the modern period of Mammoth Cave exploration, this book details the events of the entrapment and attempted rescue of Floyd Collins, who was trapped in a cave near Mammoth Cave in January 1925.
Lawrence Jr., Joe and Brucker, Roger W. (Lawrence and Brucker 1955) The Caves Beyond: The story of the Floyd Collins' Crystal Cave Expedition New York: Funk and Wagnalls. Reprinted, with new introduction, by Zephyrus Press ISBN 0-914264-18-4 (pbk.) Details the story of the 1954 week-long C3 expedition from the separate points of view of the leader and an ordinary participant in the expedition, who went on to become one of the leaders of the then-nascent modern period of exploration.
Brucker, Roger W. and Watson, Richard A. "Red" (Brucker and Watson 1976) The Longest Cave. New York : Knopf (reprinted 1987, with afterword: Carbondale, Illinois: Southern Illinois University Press) ISBN 0-8093-1322-7 (pbk.) A comprehensive story of the exploration of Mammoth Cave told by two of the founders of the Cave Research Foundation. An invaluable appendix, "Historical Beginnings", outlines the story of the cave from prehistory to the mid-1950s, where the main narrative begins. The formation of the Cave Research Foundation is described from an insider perspective. A highly personal telling, this work is sometimes jokingly or with irony referred to by cavers as Roger and Red Go Caving, though its revered status in the literature and the reputations of the authors are hardly in doubt. The 1989 reprint includes an Afterword by the authors referring to the 1983 Roppel–Mammoth connection and other subsequent events.
Borden, James D. and Brucker, Roger W. (Borden and Brucker 2000) Beyond Mammoth Cave: A Tale of Obsession in the World's Longest Cave. Carbondale and Edwardsville, Illinois: Southern Illinois University Press. ISBN 0-8093-2346-X. Taking up where The Longest Cave leaves off, carries the story of Mammoth Cave Exploration from September 10, 1972, to September 10, 1983, when a connection was surveyed between Roppel Cave and the southern reaches of Mammoth Cave. Details the origins of the Central Kentucky Karst Coalition (CKKC).
=== Archaeology ===
Meloy, Harold (Meloy 1968) Mummies of Mammoth Cave: An account of the Indian mummies discovered in Short Cave, Salts Cave, and Mammoth Cave, Kentucky Shelbyville, Indiana: Micron Publishing Co., 1990 (Original copyright 1968, 1977).
Watson, Patty Jo (ed.) (Watson 1974) Archaeology of the Mammoth Cave Area. Reprinted 1997 by St. Louis: Cave Books ISBN 0-939748-41-X. 31 chapters by the foremost worker in the field of Mammoth Cave archaeology and several of her colleagues. The reprinted edition includes a brief new introduction and a brief updated bibliography.
Carstens, Kenneth C (1980) Archaeological Investigations in the Central Kentucky Karst, 2 vols., Doctoral dissertation, Dep't of Anthropology, Washington University in St. Louis.
Carstens, Kenneth C (1973) Archaeological Reconnaissance in Mammoth Cave National Park. Master's thesis, Department of Anthropology, Washington University in St. Louis.
=== Geology ===
Brown, Richmond F. (Brown 1966). Hydrology of the Cavernous Limestones of the Mammoth Cave Area, Kentucky [Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 1837]. Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office.
Livesay, Ann, and McGrain, Preston (revised) (Livesay and McGrain 1962). Geology of the Mammoth Cave National Park Area. Kentucky Geological Survey, Series X, 1962. Special Publication 7, College of Arts and Sciences, University of Kentucky. Lexington, Kentucky: University of Kentucky.
Palmer, Arthur N. (Palmer 1981) A Geological Guide to Mammoth Cave National Park. Teaneck, New Jersey: Zephyrus Press. ISBN 0-914264-28-1. 196 pp. From the "blurb" on the back cover: "How did Mammoth Cave form? How old is it? Why does it look the way it does? What do the rocks tell us? These and many other questions are answered in this book about America's most popular cave." Written for the lay reader, but with much technical information of interest to those with greater scientific literacy, by a retired professor of geology at SUNY Oneonta.
White, William B. and Elizabeth L., eds. (White and White 1989) Karst Hydrology: Concepts from the Mammoth Cave Area. New York: Van Nostrand Rheinhold. ISBN 0-442-22675-6.
== External links ==
Mammoth Cave National Park website
Mammoth Cave National Park Association website
Geographic data related to Mammoth Cave National Park at OpenStreetMap
Mammoth Cave: Its Explorers, Miners, Archeologists, and Visitors, a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan
Historic American Engineering Record (HAER) No. KY-18, "Mammoth Cave Saltpeter Works, Mammoth Cave, Edmonson County, KY", 20 photos, 12 measured drawings, 37 data pages, 2 photo caption pages |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faraday_Lectureship_Prize | Faraday Lectureship Prize | The Faraday Lectureship Prize, previously known simply as the Faraday Lectureship, is awarded once every two years (approximately) by the Royal Society of Chemistry for "exceptional contributions to physical or theoretical chemistry". Named after Michael Faraday, the first Faraday Lecture was given in 1869, two years after Faraday's death, by Jean-Baptiste Dumas. As of 2009, the prize was worth £5000, with the recipient also receiving a medal and a certificate. As the name suggests, the recipient also gives a public lecture describing their work.
== Winners ==
Source: RSC
== See also ==
List of chemistry awards
== References ==
== External links ==
Event data as RDF |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glipa_andamana | Glipa andamana | Glipa andamana is a species of beetle in the genus Glipa. It was described in 1941.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIGPLAN | SIGPLAN | SIGPLAN is the Association for Computing Machinery's Special Interest Group (SIG) on programming languages. This SIG explores programming language concepts and tools, focusing on design, implementation, practice, and theory. Its members are programming language developers, educators, implementers, researchers, theoreticians, and users.
== Conferences ==
Principles of Programming Languages (POPL)
Programming Language Design and Implementation (PLDI)
International Symposium on Memory Management (ISMM)
Languages, Compilers, and Tools for Embedded Systems (LCTES)
Symposium on Principles and Practice of Parallel Programming (PPoPP)
International Conference on Functional Programming (ICFP)
Systems, Programming, Languages, and Applications: Software for Humanity (SPLASH)
Object-Oriented Programming, Systems, Languages, and Applications (OOPSLA)
History of Programming Languages (HOPL)
Dynamic Languages Symposium (DLS)
== Associated journals ==
ACM Transactions on Architecture and Code Optimization
ACM Transactions on Programming Languages and Systems
Proceedings of the ACM on Programming Languages
== Newsletters ==
ACM SIGPLAN Notices - ISSN 1558-1160 ISSN 0362-1340 - Home page at ACM
Fortran Forum - ISSN 1061-7264 ISSN 1931-1311
Lisp Pointers (final issue 1995) - ISSN 1045-3563
OOPS Messenger (1990–1996) - ISSN 1558-0253 ISSN 1055-6400
== Awards ==
=== Programming Languages Achievement Award ===
Recognizes an individual or individuals who has made a significant and lasting contribution to the field of programming languages.
2025 Martin Odersky
2024: Keshav Pingali
2023: Kathryn S. McKinley
2022: Xavier Leroy
2021: Bob Harper
2020: Hans-J. Boehm
2019: Alex Aiken
2017: Thomas W. Reps
2016: Simon Peyton Jones
2015: Luca Cardelli
2014: Neil D. Jones
2013: Patrick Cousot and Radhia Cousot
2012: Matthias Felleisen
2011: Tony Hoare
2010: Gordon Plotkin
2009: Rod Burstall
2008: Barbara Liskov
2007: Niklaus Wirth
2006: Ron Cytron, Jeanne Ferrante, Barry K. Rosen, Mark Wegman, and Kenneth Zadeck
2005: Erich Gamma, Richard Helm, Ralph Johnson, John Vlissides
2004: John Backus
2003: John C. Reynolds
2002: John McCarthy
2001: Robin Milner
2000: Susan Graham
1999: Ken Kennedy
1998: Fran Allen
1997: Guy Steele
=== Robin Milner Young Researcher Award ===
Recognizes outstanding contributions by young researchers in the area of programming languages. The award is named after the computer scientist Robin Milner.
2025: Isil Dillig
2024: Armando Solar-Lezama
2023: Nate Foster
2022: Viktor Vafeiadis
2021: Emina Torlak
2020: Eran Yahav
2019: Martin Vechev
2018: Ranjit Jhala
2017: Derek Dreyer
2016: Stephanie Weirich
2015: David Walker
2014: Sumit Gulwani
2013: Lars Birkedal
2012: Shriram Krishnamurthi
=== Programming Languages Software Award ===
Given to an institution or individual(s) to recognize the development of a software system that has had a significant impact on programming language research, implementations, and tools.
2025: Lean awarded to Gabriel Ebner, Soonho Kong, Leo de Moura and Sebastian Ullrich.
2024: Rust awarded to Aaron Turon, Alex Crichton, Brian Anderson, Dave Herman, Felix S. Klock II, Graydon Hoare, Marijn Haverbeke, Nicholas D. Matsakis, Patrick Walton, Tim Chevalier, Yehuda Katz, and All Rust Contributors Past and Present
2023: OCaml awarded to David Allsopp, Florian Angeletti, Stephen Dolan, Damien Doligez, Alain Fritsch, Jacques Garrigue, Xavier Leroy, Anil Madhavapeddy, Luc Maranget, Nicolás Ojeda Bär, Gabriel Scherer, KC Sivaramakrishnan, Jérôme Vouillon, and Léo White
2022: CompCert awarded to Xavier Leroy, Sandrine Blazy, Zaynah Dargaye, Jacques-Henri Jourdan, Michael Schmidt, Bernhard Schommer, and Jean-Baptiste Tristan
2021: WebAssembly awarded to Andreas Rossberg, Derek Schuff, Bradley Nelson, JF Bastien, and Ben L. Titzer
2020: Pin awarded to Artur Klauser, Greg Lueck, Mark Charney, Gail Lyons, Geoff Lowney, Aamer Jaleel, Harish Patil, Vijay Janapa Reddi, Kim Hazelwood, S. Bharadwaj Yadavalli, Ramesh Peri, Elena Demikhovsky, Ady Tal, Moshe Bach, Alex Skaletsky, CK Luk, Steven Wallace, Tevi Devor, Robert Muth, and Nadav Chachmon
2019: Scala awarded to Martin Odersky, Adriaan Moors, Aleksandar Prokopec, Heather Miller, Iulian Dragos, Nada Amin, Philipp Haller, Sébastien Doeraene, and Tiark Rompf
2018: Racket awarded to Eli Barzilay, Matthias Felleisen, Robert Bruce Findler, Matthew Flatt, Shriram Krishnamurthi, Jay McCarthy, and Sam Tobin-Hochstadt
2016: V8
2015: Z3 Theorem Prover
2014: GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)
2013: Rocq (then: Coq) proof assistant
2012: Jikes Research Virtual Machine (RVM) awarded to Bowen Alpern, Matthew Arnold, Clement Attanasio, John Barton, Steve Blackburn, Maria Butrico, Perry Cheng, Tony Cocchi, Julian Dolby, Peter Donald, Steven Fink, Daniel Frampton, Robin Garner, David Grove, Michael Hind, Derek Lieber, Kathryn McKinley, Mark Mergen, Eliot Moss, Ton Ngo, Igor Peshansky, Filip Pizlo, Feng Qian, Ian Rogers, Vivek Sarkar, Mauricio Serrano, Janice Shepherd, Stephen Smith, Peter F. Sweeney, Martin Trapp, Kris Venstermans, and John Whaley
2011: Glasgow Haskell Compiler awarded to Simon Peyton Jones, and Simon Marlow
2010: LLVM awarded to Chris Lattner
=== SIGPLAN Doctoral Dissertation Award ===
The full name of this award is the John C. Reynolds Doctoral Dissertation Award, after the computer scientist John C. Reynolds. It is "presented annually to the author of the outstanding doctoral dissertation in the area of Programming Languages."
2025: Harrison Goldstein and Rachit Nigam
2024: Benjamin Bichsel
2023: Sam Westrick
2022: Jay P. Lim, Rutgers and Uri Alon
2021: Gagandeep Singh and Ralf Jung
2020: Filip Niksic
2019: Ryan Beckett
2018: Justin Hsu and David Menendez
2017: Ramana Kumar
2016: Shachar Itzhaky and Vilhelm Sjöberg
2015: Mark Batty
2014: Aaron Turon
2013: Patrick Rondon
2012: Dan Marino
2010: Robert L. Bocchino
2009: Akash Lai and William Thies
2008: Michael Bond and Viktor Vafeiadis
2007: Swarat Chaudhuri
2006: Xiangyu Zhang
2005: Sumit Gulwani
2003: Godmar Back
2002: Michael Hicks
2001: Rastislav Bodik
=== SIGPLAN Distinguished Service Award ===
2024: Emery Berger
2023: Talia Ringer
2022: Mike Hicks
2021: Ben Zorn
2019: Jan Vitek
2018: Zena Ariola
2016: Phil Wadler
2015: Dan Grossman
2014: Simon Peyton Jones
2013: Kathleen Fisher
2012: Jens Palsberg
2011: Kathryn S. McKinley
2010: Jack W. Davidson
2009: Mamdouh Ibrahim
2008: Michael Burke
2007: Linda M. Northrop
2006: Hans Boehm
2005: no award made
2004: Ron Cytron
2003: Mary Lou Soffa
2002: Andrew Appel
2001: Barbara G. Ryder
2000: David Wise
1999: Loren Meissner
1998: Brent Hailpern
1997: J.A.N. Lee and Jean E. Sammet
1996: Dick Wexelblat and John Richards
=== Most Influential PLDI Paper Award ===
Given to the authors of a paper presented at PLDI 10 years prior to the award year, in recognition of its influence over the past decade.
2025 (for 2015): A Simpler, Safer Programming and Execution Model for Intermittent Systems by Brandon Lucia and Benjamin Ransford
2024 (for 2014): FlowDroid: Precise Context, Flow, Field, Object-sensitive and Lifecycle-aware Taint Analysis for Android Apps by Steven Arzt, Siegfried Rasthofer, Christian Fritz, Eric Bodden, Alexandre Bartel, Jacques Klein, Yves Le Traon, Damien Octeau, Patrick McDaniel
2023 (for 2013): Halide: A Language and Compiler for Optimizing Parallelism, Locality, and Representation in Image Processing Pipelines by Jonathan Ragan-Kelley, Connelly Barnes, Andrew Adams, Sylvain Paris, Frédo Durand, and Saman Amarasinghe
2022 (for 2012): Test-Case Reduction for C Compiler Bugs by John Regehr, Yang Chen, Pascal Cuoq, Eric Eide, Chucky Ellison, Xuejun Yang
2021 (for 2011): Finding and Understanding Bugs in C Compilers by Xuejun Yang, Yang Chen, Eric Eide, and John Regehr
2020 (for 2010): Green: A Framework for Supporting Energy-Conscious Programming using Controlled Approximation by Woongki Baek and Trishul M. Chilimbi
2019 (for 2009): FastTrack: Efficient and Precise Dynamic Race Detection by Cormac Flanagan and Stephen N. Freund
2018 (for 2008): A Practical Automatic Polyhedral Parallelizer and Locality Optimizer by Uday Bondhugula, Albert Hartono, J. Ramanujam, and P. Sadayappan
2017 (for 2007): Valgrind: A Framework for Heavyweight Dynamic Binary Instrumentation by Nicholas Nethercote, Julian Seward
2016 (for 2006): DieHard: Probabilistic Memory Safety for Unsafe Languages by Emery Berger, Benjamin Zorn
2015 (for 2005): Pin: Building Customized Program Analysis Tools with Dynamic Instrumentation by Chi-Keung Luk, Robert Cohn, Robert Muth, Harish Patil, Artur Klauser, Geoff Lowney, Steven Wallace, Vijay Janapa Reddi, and Kim Hazelwood
2014 (for 2004): Scalable Lock-Free Dynamic Memory Allocation by Maged M. Michael
2013 (for 2003): The nesC Language: A Holistic Approach to Networked Embedded Systems by David Gay, Philip Levis, J. Robert von Behren, Matt Welsh, Eric Brewer, and David E. Culler
2012 (for 2002): Extended Static Checking for Java by Cormac Flanagan, K. Rustan M. Leino, Mark Lillibridge, Greg Nelson, James B. Saxe, and Raymie Stata
2011 (for 2001): Automatic Predicate Abstraction of C Programs by Thomas Ball, Rupak Majumdar, Todd Millstein, and Sriram K. Rajamani
2010 (for 2000): Dynamo: A Transparent Dynamic Optimization System by Vasanth Bala, Evelyn Duesterwald, Sanjeev Banerji
2009 (for 1999): A Fast Fourier Transform Compiler by Matteo Frigo
2008 (for 1998): The Implementation of the Cilk-5 Multithreaded Language by Matteo Frigo, Charles E. Leiserson, Keith H. Randall
2007 (for 1997): Exploiting Hardware Performance Counters with Flow and Context Sensitive Profiling by Glenn Ammons, Thomas Ball, and James R. Larus
2006 (for 1996): TIL: A Type-Directed Optimizing Compiler for ML by David Tarditi, Greg Morrisett, Perry Cheng, Christopher Stone, Robert Harper, and Peter Lee
2005 (for 1995): Selective Specialization for Object-Oriented Languages by Jeffrey Dean, Craig Chambers, and David Grove
2004 (for 1994): ATOM: A System for Building Customized Program Analysis Tools by Amitabh Srivastava and Alan Eustace
2003 (for 1993): Space Efficient Conservative Garbage Collection by Hans Boehm
2002 (for 1992): Lazy Code Motion by Jens Knoop, Oliver Rüthing, Bernhard Steffen
2001 (for 1991): A Data Locality Optimizing Algorithm by Michael E. Wolf and Monica S. Lam
2000 (for 1990): Profile Guided Code Positioning by Karl Pettis and Robert C. Hansen
=== Most Influential POPL Paper Award ===
Given to the authors of a paper presented at POPL 10 years prior to the award year, in recognition of its influence over the past decade.
2025 (for 2015): Iris: Monoids and Invariants as an Orthogonal Basis for Concurrent Reasoning by Ralf Jung, David Swasey, Filip Sieczkowski, Kasper Paabøl Svendsen, Aaron Joseph Turon, Lars Birkedal, Derek Dreyer
2024 (for 2014): CakeML: A Verified Implementation of ML by Ramana Kumar, Magnus Myreen, Michael Norrish, Scott Owens
2023 (for 2013): Views: Compositional reasoning for concurrent programs by Thomas Dinsdale-Young, Lars Birkedal, Philippa Gardner, Matthew Parkinson, Hongseok Yang
2022 (for 2012): Multiple facets for dynamic information flow by Thomas H. Austin and Cormac Flanagan
2021 (for 2011): Automating string processing in spreadsheets using input-output examples by Sumit Gulwani
2020 (for 2010): From program verification to program synthesis by Saurabh Srivastava, Sumit Gulwani, Jeffrey Foster* 2019 (for 2009): Compositional shape analysis by means of bi-abduction by Cristiano Calcagno, Dino Distefano, Peter W. O'Hearn, Hongseok Yang
2018 (for 2008): Multiparty asynchronous session types by Kohei Honda, Nobuko Yoshida, Marco Carbone
2017 (for 2007): JavaScript Instrumentation for Browser Security by Dachuan Yu, Ajay Chander, Nayeem Islam, Igor Serikov
2016 (for 2006): Formal certification of a compiler back-end or: programming a compiler with a proof assistant by Xavier Leroy
2015 (for 2005): Combinators for Bidirectional Tree Transformations: A Linguistic Approach to the View Update Problem by Nate Foster, Michael B. Greenwald, Jonathan T. Moore, Benjamin C. Pierce, and Alan Schmitt
2014 (for 2004): Abstractions from proofs by Thomas Henzinger, Ranjit Jhala, Rupak Majumdar, and Kenneth McMillan
2013 (for 2003): A real-time garbage collector with low overhead and consistent utilization by David F. Bacon, Perry Cheng, and VT Rajan
2012 (for 2002): CCured: Type-Safe Retrofitting of Legacy Code by George C. Necula, Scott McPeak, and Westley Weimer
2011 (for 2001): BI as an Assertion Language for Mutable Data Structures by Samin Ishtiaq and Peter W. O'Hearn
2010 (for 2000): Anytime, Anywhere: Modal Logics for Mobile Ambients by Luca Cardelli and Andrew D. Gordon
2009 (for 1999): JFlow: Practical Mostly-Static Information Flow Control by Andrew C. Myers
2008 (for 1998): From System F to Typed Assembly Language by Greg Morrisett, David Walker, Karl Crary, and Neal Glew
2007 (for 1997): Proof-carrying Code by George Necula
2006 (for 1996): Points-to Analysis in Almost Linear Time by Bjarne Steensgaard
2005 (for 1995): A Language with Distributed Scope by Luca Cardelli
2004 (for 1994): Implementation of the Typed Call-by-Value lambda-calculus using a Stack of Regions by Mads Tofte and Jean-Pierre Talpin
2003 (for 1993): Imperative functional programming by Simon Peyton Jones and Philip Wadler
=== Most Influential OOPSLA Paper Award ===
2024 (for 2014): Adaptive LL(*) parsing: the power of dynamic analysis by Terence Parr, Sam Harwell, and Kathleen Fisher
2023 (for 2013): Empirical analysis of programming language adoption by Leo Meyerovich and Ariel Rabkin
2022 (for 2012): GPUVerify: a verifier for GPU kernels by Adam Betts, Nathan Chong, Alastair Donaldson, Shaz Qadeer, and Paul Thomson
2021 (for 2011): SugarJ: library-based syntactic language extensibility by Sebastian Erdweg, Tillmann Rendel, Christian Kästner, and Klaus Ostermann
2020 (for 2010): The spoofax language workbench: rules for declarative specification of languages and IDEs by Lennart C.L. Kats and Eelco Visser
2019 (for 2009): Flapjax: a programming language for Ajax applications by Leo A. Meyerovich, Arjun Guha, Jacob Baskin, Gregory H. Cooper, Michael Greenberg, Aleks Bromfield, Shriram Krishnamurthi
2018 (for 2008): jStar: towards practical verification for Java by Dino Distefano and Matthew Parkinson
2017 (for 2007): Statistically Rigorous Java Performance Evaluation by Andy Georges, Dries Buytaert, Lieven Eeckhout
2016 (for 2006): The DaCapo benchmarks: Java benchmarking development and analysis by Stephen M. Blackburn, Robin Garner, Chris Hoffmann, Asjad M. Khan, Kathryn S. McKinley, Rotem Bentzur, Amer Diwan, Daniel Feinberg, Daniel Frampton, Samuel Z. Guyer, Martin Hirzel, Antony Hosking, Maria Jump, Han Lee, J. Eliot B. Moss, Aashish Phansalkar, Darko Stefanović, Thomas VanDrunen, Daniel von Dincklage, Ben Wiedermann
2015 (for 2005): X10: An Object-Oriented Approach to Non-Uniform Cluster Computing by Philippe Charles, Christian Grothoff, Vijay Saraswat, Christopher Donawa, Allan Kielstra, Kemal Ebcioglu, Christoph von Praun, and Vivek Sarkar
2014 (for 2004): Mirrors: Design Principles for Meta-level Facilities of Object-Oriented Programming Languages by Gilad Bracha and David Ungar
2013 (for 2003): Language Support for Lightweight Transactions by Tim Harris and Keir Fraser
2012 (for 2002): Reconsidering Custom Memory Allocation by Emery D. Berger, Benjamin G. Zorn, and Kathryn S. McKinley
2010 (for 2000): Adaptive Optimization in the Jalapeño JVM by Matthew Arnold, Stephen Fink, David Grove, Michael Hind, and Peter F. Sweeney
2009 (for 1999): Implementing Jalapeño in Java by Bowen Alpern, C. R. Attanasio, John J. Barton, Anthony Cocchi, Susan Flynn Hummel, Derek Lieber, Ton Ngo, Mark Mergen, Janice C. Shepherd, and Stephen Smith
2008 (for 1998): Ownership Types for Flexible Alias Protection by David G. Clarke, John M. Potter, and James Noble
2007 (for 1997): Call Graph Construction in Object-Oriented Languages by David Grove, Greg DeFouw, Jeffrey Dean, and Craig Chambers
2006 (for 1986–1996):
Subject Oriented Programming: A Critique of Pure Objects by William Harrison and Harold Ossher
Concepts and Experiments in Computational Reflection by Pattie Maes
Self: The Power of Simplicity by David Ungar and Randall B. Smith
=== Most Influential ICFP Paper Award ===
2024 (for 2014): Refinement Types for Haskell by Niki Vazou, Eric L. Seidel, Ranjit Jhala, Dimitrios Vytiniotis, Simon Peyton-Jones
2023 (for 2013): Handlers in Action by Ohad Kammar, Sam Lindley and Nicolas Oury
2022 (for 2012): Addressing Covert Termination and Timing Channels in Concurrent Information Flow Systems by Deian Stefan, Alejandro Russo, Pablo Buiras, Amit Levy, John C. Mitchell and David Mazières
2021 (for 2011): Frenetic: A Network Programming Language by Nate Foster, Rob Harrison, Michael Freedman, Christopher Monsanto, Jennifer Rexford, Alex Story, and David Walker
2020 (for 2010): Abstracting Abstract Machines by David Van Horn and Matthew Might
2019 (for 2009): Runtime Support for Multicore Haskell by Simon Marlow, Simon Peyton Jones, and Satnam Singh
2018 (for 2008): Parametric Higher-order Abstract Syntax for Mechanized Semantics by Adam Chlipala
2017 (for 2007): Ott: Effective Tool Support for the Working Semanticist by Peter Sewell, Francesco Zappa Nardelli, Scott Owens, Gilles Peskine, Thomas Ridge, Susmit Sarkar, and Rok Strniša
2016 (for 2006): Simple Unification-based Type Inference for GADTs by Simon Peyton Jones, Dimitrios Vytiniotis, Stephanie Weirich, and Geoffrey Washburn
2015 (for 2005): Associated Type Synonyms by Manuel M. T. Chakravarty, Gabriele Keller, and Simon Peyton Jones
2014 (for 2004): Scrap More Boilerplate: Reflection, Zips, and Generalised Casts by Ralf Lämmel and Simon Peyton Jones
2013 (for 2003): MLF: Raising ML to the Power of System F by Didier Le Botlan and Didier Rémy
2012 (for 2002): Contracts for Higher-order Functions by Robert Findler and Matthias Felleisen
2011 (for 2001): Recursive Structures for Standard ML by Claudio Russo
2010 (for 2000): Quickcheck: A Lightweight Tool for Random Testing of Haskell Programs by Koen Claessen and John Hughes
2009 (for 1999): Haskell and XML: Generic combinators or type-based translation? by Malcolm Wallace and Colin Runciman
2008 (for 1998): Cayenne — A Language with Dependent Types by Lennart Augustsson
2007 (for 1997): Functional Reactive Animation by Conal Elliott and Paul Hudak
2006 (for 1996): Optimality and Inefficiency: What isn't a Cost Model of the Lambda Calculus? by Julia L. Lawall and Harry G. Mairson
== See also ==
List of computer science awards
== References ==
== External links ==
SIGPLAN homepage |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhuo_Qun_Song | Zhuo Qun Song | Zhuo Qun Song (Chinese: 宋卓群; pinyin: Sòng Zhuōqún; born 1997), also called Alex Song, is a Chinese-born Canadian who is currently the most highly decorated International Mathematical Olympiad (IMO) contestant, with five gold medals and one bronze medal.
== Early life ==
Song was born in Tianjin, China in 1997. He and his parents moved to Canada in 2002. Song was brought up in Waterloo, Ontario.
Song was interested in mathematics at a very young age where he started participating in competitions in first grade. By fourth grade, Song was participating in competitions such as the Canadian Open Mathematics Challenge and the American Mathematics Competitions. In fifth grade, Song became interested in solving Olympiad type questions and started training to solve them.
In 2011, Song moved to the United States to attend Phillips Exeter Academy.
== International Mathematical Olympiad ==
In 2010, when Song was in the seventh grade, he represented Vincent Massey Secondary School in the Canadian Mathematical Olympiad where he finished first place.
In the same year, Song represented Canada in the 2010 IMO where he won a bronze medal. He would continue to represent Canada for 5 subsequent IMOs where he obtained a gold medal each time. He obtained a perfect score on his final run in 2015, the only contestant to do so that year. The performances made Song the most decorated contestant of all time. In 2015, Song was also one of the twelve top scorers of the United States of America Mathematical Olympiad, representing Phillips Exeter Academy.
=== Results ===
== Post-IMO ==
Song graduated from Phillips Exeter Academy in 2015.
Song attended Princeton University where he graduated in 2019 with a Bachelor of Arts in Mathematics.
During his time at Princeton, Song was part of the team that participated in the Putnam Competition. His team won second place in 2016 and third place in 2017.
Song interned as a trader at Jane Street Capital during the summers of 2017 and 2018. Song was previously a Quantitative Researcher at Citadel LLC. As of 2022, he is a graduate student at the University of Illinois Urbana–Champaign. He also has been lead coach for the Canadian IMO team since 2020.
== See also ==
List of International Mathematical Olympiad participants
== References ==
== External links ==
Zhuo Qun Song's results at International Mathematical Olympiad |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiryas_Joel,_New_York#:~:text=On%20July%201%2C%202018%2C%20Gov,preside%20over%20a%20town%20court. | Kiryas Joel, New York | Kiryas Joel (Yiddish: קרית יואל, romanized: Kiryas Yoyel, Yiddish pronunciation: [ˈkɪr.jəs ˈjɔɪ.əl] ; often locally abbreviated as KJ) is a village coterminous with the Town of Palm Tree in Orange County, New York, United States. The population was 32,954 at the 2020 census, approximately 5% of the estimated 712,000 population of the Kiryas Joel–Poughkeepsie–Newburgh metropolitan area. The vast majority of its residents are Yiddish-speaking Hasidic Jews who belong to the worldwide Satmar sect of Hasidism.
According to the Census Bureau's American Community Survey, Kiryas Joel has by far the youngest median age population of any municipality in the United States, and the youngest, at 11.4 years old, of any population center of over 5,000 residents in the United States. Residents of Kiryas Joel, like those of other Haredi and Orthodox Jewish communities, typically have high birth rates, and this has driven rapid population growth. According to 2020 census figures, the village has a high poverty rate with about 40% of the residents living below the federal poverty line. It is also the place in the United States with the highest percentage of people who reported Hungarian ancestry, as 18.9% of the population reported Hungarian descent in 2000.
Abe Wieder has served as mayor of Kiryas Joel since 1997; Gedalye Szegedin has served as its administrator since 2004 or earlier.
== History ==
Kiryas Joel is named for Joel Teitelbaum, the late rebbe of Satmar and driving spirit behind the project.
The Satmar Hasidim came from Satu Mare, Romania, known when under Hungarian rule as Szatmár. Teitelbaum, originally from Austria-Hungary, rebuilt the Satmar Hasidic dynasty after World War II.
In 1947, Teitelbaum settled with his followers in the Williamsburg neighborhood of Brooklyn, a borough of New York City.
By the 1970s, he decided to move the growing community to the Town of Monroe, a suburban location in Upstate New York that was more secluded from what he considered the harmful influences and immorality of the outside world, yet still close enough to the New York metropolitan area's commercial center. The land for Kiryas Joel was purchased in the early 1970s, and 14 Satmar families settled there in the summer of 1974. Monroe town officials initially expressed skepticism over Teitelbaum's and his followers' plans to build multi-family housing in Kiryas Joel, but they eventually allowed the village to incorporate in 1976. When he died in 1979, Teitelbaum was the first person to be buried in the village's cemetery. His funeral reportedly brought over 100,000 mourners to Kiryas Joel.
In 2001, Kiryas Joel held a competitive election in which all candidates supported by the grand rebbe were re-elected by a 55–45% margin.
In 2019, the village of Kiryas Joel separated from the town of Monroe, to become part of the town of Palm Tree, New York's first new town in 38 years. On July 1, 2018, Governor Andrew Cuomo signed a bill to create Palm Tree, triggering elections for the first governing board. The new town had 10 elected positions on the November 2018 ballot, including a supervisor, four council members, and two justices to preside over a town court.
The name "Palm Tree" is a calque (translation) of the surname/family name of Joel Teitelbaum. In Yiddish, teitel (טייטל) means "date palm" and baum means "tree".
== Geography ==
According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of 1.1 square miles (2.8 km2), and only a very small portion of the area (a small duck pond called "Forest Road Lake" in the center of the village) is covered with water.
== Demographics ==
Kiryas Joel began with a 1977 founding population of 500 people.
As of the census of 2000, there were 2,229 households, and 2,137 families residing in the village. The population density was 11,962.2 inhabitants per square mile (4,618.6/km2). There were 2,233 housing units, at an average density of 2,033.2 per square mile (785.0/km2). The racial make-up of the village was 99.02% White, 0.21% African American, 0.02% Asian, 0.12% from other races, and 0.63% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.93% of the population.
Kiryas Joel has the highest percentage of people who reported Hungarian ancestry in the United States, as 18.9% of the population reported Hungarian ancestry in 2000. 3% of the residents of Kiryas Joel were Israeli, 2% Romanian, 1% Polish, and 1% European.
The 2000 census also reported that 6.3% of village residents spoke only English at home, one of the lowest such percentages in the United States. 91.5% of residents spoke Yiddish at home, while 2.3% spoke Hebrew. Of the overall population in 2000, 46% spoke English "not well" or "not at all".
There were 2,229 households, out of which 79.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 93.2% were married couples living together, 1.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 4.1% were non-families. 2.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 2.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 5.74, and the average family size was 5.84. In the village, the population was very young, with 57.5% under the age of 18, 17.2% from 18 to 24, 16.5% from 25 to 44, 7.2% from 45 to 64, and 1.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 15 years. For every 100 females, there were 116.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 118.0 males.
The village abides by strict Jewish customs, and its welcome sign, which was installed in 2010, asks visitors to dress conservatively and to "maintain gender separation in all public areas".
== Poverty and crime ==
The median income for a household in the village is $40,218, and the per capita income for the village is $12,114.
According to 2020 census figures, the village has a high poverty rate with about 40% of the residents living below the federal poverty line. A 2011 New York Times report noted that, despite the town's very high statistical poverty rates, "It has no slums or homeless people. No one who lives there is shabbily dressed or has to go hungry. Crime is virtually non-existent."
== Transportation ==
Kiryas Joel has a very high rate of public transportation usage. Local transit within the area is operated by the Village of Kiryas Joel Bus System, and also has service to Manhattan and to the heavily Haredi Jewish-populated Williamsburg and Borough Park sections of Brooklyn.
== Effects ==
=== Of growth ===
==== Friction with surrounding jurisdictions ====
The village has become a contentious issue in Orange County for several reasons, mainly related to its rapid growth. Unlike most other small communities, it lacks a real downtown and much of it is given over to residential property, which has mostly taken the form of contemporary townhouse-style condominiums. New construction is ongoing throughout the community.
Population growth in Kiryas Joel is strong. In 2005, the population had risen to 18,300. The 2010 census showed a population of 20,175, for a population growth rate of 53.6% between 2000 and 2010, which was less than anticipated, as it was projected that the population would double in that time period.
There are three religious tenets that drive our growth: Our women don't use birth control, they get married young, and after they get married, they stay in Kiryas Joel and start a family. Our growth comes simply from the fact that our families have a lot of babies, and we need to build homes to respond to the needs of our community.
==== Locally ====
The Town of Monroe also contains two other villages – Monroe, and Harriman. Kiryas Joel's boundaries also come close to the neighboring towns of Blooming Grove and Woodbury.
Residents of these communities and local Orange County politicians view the village as encroaching on them. Due to the rapid population growth in Kiryas Joel, resulting almost entirely from the high birth rates of its Hasidic population, the village government has undertaken various annexation efforts to expand its area, to the dismay of the majority of the residents of the surrounding communities. Many of these area residents see the expansion of the high-density residential-commercial village as a threat to the quality of life in the surrounding suburban communities, due to suburban sprawl. Other concerns of the surrounding communities are the impact on local aquifers and the projected increased volume of sewage reaching the county's sewerage treatment plants, already near capacity by 2005.
On August 11, 2006, residents of Woodbury voted, by a 3-to-1 margin, to incorporate much of the town as a village, to constrain further annexation. Kiryas Joel has opposed such moves in court.
In March 2007, the village of Kiryas Joel sued the county to stop it from selling off 1 million US gallons (3,800 m3) of excess capacity at its sewage plant in Harriman. Two years earlier, the county had sued the village to stop its plans to tap into New York City's Catskill Aqueduct, arguing that the village's environmental review for the project had inadequately addressed concerns about the additional wastewater it would generate. The village was appealing an early ruling which sided with the county. In its action, Kiryas Joel accused the county of inconsistently claiming limited capacity in its suit when it is selling the million gallons to three communities outside its sewer district.
In 2017, the village proposed to settle a lawsuit over some additional annexations it had proposed by petitioning the county legislature to allow it to become the county's 21st town. It would be named Palm Tree, after the English translation of Joel Teitelbaum's name. In return for the village dropping its request to annex 507 acres (205 ha), United Monroe and Preserve Hudson Valley, the plaintiffs, agreed to withdraw their appeal of a decision allowing the annexation of a 164-acre (66 ha) parcel. The new town would also be prohibited from filing annexation proposals or encouraging the creation of new villages for 10 years. Two-thirds of the county legislature must approve the creation of the new town, and a vote of Monroe residents may also be required. The referendum passed on November 7, 2017.
=== Local politics ===
Critics of the village cite its impact on local politics. Villagers are perceived as voting in a solid bloc. While this is not always the case, the highly concentrated population often does skew strongly toward one candidate or the other in local elections, making Kiryas Joel a heavily courted swing vote for whichever politician offers Kiryas Joel the most favorable environment for continued growth. In the hotly contested 2013 Town Supervisors race, the Kiryas Joel bloc vote elected Harley Doles to the position of town supervisor. Kiryas Joel then sought to annex 510 acres (210 ha) of land into their village and the new Monroe Town Board has had no comment on this issue. In late 2014 village leadership proposed alternatively that a new village, to be called Gilios Kiryas Joel, be created on the 1,140 acres (460 ha) south of the village within Monroe, including all the land it had wanted to annex.
Kiryas Joel played a major role in the 2006 Congressional election. The village was at that time in the congressional district represented by Republican Sue Kelly. Village residents had been loyal to Kelly in the past, but in 2006, voters were upset over what they saw as lack of adequate representation from Kelly for the village. In a bloc, Kiryas Joel swung around 2,900 votes to Kelly's Democratic opponent, John Hall. The vote in Kiryas Joel was one reason Hall carried the election, which he did by 4,800 votes.
In the 2020 presidential election, 98.5% of Kiryas Joel voters voted for Trump, one of the highest percentages in the country.
==== Internal friction ====
Joel Teitelbaum had no son, and thus no clear successor. His nephew, Moses, was appointed by the community's committee members. But not all Satmar accepted Moses as the community leader, and even some of those who did questioned some of his actions and pronouncements. He responded by running the village in what they called an autocratic manner, through his deputy, Abraham Weider, who also served as mayor and president of the school board, as well as the main synagogue and yeshiva in the village.
In 1989, the village forbade any property owner from selling or renting an apartment without its permission. Teitelbaum elaborated that "anyone that rents without this permission has to be dealt with like a real murderer ... and he should be torn out from the roots".
In the early 1990s, the New York State Police responded many times to the village, which has a generally low crime rate otherwise, when self-described dissidents reported harassment such as broken windows and graffiti containing profanity on their property. In one incident, troopers rode a school bus undercover to catch teenage boys stoning it; the boys later stoned a back-up police cruiser when it arrived. One of Weider's nephews was among those arrested. He admitted that some of the village's young men took it upon themselves to act violently against dissidents because they could not bear to hear the grand rebbe criticized, although he said most of them were provoked to do so by dissidents.
"Someone not following breaks down the whole system of being able to educate and being able to bring up our children with strong family values", Weider told The New York Times in 1992. "Why do you think we have no drugs? If we lost respect for the Grand Rabbi, we lose the whole thing."
In January 1990, the village held its first, and, for a decade, only, school board election. "It's like this", Teitelbaum explained when he announced the names of seven hand-picked candidates. "With the power of the Torah, I am here the authority in the rabbinical leadership ... As you know, I want to nominate seven people, and I want these people to be the people."
One dissident, Joseph Waldman, decided nevertheless to run on his own. He was made unwelcome at the synagogue, his children were expelled from yeshiva, his car's tires slashed, and his windows broken. Several hundred residents marched in the streets in front of his house chanting, "Death to Joseph Waldman!", after posters calling for that fate were posted in the synagogue. After the election, in which Waldman finished last, but still won 673 votes, 60 families who were known to have voted for him were barred from visiting their fathers' graves in the village cemetery that was owned by the rabbi, and banned from the synagogue (also, at the time, the village's only polling place). Waldman compared Teitelbaum to Iran's Ayatollah Khomeini.
After the election, a state court ruled that Waldman's children had to be reinstated at the yeshiva, an action that was only taken after the judge held Teitelbaum in contempt and fined him personally. Friction continued as some of the dissidents banned from the synagogue circulated a petition calling for the polls to be moved to a neutral location. It originally drew 150 signatures, but all but 15 retracted their names after being threatened with excommunication by the grand rabbi, signing a document that they had not actually read the petition. One of the dissidents who signed was attacked while praying, and state troopers had to be called in again to disperse a mob that gathered on Waldman's lawn and broke his windows.
In November 2017, a local divorce mediator and an Israeli rabbi with ties to the village were involved in the planning of a contract killing on an estranged husband. They were sentenced to prison.
==== Electoral fraud allegations ====
On four occasions since 1990, the Middletown Times-Herald Record has run lengthy investigative articles on claims of electoral fraud in the village. A 1996 article found that Kiryas Joel residents who were students at yeshivas in Brooklyn had on many occasions apparently registered and voted in both the village and in Brooklyn; a year later, the paper reported that it had happened again. In 2001, absentee ballots were apparently cast by voters who did not normally reside in the village. In some cases, ballots were cast by people who seemed to reside in Antwerp, Belgium, without a set date of expected return, and, thus, would not be allowed under New York law to vote in any election for state or local office. That article led to a county grand jury investigation in 2001, which concluded that while procedures were not followed, and many mistakes were made, there was no evidence of deliberate intent to violate the law.
Before the 2013 Republican primary in that year's special election for the state assembly seat vacated by Annie Rabbitt, later elected county clerk, members of United Monroe, a local group that organizes and co-ordinates political opposition to the village and those local officials it believes support it, asked the county's Board of Elections to assign them to Kiryas Joel as election inspectors, who verify that voters are registered before allowing them to vote. The board's Democratic commissioner, Sue Bahrens, initially agreed to appoint six to serve in the village, but later reversed that decision. The six sued the county, alleging religious discrimination; it responded that they had no standing to sue. Village Manager Gedalye Szegedin said the citizens were entitled to have inspectors who spoke Yiddish and understood their culture and customs. A state court justice dismissed the discrimination claim, but ruled that the United Monroe inspectors had been dismissed arbitrarily and capriciously, and were entitled to their appointments, but did not say when or where.
In 2014, the newspaper examined claims by poll watchers from United Monroe that they were intimidated and harassed by other poll watchers sympathetic to the village government when they tried to challenge voters whose signatures did not initially appear to match those on file during the previous year's elections for county offices. They further alleged that election inspectors in the polling place, a banquet hall where 6,000 residents voted, sometimes gave the voters ballots before the signatures could be checked.
Some of the United Monroe poll watchers claimed that Langdon Chapman, an attorney for the Monroe town board, which they believe is controlled by members deferential to Kiryas Joel and its interests, was one of those who intimidated them. Coleman told the Record that while he had been at the banquet hall in question, he had only insisted that poll watchers state the reason for their challenges, as legally required, and had left after two hours. He was subsequently appointed county attorney (the lawyer who represents the county in civil matters) by new county executive Steve Neuhaus, whose margin of victory included all but 20 of the votes from the village.
After the election, United Monroe members found more than 800 voters in Kiryas Joel whose signatures did not match those on file, in addition to 25 they had challenged at the polls, three of whom were later investigated by the county sheriff; the rest were considered unfounded. Orange County District Attorney David Hoovler, elected along with Neuhaus, told the newspaper it was difficult to investigate the allegations, since they could not verify the identity of either signer, if, in fact, there were two. The Record attempted to contact some of those voters; the only one they reached hung up when asked about the election.
=== Large families ===
Women in Kiryas Joel usually stop working outside the home after the birth of a second child. Most families have only one income, and many children. The resulting poverty rate makes a disproportionate number of families in Kiryas Joel eligible for welfare benefits, when compared to the rest of the county. The New York Times wrote,
Because of the sheer size of the families (the average household here has six people, but it is not uncommon for couples to have 8 or 10 children), and because a vast majority of households subsist on only one salary, 62 percent of the local families live below poverty level and rely heavily on public assistance, which is another sore point among those who live in neighboring communities.
A 60-bed post-natal maternal care center was built with $10 million in state and federal grants. Mothers can recuperate there for two weeks away from their large families.
==== Hepatitis A and vaccine trial ====
In the 1990s, the first clinical trials for the hepatitis A vaccine took place in Kiryas Joel, where 70 percent of residents had been affected. This disproportionate rate of hepatitis A infection was due in part to Kiryas Joel's high birth rate and crowded conditions among children, who bathed together in pools and ate from communal food at school. Children who were not infected with hepatitis A were separated into two groups, one receiving the experimental vaccine and the other receiving a placebo injection. Based on this study, the vaccine was declared 100 percent effective. Merck licensed the vaccine in 1995, and it became available in 1996, after which the hepatitis A infection rate fell by 75 percent in the United States.
=== Litigation ===
The unusual lifestyle and growth pattern of Kiryas Joel has led to litigation on a number of fronts. In 1994, the Supreme Court ruled in the case of Board of Education of Kiryas Joel Village School District v. Grumet that the Kiryas Joel School District, which covered only the village, was designed in violation of the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment, because the design accommodated one group on the basis of religious affiliation. Subsequently, the New York State Legislature established a similar school district in the village that has passed legal muster. Further litigation has resulted over what entity should pay for the education of children with disabilities in Kiryas Joel, and over whether the community's boys must ride buses driven by women.
In 2011, a case (Kiryas Joel Alliance v. Village of Kiryas Joel) against the village was heard in federal district court; the plaintiffs, who were followers of competing factions of Satmar to Rebbe Aron Teitelbaum's, argued that the control of the village government by the Aronite faction's supporters was being abused to discriminate against them. The case was dismissed, and in 2012 the Second Circuit rejected their appeal of the dismissal.
== Education ==
Most students go to private religious schools; in 2021 there were about 12,000 students attending them. In 2020, the area had nearly two dozen such schools. In 1994 Kiryas Joel had 5,000 children in the K-12 level with the majority going to private yeshivas and about 200 going to the public special education school.
The public Kiryas Joel School District has a school for special education students. Before 1985, special education students were taught by public school teachers in separate classes within yeshivas, and between 1985 and 1989 special education students were taught in Monroe–Woodbury Central School District facilities. In 2022–2023, the school district had a public school enrollment of 165 students.
== In Media ==
The village is explored in the 2018 documentary City of Joel.
== See also ==
New Square, New York − an all-Hasidic village in a neighboring county
Kaser, New York − an all-Hasidic village in a neighboring county
Kiryas Tosh, Quebec − an all-Hasidic community in Quebec, Canada
Qırmızı Qəsəbə
Shtetl
== References ==
=== Notes ===
=== Footnotes ===
=== Further reading ===
Foderaro, Lisa W. (October 13, 1999). "Hasidic Public School Loses Again Before U.S. Supreme Court, but Supporters Persist". The New York Times.
Kiryas Joel Ranks at Top of National List of Municipalities that Lobby the Federal Government OpenSecrets, September 2009)
2006 Census
Levin, Dan (December 16, 2007). "A Display of Disapproval That Turned Menacing". The New York Times. Retrieved November 6, 2022.
Grumet, L.; Caher, J. M. (2016). The Curious Case of Kiryas Joel: The Rise of a Village Theocracy and the Battle to Defend the Separation of Church and State. Chicago Review Press. ISBN 9781613735008.'
Stolzenberg, Nomi M.; Myers, David N. (2022). American Shtetl: The Making of Kiryas Joel, a Hasidic Village in Upstate New York. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691199771.
== External links ==
Orange County: Kiryas Joel
The Kiryas Joel Voice Archived August 26, 2005, at the Wayback Machine |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cary_High_School#Cary_Band | Cary High School | Cary High School is one of six public high schools in Cary, North Carolina, and is part of the Wake County Public School System. In 1907, Cary High School became the first state-funded public high school in North Carolina. It was selected as a Blue Ribbon School in 2002.
== History ==
=== Original campus ===
Cary High School opened in 1896 as a private boarding school. It was established to provide "a higher course of instruction" than could be found in the local one-room schools of the area. It was located in the old Cary Academy at the head of Academy Street. Its first class graduated in May 1897. The school's first principal was Edwin Lee Middleton.
In 1907, the North Carolina legislature approved a state-wide public education system. Eight days later on April 3, 1907, the board of directors of Cary High School sold it to the Wake County Board of Education for $2,750—its estimated value at the time was more than $8,000. Half of the purchase price was paid for by the State under the new legislation. Thus, Cary High School is the first county high school in North Carolina, the first state-funded high school in North Carolina, and the first high school in the state system. The school was managed by the Cary School Committee under the leadership of C. W. Scott, chair.
The State Legislature approved the establishment of a Cary School District and authorized a school tax for residents of the area. The Cary School Committee could charge up to 30¢ in school taxes for every $100 of real estate owned in the district. The citizens approved the tax in a referendum held on May 7, 1907. The outcome of the referendum was 100 in favor of the school tax and two against it. Those who lived outside the Cary School District could attend the high school for $14 a term for freshmen and sophomores and $16 a term for juniors and seniors.
Middleton remained as the school's principal during the transition, retiring in 1908. His replacement was superintendent Marcus Baxter Dry. The curriculum consisted of one year of French, three years of science, and four years of English, history, Latin, and mathematics. The latter included arithmetic, algebra, and geometry. Domestic science was added for female students in 1910. Students could add art, elocution, music, or piano to their studies for an added fee.
In the fall of 1912, 119 students enrolled in the high school. This number included eighty boarding students from other counties. The curriculum expanded to include agriculture, botany, and chemistry as science options. That year, the Girls Athletic Club was formed so that female students could play tennis and basketball.
By 1913, the student body had outgrown the campus. Dry asked the citizens of the school district to increase the school tax so that the school could have a new building with a modern heating system. In May 1913, the voters approved $25,000 in bonds for a new 33-room brick building to be placed on the site of the original wood frame building. The State contributed an additional $5,000 to construct what was considered "the best high school building in the state". Dry recalled, "It can truly be said that this building led the way for better high school buildings in North Carolina. Many delegations of school people from all over the State came to Cary to see this building, and many a building in the next few years was modeled after it."
In 1914, the school changed its name to Cary Public High School and Farm Life School to reflect an expanded curriculum that included vocational agriculture and home economics. The next year, fifteen acres on what is now Walnut Street were donated by James M. Templeton Jr. for hands-on learning in farming. An additional $1,500 was donated by others and the Town of Cary to add a barn, farmhouse, dairy cows, and other stock to the model farm. (The farmhouse survives at 510 Walnut Street.) Students enrolled in the agricultural program would arrive early to milk the cows; the milk was then served with breakfast at the school for boarding students.
In 1915, the Chsite yearbook premiered. In 1919, students organized a student council, a general athletic association, and The Echo campus newspaper. In 1921, a marching band was formed, and school colors of olive green and white were selected, along with the white rose as the school flower. The school motto was "service".
Also in 1920, Cary voters approve $45,000 in bonds for a new farm life department building. The result was Walter Hines Page Vocational Education Building which was completed in 1922. The next year, a State Normal Class for Teachers was started at Cary High School; this was one of four sites for this program in the state and it operated for five years. By 1924, students could receive either an academic, agriculture, home economics or teacher training diploma.
A new gymnasium, the James M. Templeton Physical Education Building, was added to the campus in 1925 at the cost of $12,000. The gym seated 500 people and allowed students to play basketball on a wooden court, rather than on dirt. By 1926, campus athletics included five organized sports—baseball, basketball, football, tennis, and track. Student clubs included the Boys Glee Club, the Dramatic Club, the Girls Glee Club, the Home Economics Club, four literary societies, and the Science Cub.
In 1926, the school acquired its first bus which traveled 24 miles a day for 22 students. Realizing the potential benefit of buses, the Wake County Board of Education expanded the Cary School District from the Raleigh City limits near the State Fairgrounds to the Durham County line in 1927. Busing allowed the county to consolidate schools in Morrisville, Reedy Creek, and Sorrell's Grove with Cary, closing the smaller locations. At the same time, the Board of Education allocated $38,000 to construct a new building for the Cary High School campus, and an additional $12,000 to update heating systems. The school also had a library with 1,970 volumes.
When the Great Depression hit Cary, property values dropped which reduced the school tax income. The Board of Education closed Mount Herman and Ebenezer schools, sending those students to Cary. The State legislature increased its funding which helped offset the loss of tax revenue, and eventually ended the local school tax altogether in 1933. However, there were still campus budget cuts such as no new books for the library and ceasing publication of the Chsite yearbook. The dormitories were also closed, ending the school's era of being a boarding school. At this time, grades 1 through 11 were taught at Cary High School under a consolidated school program. WPA funding allowed the school to expand its athletic fields by five acres. The community combined WPA funding, county funding, and local support to build what was then one of the finest football stadiums in North Carolina, with seating for 1,500 people.
The success of the football field project led to the collaborative funding of a new central school building, with the Board of Education providing $70,000 and the WPA providing the balance of the $132,000 cost of construction. The dedication stone of the new building read: Cary High School
First State Public High School
Established in North Carolina on April 3, 1907
This building was erected in 1938.
However, the building was mostly constructed in 1939. The new three-story building included many modern features, such as a cafeteria, fire doors, a first aid room, an intercom system, a movie projector, a sound-proof typing room, and an auditorium with 834 seats. At the dedication ceremony on March 4, 1940, Governor Clyde Hoey said Cary was "a beacon of hope and inspiration to other communities of the State". The News and Observer wrote, "Cary High School and its predecessor, Cary Academy, has occupied a position of leadership in the field of secondary education, not only in Wake County but in the State as a whole for 75 years."
In 1941, Cary had the largest high school in Wake County, with 460 students. The next year, Dry retired after 34 years as principal. However, he then began teaching algebra in summer school. Thaddeus N. Frye became the new principal or superintendent. That same year, Wake County added the 12th grade to its curriculum, and the school year was extended from eight to nine months in 1943.
In 1956, Cary High School was the first school in Wake County to be accredited by the Southern Association of Secondary Schools. The next year, the Wake County Board of Commissioners purchased forty acres of land for $30,000 from Luther M. Maynard as a site for a new Cary High School. In 1958, 150 residents debate the proposed location with the Wake County Board of Education; while many liked the new site, others thought the property which was one mile from downtown was too far out in the country and lacked good road access.
However, plans went forward with construction at the new campus. The last graduating class to attend their senior year at the original campus was the Class of 1960; it was also the first class to have more than 100 graduating members. The original campus became Cary Junior High and Elementary School, then Cary Elementary School. On August 13, 2011, it opened as the Cary Arts Center.
=== Current campus ===
The new campus of Cary Senior High School opened on September 7, 1960, with new principal Samuel Arbes. The campus was filled to capacity when it opened with 573 students comprising the sophomore, junior, and senior classes. The campus consisted of three classrooms buildings, a gymnasium, a library, an auditorium, a cafeteria, and a shop building. Its architect was William A. Deitrick and the builder was J. M. Thompson Construction Company of Raleigh. The construction cost $771,251, with an additional $38,000 for design fees. By 1962, it was estimated that the high school needed ten more classrooms. The resulting building expansion allowed the student body to also include freshmen, starting in 1963. At this time, the school's name reverted to Cary High School.
Also in 1963, the Wake County Board of Education approved the voluntary transfer of six students from the all-black Berry O'Kelly School to Cary High School under the "freedom of choice" policy adopted by the board following the U.S. Supreme Court's decision on segregation. Cary the first school to be desegregated in Wake County outside of Raleigh (William G. Enloe High School being the first within the city of Raleigh). Board of Education member Ferd Davis recalled that Cary was specifically selected for integration because it was an area that was already rapidly changing and "would accept something new more readily". Some white parents sued the school system over the integration, and the suit was thrown out by the North Carolina Supreme Court.
These transfer students were seniors, Lucille Evans and Frances Louise White, juniors Gwendolyn Matthews and Brenda Lee Hill, sophomore Ester Lee Mayo, and freshman Phyllis Rose. These six African-American girls, chosen to be bright, outgoing, and "strong-willed enough to take what was inevitably coming to them", came to the school amid intense verbal opposition from whites. When the students arrived on campus, they were greeted by student protesters. Matthews recalls, "My parents…said it would get better, and it did. The demonstrations went on for ten days with fewer students participating each day. They were never more than fifty…and that's not many at a school the size of Cary". Evans and White graduated in 1964. That fall, Gregory Crowe became the first African American male student at Cary High School. In 1967, the Board of Education decided to integrate Cary High School by making the former black high school the 9th grade Junior High for all races, and transferring all black sophomores, juniors and seniors to what was again called Cary Senior High School. Under the scheme, the senior high school had 764 whites and 112 blacks, or a minority rate of 12.8%.
By 1972, the school was again overcrowded, resorting to the use of two mobile classrooms or trailers. When the school opened in the fall of 1973, there were more than 1,500 students, requiring the use of eight classroom trailers. In 1973, a county-wide bond referendum gave $700,000 to expand Cary High School. Construction began in May 1974 on an eight-classroom building to house foreign languages, a library expansion, an auto mechanics shop, a stadium field house, and a new lobby and expanded offices for Building A.
In 1989, a 4.5 million dollar school construction project brought more improvements to the school, such as the addition of Building 10 which included a new air-conditioned media center. This allowed freshmen to return to campus for the first time since the mid-1960s. However, in 1995 the school had some 1,800 students in a space designed for some 1,455 students. In 1996, there was a $3.44 million bond approved for school improvements, including a new classroom and administrative space, Building A renovations for the performing arts department, a career center, and computer labs—expanding the school's capacity to 1,585 students. Work also began on a new main entrance at the front of the school.
In 2004, plans by the architectural firm of Clark Nexsen were approved to renovate and expand campus facilities, including the construction of a new auditorium, gymnasium, music classrooms, and a new classroom building. Construction was completed by J. M. Thompson of Cary and the new three-story classroom building was opened in August 2008. As part of this project, the existing auditorium, band room, Building E, Building F and part of Building B were demolished. In total, 78,063 square feet were demolished, with 135,839 square feet being added, and 26,831 square feet being renovated.
In 2012, Clark Nexsen designed a master plan for Phase III of campus updates, including a dining addition and a 100,000-square-foot classroom. The project will be started when funding is in place.
== Student population ==
As of the 2021–22 academic year, Cary High School had 2.071 students. Of those students, 1,080 are male and 991 are female. The student population was 44.5% White, 27.5% Hispanic, 17.2% Black, 6% Asian, 4.4% two or more races, and 0.3% American Indian. The school's total minority population was 55.5%. 28% of Cary's students are economically disadvantaged, with 23% receiving a free lunch program and 4% participating in the reduced lunch program.
The student graduation rate is 87%. Based on test scores, 41.7% of the students are ready for college, above the district average of 37.8%.
== Faculty ==
In the academic year 2021–22, Cary High School had 120 teachers, with a student-teacher ratio of 17:1. The majority of the teachers, 97%, have been in their profession for three or more years and are also certified.
In addition, Cary has a student–counselor ratio of 299:1, better than the state average of 361:1. The faculty also includes a social worker.
In 2019, Nolan Bryant received a Maggie Award for Best High School Principal in Western Wake County. Track and cross country coach Jerry Dotson for also received a 2019 Maggie Award for Best High School Coach in Western Wake County.
== Academics ==
=== Curriculum ===
Cary High School includes grades 9 through 12. The school operates on a traditional calendar, with a block schedule.
The school offers Advanced Placement® courses, with 53% of students participating. In addition, 38% of the students passed at least one AP® Exam. 53% of the school's students take the SAT, with an average score of 1146. However 64% of the school's graduates pursue either college or vocational training. Students from Cary High School have received the Morehead-Cain Scholarship for the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and the John T. Caldwell Scholarship to North Carolina State University.
The school's Career & Technical Education Department's goal is to prepare students for employment. In addition to classroom learning, internships are also included for many students. The educational areas include agriculture; business, finance and marketing; career development; computer science and information technology; family and consumer sciences; health sciences; and trade, technology, engineering and industrial education.
Since the fall of 2022, Cary High School also includes The Academy of Technology and Advanced Manufacturing, an "immersive, smaller learning community within Cary High School". The academy is a four-year program that focuses on advanced manufactures, design, engineering, and technology. Cary High School invested more than $100,000 in electrical, electronic, instrumentation, pneumatic/flow control, and robotic equipment that incorporates current technologies.
=== Rankings ===
As of 2024, U.S. News & World Report ranks Cary High School 18th amongst the high schools in Wake County, North Carolina. It is also ranked 91st in North Carolina, and 3,446 in the nation. Niche gives the school an "A" rating and places the school at #95 in best public high schools in North Carolina.
=== Academic honors ===
Juniors and seniors with a 3.6 GPA can apply to join the National Honor Society. The top twenty juniors based on GPA rankings are selected to serve as Junior Marshalls for major senior class activities related to graduation. Before graduation each year, there is a reception for Honor Graduates and an Academic Awards Night. At graduation, Honor Students with a GPA of 3.75 or greater receive gold/silver/red tassels for their mortar board and a patch to add to their gown.
=== Library ===
The school's media center has a staff of two. Students have access to online databases as well as a physical book collection. The media center's website includes book reviews written by students and staff.
== Student life ==
=== Traditions ===
In 1960, the student council held a design contest for a school seal. The winning seal features pine cones and dogwood blossoms and the Latin phrase Cognito Vincit or Knowledge Conquers.
The Cary High School Alma Mater is sung to the tune of "Over the Summer Sea" or "La Donna e mobile" from the opera Rigoletto by Giuseppe Verdi. For more than fifty years, the school had the lyrics to the Alma Mater, but did not know the tune. Research finally revealed the tune and the song were performed by the Cary High Marching Band and Concert Chorus at a football game on October 22, 2021. Since then, the Alma Mater has been revised as a campus tradition. Its lyrics are: "Cary! here’s love to thee / And we will ever be / Filled with true loyalty / And with devotion. / Long we will ever claim / The blessings of thy name, / And may thy spirit reign / From crest to ocean. / Fond hearts entwining, / Cease all repining, / Near us is shining / Cary’s bright smile."
Another school tradition involved members of the rising senior class painting their class year on the water tower across Maynard Road from the school before the start of the school year. Fearing for the safety of students, the Town of Cary took over painting the water tower for the Class of 1986. Locals pitched in to pay the professional painters. The Town of Cary has continued this tradition for decades.
=== Cary Band ===
The Cary High School Band, established in 1921, is a corps-style marching band that has "gained local, national, and international acclaim". In addition to the marching band, Cary also has three concert bands, a jazz ensemble, an indoor percussion ensemble, an indoor marching wind ensemble, and a symphony. The current director of bands is Christopher R. Foster. The band is supported by the Cary Band Boosters, a nonprofit corporation. The Cary Band hosts Cary Band Day, an annual festival featuring marching bands from the North Carolina and Virginia area since 1958.
In 1959, the band marched in Charlotte's Shrine Bowl Parade, Raleigh's Christmas Parade, and Wilmington's Azalea Festival Parade under the direction of James Johnson. Under the leadership of director Jack White, the band was selected to represent North Carolina at a national band festival in Sioux City, Iowa in 1963. In 1965, the band marched in the Governor Dan K. Moore's inaugural parade under the leadership of director A. J. Moore.
In 1972, the band entered and won the Sun-Fun Festival at Myrtle Beach, South Carolina, beating the national champs of Wilson High from Reading, Pennsylvania. Shortly afterward, the Cary High School band was listed in the top twenty nationally by Ruffles and Flourishes, a national band magazine. In January 1973 under the leadership of director Jimmy Burns, the Cary band was the first from North Carolina to march in the Tournament of Roses parade; the community raised $30,000 to send the band to Pasadena, California for the event. That year, the band also competed on a television show called Sounds of '73 that was emceed by Jerry Lewis and viewed twenty to thirty million people. The band also marched in the inaugural parades for Governor James Holshouser and for President Richard Nixon; they were one of ten bands at the latter event. On December 31, 1973 (televised January 1, 1974), the band marched in the King Orange Bowl Festival parade in Miami, Florida.
In August 1974, the Cary band performed at the Fêtes de Genève in Geneva, Switzerland—this honor is limited to only one band from the United States each year. The town celebrated Jimmy Burns Day, in honor of the band's director. In 1975, the band played at the Kentucky Derby, nation's first largest parade. On January 1, 1976, the Cary band was the first out-of-state band to march in the Cotton Bowl parade in Dallas, Texas. Later that year, the band attended the Pennsylvania Festival of the Colonies, winning the parade competition and coming in third overall.
In 1977, the band returned to the Tournament of Roses parade. In 1978, they participated in the week-long Festival of States in St. Petersburg, Florida. Under new director Don Stubblefield, they also marched in the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade in New York City and were seen by eighty million television viewers. In March 1980, the band toured Romania for two weeks as Friendship Ambassadors. In 1982, the band played for President Ronald Reagan when he attended a campaign event at the Raleigh Civic Center. Also in 1982, they were in the Gimbel's Thanksgiving Day parade in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. In 1984, the band again played in the Tournament of Roses parade, becoming the first non-California band to participate in the parade three times. The band competed at the Citrus Bowl Music Festival in 1987, placing third overall. In 1989, the band marched in the inaugural parade for Governor James G. Martin and the San Diego Holiday Bowl Music Festival.
The band won the parade event at the Citrus Bowl Music Festival in 1991. In 1993, the band marched in the inaugural parade for Governor James B. Hunt. In 1996 under the leadership of director Tony Robinson, the band received fourteen of fifteen first-place awards at the Gator Bowl in Jacksonville, Florida, including the Grand Champions trophy for best in both parade and field show.
The band marched in the 2016 Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade under the leadership of director Matt Minick.
=== Ambassadors Club ===
Ambassadors Club members "represent Cary High to new transfer students and to ninth graders as they transition into high school."
=== IDEA Club ===
The IDEA Club promotes student engagement and activism with government and politics. In March 2022, the club was involved in fighting censorship of books related to gender, sexuality, and race in the school's library. The IDEA Club also conducts voter registration drives.
=== NJROTC ===
In the fall of 1996, alumnus Del Richards donated $40,000 to start a Navy Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps (NJROTC) program at the high school. NJROTC includes numerous competitive teams, including academics, athletics, drill, marksmanship, and physical fitness.
=== Performing Arts ===
Cary High School Performing Arts is an umbrella name for the school's choral group and drama club. The group typically produces a fall play and a spring choral concert. During the COVID-19 pandemic, students replaced live performances with videos that were edited by alumnus Michael Shorb and then streamed to audiences. Cary High School Performing Arts is supported by the nonprofit organization, Cary High School Performing Arts Booster Club.
=== Publications ===
The school's yearbook, YRAC, was first published in 1948; this was a revival of a prior publication that ceased during the Great Depression. In 1987, The Spirit student newspaper placed first at the American Scholastic Press Association Writing Contest under the leadership of advisor Janice Richardson. Other student-produced publications include The Page online student newspaper which was founded in 2018 by students Stephen Atkinson and Claire Perry.
=== Speech and Debate ===
The Speech and Debate team is a member of the Tarheel Forensics League (TFL) and competes statewide. Formed around 2010, the team finished second in a state-wide tournament its first year. The next year, the team finished in second place at the state championship and qualified for the National Speech and Debate Tournament. Since then, the team has competed at the national tournament seven of its first ten years. The team has also hosted local tournaments.
== Athletics ==
=== Mascot ===
Cary High School's mascot is the Imp. Albert H. Werner, football and baseball coach starting in 1935, was an influence in selecting the team mascot. Werner had played football at Duke University where the junior varsity teams were called the Blue Imps rather than the Blue Devils. Probably to balance college favorites, Cary's mascot was called the White Imp, incorporating the White Phantoms which were the mascot of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill at that time.
At first, just the football team was referred to as the White Imps, but the name eventually was used for all sports teams. After the 1971-72 school year, "white" was dropped to avoid racial connotations when the school was desegregated. The Imp is now green.
The current illustration of the Imp was designed by student Lee Mauney in the 1960s. Mauney later was the school's art teacher and athletic director. In January 2010, Cary premiered a costumed Imp mascot at the Cary vs. Apex High School basketball game. The mascot costume was purchased with donations and funds raised by student members of the Ambassador Club. The costume was produced by Stagecraft in Cincinnati, Ohio.
ESPN selected the Cary Imp as one of the best nicknames for a football team in the country in 2009. The Imp was also recognized as the fourth most unique high school nickname in the country by Sports Illustrated in 2010. In 2023, the Cary Imp was voted as the best high school mascot in the country in the Sports Illustrated High School Fan National annual competition.
=== School Colors ===
Historically, the school's colors were olive green and white. Today, Cary High School's colors are Kelly green and white.
=== Rivalries ===
Cary's historic rival was Garner High School—The New and Observer noted it "was as intense a rivalry as there was". As the community grew and part of the school's students were sent to the new Apex High School, this became the biggest rival.
=== Sports teams ===
Cary is a member of the North Carolina High School Athletic Association (NCHSAA).
The school has the following co-ed sports teams: cheerleading, junior varsity cheerleading, cross country, indoor track, track, and swim and dive. Sports teams for women include varsity basketball, junior varsity basketball, golf, gymnastics, lacrosse, junior varsity lacrosse, varsity soccer, junior varsity soccer, varsity softball, junior varsity softball, stunt, tennis, varsity volleyball, and junior varsity volleyball.
Men's sports teams include varsity baseball, junior varsity baseball, basketball, junior varsity basketball, varsity football, junior varsity football, golf, lacrosse, junior varsity lacrosse, varsity soccer, junior varsity soccer, tennis, and wrestling.
==== Football ====
Cary High School's first football team was organized in 1917. The coach was Tal Stafford who was previously a North Carolina A&M (now North Carolina State University) football star and All American. Probably because of World War I and the closing of the school during the influenza epidemic, the football team disbanded. It was reorganized in 1923. In 1935, Albert H. Werner, a former player at Duke University, became the football and coach.
In 1955 under coach John Ebby, the football team was undefeated, winning the Class A state championship. Players included fullback John Yarborough and quarterback Charles Maison who was later an All-American at Elon College.
On September 15, 1961, the football field on the new campus was dedicated as the Paul W. Cooper Athletic Field. In 1970, the Imps Booster Club announced it would raise $100,000 to expand Cooper Field to include locker rooms, restrooms, showers, and expanded seating. In 1973, a press box was added. In October of that year, A. E. Finley donated $15,000 toward the stadium's debt. As a result, the facility is renamed Cooper Field at A. E. Finley Stadium. In 1982, the press box was replaced for $29,500.
In 1976, Cary won the conference title with a record of 6-1 for coach Dave Riggs' final season. The team won the first round of the playoffs but then lost to undefeated Richmond County High School. This was Cary's best season until 1995. In the 1995-96 year, the team was undefeated under coach Bill Devine. Winning the conference title, the team had only allowed 45 points during their regular season. Although winning their first playoff game, the team did not make it to the finals. However, in this season, Cary's football team had the second-longest winning streak in the school's history, tied the school records for wins, and set school records for most points scored in a season and most interceptions.
==== Wrestling ====
Under the leadership of coach Jerry Winterton from 1981 to 2010, the wrestling team won 19 state championships (11 state tournament and 8 dual teams state titles), 21 regional championships, and 28 consecutive conference tournament championships. In 1987, the team was ranked 25th in the nation by Amateur Wrestling News and was also featured on ESPN's Scholastic Sports America. In 1988, the team was ranked as high as 11th in the nation. In 1990, the wrestling team's consecutive match win streak record ended at 188 wins.
Including the playoffs, the Imps had a record of 621–16 under Winterton from 1981 to 2010. During this time he coached 44 individual state champions, as well as wrestlers who earned All-American and National Champion honors.
Winterton was inducted into the Cary High School Hall of Fame in 1995, the North Carolina Chapter of the National Wrestling Hall of Fame in 2004, the North Carolina High School Athletic Association (NCHSAA) Hall of Fame in 2014, and the National High School Hall of Fame (NFHS) in 2017.
==== State Championships ====
Boys Basketball: 1939 (Class B), 1954 (Class A), 1995 (4A)
Girls Basketball: 1993 (4A)
Boys Cross Country: 2018 (4A)
Girls Cross Country: 1997 (4A)
Football: 1955 (Class A)
Boys Soccer: 1998 (4A)
Boys Outdoor Track & Field: 2019 (4A)
Wrestling Dual Team: 1993 (4A), 1996 (4A), 1997 (4A), 1998 (4A), 2005 (4A), 2007 (4A), 2008 (4A), 2009 (4A), 2018 (4A)
Wrestling State Tournament Team: 1977 (All Classes), 1987 (4A), 1988 (4A), 1989 (4A), 1997 (4A), 2000 (4A), 2003 (4A), 2005 (4A), 2006 (4A), 2007 (4A), 2008 (4A), 2009 (4A)
==== Hall of Fame ====
In 1994, the first class was inducted into the Cary High School Hall of Fame. Inductees have either played, coached or served the athletic program of Cary High School.
== Notable people ==
=== Alumni ===
John Altschuler, television and film writer and producer
Debbie Antonelli, sports commentator
Reggie Barnes, former pro-skateboarder and founder/owner of Eastern Skateboard Supply
Chris Castor, former NFL wide receiver
William C. Creel, former North Carolina Commissioner of Labor
Carter Cruise, DJ, producer, model, and adult film actress
John Custer, Grammy Award-nominated record producer and musician
Ben Fountain, author
Linda Hinkleman Gunter, former member of the North Carolina Senate and president of the North Carolina Electoral College
Vance Heafner, professional golfer who played on the PGA Tour
DJ Horne, college basketball player
Andrew Hubner, author
Greg Jones, MLB player
Scott Kooistra, former NFL offensive tackle
Roderick Perry II, former NFL nose tackle
Justin Ress, competitive swimmer, represented the United States at the 2017 World Aquatics Championships
Anthony Rush, former NFL defensive tackle
Mark Scalf, college baseball coach, head coach of UNC Wilmington baseball from 1992–2019
Zack Schilawski, former professional soccer player
Vic Sorrell, former MLB pitcher, 1935 World Series champion with the Detroit Tigers
Azurá Stevens, WNBA basketball player
=== Faculty ===
Linda Gunter, teacher: former member of the North Carolina Senate and president of the North Carolina Electoral College
Phil Spence, basketball coach: former NBA player and member of the NC State Wolfpack men's basketball national championship team
Julie Schilawski, teacher: recipient of the Presidential Awards for Excellence in Mathematics and Science Teaching
Tal Stafford, football coach: head football coach at North Carolina State University
Jerry Winterton, wrestling coach: inducted into the North Carolina chapter of the National Wrestling Hall of Fame and the National High School Hall of Fame
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Brother_1_(American_season) | Big Brother 1 (American season) | Big Brother 2000 (retroactively known as Big Brother 1 following season 7) is the debut season of the American reality television series Big Brother. It was based upon the Netherlands series of the same name, which gained notoriety in 1999 and 2000. The series premiered on July 5, 2000, and lasted for a total of 88 days. The season concluded after 88 days with Eddie McGee being crowned the winner, and Josh Souza the runner-up.
The premise of the series drastically differed from future installments of the series. The series revolved around ten strangers living in a house together with no communication with the outside world. They were constantly filmed during their time in the house, and were not permitted to communicate with those filming them. Every other week, each contestant, referred to as "Houseguests", chose two people who they wished to leave the house. The two or more people with the most votes were “marked for banishment.” The viewers then decided which of the nominees should leave with the selected person leaving during a live show. This process continued until only three HouseGuests remained, at which time the viewers would decide which of them would win the $500,000 grand prize. This format contrasts the future editions of the show, in which the HouseGuests themselves would vote each other out each week, with the ultimate winner being decided by eliminated HouseGuests.
== Format ==
Big Brother is a game show in which a group of contestants, referred to as HouseGuests, lived in a custom built "house", constantly under video surveillance. While in the house, the contestants were completely isolated from the outside world, meaning no phone, television, internet, magazines, newspaper, or contact with those not in the house. This rule could be broken, however, in the event of a family emergency or passing. During their time in the house, the HouseGuests were required to nominate two of their fellow contestants for potential banishment, and the two with the most votes would be nominated. Should multiple HouseGuests receive the most nominations, then all of the HouseGuests were marked for banishment. This process was mandatory for all HouseGuests, and failure to comply could result in expulsion from the house. The public, through a vote conducted by phone, would vote to banish one of the nominated HouseGuests from the house, and the HouseGuest with the most votes from the viewers would be banished from the house. When only three HouseGuests remained, the viewers would vote for which of them should win the series, and the HouseGuest with the most votes would become the winner. The HouseGuests were competing for a $500,000 cash prize, though the Runner-Up of the series would receive $100,000 and the second Runner-Up would receive $50,000.
During their time in the house, HouseGuests were given weekly tasks to perform. The HouseGuests would wager a portion of their weekly shopping budget on the task, and would either win double their wagered fund or lose the wagered fund depending on their performance in the task. The HouseGuests were required to work as a group to complete the task, with the format of the tasks varying based on the amount of remaining HouseGuests. Should the HouseGuests run out of the food provided for them, an emergency ration was available to them. HouseGuests were also required to make visits to the Red Room during their stay in the house, where they were able to share their thoughts and feelings on their fellow HouseGuests and the game. The format of the series was mainly seen as a social experiment, and required HouseGuests to interact with others who may have differing ideals, beliefs, and prejudices. While a competition, the series allows viewers to witness the relationships formed in the house and the behavior of the HouseGuests. Nina Tassler, president of entertainment at CBS, stated "You're talking about people from very disparate walks of life and confining them in a house for a finite period of time [...] you have to recognize yes, this is that show. It is a social experiment." Though locked in the house, the HouseGuests were free to quit the game, though would not be allowed entry back into the house. Should a HouseGuest break the rules of the game, they could be expelled from the house, and unable to return.
== HouseGuests ==
The first season of Big Brother featured ten HouseGuests, each of whom were complete strangers.
=== Future appearances ===
George Boswell returned for Big Brother: All-Stars and later on Big Brother 10 to host a food competition along with other Big Brother alumni.
== Summary ==
On Day 1, Brittany, Cassandra, Curtis, Eddie, Karen, George, Jamie, Jordan, Josh, and William entered the house. On Day 2, they were given their first task to complete. They were required to solve a word puzzle, which would inform them of the location to find money for groceries. They were successful and earned $100 as a group. On Day 3, HouseGuests were given the task of building a clock out of potatoes in the house. Should they fail this task, they would not know the time in the house; they passed the task. On Day 4, HouseGuests were given the task of making plaster masks of themselves. On Day 5, one of the chickens in the backyard was injured. It was removed from the house and brought back later to be nursed back to health. On Day 7, HouseGuests were given their first weekly task. They were given the names of dozens of celebrities and had to state whether they were dead or alive. They were given days to attempt to recall the correct answers and would be quizzed about it at a later date. They wagered 20% of their weekly budget on this task, which they ultimately failed. William intentionally failed his portion of the challenge, upsetting many HouseGuests. On Day 9, the HouseGuests participated in their first round of nominations. William and Jordan were announced as the nominees this week, with William receiving six nominations and Jordan receiving five. Josh, Jamie, George, and Cassandra all received no nominations this week. HouseGuests were later given their new task, which required them to ride a stationary exercise bike to achieve a total distance of 1,000 miles. They wagered 50% of their weekly budget on this task, which they passed. HouseGuests were later given another task, in which they were required to imitate another HouseGuest in the Red Room. On Day 17, William became the first HouseGuest to be banished from the house when he received 73% of the public vote.
On Day 20, HouseGuests are given their new weekly challenge, in which they had days to practice making a set of dominoes fall down in a single session. They had to set up 12,100 dominoes to form the series logo and then make them all fall by knocking only one domino over. The group passed this task, which they wagered 20% on. The HouseGuests later held a fake trial dealing with the issue of flag burning, with Karen as the judge, Jordan being on trial, Brittany being a witness, Curtis and Cassandra as lawyers, and the other HouseGuests as members of the jury. On Day 22, HouseGuests participated in the second round of nominations. Curtis and Jordan became the second set of nominated HouseGuests this season, with Curtis receiving six nominations and Jordan receiving five nominations. Josh, Jamie, Cassandra, and Brittany received no nominations this week, making it the second time in a row that Josh, Jamie, and Cassandra had received no nominations from their fellow HouseGuests. HouseGuests were later given their new weekly task, which required them to ride a stationary bike for a total of one thousand miles. They wagered 50% of their shopping budget on the task, which they passed. The HouseGuests were later given another task, which required them to split into three teams and attempt to toss water balloons to their teammates from across the pool. The team of Eddie, Cassandra, and George won, though there was no reward. On Day 28, the HouseGuests held a roast for Curtis and Jordan as they were marked for banishment. On Day 30, Jordan became the second HouseGuest to be banished from the house when she received 78% of the public vote.
HouseGuests were given their new weekly task, which required them to write a poem pertaining to the game. They would then have to jump rope together while the rope holders recited the poem. They had one chance to correctly complete the poem, and failure to do so would result in the group failing the task. They wagered 30% of their shopping budget on the task, which they failed. HouseGuests were later given the task of hosting their own daytime talk show. On Day 36, HouseGuests participated in a live challenge in which they had to vote for one HouseGuest to receive a phone call from home; they voted for George. That night, it was revealed that Cassandra, Josh, and Karen had been marked for banishment due to a tie in the voting process. George was the only HouseGuest to receive no nominations this week. That same night, the HouseGuests were given their new weekly task, which required them to take care of a pug named Chiquita. In the days following her nomination, Karen began to ask the viewers to banish her from the house as she missed her children. HouseGuests were later given their new weekly task, in which they were required to make eight raspberry and eight blueberry pies, and split into teams named after the various pies. The first team to eat all eight of their pies would choose how the weekly allowance was spent. On Day 44, HouseGuests participated in a live challenge in which they were tempted with a reward in exchange for watching the nominations process. They ultimately chose not to watch the nominations, thus were not given a prize. That night, Karen became the third HouseGuest to be banished from the house as she had received 76% of the public vote.
HouseGuests were given their new weekly task, which required them to memorize all of the major highways in the country. They would then be required to state what highways would get them from one city to another. The group wagered 20% of their shopping budget on this task, which they passed. The group was later given a new task in which they were required to paint each other like animals. In another task for the week, HouseGuests competed in a sumo wrestling competition in an attempt to win a luxury massage. Eddie was the winner, with former HouseGuest William secretly giving him a bad massage. For their next weekly task, the HouseGuests were required to have two HouseGuests dancing at all times. When cued, all HouseGuests would be required to dance at the same time. They passed this task, which they wagered 20% of their weekly budget on. On Day 50, the HouseGuests participated in their fourth round of nominations. Due to a tie in the voting, Brittany, Cassandra, Curtis, Eddie, George, and Josh were all marked for banishment. For the first time, all of the HouseGuests received at least one nomination from their fellow HouseGuests. That same night, Jamie won a two-minute conversation with a casting director due to winning a task earlier in the week. HouseGuests were later given a task in which they had to name a "Mr. and Miss Big Brother 2000", with Eddie, Brittany, and Cassandra being given the title; they won a dinner with the meal of their choice. On Day 58, Jamie was given a live task in which she was able to co-host the episode with Julie Chen, including announce who had been banished from the house. That night, it was revealed that Brittany had become the fourth HouseGuest to be banished from the house when she received 34% of the public vote.
HouseGuests were given their new weekly task, which required them to build a puzzle that featured 4,928 pieces by the end of the week. The group wagered 50% of their weekly shopping budget on this task, which they failed. The HouseGuests were later given the task of discussing whether or not they would be willing to split the total prize money. On Day 64, it was revealed that Cassandra, Curtis, and Eddie had been marked for banishment. Much like the previous round of nominations, all of the HouseGuests received at least one nomination from their fellow HouseGuests. Following this, the six remaining HouseGuests were offered $20,000 to walk from the game, with this offer later rising to $50,000. Should one of the HouseGuests accept the offer, a new HouseGuest named Beth Thieme was set to enter the house and the nominations would be voided. Ultimately, none of the HouseGuests took the offer, thus Beth did not enter the game. That same night, Brittany was able to talk to Josh as part of a task. HouseGuests were later given a new task in which they had to estimate the price of a luxury item requested by another HouseGuest. If they came within one dollar of the correct price, they would earn that luxury. For their new weekly task, the HouseGuests had to train Chiquita to go through an obstacle course. The group passed this task, which they wagered 20% of their weekly budget on. During a luxury competition, Curtis won the reward of going to the 52nd Primetime Emmy Awards. On Day 72, HouseGuests were given the live task of writing a message to be flown on a banner plane above the house. That same night, Cassandra became the fifth HouseGuest to be banished from the house as she had received 46% of the public vote.
HouseGuests were given their new weekly task, which required at least one HouseGuest to be juggling at all times. They were not permitted to drop more than two balls, or they would fail the task. The group wagered 50% on the task, which they ultimately failed. On Day 74, the HouseGuests were given another live task in which they had five minutes to make a phone call to a loved one. The timer did not stop while the HouseGuests were dialing. That same night, the group made their nominations live for the first time. It was revealed that Curtis, Eddie, George, and Jamie were marked for banishment. Josh received no nominations this week, and was the only HouseGuest not to be marked for banishment. HouseGuests were later given a new task in which they had to write lyrics for the show's theme song, and were later required to record their song in the Red Room. In another task for the week, the HouseGuests attempted to find Chiquita in the house, with the winner being able to present the weather from inside the house; Josh was the winner. On Day 79, the five remaining HouseGuests were asked to select one of the previously banished HouseGuests to return to the house in a matter of days; they chose Cassandra. That night, George became the sixth HouseGuest to be banished from the house as he had received 51% of the public vote.
HouseGuests were given their new weekly task, in which they were required to determine whether or not specific news articles had actually appeared in the news or not. The group wagered 50% of their weekly shopping budget on the task, which they passed. The group was later given another task in which they played the Big Brother board game. On Day 81, the HouseGuests participated in their second round of live nominations. Due to a tie in the voting, all four of the remaining HouseGuests were marked for banishment. This was the final round of nominations for the season. Former HouseGuest Cassandra entered the house as a guest that same night, as the HouseGuests had selected her to return days prior. Due to a new task, Josh was selected to become a saboteur in the house, and performed tasks such as setting time back on the potato clock. If one of the other three HouseGuests correctly guessed that Josh was the saboteur, they would win a new flat screen television; Curtis won this prize. On Day 86, Jamie became the seventh HouseGuest to be banished from the house as she had received 31% of the public vote. Chiquita also exited the house that night, and was adopted by a couple upon her exit. On Day 88, it was revealed that Curtis became the last HouseGuest to be banished from the house, receiving 14% of the public vote to win. Minutes later, it was revealed that Josh had come in second place with 27% of the public vote, meaning Eddie had been crowned the winner and come in first place with a total of 59% of the public vote.
== Episodes ==
== Nominations table ==
Color key:
== Production ==
=== Development ===
The series first launched in the Netherlands, with editions in countries such as Germany proving to be hits with the public. Following the international success of the series, a bidding war for the rights to series engaged between CBS, ABC, and a cable network, with the series initially set to last 100 days. Mark Itkin, the senior vice president of William Morris, was quoted as saying, "I had no idea the bidding would be so hot. But the show has so many elements, from being on 100 days in a row to an Internet component that is especially attractive to networks." Ultimately, it was confirmed that the show had been picked up by CBS for an estimated $20 million. It was later reported that production costs added to an estimated $200,000 per episode. Paul Romer, co-creator of the original series, served as the Executive Producer for the series. On the concept, Romer stated "The show is all about human interactions. It's people who are, loving each other, hating each other. They fight, they cry, they laugh -- all emotions, we'll see in the house." In a later interview, Romer added "The first thing people think of when they hear the Big Brother idea are the sexual things, the nudity, the sexual activity in the house [...] That's not what the show is about." The series was one of the first reality shows to air, and required a crew of over 150 people.
The first season of Big Brother featured two hosts, Julie Chen as the main host and Ian O'Malley as a co-host. On earning the job, O'Malley stated "I didn’t really know what it was. This is the ground floor of reality television. [But] SAG went on strike [and it was] a very lengthy and very painful strike for many folks." O'Malley was later released from his contract after only one month on the series; he was bought out of his contract, which he later cited as a "relief". Chen, who hoped to be a part of 60 Minutes in the future, initially turned down the offer to host the series as she did not want to be in the entertainment division of the network. Upon declining the offer, CBS News president Andrew Heyward told Chen that refusal to do the series could be seen as "insubordination". Chen clarified "They said they needed someone who knows how to ask questions on live TV and I asked ‘Am I forever sealing the door on 60 Minutes?’ and [Heyward] said ‘yes,’”. Dr. Drew Pinsky and AOL Online Advisor Regina Lewis appeared once per week on the series to discuss the events in the house. The cast for the series was revealed during the premiere. HouseGuest William was revealed to be a member of the New Black Panther Party, while Jamie was crowned Miss Washington USA the year prior to her participation on the show. HouseGuests Curtis and Josh had done modeling prior to entering the house. Jean Jordan had been an exotic dancer before entering the house, while Karen and George were married and had children. Cassandra and William were both African-American. Series creator John de Mol later stated "The 10 people in our house, you can relate to them. It's the girl next door, it's the guy in the grocery store [...] It's ordinary people, and I think that Big Brother proves ordinary people can be interesting."
The first season of Big Brother premiered on July 5, 2000. The premiere was filmed on July 4, 2000. The series initially aired five nights per week, though a sixth episode was later added into the schedule. The addition of a sixth episode per week caused the live banishment episode to move to Wednesday instead of Thursday. Four of these episodes were half-hour daily recap episodes, while one episode was an hourly-long weekly recap; the sixth episode was the live banishment. During the live banishment, the HouseGuest who exits the house was subject to an interview with host Julie Chen. The first season had a total of 70 episodes, the most for any season to date. This season lasted for a total of 88 days. The theme song for the series, known as "Live", was performed by Jonathan Clarke. It was played during the closing credits of each episode, and segments of the theme were played throughout the show. Viewers of the series could also watch the live feeds in the house, which were available for free on the official website. The feed was edited for music copyrights and to protect the privacy of some contestants. The feeds also featured a disclaimer for users under the age of 21, due to unedited aspect to the feeds.
=== House ===
The house used for the first season was a one-story house with two bedrooms, a kitchen and dining room, and one bathroom. The house was an estimated 1,800 square feet, and was located at the CBS Studio Center in Los Angeles, California. Throughout the house, there are a total of 28 cameras making all areas of the house visible to the cameras, and 60 microphones. During their stay in the house, the HouseGuests were required to wear microphones at all times, ensuring everything they said in the house was heard. Throughout the house the walls are lined with two way mirrors, with a production team filming behind them. The bedrooms featured infrared imaging cameras, allowing the cameras to continue filming while the rooms were dark. The design of the house included bad feng shui, clashing colors and positioning. The house featured bright colors as part of its theme, with the kitchen being a bright blue and the living room yellow. The two bedrooms in the house were identical, with both featuring a bunk bed and three single beds. The bathroom featured one toilet, one shower, a washboard and a washtub. The Red Room was where HouseGuests were required to share their thoughts on the events in the house, and were often given tasks. The backyard of the house featured a patio area where the HouseGuests could sit outside. The backyard also featured a chicken coop, and the HouseGuests were able to use the eggs from the chickens as food.
== Reception ==
=== Ratings ===
Big Brother 1 premiered on July 5, 2000, in the US, with the season premiere having over 22 million viewers. Despite the high premiere, ratings for the series quickly began to decline, and the series quickly dropped out of the Top 10 slot in terms of viewers. Ratings began to decline even more following the banishments of Will "Mega" and Jordan, who were both seen as colorful characters in the game. Big Brother 1 was noted as having its highest ratings on Wednesdays, when it aired after the hugely successful Survivor: Borneo. The Saturday, July 8 episode was beaten out by an episode of the reality series Cops. This episode saw ratings lower from the previous episode. Ratings continued to drop, with at one point the series had fallen behind re-runs of shows such as Friends. The Monday, September 4 episode only achieved 5.5. Cassandra's banishment episode did see an increase in ratings, however, receiving 12.5 million viewers. The finale garnered 11.13 million viewers, beating out the Olympics. Despite the decline in ratings, the series' official website did receive a large amount of traffic, due to the live feed being available there. It was also noted that as the ratings decreased, traffic onto the main site increased. The online aspect of the series "changed both the dynamic in the house and the TV show’s content" according to the LA Daily News. It was also reported that the official website for the series was one of the most popular new websites for the month of July.
=== Public reaction ===
Big Brother 1 has typically been cited as "boring" by critics and fans of the series. John Carman of The San Francisco Chronicle stated "Wondering 'Will Karen run out of Kleenex?' is about the most interesting thing about Big Brother." Comedian Kathy Griffin (who has since become a fan of the series, making guest appearances in Big Brother 16 and Big Brother 17) mocked the series, stating "Do you guys [watch] those 'tards on Big Brother?" Joyce Millman of Salon.com felt that ratings for the series dropped due to the "boring" cast. The New York Times later reported that CBS was disappointed with the series. Les Moonves, CBS chief, stated that the "casting sucked" for the series, leading to its disappointing run. He later stated "there were more provocative storylines that could have been followed that were dropped." John de Mol, the creator of the series and owner of Endemol, blamed not only the casting but the changes made to the show and format to suit American audiences. Executive producer Paul Romer felt that the group of HouseGuests were "too aware of the cameras" and were concerned with "how they'd look on TV." Former co-host Ian O'Malley claimed he predicted the series would be panned, stating "I knew the critics were probably going to go bananas because of the voyeuristic aspect."
Upon its announcement, the series has come under fire for both controversy and criticism. After the premiere of the first season, Chicago attorney Marvin Rosenblum filed a lawsuit against CBS, then corporate parent Viacom, and the production company Orwell Productions for alleged copyright infringement. Rosenblum, a producer of the film 1984, owns the film and TV rights to the novel Nineteen Eighty-Four and claimed the show "illegally borrows from it." Rosenblum accused the network of illegally using the Big Brother moniker from the novel Nineteen Eighty-Four and "deceiving the public into thinking the author's classic novel was the origin of the show." CBS, Viacom, and Orwell Productions filed a motion to dismiss the $20 million lawsuit. The dismissal was denied on January 4, 2001. In 2001 Rosenblum, CBS and Viacom settled the lawsuit under undisclosed terms. The decision to select Chen as the host of the series caused much debate, mainly due to her role on the talk show The Early Show. Andy Rooney of 60 Minutes said Chen's participation in the series was "a further deterioration of news standards", and further controversy arose when it was revealed some of Chen's lines had been scripted.
Numerous events occurred during the game that sparked controversy as well. The show's security was breached early in the series when two publicity-seeking screenwriters threw a tennis ball stuffed with fake news stories – including one in which then President of the United States, Bill Clinton, purportedly called Big Brother a "national disgrace" - into the house's garden after finding it was unguarded. The HouseGuests were also communicated with by a plane towing a banner reading: "Big Brother is worse than you think. Get out now." The show also came under criticism after HouseGuest George Boswell's wife and family began campaigning for viewers to vote out some of the more popular HouseGuests to keep George in the game. Recently evicted HouseGuest Brittany, who was permitted to talk to Josh for a certain amount of time, informed Josh of this news. Various "anti-George" banners were flown over the house, leading Josh to inform them of the news. Various other points in the game led to the HouseGuests feeling they were being portrayed poorly, and they would often be required to do acts they didn't necessarily feel like doing. George then decided he would walk from the game, and attempted to convince the other HouseGuests to walk with him as well during a live episode. Ultimately, none of the HouseGuests chose to leave the game. There was speculation that CBS had hired for the banners to be flown over the house, though this was never confirmed.
=== Renewal ===
Despite the lack of strong ratings and numerous controversies surrounding the series, Big Brother did help earn CBS a 17% increase for its time slot, and was ultimately renewed in September 2000 for a second season. It was then confirmed, however, that there would be numerous changes to the format of the series.
== References ==
"Brother raises manipulation to a fine art" By Lynn Elber, CANOE JAM! Television. July 24, 2000.
== External links ==
Big Brother – official American site (Archived)
Big Brother at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diana_Ramos | Diana Ramos | Diana Ramos is an American obstetrician and gynecologist who was appointed to serve as the Surgeon General of California by Governor Gavin Newsom.
== Education ==
Ramos earned both a Bachelor's Degree and Doctor of Medicine from the University of Southern California. She also earned a Master of Public Health from the University of California, Los Angeles and a Master of Business Administration from the University of California, Irvine. Ramos completed her residency in Obstetrics and Gynecology at Los Angeles General Medical Center.
== Career ==
Ramos serves as a health administrator at the California Department of Public Health's Center for Healthy Communities. She is also an Adjunct Associate Clinical Professor at the Keck School of Medicine of USC, and is a member of the Keck School of Medicine Alumni Association Board.
In 2019, she became president of the Orange County Medical Association. Ramos is the secretary and member of the board of directors for the National Hispanic Medical Association.
== California Surgeon General ==
Ramos began her position as California's second Surgeon General in 2022. She outlined three primary priorities for progress, including reproductive health, mental health, and Adverse Childhood Experiences. Ramos has said she aims to particularly target mental health challenges faced by transitional age youth. She is also working to increase the number of medical students who are Latino, in order to address the growing need for physicians in the United States and California.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morris_Kight#cite_note-glbtq-4 | Morris Kight | Morris Kight (November 19, 1919 – January 19, 2003) was an American gay rights pioneer and peace activist. He is considered one of the original founders of the gay and lesbian civil rights movement in the United States.
== Biography ==
=== Early life ===
Kight was born and grew up in Comanche County, Texas. He graduated from Texas Christian University in 1941 with a degree in personnel administration and public administration.
From 1941 until 1958, Kight lived in northern New Mexico, where he and many other gay people were active in Adlai Stevenson's campaign in the 1952 presidential election. The presence of many gay people in Stevenson's campaign led to the spreading of a rumor that Stevenson was gay.
While in New Mexico, Kight married and had two daughters, Carol Kight-Fyfe and Angela Chandler. He only shared that information with his closest friends, apparently believing that would diminish his credibility as a spokesman for gay rights.
Kight also acted while he was in Albuquerque. From 1950 to 1955, he was involved in the "Summerhouse Theater" and the "Old Town Players" in Albuquerque. The two companies brought in many actors from California, and Kight was able to read some of the new "homophile" organizations' pamphlets and circulations that these actors brought with them. This was his first exposure to groups such as the Mattachine Society, which he considered elitist.
=== Labor and civil rights activities ===
Kight was active in many political, civil rights, and labor rights groups. As early as the 1940s, he was involved in organizing the Oil, Chemical and Atomic Workers International Union. After moving to Los Angeles, he kept up his involvement in varied rights groups. This work led to the first protest groups he himself founded: the "Dow Action Committee" in 1967. The Committee protested the chemical company, including its production of Agent Orange and its use, during the Vietnam War.
Kight's strong beliefs sometimes put him at odds with members of the gay community. In 1977, Kight began what became a national Coors boycott to expose how the Coors Brewing Company used its millions to finance union busting legislation and anti-gay politicians. Morris infuriated organizers of Outfest the year the festival accepted Coors funding. He organized a demonstration in front of the event, using the opportunity to educate the community about the ways anti-gay corporations try to clean up their public image by funding cash-starved gay organizations and events.
Morris persevered and Outfest no longer accepts Coors funding.
=== Gay rights activities ===
In 1958, Kight moved to Los Angeles, where he was the founder or co-founder of many gay and lesbian organizations. The first such organization was the 'militant' Committee for Homosexual Freedom or CHF, with Leo Laurence, Gale Whittington, Mother Boats and others, later to be renamed the Gay Liberation Front (GLF) in October 1969, the third GLF in the country (after New York City and Berkeley). The name was used to show solidarity with the Vietnamese National Liberation Front. By the next year, there were over 350 GLF organizations around the country.
He also co-founded Christopher Street West gay pride parade in Los Angeles in 1970, Aid For AIDS in 1983, and the Gay Community Center in 1971, (now the Los Angeles Gay and Lesbian Center), the Stonewall Democratic Club in 1975, and many others. Kight remarked that creating the Community Center was the achievement of which he was most proud. In addition, he hosted the first Asian/Pacific Gays and Friends meetings in his home.
Kight brought his experiences in political action into the realm of gay rights. One of the first actions by the LA GLF was against a local eatery called Barney's Beanery. The restaurant, located in West Hollywood, not only had a sign above the bar that said "Fagots [sic] Stay Out", but also printed up matchbook covers with the same saying. Kight, along with Troy Perry and 100 activists, protested outside, sending in protesters occasionally to order coffee and take up space at the tables. The protest was initially successful - the owner eventually handed Kight the sign in front of news cameras. But after the media left the owner replaced the sign, where it remained until West Hollywood's first lesbian mayor, Valerie Terrigno, took it down when the city council passed an anti-discrimination ordinance. Perry vowed at the initial protest to never set foot in the place again until the owner apologized, which finally happened in 2005. The new owner, David Houston, not only apologized but, among other methods to reach out to the gay community, holds monthly lunches for disadvantaged gay youth.
Kight was one of the leaders of the 1987 Second National March on Washington for Lesbian and Gay Rights. He was subsequently one of the organizers of the 1988 March on Sacramento for Lesbian and Gay Rights, at which Leonard Matlovich gave his last public speech. Kight served on the Los Angeles County Human Relations Commission for two decades.
In 2003 the City of Los Angeles dedicated the corner of Hollywood Boulevard and McCadden Place, in Hollywood, as "Morris Kight Square." This location was selected as it was the stepping off point for Christopher Street West, the very first street-closing gay pride parade in the world.
=== Twilight years ===
Toward the end of his life, Kight had several strokes that slowed him down.
On November 16, 1998, just before his 79th birthday, the City Council of West Hollywood presented him a Lifetime Achievement Award.
In September 2001 he made a video documentary with West Hollywood Public Access host James Fuhrman, called "Early Gay and Lesbian History in Los Angeles", which included his recollections of the Barney's Beanery protest and other actions.
He had a longtime companion named Roy Zucheran.
Three days before his death, he donated his memorabilia and archives to the National Gay and Lesbian Archives in Los Angeles. UCLA also has possession of some of his archives.
He died peacefully at the Carl Bean Hospice in Los Angeles, on January 19, 2003.
== Legacy ==
Season 3, episode 8 of the podcast “Making Gay History” is about Morris Kight.
The Christopher Street West/Los Angeles Gay Pride Morris Kight Lifetime Achievement Award was first given out in 2003.
There is a Chinese magnolia tree and a bronze plaque dedicated to him at the Matthew Shepard Triangle in West Hollywood. Kight used to visit this park weekly to tidy up the area, water and plant new flowers. He encouraged others to do the same.
== References ==
== External links ==
Morris Kight
"Interview with Morris Kight" - Gay Asia Pacific Support Network Archived 2007-02-06 at the Wayback Machine
Morris Kight at IMDb
Gay Today interview
Gay and Lesbian - Political Action & Support Groups – Memorial Honors Gay Rights Pioneer Morris Kight
The Advocate - obituary |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Abramowitz | Benjamin Abramowitz | Benjamin Abramowitz (also known as "Ben Hoffman" during the late 1930s and early 1940s) was an American painter, printmaker, and sculptor. First recognized for his contribution at age 19 as senior artist with the Federal Art Project of the Works Progress Administration (WPA) in New York City, he is among the most respected Washington, D.C., artists of the past century.
== Life and career ==
Abramowitz was born in Brooklyn, New York in
1917 to Russian immigrants. He studied life drawing at the Brooklyn Museum School, and had his first solo exhibition there at the age of 16. He attended the National Academy of Design. In 1936 he joined the Work Projects Administration
(W.P.A.) using the name of Ben Hoffman and was a teacher,
mural assistant, senior printmaker and painter. The
Metropolitan Museum in New York holds eleven lithographs from the young artist.
In 1941, Abramowitz moved to Washington, D.C., taking on U.S. government graphic assignments. He chose to
make Greenbelt his base for both home and studio for more than half a century. The postwar years were a time of
critical personal and artistic evolution for him. By day a lithographer, each
and every night driven by discipline, he drew and painted.
By the time he was in his early 30s, Abramowitz had become a celebrated star in the growing Washington, D.C.-Baltimore regional art scene. From the 1940s on, critics, curators and collectors enthusiastically sought out his work. His work began to be purchased for major regional collections among them, the Baltimore Museum of Art and the Phillips Collection. The Corcoran Gallery of Art selected his work annually for its biennial exhibitions.
By the mid-20th century, Abramowitz, was recognized not only as a painter, but also as a teacher and "art coach"
throughout the Washington metropolitan area. Among his students was the D.C. painter and sculptor Lilian Thomas Burwell. The Ford Foundation sent him throughout the country, lecturing, conducting seminars and critiques as artist-in-residence. All the while, he kept journals and maintained an active correspondence with critics, curators and students.
By the 1970s, he diverged from painting, and turned to making wall works and freestanding sculptures.
Additionally he designed four books illustrating the basic principles of the creative experience. Until his mid-80s, when diminishing vision essentially prevented him from continuing to work, he created steadily and with the same discipline and vigor that marked his earlier years.
Abramowitz' distinguished lifework has been
cited in numerous prestigious biographical volumes. The National Archives of
American Art holds hundreds of papers, letters and other materials.
== Legacy ==
The modern art movement in the Washington region started mid-century, and the first was the work of Ben Abramowitz," said Walter Hopps, museum director and curator, at a memorial service for artist Gene Davis at the National Gallery of Art in 1985.
The prolific and complex achievements of master artist Benjamin Abramowitz in painting, sculpture, works on paper in drawing and watercolor span almost eight decades. Noted for his compelling aesthetic vision, Abramowitz has been hailed by critics, curators and collectors as one of the most important artists of the 20th century. His vast body of work resists categorization. Working outside the geographical spotlight of the New York art world, Abramowitz' recognized mastery has been remarkably overlooked.
== Notable exhibitions ==
"Undiscovered Color: Paintings of Benjamin Abramowitz 1960-1970," Archer Modern, Washington, DC, 2013
"Out of the Vault," National Women's Democratic Club, Washington, DC, 2012
"WPA Graphic Works from the Amity Art Foundation Collection," Juniata College Museum of Art, Huntingdon, PA, 2008
"From Maryland to the Republic of Congo," ART in Embassies Exhibition, United States Embassy, Brazzaville, Republic of Congo, 2007
"Heart of DC," John A. Wilson Building, City Hall Art Collection, Washington, DC, 2007
"Benjamin Abramowitz Works on Paper," Hemphill Fine Arts, 2006
ART in Embassies Program, United States Embassy, Sarajevo, 2006
"30 Years Later: A Group Show of Current Works by Selected Washington Artists of the 50s and 60s," Gallery K, Washington, DC June 1989
"Benjamin Abramowitz: Painting, Sculpture, Drawing," Middendorf/Lane Downtown Gallery, Washington DC November, 1982
"Eminent Washington Artists: 3rd Annual Invitational Exhibit," The Art Barn, Washington, DC, January 1980
The Washington Project for the Arts, Washington, DC, 1979
The Jefferson Place Gallery, 1972
"Benjamin Abramowitz," The Jefferson Place Gallery, March 1971
"Washington: Twenty Years," The Baltimore Museum of Art, May 1970
The Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington, DC, 1970
The Philadelphia Museum of Art, Philadelphia, PA, March 1965
"Abramowitz," R Street Gallery, Washington, DC, 1964
"Washington Artists Exhibition No. 20: Benjamin Abramowitz," The Corcoran Gallery of Art, November 1963
Solo exhibition, Baltimore Museum of Art, Baltimore, MD, 1959
"3 Maryland Artists: Benjamin Abramowitz, Jane Frank & Lowell Nesbitt," The Baltimore Museum of Art, Baltimore, MD, November 1958
"Paintings by Benjamin Abramowitz," The Dupont Gallery of Art, Washington, DC, November 1954
"Eighteen Washington Artists" The Barnett Aden Gallery, Washington, DC, October 1953
"The Eighth Annual Area Exhibition," The Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington, DC, November 1953
"Trio: One-man shows by prominent Washington artists," Watkins Gallery, American University, Washington, DC, January 1953
"Trends in American Drawing," Howard University Department of Fine Art, Washington, DC, December 1952
"Maryland Artists 20th Annual Exhibition," The Baltimore Museum of Art, 1952
Solo exhibition, The Whyte Gallery, Washington, DC, April 1952
"Painters of Expressionistic Abstraction," The Phillips Gallery, Washington, DC, March 1952
The Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington, DC, November 1951
The Whyte Gallery, Washington, DC, June 1951
The Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington, DC, February 1951
Solo exhibition, The Baltimore Museum of Art, Baltimore, MD, 1951
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, NY, December 1950
The Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington, DC, November 1949
The Dupont Gallery, Washington, DC, 1949
"Third Annual Exhibition of Work by Artists of Washington & Vicinity," The Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington, DC, November 1948
"Abramowitz," The Barnett Aden Gallery, Washington, DC, April 1948
The Barnett Aden Gallery, Washington, DC, September 1947
"Fifteenth Annual Exhibition of Maryland Artists," The Baltimore Museum of Art, Baltimore, MD, January 1947
"Artists of Washington and Vicinity," The Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington, DC, November 1946
Solo exhibition, Howard University Art Gallery, Washington, DC, March 1946
"The Eighth Metropolitan State Art Contest," The National Collection of Fine Arts, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, November 1945
"Exhibition of Paintings by Artists of Washington, Baltimore and Vicinity," The Phillips Memorial Gallery, Washington, DC, January 1945
National (Smithsonian) Museum, Washington, DC, 1945
Baltimore Art Museum, Baltimore, MD, 1945
Phillips Memorial Gallery, Washington, DC, 1944
Metropolitan Museum, Hearn Permanent Collection, 1941
"American Artists' Congress Fifth Annual Competitive Exhibition," ACA Gallery, New York, NY, June 1940
National Gallery of Fine Arts (Smithsonian Institution), Washington, DC, 1940
New School for Social Research, New York, NY, 1939
Rockefeller Center, New York, NY, 1939
ACA Gallery, New York, NY, 1938
Brooklyn Museum, Brooklyn, NY, 1933
== Notable Collections ==
Metropolitan Museum of Art
Phillips Collection
Georgetown University
U.S.Department of State
District of Columbia Art Bank
Howard University
Newark Museum
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kathleen_Gemberling_Adkison#:~:text=Kathleen%20Gemberling%20Adkison%20was%20born,High%20School%20in%20Seattle%2C%20Washington. | Kathleen Gemberling Adkison | Kathleen Gemberling Adkison (née Parks; July 5, 1917 – August 3, 2010) was an American abstract painter.
== Early life ==
Kathleen Gemberling Adkison was born in Beatrice, Nebraska, to parents Rupert Parks and Henrietta Williamson. She attended Hawthorn High School in Kearney, Nebraska for three years, and graduated from Garfield High School in Seattle, Washington. She studied art and painting under Leon Derbyshire at the Cornish Institute between 1938 and 1942.
== Career ==
Adkison was the last surviving artist trained under Mark Tobey, who was Jackson Pollock's inspiration. Her work has been shown in museums as early as 1960 when the Frye Art Museum staged a solo show of her work. She also had a show at the Northwest Museum of Arts and Culture, formerly the Cheney Cowles Memorial Museum, in Spokane, Washington, from December 13, 1973 to January 13, 1974.
Adkison was a critically acclaimed artist and highly recognized for her work. She was among only eight women included in Northwest Art Today at the 1962 Seattle World's Fair. Adkison was the feature of a solo retrospective at the Cheney Cowles Museum in Spokane, Washington, from March 27, 1999, to June 27, 1999. It was the first retrospective of her work, at that museum, since 1974.
== Personal life ==
Adkison married Thomas Adkison, an architect, in 1968. They had two children. Adkison enjoyed hiking, and she climbed to the base camp at Mt. Everest twice. Thomas Adkison died in 1986. She died on August 3, 2010, in Spokane, Washington, aged 93.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siri | Siri | Siri ( SEER-ee) is a virtual assistant and chatbot purchased, developed, and popularized by Apple Inc., which is included in the iOS, iPadOS, watchOS, macOS, Apple TV, audioOS, and visionOS operating systems. It uses voice queries, gesture based control, focus-tracking and a natural-language user interface to answer questions, make recommendations, and perform actions by delegating requests to a set of Internet services. With continued use, it adapts to users' individual language usages, searches, and preferences, returning individualized results.
Siri is a spin-off from a project developed by the SRI International Artificial Intelligence Center. Its speech recognition engine was provided by Nuance Communications, and it uses advanced machine learning technologies to function. Its original American, British, and Australian voice actors recorded their respective voices around 2005, unaware of the recordings' eventual usage. Siri was released as an app for iOS in February 2010. Two months later, Apple acquired it and integrated it into the iPhone 4s at its release on 4 October 2011, removing the separate app from the iOS App Store. Siri has since been an integral part of Apple's products, having been adapted into other hardware devices including newer iPhone models, iPad, iPod Touch, Mac, AirPods, Apple TV, HomePod, and Apple Vision Pro.
Siri supports a wide range of user commands, including performing phone actions, checking basic information, scheduling events and reminders, handling device settings, searching the Internet, navigating areas, finding information on entertainment, and being able to engage with iOS-integrated apps. With the release of iOS 10, in 2016, Apple opened up limited third-party access to Siri, including third-party messaging apps, as well as payments, ride-sharing, and Internet calling apps. With the release of iOS 11, Apple updated Siri's voice and added support for follow-up questions, language translation, and additional third-party actions.
iOS 17 and iPadOS 17 enabled users to activate Siri by simply saying "Siri", while the previous command, "Hey Siri", is still supported.
In 2024, Apple added initial LLM functionality to Siri in iOS 18, iPadOS 18, and macOS Sequoia, including ChatGPT integration. In 2025, Apple announced that a broader overhaul of Siri based on Apple Intelligence, intended to enable increased personalization, would be delayed due to technical challenges.
== Development ==
Siri is a spin-out from the Stanford Research Institute's Artificial Intelligence Center and is an offshoot of the US Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency's (DARPA)-funded CALO project. SRI International used the NABC Framework to define the value proposition for Siri. It was co-founded by Dag Kittlaus, Tom Gruber, and Adam Cheyer. Kittlaus named Siri after a co-worker in Norway; the name is a short form of the name Sigrid, from Old Norse Sigríðr, composed of the elements sigr "victory" and fríðr "beautiful".
Siri's speech recognition engine was provided by Nuance Communications, a speech technology company. Neither Apple nor Nuance acknowledged this for years, until Nuance CEO Paul Ricci confirmed it at a 2013 technology conference. The speech recognition system uses sophisticated machine learning techniques, including convolutional neural networks and long short-term memory.
The initial Siri prototype was implemented using the Active platform, a joint project between the Artificial Intelligence Center of SRI International and the Vrai Group at Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne. The Active platform was the focus of a Ph.D. thesis led by Didier Guzzoni, who joined Siri as its chief scientist.
Siri was acquired by Apple Inc. in April 2010 under the direction of Steve Jobs. Apple's first notion of a digital personal assistant appeared in a 1987 concept video, Knowledge Navigator.
Siri's original release on iPhone 4s in October 2011 received mixed reviews. It received praise for its voice recognition and contextual knowledge of user information, including calendar appointments, but was criticized for requiring stiff user commands and having a lack of flexibility. It was also criticized for lacking information on certain nearby places and for its inability to understand certain English accents. During the mid-2010s, a number of media reports said that Siri lacked innovation, particularly against new competing voice assistants. The reports concerned Siri's limited set of features, "bad" voice recognition, and undeveloped service integrations as causing trouble for Apple in the field of artificial intelligence and cloud-based services; the basis for the complaints reportedly due to stifled development, as caused by Apple's prioritization of user privacy and executive power struggles within the company. Its launch was also overshadowed by the death of Steve Jobs, which occurred one day after the launch.
== Apple Intelligence ==
Siri has been updated with enhanced capabilities made possible by Apple Intelligence. In macOS Sequoia, iOS 18, and iPadOS 18, Siri features an updated user interface, improved natural language processing, and the option to interact via text by double tapping the home bar without enabling the feature in the Accessibility menu on iOS and iPadOS. According to Apple: it adds the ability for Siri to use the context of device activities to make conversations more natural; Siri can give users device support and will have larger app support via the Siri App Intents API; Siri will be able to deliver intelligence that's tailored to the user and their on-device information using personal context. For example, a user can say, "When is Mom's flight landing?" and Siri will find the flight details and try to cross-reference them with real-time flight tracking to give an arrival time. For more day to day interactions with Apple devices, Siri will now summarize messages (on more apps than just Messages, such as Discord and Slack). According to users, this feature can be helpful but can also be inappropriate in certain situations.
== Voices ==
The original American voice of Siri was recorded in July 2005 by Susan Bennett, who was unaware it would eventually be used for the voice assistant. A report from The Verge in September 2013 about voice actors, their work, and machine learning developments, hinted that Allison Dufty was the voice behind Siri, but this was disproven when Dufty wrote on her website that she was "absolutely, positively not the voice of Siri." Citing growing pressure, Bennett revealed her role as Siri in October, and her claim was confirmed by Ed Primeau, an American audio forensics expert. Apple has never acknowledged it.
The original British male voice was provided by Jon Briggs, a former technology journalist and for 12 years narrated for the hit BBC quiz show The Weakest Link. After discovering he was Siri's voice by watching television, he first spoke about the role in November 2011. He acknowledged that the voice work was done "five or six years ago", and that he didn't know how the recordings would be used.
The original Australian voice was provided by Karen Jacobsen, a voice-over artist known in Australia as the GPS girl.
In an interview between all three voice actors and The Guardian, Briggs said that "the original system was recorded for a US company called Scansoft, who were then bought by Nuance. Apple simply licensed it."
For iOS 11, Apple auditioned hundreds of candidates to find new female voices, then recorded several hours of speech, including different personalities and expressions, to build a new text-to-speech voice based on deep learning technology. In February 2022, Apple added Quinn, its first gender-neutral voice as a fifth user option, to the iOS 15.4 developer release.
== Integration ==
Siri released as a stand-alone application for the iOS operating system in February 2010, and at the time, the developers were also intending to release Siri for Android and BlackBerry devices. Two months later, Apple acquired Siri. On October 4, 2011, Apple introduced the iPhone 4S with a beta version of Siri. After the announcement, Apple removed the existing standalone Siri app from App Store. TechCrunch wrote that, though the Siri app supports iPhone 4, its removal from App Store might also have had a financial aspect for the company, in providing an incentive for customers to upgrade devices. Third-party developer Steven Troughton-Smith, however, managed to port Siri to iPhone 4, though without being able to communicate with Apple's servers. A few days later, Troughton-Smith, working with an anonymous person nicknamed "Chpwn", managed to fully hack Siri, enabling its full functionalities on iPhone 4 and iPod Touch devices. Additionally, developers were also able to successfully create and distribute legal ports of Siri to any device capable of running iOS 5, though a proxy server was required for Apple server interaction.
Over the years, Apple has expanded the line of officially supported products, including newer iPhone models, as well as iPad support in June 2012, iPod Touch support in September 2012, Apple TV support, and the stand-alone Siri Remote, in September 2015, Mac and AirPods support in September 2016, and HomePod support in February 2018.
=== Third party devices ===
At the 2021 Worldwide Developers Conference, Apple announced that it would make Siri voice integration available in third party devices. Devices must be on the same wireless network as a HomePod or HomePod Mini to route requests. In October 2021, the Ecobee SmartThermostat with Voice Control became the first third-party device with built-in Siri control. In 2024, Denon added Siri control to select soundbars and smart speakers.
== Features and options ==
Apple offers a wide range of voice commands to interact with Siri, including, but not limited to:
Phone and text actions, such as "Call Sarah", "Read my new messages", "Set the timer for 10 minutes", and "Send email to mom"
Check basic information, including "What's the weather like today?" and "How many dollars are in a euro?"
Find basic facts, including "How many people live in France?" and "How tall is Mount Everest?". Siri usually uses Wikipedia to answer.
Schedule events and reminders, including "Schedule a meeting" and "Remind me to ..."
Handle device settings, such as "Take a picture", "Turn off Wi-Fi", and "Increase the brightness"
Search the Internet, including "Define ...", "Find pictures of ...", and "Search Twitter for ..."
Navigation, including "Take me home", "What's the traffic like on the way home?", and "Find driving directions to ..."
Translate words and phrases from English to a few languages, such as "How do I say where is the nearest hotel in French?"
Entertainment, such as "What basketball games are on today?", "What are some movies playing near me?", and "What's the synopsis of ...?"
Engage with iOS-integrated apps, including "Pause Apple Music" and "Like this song"
Handle payments through Apple Pay, such as "Apple Pay 25 dollars to Mike for concert tickets" or "Send 41 dollars to Ivana."
Share ETA with others.
Jokes, "Hey Siri, knock knock."
Siri also offers numerous pre-programmed responses to amusing questions. Such questions include "What is the meaning of life?" to which Siri may reply "All evidence to date suggests it's chocolate"; "Why am I here?", to which it may reply "I don't know. Frankly, I've wondered that myself"; and "Will you marry me?", to which it may respond with "My End User Licensing Agreement does not cover marriage. My apologies."
Initially limited to female voices for most countries where Siri was supported, Apple announced in June 2013 that Siri would feature a gender option, adding a male voice counterpart. Notable exceptions are the United Kingdom, France, and the Netherlands; those countries were first limited to male voices, then would later get female voice counterparts.
In September 2014, Apple added the ability for users to speak "Hey Siri" to summon the assistant without needing to hold the device.
In September 2015, the "Hey Siri" feature was updated to include individualized voice recognition, a presumed effort to prevent non-owner activation.
With the announcement of iOS 10 in June 2016, Apple opened up limited third-party developer access to Siri through a dedicated application programming interface (API). The API restricts the usage of Siri to engaging with third-party messaging apps, payment apps, ride-sharing apps, and Internet calling apps.
In iOS 11, Siri is able to handle follow-up questions, supports language translation, and opens up to more third-party actions, including task management. Additionally, users are able to type to Siri, and a new, privacy-minded "on-device learning" technique improves Siri's suggestions by privately analyzing personal usage of different iOS applications.
iOS 17 and iPadOS 17 allows users to simply say "Siri" to initiate Siri, and the virtual assistant now supports back to back requests, allowing users to issue multiple requests and conversations without reactivating it. In the public beta versions of iOS 17, iPadOS 17, and macOS Sonoma, Apple added support for bilingual queries to Siri.
iOS 18, iPadOS 18 and MacOS 15 Sequoia brought artificial intelligence, integrated with ChatGPT, to Siri. Apple calls this "Apple Intelligence".
== Reception ==
Siri received mixed reviews during its beta release as an integrated part of the iPhone 4S in October 2011.
MG Siegler of TechCrunch wrote that Siri was "great," understood much more, but had “no API that any developer can use“. Writing for The New York Times, David Pogue also praised Siri's ability to understand context Jacqui Cheng of Ars Technica wrote that Apple's claims of what Siri could do were bold, and the early demos "even bolder", this was still in beta.
While praising its ability to "decipher our casual language" and deliver "very specific and accurate result," sometimes even providing additional information, Cheng noted and criticized its restrictions, particularly when the language moved away from "stiffer commands" into more human interactions. One example included the phrase "Send a text to Jason, Clint, Sam, and Lee saying we're having dinner at Silver Cloud," which Siri interpreted as sending a message to Jason only, containing the text "Clint Sam and Lee saying we're having dinner at Silver Cloud." She also noted a lack of proper editability.
Google's executive chairman and former chief, Eric Schmidt, conceded that Siri could pose a competitive threat to the company's core search business.
Siri was criticized by pro-abortion rights organizations, including the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) and NARAL Pro-Choice America, after users found that Siri could not provide information about the location of birth control or abortion providers nearby, sometimes directing users to crisis pregnancy centers instead.
Natalie Kerris, a spokeswoman for Apple, told The New York Times that, “These are not intentional omissions…”. In January 2016, Fast Company reported that, in then-recent months, Siri had begun to confuse the word "abortion" with "adoption", citing "health experts" who stated that the situation had "gotten worse." However, at the time of Fast Company's report, the situation had changed slightly, with Siri offering "a more comprehensive list of Planned Parenthood facilities", although "Adoption clinics continue to pop up, but near the bottom of the list."
Siri has also not been well received by some English speakers with distinctive accents, including Scottish and Americans from Boston or the South.
In March 2012, Frank M. Fazio filed a class action lawsuit against Apple on behalf of the people who bought the iPhone 4S and felt misled about the capabilities of Siri, alleging its failure to function as depicted in Apple's Siri commercials. Fazio filed the lawsuit in California and claimed that the iPhone 4S was merely a "more expensive iPhone 4" if Siri fails to function as advertised. On July 22, 2013, U.S. District Judge Claudia Wilken in San Francisco dismissed the suit but said the plaintiffs could amend at a later time. The reason given for dismissal was that plaintiffs did not sufficiently document enough misrepresentations by Apple for the trial to proceed.
== Perceived lack of innovation ==
In June 2016, The Verge's Sean O'Kane wrote about the then-upcoming major iOS 10 updates, with a headline stating "Siri's big upgrades won't matter if it can't understand its users":
What Apple didn't talk about was solving Siri's biggest, most basic flaws: it's still not very good at voice recognition, and when it gets it right, the results are often clunky. And these problems look even worse when you consider that Apple now has full-fledged competitors in this space: Amazon's Alexa, Microsoft's Cortana, and Google's Assistant. Also writing for The Verge, Walt Mossberg had previously questioned Apple's efforts in cloud-based services, writing:
... perhaps the biggest disappointment among Apple's cloud-based services is the one it needs most today, right now: Siri. Before Apple bought it, Siri was on the road to being a robust digital assistant that could do many things, and integrate with many services—even though it was being built by a startup with limited funds and people. After Apple bought Siri, the giant company seemed to treat it as a backwater, restricting it to doing only a few, slowly increasing number of tasks, like telling you the weather, sports scores, movie and restaurant listings, and controlling the device's functions. Its unhappy founders have left Apple to build a new AI service called Viv. And, on too many occasions, Siri either gets things wrong, doesn't know the answer, or can't verbalize it. Instead, it shows you a web search result, even when you're not in a position to read it.
In October 2016, Bloomberg reported that Apple had plans to unify the teams behind its various cloud-based services, including a single campus and reorganized cloud computing resources aimed at improving the processing of Siri's queries, although another report from The Verge, in June 2017, once again called Siri's voice recognition "bad."
In June 2017, The Wall Street Journal published an extensive report on the lack of innovation with Siri following competitors' advancement in the field of voice assistants. Noting that Apple workers' anxiety levels "went up a notch" on the announcement of Amazon's Alexa, the Journal wrote: "Today, Apple is playing catch-up in a product category it invented, increasing worries about whether the technology giant has lost some of its innovation edge." The report gave the primary causes being Apple's prioritization of user privacy, including randomly-tagged six-month Siri searches, whereas Google and Amazon keep data until actively discarded by the user, and executive power struggles within Apple. Apple did not comment on the report, while Eddy Cue said: "Apple often uses generic data rather than user data to train its systems and has the ability to improve Siri's performance for individual users with information kept on their iPhones."
== Privacy controversy ==
In July 2019, a then-anonymous whistleblower and former Apple contractor Thomas le Bonniec said that Siri regularly records some of its users' conversations when activated, which often happened unintentionally. The recordings are sent to Apple contractors grading Siri's responses on a variety of factors. Among other things, the contractors regularly hear private conversations between doctors and patients, business and drug deals, and couples having sex. Apple did not disclose this in its privacy documentation and did not provide a way for its users to opt-in or out.
In August 2019, Apple apologized, halted the Siri grading program, and said that it plans to resume "later this fall when software updates are released to [its] users". The company also announced "it would no longer listen to Siri recordings without your permission". iOS 13.2, released in October 2019, introduced the ability to opt out of the grading program and to delete all the voice recordings that Apple has stored on its servers. Users were given the choice of whether their audio data was received by Apple or not, with the ability to change their decision as often as they like. It was then made an opt-in program.
In May 2020, Thomas le Bonniec revealed himself as the whistleblower and sent a letter to European data protection regulators, calling on them to investigate Apple's "past and present" use of Siri recordings. He argued that, even though Apple has apologized, it has never faced the consequences for its years-long grading program.
In December 2024, Apple agreed to a $95 million class-action settlement, compensating users of Siri-enabled from the past ten years. Additionally, Apple must confirm the deletion of Siri recordings before 2019 (when the feature became opt-in) and issue new guidance on how data is collected and how users can participate in efforts to improve Siri.
== Social impacts and awareness ==
=== Disability ===
Apple has introduced various accessibility features aimed at making its devices more inclusive for individuals with disabilities. The company provides users the opportunity to share feedback on accessibility features through email. Some of the new functionalities include live speech, personal voice, Siri's atypical speech pattern recognition, and much more.
Accessibility features:
VoiceOver: This feature provides visual feedback for Siri responses, allowing users to engage with Siri through both visual and auditory channels.
Voice-to-text and text-to-voice: Siri can transcribe spoken words into and text as well as read text typed by the user out loud.
Text commands: Users can type what they want Siri to do.
Personal voice: This allows users to create a synthesized voice that sounds like them.
=== Bias ===
Siri, like many AI systems, can perpetuate gender and racial biases through its design and functionality. As argued by The Conversation, Siri "reinforces the role of women as secondary and submissive to men" due to the fact that the default is a soft, female voice. According to an article from The Scientific American, Claudia Lloreda explains that non-native English speakers have to "adapt our way of speaking to interact with speech-recognition technologies." Furthermore, due to repetitive "learnings" from a larger user base, Siri may unintentionally produce a Western perspective, limiting representation and furthering biases in everyday interactions. Despite these perpetuated issues, Siri does provide several benefits as well, especially for those with disabilities that typically limit their abilities to use technology and access the internet. Apple has since introduced a larger variety of voices with different accents and languages.
== Swearing ==
The iOS version of Siri ships with a vulgar content filter; however, it is disabled by default and must be enabled by the user manually.
In 2018, Ars Technica reported a new glitch that could be exploited by a user requesting the definition of "mother" be read out loud. Siri would issue a response and ask the user if they would like to hear the next definition; when the user replies with "yes", Siri would mention "mother" as being short for "motherfucker". This resulted in multiple YouTube videos featuring the responses or how to trigger them, or both. Apple fixed the issue silently. The content is picked up from third-party sources such as the Oxford English Dictionary and not a supplied message from the corporation.
== In popular culture ==
Siri provided the voice of 'Puter in The Lego Batman Movie.
== See also ==
List of speech recognition software
Amazon Alexa
== References ==
== Further reading ==
For a detailed article on the history of the organizations and technologies preceding the development of Siri, and their influence upon that application, see Bianca Bosker, 2013, "Siri Rising: The Inside Story Of Siri's Origins (And Why She Could Overshadow The iPhone)", in The Huffington Post (online), January 22, 2013 (updated January 24, 2013), accessed November 2, 2014.
== External links ==
Official website
Siri's supported languages
SiriKit, Siri for developers
"The Story of Siri, by its founder Adam Cheyer". wit.ai. December 18, 2014. Retrieved October 30, 2015. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Nook | Mark Nook | Mark A. Nook is the 11th president of the University of Northern Iowa. Prior to this, he was the chancellor of Montana State University Billings.
== Education ==
Mark Nook was born in Estherville, Iowa and graduated from Holstein Community School in Holstein, Iowa. He earned a bachelor's degree in physics and mathematics from Southwest Minnesota State University in 1980, a master's degree in astrophysics from Iowa State Universityin 1983, and a Ph.D. in astronomy from the University of Wisconsin–Madison in 1990.
== Career ==
Nook began teaching physics and astronomy at Concordia College in 1983, where he was an instructor until 1986. Following this, he worked on the Wisconsin Ultraviolet Photo-Polarimeter Experiment until 1990. In 1990, Nook accepted a position as assistant professor of physics and astronomy and director of the university's observatory and planetarium at St. Cloud State University, eventually becoming a full professor in 1998. He served in this position until 2007. He served as the chair of the department of physics, astronomy, and engineering science from 1999 to 2004. He additionally served as the dean of undergraduate studies from 2004 to 2007. From 2007 to 2009, and again from 2010 to 2011, he served as the provost and vice chancellor for academic affairs at University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point, serving as the interim chancellor 2009 to 2010. Nook served as the senior vice president for academic and student affairs for the University of Wisconsin System from 2011 to 2014. In 2014 Nook was appointed the chancellor of Montana State University Billings, serving in that role until January 2017. He currently serves as the 11th president of the University of Northern Iowa. He was inducted into Omicron Delta Kappa at the University of Northern Iowa as a faculty/staff initiate in 2017. He was appointed to the board of directors for the American Association of State Colleges and Universities in 2023 and the American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education in 2022.
== References == |
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