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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yayoi_Kusama#Exhibition_list | Yayoi Kusama | Yayoi Kusama (草間 彌生, Kusama Yayoi; born 22 March 1929) is a Japanese contemporary artist who works primarily in sculpture and installation. She is also active in painting, performance, video art, fashion, poetry, fiction, and other arts. Her work is based in conceptual art and shows some attributes of feminism, minimalism, surrealism, art brut, pop art, and abstract expressionism, and is infused with autobiographical, psychological, and sexual content. She has been acknowledged as one of the most important living artists to come out of Japan, the world's top-selling female artist, and the world's most successful living artist. Her work influenced that of her contemporaries, including Andy Warhol and Claes Oldenburg.
Kusama was raised in Matsumoto, and trained at the Kyoto City University of Arts for a year in a traditional Japanese painting style called nihonga. She was inspired by American Abstract Impressionism. She moved to New York City in 1958 and was a part of the New York avant-garde scene throughout the 1960s, especially in the pop-art movement. Embracing the rise of the hippie counterculture of the late 1960s, she came to public attention when she organized a series of happenings in which naked participants were painted with brightly colored polka dots. She experienced a period in the 1970s during which her work was largely overlooked, but a revival of interest in the 1980s brought her art back into public view. Kusama has continued to create art in various museums around the world, from the 1950s onwards.
Kusama has been open about her mental health and has resided since the 1970s in a mental health facility. She says that art has become her way to express her mental problems. "I fight pain, anxiety, and fear every day, and the only method I have found that relieved my illness is to keep creating art", she told an interviewer in 2012. "I followed the thread of art and somehow discovered a path that would allow me to live."
== Biography ==
=== Early life: 1929–1949 ===
Yayoi Kusama was born on 22 March 1929 in Matsumoto, Nagano. Born into a family of merchants who owned a plant nursery and seed farm, Kusama began drawing pictures of pumpkins in elementary school and created artwork she saw from hallucinations, works of which would later define her career. Her mother was not supportive of her creative endeavors; Kusama would rush to finish her art because her mother would take it away to discourage her. Her mother was physically abusive, and she remembers her father as "the type who would play around, who would womanize a lot". She said her mother would often send her to spy on her father's extramarital affairs, which instilled within her a lifelong contempt for sexuality, particularly the male's lower body and the phallus: "I don't like sex. I had an obsession with sex. When I was a child, my father had lovers and I experienced seeing him. My mother sent me to spy on him. I didn't want to have sex with anyone for years ... The sexual obsession and fear of sex sit side by side in me." Her traumatic childhood, including her fantastic visions, can be said to be the origin of her artistic style.
When Kusama was ten years old, she began to experience vivid hallucinations which she has described as "flashes of light, auras, or dense fields of dots". These hallucinations included flowers that spoke to Kusama, and patterns in fabric that she stared at coming to life, multiplying, and engulfing or expunging her, a process which she has carried into her artistic career and which she calls "self-obliteration". Kusama's art became her escape from her family and her own mind when she began to have hallucinations. She was reportedly fascinated by the smooth white stones covering the bed of the river near her family home, which she cites as another of the seminal influences behind her lasting fixation on dots.
When Kusama was 13, she was sent to work in a military factory where she was tasked with sewing and fabricating parachutes for the Japanese army, then embroiled in World War II. Discussing her time in the factory, she says that she spent her adolescence "in closed darkness" although she could always hear the air-raid alerts going off and see American B-29s flying overhead in broad daylight. Her childhood was greatly influenced by the events of the war, and she claims that it was during this period that she began to value notions of personal and creative freedom. She attended Arigasaki High School.
She went on to study Nihonga painting at the Kyoto Municipal School of Arts and Crafts in 1948. Frustrated with this distinctly Japanese style, she became interested in the European and American avant-garde, staging several solo exhibitions of her paintings in Matsumoto and Tokyo in the 1950s.
=== Early success in Japan: 1950–1956 ===
By 1950, she was depicting abstract natural forms in watercolor, gouache, and oil paint, primarily on paper. She began covering surfaces—walls, floors, canvases, and later, household objects, and naked assistants—with the polka dots that became a trademark of her work.
The vast fields of polka dots, or "infinity nets", as she called them, were taken directly from her hallucinations. The earliest recorded work in which she incorporated these dots was a drawing in 1939 at age 10, in which the image of a Japanese woman in a kimono, presumed to be the artist's mother, is covered and obliterated by spots. Her first series of large-scale, sometimes more than 30 ft-long canvas paintings, Infinity Nets, were entirely covered in a sequence of nets and dots that alluded to hallucinatory visions.
On her 1954 painting Flower (D.S.P.S), Kusama has said:
One day I was looking at the red flower patterns of the tablecloth on a table, and when I looked up I saw the same pattern covering the ceiling, the windows, and the walls, and finally all over the room, my body and the universe. I felt as if I had begun to self-obliterate, to revolve in the infinity of endless time and the absoluteness of space, and be reduced to nothingness. As I realised it was actually happening and not just in my imagination, I was frightened. I knew I had to run away lest I should be deprived of my life by the spell of the red flowers. I ran desperately up the stairs. The steps below me began to fall apart and I fell down the stairs spraining my ankle.
=== New York City: 1957–1972 ===
After living in Tokyo and France, Kusama left Japan at the age of 27 for the United States. She has stated that she began to consider Japanese society "too small, too servile, too feudalistic, and too scornful of women". Before leaving Japan for the United States, she destroyed many of her early works. In 1957, she moved to Seattle, where she had an exhibition of paintings at the Zoe Dusanne Gallery. She stayed there for a year before moving on to New York City, following correspondence with Georgia O'Keeffe in which she professed an interest in joining the limelight of the city, and sought O'Keeffe's advice. During her time in the US, she quickly established her reputation as a leader in the avant-garde movement and received praise for her work from the anarchist art critic Herbert Read.
In 1961, she moved her studio into the same building as Donald Judd and sculptor Eva Hesse; Hesse became a close friend. In the early 1960s, Kusama began to create so-called soft sculptures by covering items such as ladders, shoes and chairs with white phallic protrusions. Despite the micromanaged intricacy of the drawings, she turned them out fast and in bulk, establishing a rhythm of productivity which she still maintains. She established other habits too, like having herself routinely photographed with new work and regularly appearing in public wearing her signature bob wigs and colorful, avant-garde fashions.
In June 1963, one of Kusama's soft sculpture pieces, a couch covered with phallus-like protrusions she had sewn, was exhibited at the Green Gallery. Included in the same exhibition was a papier-mache sculpture by Claes Oldenburg, who had not worked in soft sculpture. Kusama's piece received the most attention from attendees and critics, and by September Oldenburg was exhibiting sewn soft sculpture, some pieces of which were very similar to Kusama's; Oldenburg's wife apologized to Kusama at the exhibit. According to Fordham professor of art Midori Yamamura, Oldenburg likely was inspired by Kusama's work to use sewn pieces himself, pieces which made him an "international star". Kusama became depressed over the incident. A similar incident occurred soon after when Kusama exhibited a boat she had covered in soft sculpture, with photographs of the boat completely covering the walls of the exhibit space, which was very innovative. Andy Warhol remarked on the exhibit, and not long after covered the walls of an exhibit space with photos of a cow, for which he drew significant attention. Kusama became very secretive about her studio work. Helaine Posner, of the Neuberger Museum of Art, said it was likely some combination of sexism and racism that kept Kusama, who was creating work of equal importance to men who were using her ideas and taking the credit for them, from getting the same kinds of backing.
Since 1963, Kusama has continued her series of Mirror/Infinity rooms. In these complex infinity mirror installations, purpose-built rooms lined with mirrored glass contain scores of neon-colored balls, hanging at various heights above the viewer. Standing inside on a small platform, an observer sees light repeatedly reflected off the mirrored surfaces to create the illusion of a never-ending space.
During the following years, Kusama was enormously productive, and by 1966, she was experimenting with room-size, freestanding installations that incorporated mirrors, lights, and piped-in music. She counted Judd and Joseph Cornell among her friends and supporters. However, she did not profit financially from her work. Around this time, Kusama was hospitalized regularly from overwork, and O'Keeffe persuaded her own dealer Edith Herbert to purchase several works to help Kusama stave off financial hardship. She was not able to make the money she believed she deserved, and her frustration became so extreme that she attempted suicide.
In the 1960s, Kusama organized outlandish happenings in conspicuous spots like Central Park and the Brooklyn Bridge, often involving nudity and designed to protest the Vietnam War. In one, she wrote an open letter to Richard Nixon offering to have sex with him if he would stop the Vietnam war. Between 1967 and 1969, she concentrated on performances held with the maximum publicity, usually involving Kusama painting polka dots on her nude performers, as in the Grand Orgy to Awaken the Dead at the MoMA (1969), in which performers were instructed to embrace each other while engaging the sculptures around them at the Sculpture Garden of the Museum of Modern Art. During the unannounced event, eight performers under Kusama's direction removed their clothing, stepped nude into a fountain, and assumed poses mimicking the nearby sculptures by Picasso, Giacometti, and Maillol.
In 1968, Kusama presided over the happening Homosexual Wedding at the Church of Self-obliteration at 33 Walker Street in New York and performed alongside Fleetwood Mac and Country Joe and the Fish at the Fillmore East in New York City. She opened naked painting studios and a gay social club called the Kusama 'Omophile Kompany (kok). The nudity present in Kusama's art and art protests was severely shameful for her family; her high school removed her name from its list of alumni. This made her feel alone, and she attempted suicide again.
In 1966, Kusama first participated in the Venice Biennale for its 33rd edition. Her Narcissus Garden comprised hundreds of mirrored spheres outdoors in what she called a "kinetic carpet". As soon as the piece was installed on a lawn outside the Italian pavilion, Kusama, dressed in a golden kimono, began selling each individual sphere for 1,200 lire (US$2), until the Biennale organizers put an end to her enterprise. Narcissus Garden was as much about the promotion of the artist through the media as it was an opportunity to offer a critique of the mechanization and commodification of the art market.
During her time in New York, Kusama had a brief relationship with artist Donald Judd. She then began a passionate, platonic relationship with the surrealist artist Joseph Cornell. She was 26 years his junior – they called each other daily, sketched each other, and he would send personalized collages to her. Their lengthy association lasted until his death in 1972.
=== Return to Japan: 1973–1977 ===
In 1973, Kusama returned to Japan. Her reception from the Japanese art world and press was unsympathetic; one art collector recalled considering her a "scandal queen". She was in ill health, but continued to work, writing shockingly visceral and surrealistic novels, short stories, and poetry.
She became so depressed she was unable to work and made another suicide attempt, then in 1977, found a doctor who was using art therapy to treat mental illness in a hospital setting. She checked herself in and eventually took up permanent residence in the hospital. She has been living at the hospital ever since, by choice. Her studio, where she has continued to produce work since the mid-1970s, is a short distance from the hospital in Tokyo. Kusama is often quoted as saying: "If it were not for art, I would have killed myself a long time ago."
From this base, she has continued to produce artworks in a variety of media, as well as launching a literary career by publishing several novels, a poetry collection, and an autobiography. Her painting style shifted to high-colored acrylics on canvas, on an amped-up scale.
=== Revival: 1980s–present ===
Kusama's move to Japan meant she had to build a new career from scratch.
Her organically abstract paintings of one or two colors (the Infinity Nets series), which she began upon arriving in New York, garnered comparisons to the work of Jackson Pollock, Mark Rothko, and Barnett Newman. When she left New York she was practically forgotten as an artist until the late 1980s and 1990s, when a number of retrospectives revived international interest. Yayoi Kusama: A Retrospective was the first critical survey of Yayoi Kusama presented at the Center for International Contemporary Arts (CICA) in New York in 1989, and was organized by Alexandra Munroe.
Following the success of the Japanese pavilion at the Venice Biennale in 1993, a dazzling mirrored room filled with small pumpkin sculptures in which she resided in color-coordinated magician's attire, Kusama went on to produce a huge, yellow pumpkin sculpture covered with an optical pattern of black spots. The pumpkin came to represent for her a kind of alter-ego or self-portrait. The 2.5-meter-wide "Pumpkin", made of fiberglass-reinforced plastic, was installed in 1994 on a pier on Naoshima, Kagawa, becoming iconic as her profile grew in the following decades; it was reinstalled in 2022 after being destroyed by a typhoon a year earlier. Kusama's later installation I'm Here, but Nothing (2000–2008) is a simply furnished room consisting of table and chairs, place settings and bottles, armchairs and rugs, however its walls are tattooed with hundreds of fluorescent polka dots glowing in the UV light. The result is an endless infinite space where the self and everything in the room is obliterated.
The multi-part floating work Guidepost to the New Space, a series of rounded "humps" in fire-engine red with white polka dots, was displayed in Pandanus Lake. Perhaps one of Kusama's most notorious works, various versions of Narcissus Garden have been presented worldwide venues including Le Consortium, Dijon, 2000; Kunstverein Braunschweig, 2003; as part of the Whitney Biennial at Central Park, New York in 2004; and at the Jardin de Tuileries in Paris, 2010.
Kusama continued to work as an artist in her ninth decade. She has harkened back to earlier work by returning to drawing and painting; her work remained innovative and multi-disciplinary, and a 2012 exhibition displayed multiple acrylic-on-canvas works. Also featured was an exploration of infinite space in her Infinity Mirror rooms. These typically involve a cube-shaped room lined in mirrors, with water on the floor and flickering lights; these features suggest a pattern of life and death.
In 2015–2016, the first retrospective exhibition in Scandinavia, curated by Marie Laurberg, travelled to four major museums in the region, opening at Louisiana Museum of Modern Art in Denmark and continuing to Henie Onstad Kunstsenter Museum, Norway; Moderna Museet in Sweden, and Helsinki Art Museum in Finland. This major show contained more than 100 objects and large-scale mirror room installations. It presented several early works that had not been shown to the public since they were first created, including a presentation of Kusama's experimental fashion design from the 1960s.
In 2017, a 50-year retrospective of her work opened at the Hirshhorn Museum in Washington, DC. The exhibit featured six Infinity Mirror rooms, and was scheduled to travel to five museums in the US and Canada.
On 25 February 2017, Kusama's All the Eternal Love I Have for the Pumpkins exhibit, one of the six components to her Infinity Mirror rooms at the Hirshhorn Museum, was temporarily closed for three days following damage to one of the exhibit's glowing pumpkin sculptures. The room, which measures 13 square feet (1.2 m2) and was filled with over 60 pumpkin sculptures, was one of the museum's most popular attractions ever. Allison Peck, a spokeswoman for the Hirshhorn, said in an interview that the museum "has never had a show with that kind of visitor demand", with the room totalling more than 8,000 visitors between its opening and its temporary closure. While there were conflicting media reports about the cost of the damaged sculpture and how exactly it was broken, Allison Peck stated that "there is no intrinsic value to the individual piece. It is a manufactured component to a larger piece." The exhibit was reconfigured to make up for the missing sculpture, and a new one was to be produced for the exhibit by Kusama. The Infinity Mirrors exhibit became a sensation among art critics as well as on social media. Museum visitors shared 34,000 images of the exhibition to their Instagram accounts, and social media posts using the hashtag #InfiniteKusama garnered 330 million impressions, as reported by the Smithsonian the day after the exhibit's closing. The works provided the perfect setting for Instagram-able selfies which inadvertently added to the performative nature of the works.
Later in 2017, the Yayoi Kusama Museum opened in Tokyo, featuring her works.
On 9 November 2019, Kusama's Everyday I Pray For Love exhibition was shown at David Zwirner Gallery until 14 December 2019. The exhibition incorporated sculptures and paintings, and included the debut of her Infinity Mirrored Room – Dancing Lights That Flew Up To The Universe. The catalogue, published by David Zwirner books, contained texts and poems.
In January 2020, the Hirshhorn announced it would debut new Kusama acquisitions, including two Infinity Mirror Rooms, at a forthcoming exhibition called One with Eternity: Yayoi Kusama in the Hirshhorn Collection. The name of the exhibit is derived from an open letter Kusama wrote to then-President-elect Richard Nixon in 1968, writing: "let's forget ourselves, dearest Richard, and become one with the absolute, all together in the altogether."
In November 2021, a monumental exhibition offering an overview of Kusama's main creative periods over the past 70 years, with some 200 works and four Infinity Rooms (unique mirror installations) debuted in the Tel Aviv Museum of Art. The retrospective spanned almost 3,000 m2 across the museum's two buildings, in six galleries and included two new works from 2021: A Bouquet of Love I Saw in the Universe, and Light of the Universe Illuminating the Quest for Truth.
From late December 2022, the Hong Kong's M+ museum held a retrospective on Kusama's career entitled Yayoi Kusama: 1945 to Now. The exhibition, which showed until May 2023, was the largest retrospective of her art in Asia, not including her home country.
The Pérez Art Museum Miami held a showing of Kusama's work. Yayoi Kusama: LOVE IS CALLING was on view and accessible to the public throughout 2024.
In 2024, Kusama unveiled a new Infinity Mirror Room titled Infinity Mirrored Room – Beauty Described by a Spherical Heart as part of her solo exhibition Every Day I Pray for Love at the Victoria Miro Gallery in London. The installation featured mirrored spheres suspended within a darkened space, continuing Kusama’s exploration of repetition, reflection, and the dissolution of the self through immersive environments.
== Meaning and origins of her work ==
Curator Mika Yoshitake has stated that Kusama's works on display are meant to immerse the whole person into her accumulations, obsessions, and repetitions. These infinite, repetitive works were originally a way for Kusama to eliminate her intrusive thoughts. Claire Voon has described one of Kusama's mirror exhibits as being able to "transport you to quiet cosmos, to a lonely labyrinth of pulsing light, or to what could be the enveloping innards of a leviathan with the measles".
Creating these feelings amongst audiences was intentional. These experiences seem to be unique to her work because Kusama wanted others to sympathise with her in her troubled life. Bedatri D. Choudhury has described how Kusama not feeling in control throughout her life made her, either consciously or subconsciously, want to control how others perceive time and space when entering her exhibits. Art had become a coping mechanism for Kusama.
In 1962, Kusama created her work Accumulation of Stamps, 63. The medium used are pasted labels and ink on paper with dimensions of 23 3/4 x 29" (60.3 x 73.6 cm). The art was donated by Phillip Johnson to the Department of Drawings and Prints at the Museum of Modern Art. Kusama experienced hallucinations of flowers, dots, and nets during her childhood. These visions engulfed her surroundings, covering everything from ceilings to windows and walls. She saw the same pattern expand to encompass her body and the entire universe. Kusama's struggle with these hallucinations, which were linked to her mental illness, influenced her artistic style. To cope with her condition, Kusama adopted repeated forms in her art, using store-bought labels and stickers. She does not view her art as an end in itself but rather as a means to address her disability that originated in her childhood. The process of repetition, evident in her collages, reflects her artistic approach. Consequently, many of her artworks bear titles that include words like "accumulation" and "infinity".
Art critic for The Australian newspaper, Christopher Allen, called Kusama "one of the world's most determinedly vacuous artists".
== Works and publications ==
=== Performance ===
In Kusama's Walking Piece (1966), a performance that was documented in a series of eighteen color slides, Kusama walked along the streets of New York City in a traditional Japanese kimono while holding a parasol. The kimono suggested traditional roles for women in Japanese custom. The parasol, however, was made to look inauthentic, as it was actually a black umbrella, painted white on the exterior and decorated with fake flowers. Kusama walked down unoccupied streets in an unknown quest. She then turned and cried without reason, and eventually walked away and vanished from view.
This performance, through the association of the kimono, involved the stereotypes that Asian-American women continued to face. However, as an avant-garde artist living in New York, her situation altered the context of the dress, creating a cross-cultural amalgamation. Kusama was able to highlight the stereotype in which her white American audience categorized her, by showing the absurdity of culturally categorizing people in the world's largest melting pot.
=== Film ===
In 1968, Kusama and Jud Yalkut's collaborative work Kusama's Self-Obliteration won a prize at the Fourth International Experimental Film Competition in Belgium and the Second Maryland Film Festival and the second prize at the Ann Arbor Film Festival. The 1967 experimental film, which Kusama produced and starred in, depicted Kusama painting polka dots on everything around her, including bodies.
In 1991, Kusama starred in the film Tokyo Decadence, written and directed by Ryū Murakami, and in 1993, she collaborated with British musician Peter Gabriel on an installation in Yokohama.
=== Fashion ===
In 1968, Kusama established Kusama Fashion Company Ltd, and began selling avant-garde fashion in the "Kusama Corner" at Bloomingdale's. In 2009, Kusama designed a handbag-shaped cell phone entitled Handbag for Space Travel, My Doggie Ring-Ring, a pink dotted phone in accompanying dog-shaped holder, and a red and white dotted phone inside a mirrored, dotted box dubbed Dots Obsession, Full Happiness With Dots, for Japanese mobile communication giant KDDI Corporation's "iida" brand. Each phone was limited to 1,000 pieces.
In 2011, Kusama created artwork for six limited-edition lipglosses from Lancôme. That same year, she worked with Marc Jacobs (who visited her studio in Japan in 2006) on a line of Louis Vuitton products, including leather goods, ready-to-wear, accessories, shoes, watches, and jewelry. The products became available in 2012 at a SoHo pop-up shop, which was decorated with Kusama's trademark tentacle-like protrusions and polka-dots. Eventually, six other pop-up shops were opened around the world. When asked about her collaboration with Marc Jacobs, Kusama replied that "his sincere attitude toward art" is the same as her own. Louis Vuitton created a second set of products in 2023.
=== Writing ===
In 1977, Kusama published a book of poems and paintings entitled 7. One year later, her first novel Manhattan Suicide Addict appeared. Between 1983 and 1990, she finished the novels The Hustler's Grotto of Christopher Street (1983), The Burning of St Mark's Church (1985), Between Heaven and Earth (1988), Woodstock Phallus Cutter (1988), Aching Chandelier (1989), Double Suicide at Sakuragazuka (1989), and Angels in Cape Cod (1990), alongside several issues of the magazine S&M Sniper in collaboration with photographer Nobuyoshi Araki. Her most recent writing endeavor includes her autobiography Infinity Net published in 2003 that depicts her life from growing up in Japan, her departure to the United States, and her return to her home country, where she now resides. Infinity Net includes her poetry and photographs of her exhibitions. In October 2023, Kusama apologized for a number of racist comments against Black people in her writing.
=== Commissions ===
To date, Kusama has completed several major outdoor sculptural commissions, mostly in the form of brightly hued monstrous plants and flowers, for both public and private institutions, including Pumpkin (1994) for the Fukuoka Municipal Museum of Art; The Visionary Flowers (2002) for the Matsumoto City Museum of Art; Tsumari in Bloom (2003) for Matsudai Station, Niigata; Tulipes de Shangri-La (2003) for Euralille in Lille, France; Red Pumpkin (2006) for Naoshima Town, Kagawa; Hello, Anyang with Love (2007) for Pyeonghwa Park (now referred as World Cup Park), Anyang; and The Hymn of Life: Tulips (2007) for the Beverly Gardens Park in Los Angeles. In 1998, she realized a mural for the hallway of the Gare do Oriente subway station in Lisbon. Alongside these monumental works, she has produced smaller-scale outdoor pieces, including Key-Chan and Ryu-Chan, a pair of dotted dogs. All the outdoor works are cast in highly durable fiberglass-reinforced plastic, then painted in urethane to glossy perfection.
In 2010, Kusama designed a Town Sneaker styled bus, which she titled Mizutama Ranbu (Wild Polka Dot Dance) and whose route travels through her hometown of Matsumoto. In 2011, she was commissioned to design the front cover of millions of pocket London Underground maps; the result is entitled Polka Dots Festival in London (2011). Coinciding with an exhibition at the Whitney Museum of American Art in 2012, a 120-foot (37 m) reproduction of Kusama's painting Yellow Trees (1994) covered a condominium building under construction in New York's Meatpacking District. That same year, Kusama conceived her floor installation Thousands of Eyes as a commission for the new Queen Elizabeth II Courts of Law, Brisbane.
=== Select exhibitions ===
Rodenbeck, J. F. "Yayoi Kusama: Surface, Stitch, Skin". Zegher, M. Catherine de. Inside the Visible: An Elliptical Traverse of 20th Century Art in, of, and from the Feminine. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1996. ISBN 978-0-262-54081-0 OCLC 33863951
Institute of Contemporary Art, Boston, 30 January – 12 May 1996.
Kusama, Yayoi, and Damien Hirst. Yayoi Kusama Now. New York: Robert Miller Gallery, 1998. ISBN 978-0-944-68058-2 OCLC 42448762
Robert Miller Gallery, New York, 11 June – 7 August 1998.
Kusama, Yayoi, and Lynn Zelevansky. Love Forever: Yayoi Kusama, 1958–1968. Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 1998. ISBN 978-0-875-87181-3 OCLC 39030076
Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 8 March – 8 June 1998; three other locations through 4 July 1999.
Kusama, Yayoi. Yayoi Kusama. Vienna: Kunsthalle Wien, 2002. ISBN 978-3-852-47034-4 OCLC 602369060
Kusama, Yayoi. Yayoi Kusama. Paris: Les Presses du Reel, 2002. ISBN 978-0-714-83920-2 OCLC 50628150
Seven European exhibitions in France, Germany, Denmark, etc.; 2001–2003.
Kusama, Yayoi. Kusamatorikkusu = Kusamatrix. Tokyo: Kadokawa Shoten, 2004. ISBN 978-4-048-53741-4 OCLC 169879689
Mori Art Museum, 7 February – 9 May 2004; Mori Geijutsu Bijutsukan, Sapporo, 5 June – 22 August 2004.
Kusama, Yayoi, and Tōru Matsumoto. Kusama Yayoi eien no genzai = Yayoi Kusama: eternity-modernity. Tokyo: Bijutsu Shuppansha, 2005. ISBN 978-4-568-10353-3 OCLC 63197423
Tokyo Kokuritsu Kindai Bijutsukan, 26 October – 19 December 2004; Kyoto Kokuritsu Kindai Bijutsukan, 6 January – 13 February 2005; Hiroshima-shi Gendai Bijutsukan, 22 February – 17 April 2005; Kumamoto-shi Gendai Bijutsukan, 29 April – 3 July 2005; at Matsumoto-shi Bijutsukan, 30 July – 10 October 2005.
Applin, Jo, and Yayoi Kusama. Yayoi Kusama. London: Victoria Miro Gallery, 10 October – 17 November 2007. ISBN 978-0-955-45644-2 OCLC 501970783
Kusama, Yayoi. Yayoi Kusama. Gagosian Gallery, New York, 16 April – 27 June 2009; Gagosian Gallery, Beverly Hills, 30 May – 17 July 2009. ISBN 978-1-932-59894-0 OCLC 320277816
Morris, Frances, and Jo Applin. Yayoi Kusama. London: Tate Publishing, 2012. ISBN 978-1-854-37939-9 OCLC 781163109
Reina Sofia, Madrid, 10 May – 12 September 2011; Centre Pompidou, Paris, 10 October 2011 – 9 January 2012; Whitney Museum of American Art, New York, 12 July – 30 September 2012; Tate Modern (London), 9 February – 5 June 2012.
Kusama, Yayoi, and Akira Tatehata. Yayoi Kusama: I Who Have Arrived in Heaven. New York: David Zwirner, 2014. ISBN 978-0-989-98093-7 OCLC 879584489
David Zwirner Gallery, New York, 8 November – 21 December 2013.
Laurberg, Marie: Yayoi Kusama – In Infinity, Denmark: Louisiana Museum of Modern Art, 2015, Heine Onstadt, Oslo, 2016, Moderna Museum, Stockholm, 2016, and Helsinki Art Museum, 2016
David Zwirner Gallery, New York, 9 November – 14 December 2019.
Pérez Art Museum Miami. Yayoi Kusama: LOVE IS CALLING, 9 March 2023 – 11 February 2024.
National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne, Australia. Yayoi Kusama, 15 December 2024 – 21 April 2025
=== Illustration work ===
Carroll, Lewis and Yayoi Kusama. Lewis Carroll's Alice's Adventures in Wonderland. London: Penguin Classics, 2012. ISBN 978-0-141-19730-2 OCLC 54167867
=== Chapters ===
Nakajima, Izumi. "Yayoi Kusama between abstraction and pathology". Pollock, Griselda, ed. Psychoanalysis and the Image: Transdisciplinary Perspectives. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Pub, 2006. pp. 127–160. ISBN 978-1-405-13460-6 OCLC 62755557
Klaus Podoll, "Die Künstlerin Yayoi Kusama als pathographischer Fall". Schulz R, Bonanni G, Bormuth M, eds. Wahrheit ist, was uns verbindet: Karl Jaspers' Kunst zu philosophieren. Göttingen, Wallstein, 2009. p. 119. ISBN 978-3-835-30423-9 OCLC 429664716
Cutler, Jody B. "Narcissus, Narcosis, Neurosis: The Visions of Yayoi Kusama". Wallace, Isabelle Loring, and Jennie Hirsh. Contemporary Art and Classical Myth. Farnham, Surrey: Ashgate, 2011. pp. 87–109. ISBN 978-0-754-66974-6 OCLC 640515432
Gipson, Ferren. "Yayoi Kusama" in Women's Work, pp. 75–79, Frances Lincoln, 2022 ISBN 9-780711 264 656
=== Autobiography, writing ===
Kusama, Yayoi. A Book of Poems and Paintings. Tokyo: Japan Edition Art, 1977.
Kusama, Yayoi. Kusama Yayoi: Driving Image = Yayoi Kusama. Tokyo: PARCO shuppan, 1986. ISBN 978-4-891-94130-7 OCLC 54943729
Kusama, Yayoi, Ralph F. McCarthy, Hisako Ifshin. Violet Obsession: Poems. Berkeley: Wandering Mind Books, 1998. ISBN 978-0-965-33043-5 OCLC 82910478
Kusama, Yayoi, Ralph F. McCarthy. Hustlers Grotto: Three Novellas. Berkeley, California: Wandering Mind Books, 1998. ISBN 978-0-965-33042-8 OCLC 45665616
Kusama, Yayoi. Infinity Net: The Autobiography of Yayoi Kusama. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011. ISBN 978-0-226-46498-5 OCLC 711050927
Kusama, Yayoï, and Isabelle Charrier. Manhattan Suicide Addict. Dijon: Presses du Réel, 2005. ISBN 978-2-840-66115-3 OCLC 420073474
=== Catalogue raisonné, etc. ===
Kusama, Yayoi. Yayoi Kusama: Print Works. Tokyo: Abe Corp, 1992. ISBN 978-4-872-42023-4 OCLC 45198668
Hoptman, Laura, Akira Tatehata, and Udo Kultermann. Yayoi Kusama. London: Phaidon Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-714-83920-2 OCLC 749417124
Kusama, Yayoi, and Hideki Yasuda. Yayoi Kusama Furniture by Graf: Decorative Mode No. 3. Tokyo: Seigensha Art Publishing, 2003. ISBN 978-4-916-09470-4 OCLC 71424904
Kusama, Yayoi. Kusama Yayoi zen hangashū, 1979–2004 = All Prints of Kusama Yayoi, 1979–2004. Tokyo: Abe Shuppan, 2006. ISBN 978-4-872-42174-3 OCLC 173274568
Kusama, Yayoi, Laura Hoptman, Akira Tatehata, Udo Kultermann, Catherine Taft. Yayoi Kusama. London: Phaidon Press, 2017. ISBN 978-0-714-87345-9 OCLC 749417124
Yoshitake, Mika, Chiu, Melissa, Dumbadze, Alexander Blair, Jones, Alex, Sutton, Gloria, Tezuka, Miwako. Yayoi Kusama : Infinity Mirrors. Washington, DC. ISBN 978-3-7913-5594-8. OCLC 954134388
== Exhibitions ==
In 1959, Kusama had her first solo exhibition in New York at the Brata Gallery, an artist's co-op. She showed a series of white net paintings which were enthusiastically reviewed by Donald Judd (both Judd and Frank Stella then acquired paintings from the show). Kusama has since exhibited work with Claes Oldenburg, Andy Warhol, and Jasper Johns, among others. Exhibiting alongside European artists including Lucio Fontana, Pol Bury, Otto Piene, and Günther Uecker, in 1962, she was the only female artist to take part in the widely acclaimed Nul (Zero) international group exhibition at the Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam.
=== Exhibition list ===
1976: Kitakyushu Municipal Museum of Art
1983: Yayoi Kusama's Self-Obliteration (Performance) at Video Gallery SCAN, Tokyo
1993: Represented Japan at the Venice Biennale
1998: Love Forever: Yayoi Kusama,1958–1969, LACMA
1998 – 1999: Love Forever: Yayoi Kusama,1958–1969 - exhibit traveled to Museum of Modern Art, New York, Walker Art Center, Minneapolis and Museum of Contemporary Art, Tokyo)
2001 – 2003: Le Consortium – exhibit traveled to Japanese Culture House of Paris (French: Maison de la culture du Japon à Paris), Paris; Kunsthallen Brandts, Odense; Les Abattoirs, Toulouse; Kunsthalle Wien, Vienna; and Artsonje Center, Seoul
2004: KUSAMATRIX, Mori Art Museum, Tokyo
2004 – 2005: KUSAMATRIX traveled to Art Park Museum of Contemporary Art, Sapporo Art Park, Hokkaido); Eternity – Modernity, National Museum of Modern Art, Tokyo (touring Japan)
2007: FINA Festival 2007. Kusama created Guidepost to the New Space, an outdoor installation for Birrarung Marr beside the Yarra River in Melbourne. In 2009, the Guideposts were re-installed at Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden, this time displayed as floating "humps" on a lake
2009: The Mirrored Years traveled to Museum of Contemporary Art, Sydney, and City Gallery Wellington
2010: Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen purchased the work Infinity Mirror Room – Phalli's Field. As of 13 September of that year the mirror room is permanently exhibited in the entrance area of the museum
July 2011: Museo Reina Sofía, Madrid
2012: Tate Modern, London. Described as "akin to being suspended in a beautiful cosmos gazing at infinite worlds, or like a tiny dot of fluoresecent plankton in an ocean of glowing microscopic life", the exhibition features a retrospective spanning Kusama's entire career
30 June 2013 – 16 September 2013: MALBA, the Latinamerican Art Museum of Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires
22 May 2014 – 27 June 2014: Instituto Tomie Ohtake, São Paulo
17 September 2015 – 24 January 2016: In Infinity, Louisiana Museum of Modern Art, Humlebæk
12 June 2015 – 9 August 2015: Yayoi Kusama: Infinity Theory, The Garage Museum of Contemporary Art, Moscow. This was Kusama's first solo exhibition in Russia
19 February 2016 – 15 May 2016: Yayoi Kusama – I uendeligheten, Henie Onstad Kunstsenter, Oslo
20 September 2015 – September 2016: Yayoi Kusama: Infinity Mirrored Room, The Broad, Los Angeles, California
12 June 2016 – 18 September 2016: Kusama: At the End of the Universe, Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, Houston, Texas
1 May 2016 – 30 November 2016: Yayoi Kusama: Narcissus Garden, The Glass House, New Canaan, Connecticut
25 May 2016 – 30 July 2016: Yayoi Kusama: Sculptures, Paintings & Mirror Rooms, Victoria Miro Gallery, London
7 October 2016 – 22 January 2017: Yayoi Kusama: In Infinity, organised by the Louisiana Museum of Modern Art in cooperation with Henie Onstad Kunstsenter, Moderna Museet/ArkDes and Helsinki Art Museum HAM in Helsinki
5 November 2016 – 17 April 2017: Dot Obsessions – Tasmania, MONA: Museum of Old and New Art, Hobart
23 February 2017 – 14 May 2017: Yayoi Kusama: Infinity Mirrors, a traveling museum show originating at the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Washington, DC
30 June 2017 – 10 September 2017: Yayoi Kusama: Infinity Mirrors, exhibition traveled to Seattle Art Museum
9 June 2017 – 3 September 2017: Yayoi Kusama: Life is the Heart of a Rainbow, National Gallery Singapore
October 2017 – January 2018: Yayoi Kusama: Infinity Mirrors, exhibition traveled to The Broad, Los Angeles, California
October 2017 – February 2018: Yayoi Kusama: All the Eternal Love I Have for the Pumpkins, Dallas Museum of Art, Dallas, Texas
November 2017 – February 2018: Yayoi Kusama: Life is the Heart of a Rainbow and Obliteration Room, Gallery of Modern Art, Brisbane, Brisbane
December 2017 – April 2018: Flower Obsession, Triennial, NGV, Melbourne
March 2018 – February 2019 Pumpkin Forever (Forever Museum of Contemporary Art), Gion-Kyoto
March 2018 – May 2018: Yayoi Kusama: Infinity Mirrors, exhibition traveled to Art Gallery of Ontario, Toronto, Ontario
May 2018 – September 2018: Yayoi Kusama: Life is the Heart of a Rainbow, Museum of Modern and Contemporary Art in Nusantara (Museum MACAN), Jakarta
July 2018 – September 2018: Yayoi Kusama: Infinity Mirrors, exhibition traveled to Cleveland Museum of Art, Cleveland, Ohio
July 2018 – November 2018: Yayoi Kusama: Where The Lights In My Heart Go, exhibition traveled to DeCordova Sculpture Park and Museum, Lincoln, Massachusetts
26 July 2018 – Spring 2019: Yayoi Kusama: With All My Love for the Tulips, I Pray Forever (2011)
March 2019 – September 2019: Yayoi Kusama, Museum Voorlinden, Wassenaar
9 November 2019 – 14 December 2019: Yayoi Kusama: Everyday I Pray For Love, David Zwirner Gallery, New York
4 January 2020 – 18 March 2020: Brilliance of the Souls, Maraya, AlUla
4 April 2020 – 19 September 2020: Yayoi Kusama: One with Eternity: Yayoi Kusama in the Hirshhorn Collection, Washington, DC
31 July 2020 – 3 January 2021: STARS: Six Contemporary Artists from Japan to the World, Tokyo
10 April 2021 – 31 October 2021: Kusama: Cosmic Nature, New York Botanical Garden, New York
18 May 2021 – 28 April 2024: Yayoi Kusama: Infinity Mirror Rooms, Tate Modern, London
15 November 2021 – 23 April 2022: Yayoi Kusama: A Retrospective, Tel Aviv Museum of Art
9 March 2023 – 11 February 2024: Yayoi Kusama: LOVE IS CALLING, Pérez Art Museum Miami, Florida
11 May 2023 – 21 July 2023: Yayoi Kusama: I Spend Each Day Embracing Flowers, David Zwirner Gallery, New York
14 September 2023 – 5 May 2024: Yayoi Kusama: Infinity Mirrored Room – Let's Survive Together, 2017, Memorial Art Gallery, Rochester, New York
15 December 2024 – 21 April 2025: Yayoi Kusama, National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne
2 October 2025 – 2 March 2026: One with Eternity: Yayoi Kusama, Buffalo AKG Art Museum, Buffalo, New York
12 October 2025 – 25 January 2026: Yayoi Kusama, Fondation Beyeler, Riehen; 14 March 2026 – 2 August 2026, Museum Ludwig, Cologne; 11 September 2026 – 17 January 2027, Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam
=== Permanent Infinity Room installations ===
Infinity Dots Mirrored Room (1996), Mattress Factory, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Infinity Mirror Room fireflies on Water (2000), Musée des Beaux-Arts de Nancy, Nancy
You Who Are Getting Obliterated in the Dancing Swarm of Fireflies (2005), Phoenix Art Museum, Phoenix, Arizona
Gleaming Lights of the Souls (2008), Louisiana Museum of Modern Art, Humlbaek, Fredensborg Municipality
The Souls of Millions of Light Years Away (2013), The Broad, Los Angeles, California
Infinity Dots Mirrored Room (2014), Bonte Museum, Jeju Island
The Spirits of the Pumpkins Descended into the Heavens (2015), National Gallery of Australia, Canberra
Hymn of Life (2015), Henie Onstad Kunstsenter, Oslo
Phalli's Field (1965/2016), Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen, Rotterdam
Love is Calling (2013/2019), Institute of Contemporary Art, Boston, Boston, Massachusetts
Light of Life (2018), North Carolina Museum of Art, Raleigh, North Carolina
Brilliance of the Souls (2019), Museum of Modern and Contemporary Art in Nusantara (Museum MACAN), Jakarta
Infinity Mirror Room – Let's Survive Forever (2019), Art Gallery of Ontario, Toronto, Ontario
Aftermath of Obliteration of Eternity (2009), Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, Houston, Texas
== Peer review ==
Applin, Jo. Yayoi Kusama: Infinity Mirror Room – Phallis Field. Afterall, 2012. ISBN 9781846380914
Hoptman, Laura J., et al. Yayoi Kusama. Phaidon Press Limited, 2000. ISBN 978-0714839202
== Collections ==
Kusama's work is in the collections of museums throughout the world, including the Museum of Modern Art, New York; Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles; Walker Art Center, Minneapolis; Phoenix Art Museum, Phoenix; Utah Museum of Fine Arts, Salt Lake City; Tate Modern, London; Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam; Centre Pompidou, Paris; Art Gallery of Ontario, Toronto; and the National Museum of Modern Art, Tokyo and in the City Museum of Art in her home town of Matsumoto entitled The Place for My Soul.[1]
== Recognition ==
Kusama's image is included in the iconic 1972 poster Some Living American Women Artists by Mary Beth Edelson.
In 2017, a fifty-year retrospective of Kusama's work opened at the Hirshhorn Museum in Washington, DC. That same year, the Yayoi Kusama Museum was inaugurated in Tokyo. Other major retrospectives of her work have been held at the Museum of Modern Art (1998), the Whitney Museum (2012), and the Tate Modern (2012). In 2015, the website Artsy named Kusama one of its top 10 living artists of the year.
Kusama has received many awards, including the Asahi Prize (2001); Ordre des Arts et des Lettres (2003); the National Lifetime Achievement Award from the Order of the Rising Sun (2006); and a Lifetime Achievement Award from the Women's Caucus for Art. In October 2006, Kusama became the first Japanese woman to receive the Praemium Imperiale, one of Japan's highest honors for internationally recognized artists. She received the Person of Cultural Merit (2009) and Ango awards (2014). In 2014, Kusama was ranked the most popular artist of the year after a record-breaking number of visitors flooded her Latin American tour, Yayoi Kusama: Infinite Obsession. Venues from Buenos Aires to Mexico City received more than 8,500 visitors each day.
Kusama gained media attention for partnering with the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden to make her 2017 Infinity Mirror rooms accessible to visitors with disabilities or mobility issues; in a new initiative among art museums, the venue mapped out the six individual rooms and provided disabled individuals visiting the exhibition access to a complete 360-degree virtual reality headset that allowed them to experience every aspect of the rooms, as if they were actually walking through them.
According to Hanna Schouwink of David Zwirner Gallery speaking in 2018, Kusama is "officially the world's most successful living artist". Kusama was recognized as one of the Asia Game Changer awardees in 2023 by Asia Society for her actions that strengthened the bounds between Asia and the world.
== Art market ==
Kusama's work has performed strongly at auction: top prices for her work are for paintings from the late 1950s and early 1960s. As of 2012, her work has the highest turnover of any living woman artist. In November 2008, Christie's New York sold a 1959 white Infinity Net painting formerly owned by Donald Judd, No. 2, for US$5.1 million, then a record for a living female artist. In comparison, the highest price for a sculpture from her New York years is £72,500 (US$147,687), fetched by the 1965 wool, pasta, paint and hanger assemblage Golden Macaroni Jacket at Sotheby's London in October 2007. A 2006 acrylic on fiberglass-reinforced plastic pumpkin earned $264,000, the top price for one of her sculptures, also at Sotheby's in 2007. Her Flame of Life – Dedicated to Tu-Fu (Du-Fu) sold for US$960,000 at Art Basel/Hong Kong in May 2013, the highest price paid at the show. Kusama became the most expensive living female artist at auction when White No. 28 (1960) from her signature Infinity Nets series sold for $7.1 million at a 2014 Christie's auction.
== In popular culture ==
Superchunk, an American indie band, included a song called "Art Class (Song for Yayoi Kusama)" on its Here's to Shutting Up album.
In 1967, Jud Yalkut made a film of Kusama titled Kusama's Self-Obliteration.
In 2013, the British indie pop duo The Boy Least Likely To made song tribute to Kusama, writing a song specially about her. They wrote on their blog that they admire Kusama's work because she puts her fears into it, something that they themselves often do.
Magnolia Pictures released the biographical documentary by Heather Lenz, Kusama: Infinity, in 2018 and a DVD version in 2019.
Veuve Clicquot and Kusama created a limited-edition bottle and sculpture in September 2020.
Cyndi Lauper's 2024 Farewell Tour featured art by Kusama, including white sculptures and walls covered in Kusama's signature red polka dots. Lauper and background performers also dressed in matching white clothes with large red polka dots.
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Yayoi Kusama Museum (English)
Yayoi Kusama at David Zwirner
Love Forever: Yayoi Kusama, 1958–1968, Museum of Modern Art
Yayoi Kusama and Georgia O'Keeffe, artnet, May 10, 2025
Smith, Roberta (3 November 2017). "Yayoi Kusama and the Amazing Polka dotted selfie made journey to greatness". The New York Times. Retrieved 4 April 2018.
How to Paint Like Yayoi Kusama on YouTube
Yayoi Kusama at the Museum of Modern Art
Women Artists and Postwar Abstraction | HOW TO SEE the art movement with Corey D'Augustine on YouTube (MoMA)
Phoenix Art Museum online Archived 28 January 2019 at the Wayback Machine
Earth is a polka dot. An interview with Yayoi Kusama Video by Louisiana Channel
"Yayoi Kusama" on YouTube, BBC Newsnight, 26 September 2012
Why Yayoi Kusama matters now more than ever on YouTube
"An Artist for the Instagram Age" by Sarah Boxer, The Atlantic, July/August 2017
Yayoi Kusama/artnet |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svetlana_Alpers | Svetlana Alpers | Svetlana Leontief Alpers (née Leontief; born February 10, 1936) is an American art historian, also a professor, writer and critic. Her specialty is Dutch Golden Age painting, a field she revolutionized with her 1984 book The Art of Describing. She has also written on Tiepolo, Rubens, Bruegel, and Velázquez, among others.
== Education and career ==
Svetlana Alpers received her B.A. from Radcliffe College in 1957 and a Ph.D.from Harvard in 1965. She was a professor of art history at the University of California, Berkeley from 1962 to 1998, and by 1994 she was named Professor Emerita.
In 1983, Alpers co-founded the interdisciplinary journal Representations with American literary critic Stephen Greenblatt.
In 2007, she collaborated with artists James Hyde and Barney Kulok on a project entitled Painting Then for Now. The project consists of 19 photographic prints based on the suite of three paintings by Giambattista Tiepolo that hang at the top of the main staircase in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. The project was exhibited at David Krut Gallery, NY. Six of the prints were later acquired for the permanent collection of the Museum of Modern Art in New York City.
Alpers was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 2011. In Spring 2014, she was made an officier de l'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres by the République Francaise. On May 28, 2015, she was awarded an honorary doctorate by Harvard University.
== Critical responses ==
In a critical review of Rembrandt's Enterprise: The Studio and the Market, for conservative magazine The New Criterion, Hilton Kramer described it as an emblematic event "As far as the study of art history is concerned" and more particularly, what has gone wrong with it". He argues that it attacks Rembrandt for "having commodified himself by virtue of having painted and marketed his own self-portraits." He describes a debt to Fredric Jameson's "Postmodernism and Consumer Society", with "Professor Alpers's "Rembrandt" coming to resemble an artist like Andy Warhol, the most successful "entrepreneur of the self." He accuses Alpers of removing the greatest art categorically from the realm of aesthetics, using it as "just another counter in the dialectic of material culture. Such, too, is the dismal fate of art history when the study of art is no longer its primary concern."
== Personal life ==
Svetlana Leontief was born in Cambridge, Massachusetts. She was the only child of Wassily Leontief, a political refugee from the Soviet Union and Nobel laureate economist who pioneered computer modeling, and the poet Estelle Marks. In 1958, she married and changed her surname to Alpers.
== Honors ==
Phi Beta Kappa
Woodrow Wilson Fellowship, 1957-8
Kathryn McHale Fellowship, American Association of University Women, 1961-2
Guggenheim Fellowship, 1972-3
Fellow, Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, 1975-6
Fellow, American Council of Learned Societies, 1978
Visiting Fellow, Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study (NIAS), Wassenaar, 1979
Member, Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, New Jersey, 1979–80
Eugene M. Kayden Humanities Award for "The Art of Describing", 1983
Distinguished Teaching Award, Berkeley, 1986
Visiting Scholar, Getty Research Institute, California, 1987–88
Director of Studies, Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales, Paris, 1991
Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1991
Fellow, Institute for Advanced Study, Berlin, 1992–93
Honorary Doctor, Courtauld Institute of Art, London, 2009
Visiting critic, New York University Institute of Fine Arts
Corresponding Fellow of the British Academy (2014)
== Selected publications ==
The Decoration of the Torre de la Parada, Corpus Rubenianum Ludwig Burchard, Brussels/London: Phaidon, 1971. (A revision of Alpers' 1965 doctoral dissertation.)
The Art of Describing: Dutch Art in the Seventeenth Century, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983
Rembrandt's Enterprise: The Studio and the Market, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988
"The Museum as a Way of Seeing" in Exhibiting Cultures: The Poetics and Politics of Museum Display, Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991.
Tiepolo and the Pictorial Intelligence, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1994 (with Michael Baxandall)
The Making of Rubens, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1995.
The Vexations of Art: Velázquez and Others, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2005.
Roof Life, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2013.
Tuilages, Trocy-en-Multien: Editions de la revue Conférence, 2015. (Translated by Pierre-Emmanuel Dauzat.)
Walker Evans: Starting from Scratch, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2020.
== References ==
=== Sources ===
Bowman, John S. Cambridge Dictionary of American Biography. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995) p. 14. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalas_Review | Dalas Review | Daniel José Santomé Lemus (born 31 October 1993), better known as Dalas Review or simply Dalas, is a Spanish YouTuber with 11 million subscribers on his main channel. He has also written two novels, Fugitives in Time (2016) and The Ink. Beyond the Magic (2017).
== Early life ==
Dalas is the first child of Juan Jose Santomé and Maria Sabrina Lemus Carmenatty, and was born on 31 October 1993 in Santa Cruz de Tenerife. He was introduced to computers when he was three years old and around the age of 11–12, he got into 3D modelling and photo editing. He later enrolled in a multimedia degree, but decided to drop out.
== Career ==
=== Internet career ===
In 2005, when the YouTube platform was created, Dalas started grabbing film trailers in other languages to put "subtitles that didn't make any sense". "Dalas" is a combination of the first two letters of his first name, the first letter of his second last name and the first two letters of his first last name the other way around. He started his career in 2010 with a channel named DTeamVlogs, achieving virality with a video criticizing Justin Bieber's fans named "La niña believer". His main channel "Dalas Review" was created in 2012. In July 2017, Dalas won the Tolete Award for his parody of the Canarian accent in a video titled "Imitating 15 accents of Spain and Latin America (Very Bad)". In January 2021 he created a Pornhub account where he uploaded a few videos about sexual education.
=== Writing career ===
In 2016, he published Fugitivos en el tiempo (Fugitives in Time), a science fiction novel starring Uriel and based on time travel. It sold 16,000 units in four editions. He signed several copies of his book in Málaga. In November 2017, he published La tinta. Más allá de la magia (Ink. Beyond magic), a novel that tells the story of Sveia, a young woman misunderstood both by her environment and by the bad relationship with her parents and classmates, but who would soon find herself immense in a magical world inhabited by supernatural creatures. During the book's launch, Dalas stated that instead of the traditional book signings, he would hold some kind of shows that will include activities including reading a snippet from his book.
=== Stardeos ===
In August 2021, he released the beta version of the video website Stardeos, for which he invested in for a total of nine months. According to him, the website's focus is to be a "fairer" version of YouTube, in which creators would receive more visibility than in other platforms and would have more freedom regarding their content. In addition, the platform is not allowed to delete channels or demonetize and/or censor videos unless a judge orders it.
During the first four hours after the release, the website was down due to high traffic of more than 150,000 users per minute. This is due to the fact that the capacity of the servers that Dalas hired could not support large amounts of connected users. In October 2021, Stardeos was back online, while Wrixy, a website dedicated to publishing literary content, went offline due to Dalas being unable to pay maintenance costs within five days. In October 2021, he uploaded a video complaining about the various problems he had both with 200 people who worked on the project and with companies he contacted.
During the development of Stardeos, he also contacted some YouTubers and streamers like AriGameplays and JuanSGuarnizo to ask them to upload videos to the platform. In March 2022, he uploaded a video to Stardeos in which he talks about and is extremely aggressive and verbally explicit towards Twitter haters under the argument that he has had to endure comments of the same level from these users for a long time. He also claimed that he would upload videos of the same style but for paid subscribers. In June 2022, he uploaded the first paid Stardeos video accusing AriGameplays of being unfaithful to JuanSGuarnizo with TheGrefg.
=== Other works ===
Dalas has worked on a few video game projects like: Fur Fun, an adventure and platform video game in 3D, released on Steam on 10 February 2017. The game was developed jointly by Dalas and a friend of his named Doky, using the program Unreal Engine 4. The origin of the development began in September 2016 with a Kickstarter campaign under the title of "Kewpie - Jazzy", a video game strongly inspired by those of Rare. The project aimed to raise 92,000 euros, however only 650 would be raised. Dalas would then take the project and, on 8 December of that year, it would return under the new name "Fur Fun". After its official launch on Steam, received generally negative reviews and in January 2018, he announced that he would remove the game from Steam. During 2020 and 2021, Dalas was looking for programmers to help in the development of "Fur Fun 2".
On 23 December 2021, Daniel, after having a private conversation with an anonymous person on TorChat, claimed to have received 10 million euros worth of Bitcoin from the anonymous individual. Dalas has claimed for a long time to be raising as much money as possible to open a laboratory focused on biological immortality research. Allegedly, the anonymous donor sent Dalas the money to support this plan. After the announcement, a series of videos followed suit in which he investigated the source of the bitcoins and who sent them, after finding a hidden message he discovered that the person who sent the bitcoins was from Sinaloa, Mexico. After the discovery no more videos about the donation have been published. His plans to create the laboratory, however, have shifted; he now wants to achieve that goal through machine learning AI under the belief that human researchers are too inefficient to reach the goal in a reasonable period of time.
== Controversies ==
=== Dalas, Argos and Miare (2016-2025) ===
The relationship between Daniel Santomé Lemus and María Rubio Sánchez (Miare) ended in March 2016 and a woman named Naya Chimlova uploaded a video where she explained why they had broken up (the video is currently unavailable). However, on 19 April 2016, Dalas uploaded a video titled "estoy harto de mentiras y por eso hago este vídeo" ("I'm tired of lies and that's why I make this video") in which he responds to Miare and her accusations against him of being a "stalker". In August 2016, Interviú published "No sirves para nada, eres una puta" ("You're useless, you're a whore"), a headline that shows fragments of the complaint that Miare filed against Dalas in July of that same year in a Barcelona court.
After she broke up with Dalas, Miare asked Dalas for his greyhound named Argos which was adopted in 2015 to keep it for some time. Dalas later asked her to return it to which she denied. Because of that, he sued her to get back his dog in June 2016, and after having had the trial in July 2017, Dalas won the lawsuit and Miare was sentenced to return the dog to Dalas. Because of this, Miare uploaded a half-hour video explaining why she did not agree with the court ruling, and in addition showed WhatsApp conversations in which Dalas supposedly admitted to having mistreated the dog. The existence of these chats were denied by Dalas in a video uploaded on 12 July 2017 titled "tenía otro vídeo preparado, pero este mal rollo nunca acabará" ("I had another video prepared, but this bad situation will never end") In July 2017, several users such as Anne Reburn, Aida Explorer or Mel Dominguez (focusinvlogs) uploaded videos recounting their alleged cases with Dalas. On the other hand, Miare went to explain her version to Fina Brunet on TV3's Els Matins.
On 28 December 2018, Dalas, Lizy P and some two of his friends went to the Sant Joan Despí neighborhood, Barcelona, where they found Miare's parents walking the animal and demanded that they return the dog. It was then that Miare's father charged towards Lizy and hit her. Then, her mother bit a friend of Dalas who was there at the time in the back. This led to Lizy P ending up in the emergency room due to the pain. In August 2019, he uploaded a video announcing that he sued Miare for the crime of false complaint.
According to Miare's version, she lost Argos and her family adopted a twin named Marlos and Dalas put a complaint against Miare and her mother for misappropriation of the animal, based on the claim that the dog was actually Argos. On 3 February 2021, the complaint for misappropriation of Argos against Miare and his mother was ultimately archived after an expert assured that the dog was not Argos. Dalas uploaded on 23 April a 56-minute video in which he assure that the expert had been convinced to made the report where they denied that they were the same dog. On the other hand, Miare published a tweet talking about the complaint. On 27 April he uploaded other video in which he shows how the veterinarian retracted the statement he showed a few months ago and actually showed proof that the dog was the same, confirming that the dog was in fact Argos.
On 18 May 2023, news stated that Dalas had been sentenced to pay a compensation to Miare's father, who made a complaint that Dalas had been insulting him and his family via his YouTube channel. The very same day, it was announced that a judge sentenced Miare and his parents to return the dog and pay a compensation to Dalas and failure to do so would result in prison, as it was determined that they in fact still had Argos and there was no twin dog, and had committed crimes such as document falsification and misappropriation.
In January 2025, Dalas was sentenced by the Supreme Court to pay compensation a for a lawsuit for insults of €12,000 to Miare, assume the costs of the appeal and delete all related videos in which Miare's father was slandered.
=== Overall problems with Wismichu ===
==== Así es Dalas Review (2017-2018) ====
On 4 October 2017, Wismichu uploaded a video titled "Así es Dalas Review" ("This is Dalas Review"), that as of February 2024 has 20.4 million views, and in which apart from bringing out Dalas Review's "miseries", he calls him out on his allegations of gender violence, and insinuates that he fled to Ireland to escape the Spanish law. He also refers to him as "miserable", "psychopath", "hyena", "bad person", "wretch" and "bastard".
After the Wismichu video, Dalas lost around 310,000 subscribers, going from having 5,700,000 to 5,390,000. This made Dalas Review hide his channel's subscriber count temporarily. On 5 October, he padlocked his Twitter account, however on 6 October, it would be available again, and his YouTube channel was subsequently deleted due to mass reports. However, his channel's deletion would not last long, since a few hours later Dalas' channel was reinstated.
In March 2018, he would have an interview with Los Replicantes, in which he talked about a video in which he would show court documents and evidence that would disprove the lies told against him. On 18 May 2018, Dalas published "se acabó, wismichu e ingrid" ("it's over, wismichu and ingrid"), also known as "el vídeo definitivo" ("the definitive video"), an hour and forty minutes long video in which he refuted, one by one, the accusations made by Wismichu and his ex-girlfriend, Ingrid Míchel (also known as "SoyMia").
==== Complaint against Wismichu (2018-2021) ====
In 2018, Daniel sued Ismael for the alleged crime of libel and slander committed in the video "Así es Dalas Review", asking for a penalty of nine months in jail and a 15,000 euros fine. At the end of 2019 Dalas uploaded to his main channel a video titled "Denuncié a Wismichu" ("I Sued Wismichu"), a video in which he talks about the lawsuit filed a year earlier against Prego for the video that "damaged his career".
After several months of that video, on 17 December 2020, the trial was finally held where it would be analyzed whether or not Wismichu actually slandered Dalas. In 2021, the 25th criminal court of Barcelona acquitted Ismael of the accusations of slander and insults perpetuated by Dalas.
==== Video series against Wismichu ====
On 11 February 2021, Dalas uploaded a video accusing Ismael of having a criminal record and having been sentenced to 6 months in prison for injuring a 21-year-old man in the head with a glass bottle. In the video, he assures that he had access to Ismael's criminal history because he sued him, and also that it was not made public because Prego had manage to silence the Spanish judicial system. He also claims to have in his possession audio files of Ingrid where she accuses Ismael of being an abuser.
During the 2021 controversy he called Ismael out for searching for teenagers on Chatroulette and asking them to strip naked, with the intention of recording them and publishing them on his website without censorship as paid videos. On the other hand, he made an appeal to speak with any of his alleged victims to present his case, and as a consequence, an alleged victim appeared in a video on 16 February to report that when she was 14 years old, she showed her breasts with a friend of hers in one of Ismael's recordings.
=== Child grooming allegations ===
In April 2018, a 15-year-old Argentinian girl named Olivia shared on her Twitter account several screenshots, videos, and live streams of alleged conversations she had with Dalas in 2016, the year in which she was supposedly about 13 years old, while faking her age and publicly saying she was older. She also claimed that he sent her semi-nude pool photos on Instagram. This topic was addressed by the Mexican YouTuber Diego De La Mattaz, most known as Mexivergas, in a livestream with Dalas from March of that same year. In 2021, Fabían Pasos, a YouTuber known as Mafian TV interviews this alleged victim from Dalas in a video titled "La Verdad Oscura de Dalas Review" ("The Dark Truth about Dalas Review"). Olivia, known on social networks as Olivita de Mar, claimed that Dalas contacted his father to intimidate him.
=== Complaint of child sexual abuse ===
Following Olivia's accusations, Dalas was tried on 30 November 2018 for "child sexual cyberbullying and sexual abuse". The Madrid prosecutor's office asked for 5 years in prison, 11 of disqualification, and 9 years of estrangement. According to her testimony, she and Dalas began to communicate through Twitter in 2015 and Dalas sent her a photo of his naked torso.
They did not meet in person until 26 January 2016, when she attended a signing of his book Fugitivos en el tiempo held in Madrid, Spain. Both continued talking on WhatsApp and on 8 February 2016, he met her at the Atocha train station. She claimed that during that encounter he kissed her and proposed to go back to his hotel and that they later went to the Retiro park where he allegedly kissed her again and touched her vaginal area and her breasts.
Dalas defended himself by saying that the topless photo had already been published before, however he admitted that they did indeed meet in person in 2016 during his book signing. He affirmed that he was in Atocha only for about 15 minutes to sign a copy of his book that the girl had. He denied that they went to the Retiro park and the sexual encounter that supposedly occurred there. He flatly denied having had any sexual interest in her. He also stated that he had talked a lot with her because she claimed to have both problems at school and abuse from her mother. In December 2018, the Provincial Court of Madrid acquitted Dalas.
== Personal life ==
Daniel is an atheist and he denies the existence of Jesus. His sister is Ariadna Cabrero Lemus, known on social media as Ariann Music. As of 2018, Dalas lives in Ireland with his girlfriend Damaris Pérez known as Lizy P, a fashion and make-up YouTuber, due to high taxes in Spain among other reasons. On 17 August 2022, his stepfather Manel Cabero i Pueyo (son of Manuel Cabero) died of stage 4 liver cancer with metastasis. After this event, he criticized the health system due to the treatment given to him by health professionals.
Dalas has been controversial for several of his comments on politics: he has occasionally shown some support for the Republican politician Donald Trump for his economic policies and his decision to designate Antifa as a terrorist group and various other reasons. He also made a video supporting the Spanish far-right party Vox for their economic policies and stance on the Spanish gender violence law despite largely disliking the party's other social postures. He has also been critical of socialism, communism, progressive leftist movements in Spain and of taxes, criticizing statism. Many of his comments have been accused as homophobic and racist. During the 2016 Madrid Book Fair he was expelled due to feminist pressure. In a video uploaded in September 2021, he commented "that even if habits are changed, it is impossible for people to stop climate change, because the only people that could do something are the ones that control the industry."
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Moya López, Hilario; Vázquez Romero, Lua (2021). Creadores de contenido y neoliberalismo: Análisis del discurso de youtubers españoles en relación a la polémica de andorra (in Spanish). Madrid: Dykinson, S.L. pp. 326–351. ISBN 978-84-1377-562-3.
Vizcaíno Verdú, Arantxa; Bonilla del Río, Mónica; Ibarra Rius, Noelia (2021). Cultura participativa, fandom y narrativas emergentes en redes sociales (in Spanish). Madrid: Dykinson, S.L. ISBN 9788413775883. OCLC 1298602060.
Bianca, Sanchez Gutierrez; Pineda, Antonio (21 October 2021). Comunicación política en el mundo digital: tendencias actuales en propaganda, ideología y sociedad (in Spanish). Dykinson. ISBN 978-84-1377-562-3. Retrieved 16 March 2023.
== External links ==
Dalas Review's channel on YouTube
Dalas Review at Twitter
Dalas Review at Twitch
Dalas Review judgment of 17 December 2018 published by El País |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yarigu%C3%ADes_Airport | Yariguíes Airport | Yariguíes Airport (Spanish: Aeropuerto Yariguíes, IATA: EJA, ICAO: SKEJ) is an airport serving Barrancabermeja, a city in the Santander Department of Colombia. The airport is 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) southeast of the city.
The airport was renovated in 2013 at a cost of $13 million pesos. Colombian president Juan Manuel Santos visited the airport to inaugurate the completed renovations.
== Airlines and destinations ==
== Climate ==
Yariguíes Airport has a tropical monsoon climate (Am) with heavy rainfall in all months except January.
== Accidents and incidents ==
On 21 May 1970, a Douglas DC-3 of Avianca was hijacked to Yariguíes Airport whilst on a flight from El Alcaraván Airport, Yopal to Alberto Lleras Camargo Airport, Sogamoso. The hijackers had demanded to be taken to Cuba.
== See also ==
Transport in Colombia
List of airports in Colombia
== References ==
== External links ==
Yariguíes Airport at OurAirports
Aeronautical chart and airport information for Yariguíes Airport at SkyVector
Accident history for EJA at Aviation Safety Network
Current weather for SKEJ at NOAA/NWS |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cab_Calloway#Personal_life | Cab Calloway | Cabell Calloway III (December 25, 1907 – November 18, 1994) was an American jazz singer, songwriter and bandleader. He was a regular performer at the Cotton Club in Harlem, where he became a popular vocalist of the swing era. His niche of mixing jazz and vaudeville won him acclaim during a career that spanned over 65 years.
Calloway was a master of energetic scat singing and led one of the most popular dance bands in the United States from the early 1930s to the late 1940s. His band included trumpeters Dizzy Gillespie, Jonah Jones, and Adolphus "Doc" Cheatham, saxophonists Ben Webster and Leon "Chu" Berry, guitarist Danny Barker, bassist Milt Hinton, and drummer Cozy Cole.
Calloway had several hit records in the 1930s and 1940s, becoming the first African-American musician to sell one million copies of a record. He became known as the "Hi-de-ho" man of jazz for his most famous song, "Minnie the Moocher", originally recorded in 1931. He reached the Billboard charts in five consecutive decades (1930s–1970s). Calloway also made several stage, film, and television appearances. He had roles in Stormy Weather (1943), Porgy and Bess (1953), The Cincinnati Kid (1965), and Hello Dolly! (1967). In the 1980s, Calloway enjoyed a marked career resurgence following his appearance in the musical comedy film The Blues Brothers (1980).
Calloway was the first African-American to have a nationally syndicated radio program. In 1993, Calloway received the National Medal of Arts from the United States Congress. He posthumously received the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 2008. His song "Minnie the Moocher" was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in 1999, and added to the Library of Congress' National Recording Registry in 2019. In 2022, the National Film Registry selected his home films for preservation as "culturally, historically or aesthetically significant films". He was inducted into the Big Band and Jazz Hall of Fame and the International Jazz Hall of Fame.
== Early life ==
Cabell Calloway III was born in Rochester, New York, on December 25, 1907, to an African American family. His father, Cabell Calloway Jr., graduated from Lincoln University of Pennsylvania in 1898. His mother, Martha Eulalia Reed, was a Morgan State College graduate, teacher, and church organist, and worked as a lawyer and in real estate. The family moved to Baltimore, Maryland, in 1919. Soon after, his father died and his mother remarried to John Nelson Fortune.
Calloway grew up in the West Baltimore neighborhood of Druid Hill. He often skipped school to earn money by selling newspapers, shining shoes, and cooling down horses at the Pimlico racetrack where he developed an interest in racing and gambling on horses. After he was caught playing dice on the church steps, his mother sent him to Downingtown Industrial and Agricultural School in 1921, a reform school run by his mother's uncle in Chester County, Pennsylvania.
Calloway resumed hustling when he returned to Baltimore and worked as a caterer while he improved his education in school. He began private vocal lessons in 1922, and studied music throughout his formal schooling. Despite his parents' and teachers' disapproval of jazz, he began performing in nightclubs in Baltimore. His mentors included drummer Chick Webb and pianist Johnny Jones. Calloway joined his high school basketball team, and in his senior year he started playing professional basketball with the Baltimore Athenians, a team in the Negro Professional Basketball League. He graduated from Frederick Douglass High School in 1925. After this, he spent a short period of time at law school in Chicago but left to continue performing in nightclubs.
== Music career ==
=== 1927–1929: Early career ===
In 1927, Calloway joined his older sister, Blanche Calloway, on tour for the popular black musical revue Plantation Days. His sister became an accomplished bandleader before he did, and he often credited her as his inspiration for entering show business. Calloway's mother wanted him to be a lawyer like his father, so once the tour ended he enrolled at Crane College in Chicago, but he was more interested in singing and entertaining. While at Crane he refused the opportunity to play basketball for the Harlem Globetrotters to pursue a singing career.
Calloway spent most of his nights at ‘Black and tan clubs’ such as Chicago's Dreamland Café, Sunset Cafe, and Club Berlin, performing as a singer, drummer, and master of ceremonies. At Sunset Cafe, he was an understudy for singer Adelaide Hall. There he met and performed with Louis Armstrong, who taught him to sing in the scat style. He left school to sing with the Alabamians band.
In 1929, Calloway relocated to New York with the band. They opened at the Savoy Ballroom on September 20, 1929. When the Alabamians broke up, Armstrong recommended Calloway as a replacement singer in the musical revue Connie's Hot Chocolates. He established himself as a vocalist singing "Ain't Misbehavin'" by Fats Waller. While Calloway was performing in the revue, the Missourians asked him to front their band.
=== 1930–1955: Success ===
In 1930, the Missourians became known as Cab Calloway and His Orchestra. At the Cotton Club in Harlem, New York, the band was hired in 1931 to substitute for the Duke Ellington Orchestra while Ellington's band was on tour. Their popularity led to a permanent position. The band also performed twice a week for radio broadcasts on NBC. Calloway appeared on radio programs with Walter Winchell and Bing Crosby and was the first African American to have a nationally syndicated radio show. During the depths of the Great Depression, Calloway was earning $50,000 a year at 23 years old.In 1931, Calloway recorded his most famous song, "Minnie the Moocher". It was the first single record by an African American to sell a million copies. Calloway performed the song and two others, "St. James Infirmary Blues" and "The Old Man of the Mountain", in the Betty Boop cartoons Minnie the Moocher (1932), Snow-White (1933), and The Old Man of the Mountain (1933). Calloway performed voice-over for these cartoons, and through rotoscoping, his dance steps were the basis of the characters' movements.
As a result of the success of "Minnie the Moocher", Calloway became identified with its chorus, gaining the nickname "The Hi De Ho Man". He performed in the 1930s in a series of short films for Paramount. Calloway's and Ellington's groups were featured on film more than any other jazz orchestras of the era. In these films, Calloway can be seen performing a gliding backstep dance move, which some observers have described as the precursor to Michael Jackson's moonwalk. Calloway said 50 years later, "it was called The Buzz back then." The 1933 film International House featured Calloway performing his classic song, "Reefer Man", a tune about a man who smokes marijuana. Fredi Washington was cast as Calloway's love interest in Cab Calloway's Hi-De-Ho (1934). Lena Horne made her film debut as a dancer in Cab Calloway's Jitterbug Party (1935).
Calloway made his first Hollywood feature film appearance opposite Al Jolson in The Singing Kid (1936). He sang several duets with Jolson, and the film included Calloway's band and 22 Cotton Club dancers from New York. According to film critic Arthur Knight, the creators of the film intended to "erase and celebrate boundaries and differences, including most emphatically the color line...when Calloway begins singing in his characteristic style – in which the words are tools for exploring rhythm and stretching melody – it becomes clear that American culture is changing around Jolson and with (and through) Calloway".
In 1938, Calloway released Cab Calloway's Cat-ologue: A "Hepster's" Dictionary, the first dictionary published by an African American. It became the official jive language reference book of the New York Public Library. A revised version of the book was released with Professor Cab Calloway's Swingformation Bureau in 1939. He released the last edition, The New Cab Calloway's Hepsters Dictionary: Language of Jive, in 1944. On a BBC Radio documentary about the dictionary in 2014, Poet Lemn Sissay stated, "Cab Calloway was taking ownership of language for a people who, just a few generations before, had their own languages taken away."
Calloway's band in the 1930s and 1940s included many notable musicians, such as Ben Webster, Illinois Jacquet, Milt Hinton, Danny Barker, Doc Cheatham, Ed Swayze, Cozy Cole, Eddie Barefield, and Dizzy Gillespie. Calloway later recalled, "What I expected from my musicians was what I was selling: the right notes with precision, because I would build a whole song around a scat or dance step." Calloway and his band formed baseball and basketball teams. They played each other while on the road, played against local semi-pro teams, and played charity games.
In 1941, Calloway fired Gillespie from his orchestra after an onstage fracas erupted when Calloway was hit with spitballs. He wrongly accused Gillespie, who stabbed Calloway in the leg with a small knife.
From 1941 to 1942, Calloway hosted a weekly radio quiz show called The Cab Calloway Quizzicale. Calling himself "Doctor" Calloway, it was a parody of The College of Musical Knowledge, a radio contest created by bandleader Kay Kyser. During the years of World War II, Calloway entertained troops in United States before they departed overseas. The Calloway Orchestra also recorded songs full of social commentary including "Doing the Reactionary", "The Führer's Got the Jitters", "The Great Lie", "We'll Gather Lilacs", and "My Lament for V Day".
In 1943, Calloway appeared in the film Stormy Weather, one of the first mainstream Hollywood films with a black cast. The film featured other top performers of the time, including Bill "Bojangles" Robinson, Lena Horne, the Nicholas Brothers, and Fats Waller. Calloway would host Horne's character Selina Rogers as she performed the film's title song as part of a big all-star revue for World War II soldiers.
Calloway wrote a humorous pseudo-gossip column called "Coastin' with Cab" for Song Hits magazine. It was a collection of celebrity snippets, such as the following in the May 1946 issue: "Benny Goodman was dining at Ciro's steak house in New York when a very homely girl entered. 'If her face is her fortune,' Benny quipped, 'she'd be tax-free.'" In the late 1940s, however, Calloway's bad financial decisions and his gambling caused his band to break up.
=== 1956–1960: Cotton Club Revue ===
Calloway and his daughter Lael recorded "Little Child", an adaption of "Little Boy and the Old Man". Released on ABC-Paramount, the single charted on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1956.
For the second season, Lee Sherman was the choreographer of The Cotton Club Revue of 1958, which starred Calloway. The revue featured tap dancing prodigies Maurice Hines and Gregory Hines.
In March 1958, Calloway released his album Cotton Club Revue of 1958 on Gone Records. It was produced by George Goldner, conducted and arranged by Eddie Barefield. That year, Calloway appeared in the film St. Louis Blues, the life story of W.C. Handy, featuring Nat King Cole and Eartha Kitt.
The Cotton Club Revue of 1959 traveled to South America for engagements in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo. They also stopped in Uruguay and Argentina before returning to North America which included a run on Broadway.
=== 1961–1993: Later years ===
Calloway remained a household name due to TV appearances and occasional concerts in the US and Europe. In 1961 and 1962, he toured with the Harlem Globetrotters, providing halftime entertainment during games.
Calloway was cast as "Yeller" in the film The Cincinnati Kid (1965) with Steve McQueen, Ann-Margret, and Edward G. Robinson. He appeared on The Ed Sullivan Show on March 19, 1967, with his daughter Chris Calloway. In 1967, he co-starred with Pearl Bailey as Horace Vandergelder in an all-black cast of Hello, Dolly! on Broadway during its original run. Chris Calloway also joined the cast as Minnie Fay. The new cast revived the flagging business for the show and RCA Victor released a new cast recording, rare for the time. In 1973–74, Calloway was featured in an unsuccessful Broadway revival of The Pajama Game with Hal Linden and Barbara McNair.
His autobiography, Of Minnie the Moocher and Me was published in 1976. It included his complete Hepster's Dictionary as an appendix. In 1978, Calloway released a disco version of "Minnie the Moocher" on RCA Victor which reached the Billboard R&B chart. Calloway was introduced to a new generation when he appeared in the 1980 film The Blues Brothers performing "Minnie the Moocher".
In 1985, Calloway and his Orchestra appeared at The Ritz London Hotel where he was filmed for a 60-minute BBC TV show called The Cotton Club Comes to the Ritz. Adelaide Hall, Doc Cheatham, Max Roach, and the Nicholas Brothers also appeared on the bill. A performance with the Cincinnati Pops Orchestra directed by Erich Kunzel in August 1988 was recorded on video and features a classic presentation of "Minnie the Moocher", 57 years after he first recorded it.
In January 1990, Calloway performed at the Meyerhoff Symphony Hall, with the Baltimore Symphony. That year he made a cameo in Janet Jackson's music video "Alright". He continued to perform at Jazz festivals, including the New Orleans Jazz & Heritage Festival and Greenwood Jazz. In 1992, he embarked on a month-long tour of European jazz festivals. He was booked to headline "The Jazz Connection: The Jewish and African-American Relationship," at New York City's Avery Fisher Hall in 1993, but he pulled out due to a fall at home.
== Personal life ==
In January 1927, Calloway had a daughter named Camay with Zelma Proctor, a fellow student. His daughter was one of the first African-Americans to teach in a white school in Virginia. Calloway married his first wife Wenonah "Betty" Conacher in July 1928. They adopted a daughter named Constance and divorced in 1949. Calloway married Zulme "Nuffie" MacNeal on October 7, 1949. They lived in Long Beach on the South Shore of Long Island, New York, on the border with neighboring Lido Beach. In the 1950s, Calloway moved his family to Westchester County, New York, where he and Nuffie raised their daughters Chris Calloway (1945–2008), Cecilia "Lael" Eulalia Calloway, and Cabella Calloway (1952–2023).
Calloway was an Episcopalian.
=== Legal issues ===
In December 1945, Calloway and his friend Felix H. Payne Jr. were beaten by a police officer, William E. Todd, and arrested in Kansas City, Missouri after attempting to visit bandleader Lionel Hampton at the whites-only Pla-Mor Ballroom. They were taken to the hospital for injuries, then charged with intoxication and resisting arrest. When Hampton learned of the incident he refused to continue the concert. Todd said he was informed by the manager, who did not recognize Calloway, that they were attempting to enter. He claimed they refused to leave and struck him. Calloway and Payne denied his claims and maintained they had been sober; the charges were dismissed. In February 1946, six civil rights organizations, including the NAACP, demanded that Todd be fired, but he had already resigned after a pay cut.
In 1952, Calloway was arrested in Leesburg, Virginia on his way to the race track in Charles Town, West Virginia. He was charged with speeding and attempted bribery of a policeman.
== Death ==
On June 12, 1994, Calloway suffered a stroke at his home in Westchester County, New York. He died five months later from pneumonia on November 18, 1994, at the age of 86, at a nursing home in Hockessin, Delaware. A memorial service was held in his honor at Cathedral of St. John the Divine. He was survived by his wife, who died in 2008, five daughters, and seven grandsons. Calloway was buried at Ferncliff Cemetery in Hartsdale, New York.
== Legacy ==
Music critics have written of his influence on later generations of entertainers such as James Brown, Michael Jackson, and Janet Jackson, as well as modern-day hip-hop performers. John Landis, who directed Calloway in the 1980 film The Blues Brothers, stated, "Cab Calloway is hip-hop." Journalist Timothy White noted in Billboard (August 14, 1993): "No living pathfinder in American popular music or its jazz and rock 'n' roll capillaries is so frequently emulated yet so seldom acknowledged as Cabell "Cab" Calloway. He arguably did more things first and better than any other band leader of his generation."
In 1998, the Cab Calloway Orchestra directed by Calloway's grandson Chris "CB" Calloway Brooks was formed. In 2009, Big Bad Voodoo Daddy released an album covering Calloway's music titled How Big Can You Get?: The Music of Cab Calloway. In 2012, Calloway's legacy was celebrated in an episode of PBS's American Masters titled "Cab Calloway: Sketches".
In 2019, plans were announced to demolish Calloway's boyhood home at 2216 Druid Hill Avenue in Baltimore, replacing the abandoned structure and the rest of that block with a park to be named Cab Calloway Legends Park in his honor. Family members and the National Trust for Historic Preservation advocated preservation of the house, however, as a significant artifact of African-American cultural heritage. Although the block is designated "historically significant" on the National Register of Historic Places, Baltimore City officials said at a hearing on July 9, 2019, that there is "extensive structural damage" to the Calloway house as well as adjacent ones. The Commission on Historical and Architectural Preservation's executive director, however, said that properties in worse condition than the Calloway House have been restored with financial support from a city tax credit program. Maryland Governor Larry Hogan also urged that demolition of the Calloway House be forestalled for its potential preservation as a historic house museum akin to the Louis Armstrong House in New York. Design options for the planned Cab Calloway Square may include an archway from the facade (pictured) as part of the Square's entrance, as proposed by architects working with Baltimore City and the Druid Heights Community Development Corporation, a nonprofit community-oriented group. Despite objections, the house was razed on September 5, 2020.
=== Awards and honors ===
In 1985, Town Supervisor Anthony F. Veteran issued a proclamation, declaring a ''Cab Calloway Day'' in Greenburgh, New York.
In 1990, Calloway was presented with the Beacons in Jazz Award from The New School in New York City. New York City Mayor David Dinkins proclaimed the day "Cab Calloway Day".
In 1992, the Cab Calloway School of the Arts was founded in Wilmington, Delaware.
In 1994, Calloway's daughter Camay Calloway Murphy founded the Cab Calloway Museum at Coppin State College in Baltimore, Maryland.
The New York Racing Association (NYRA) annually honors the jazz legend, a native of Rochester, New York, with a stakes races restricted to New York-bred three-year-olds, as part of their New York Stallion Series. First run in 2003, The Calloway has since undergone various distance and surface changes. The race is currently run at Saratoga Racecourse, Saratoga Springs, New York. The Cab Calloway Stakes celebrated its 13th renewal on July 24, 2019, and was won by Rinaldi.
In 2020 Calloway was inducted into the National Rhythm & Blues Hall of Fame.
Calloway received the following accolades:
1967: Best Performance, Outer Critics Circle Awards (Hello, Dolly)
1987: Inducted into Big Band and Jazz Hall of Fame
1990: Beacons in Jazz Award, The New School
1993: National Medal of Arts
1993: Honorary Doctorate of Fine Arts, University of Rochester
1993: Cab Calloway School of the Arts dedicated in his name in Wilmington, Delaware
1995: Inducted into International Jazz Hall of Fame
1999: Grammy Hall of Fame Award for "Minnie the Moocher"
2008: Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award
2019: "Minnie the Moocher" added to the Library of Congress National Recording Registry
== Discography ==
=== Albums ===
1943: Cab Calloway And His Orchestra (Brunswick)
1956: Cab Calloway (Epic)
1958: Cotton Club Revue 1958 (Gone Records)
1959: Hi De Hi De Ho (RCA Victor)
1962: Blues Makes Me Happy (Coral)
1968: Cab Calloway '68 (Pickwick International)
=== Select compilations ===
1968: Cab Calloway Sings The Blues (Vocalion)
1974: Hi De Ho Man (Columbia)
1981: Minnie The Moocher (RCA International)
1983: Mr. Hi. De. Ho. 1930–1931 (MCA)
1990: Cab Calloway: Best Of The Big Bands (Columbia)
1992: Cab Calloway & Co. (RCA)
1992: The King Of Hi-De-Ho 1934–1947 (Giants of Jazz)
1998: Jumpin' Jive (Camden)
2001: Cab Calloway and His Orchestra Volume 1: The Early Years 1930–1934 (JSP)
2003: Cab Calloway & His Orchestra Volume 2: 1935–1940 (JSP)
=== Charting singles ===
== Stage ==
== Filmography ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Calloway, Cab and Rollins, Bryant (1976). Of Minnie the Moocher and Me. Thomas Y. Crowell Company. ISBN 978-0-690-01032-9
== External links ==
Cab Calloway School of the Arts official website
NAMM Oral History Interview (1993)
Cab Calloway at IMDb
CALLOWAY, Cab (CHASE-FATIO Eleanor). Lugano: Swiss National Sound Archives. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Fischer_(bass) | Ludwig Fischer (bass) | Johann Ignaz Ludwig Fischer (c. 18 August 1745 – 10 July 1825), commonly called Ludwig Fischer, was a German opera singer, a notable bass of his time.
== Life ==
Ludwig Fischer was born in Mainz on 18 or 19 August 1745. Fischer began his musical studies not as a singer but with the violin and cello. When he was heard singing in a church choir and in student operetta productions, his voice was noticed and he took up singing seriously. He was then made a supernumerary singer in the Electoral court of Mainz. Starting in 1770, he studied voice with the tenor Anton Raaff in Mannheim, where he had first sung professionally on stage in 1767.
He continued to rise to prominence in Mannheim. In 1772 he was appointed virtuoso da camera at the Mannheim court, and Prince-elector Karl Theodor gave him a scholarship to enable him to continue his studies with Raaff. In 1775 he became responsible for singing instruction in the Mannheim Seminarium Musicum. By 1778 he was the highest-paid of the Mannheim court singers.
In 1778, Karl Theodor became Elector of Bavaria, and he moved most of his Mannheim musicians with him, Fischer included, to the new court in Munich.
While in Munich, Fischer married on 6 October 1779 the singer Barbara Strasser (born 1758 in Mannheim), who sang with him in Vienna and was pensioned in 1798. The children of this marriage all became distinguished singers: Joseph Fischer (born 1780 in Vienna, died 1862 in Mannheim), Josepha Fischer-Vernier (born 1782, died 1854 in Mannheim), and Wilhelmine (born 1785).
In 1779, Fischer moved to the Nationaltheater (today's Burgtheater) in Vienna (1779). He stayed in Vienna for three years, singing about twenty different roles. In 1783 he sang with extraordinary success in Paris, in 1784 in the principal cities of Italy; starting 1785 he sang at the court of Karl Anselm, 4th Prince of Thurn and Taxis in Regensburg, and in 1789 accepted a permanent appointment, made through the intercession of Johann Friedrich Reichardt, at the Italian Opera in Berlin, where he worked until retiring on pension in 1815. He took some breaks from his Berlin job to sing as a guest artist in other cities: Vienna (1787, 1798), London (1794, 1798, 1812).
Fischer died 10 July 1825 in Berlin.
== Roles ==
Fischer is perhaps best remembered today for the role of Osmin in Die Entführung aus dem Serail, a part "tailor made" for him by Mozart and which he sang in the premiere production (first performance 16 July 1782,) during the Vienna phase of his career. A year earlier, Antonio Salieri was inspired by his remarkable vocal range in composing his comic opera Der Rauchfangkehrer, writing for him the role of Herr von Bär. Further roles were Axur in Salieri's Axur, re d'Ormus, Osroes in Semiramide and Brenno in the eponymous opera by Reichardt.
== Compositions ==
Apparently Fischer was also a composer but most of his work has not survived. In 1802 he composed the "popular" drinking song "Im tiefen Keller sitz' ich hier". Its two-octave range (F2 to F4) is perhaps unusual for a popular song, but would not have been a barrier for the composer; see below.
== Fischer and Mozart ==
Fischer was evidently a friend of Mozart's. When he got into a disagreement with the Imperial theatre manager, Count Orsini-Rosenberg, and decided to leave Vienna, Mozart gave him a letter of introduction to help him as he pursued his career (successfully) in Paris. In 1787, when Fischer returned to Vienna for a visit, Mozart created for him the aria "Alcandro, lo confesso...Non sò, d'onde viene", K. 512, which he sang at a concert he gave in the Kärntnertortheater on 21 March. Mozart may also have written another work for Fischer, the recitative and aria "Così dunque tradisci...Aspri rimorsi atroci" (K. 432/421a).
Shortly after, on April 1, Fischer wrote a 16-line poem of friendship in Mozart's album, whose last four lines (in English) are:
In 1796 (28 February), Fischer participated in a memorial concert for Mozart organized by his widow Constanze; he sang excerpts from La clemenza di Tito.
== Assessment ==
A critic for the Deutsches Museum of Leipzig, writing in 1781, called him "the foremost bass in Germany, and after Günther [possibly Friedrich Günther (1750 – after 1800)], the one who acts best". According to Corneilson, this was a generally held view: "In his day Fischer was regarded as Germany’s leading serious bass singer." Fischer could sing from a low D2 to a high A4, and he controlled this extraordinary range with unusual lightness, purity, and precision. Reichardt said of his voice that it displayed "the depth of a cello and the natural height of a tenor."
Mozart was evidently delighted by Fischer's abilities. He added a major aria to the first act of Die Entführung, "Solche hergelauf'ne Laffen", explaining to his father by letter (26 September 1781) that "one must make good use of such a man"; adding that (as Clive says) "the new aria would provide an opportunity for Fischer's 'beautiful low notes' to glow".
== Notes ==
== References ==
This article includes material from the corresponding article in the German Wikipedia, which in turn is based on the public domain Meyers Konversations-Lexikon, 4th ed. 1888–1890. Other references:
Clive, Peter (1993). Mozart and His Circle. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-05900-0 – via Internet Archive.
Corneilson, Paul (2014). "Fischer, Ludwig". Grove Music Online (8th ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.09731. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. (subscription, Wikilibrary access, or UK public library membership required)
Deutsch, Otto Erich (1965). Mozart: A Documentary Biography. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press – via Internet Archive.
== External links ==
Free scores by Ludwig Fischer at the International Music Score Library Project (IMSLP)
"Im tiefen Keller sitz' ich hier" on YouTube, Günter Wewel (Kein schöner Land, 2007) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susan_Lucci#Primetime_television,_stage,_hosting_and_film | Susan Lucci | Susan Victoria Lucci (born December 23, 1946) is an American actress. She is best known for portraying Erica Kane on the ABC daytime drama All My Children during that show's entire network run from 1970 to 2011. The character is considered an icon, and she was called "Daytime's Leading Lady" by TV Guide, with The New York Times and the Los Angeles Times citing her as the highest-paid actor in daytime television. As early as 1991, her salary had been reported as over $1 million a year. During her run on All My Children, Lucci was nominated 21 times for the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series. She won only once, in 1999, after the 19th nomination; her status as a perpetual nominee for the award had attracted significant media attention since the late 1980s.
Lucci has also acted in other TV series, as well as occasionally in film and on stage. She had multi-episode guest appearances on the series Dallas, Hot in Cleveland and Army Wives. Lucci hosted Saturday Night Live in 1990. After the cancellation of All My Children, she hosted the 2012–2014 true crime series Deadly Affairs and starred (as Genevieve Delatour) in the 2013–2016 Lifetime series Devious Maids.
In 1996, TV Guide ranked her number 37 on its 50 Greatest TV Stars of All Time list. She was named one of VH1's 200 Top Icons of All Time and one of Barbara Walters's Ten Most Fascinating People.
== Early life ==
Susan Lucci was born in Scarsdale, New York, to parents Jeanette (1917–2021) and Victor Lucci (1919–2002). Her father was of Italian ancestry, and her mother was of Swedish descent. She lived in Yonkers, New York, before moving with her family at age 2 to Elmont, New York, and then at age 5 to another Long Island town, Garden City, New York. Lucci graduated from Garden City High School in 1964 and from Marymount College, Tarrytown in 1968, with a BA degree in drama.
== Career ==
Susan Lucci began her television career with bit parts on the daytime soap operas Love Is a Many Splendored Thing and The Doctors. She also appeared in an uncredited role in the 1969 film Goodbye, Columbus and had a minor role in the 1969 comedy-drama Me, Natalie.
=== All My Children ===
Lucci is best known for appearing as Erica Kane on the ABC soap opera All My Children, from January 16, 1970, to September 23, 2011. Erica is considered to be the most popular character in American soap opera history. TV Guide calls her "unequivocally the most famous soap opera character in the history of daytime TV," and included her in their 2013 list of The 60 Nastiest Villains of All Time.
Lucci was nominated for the Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series Emmy for her work on All My Children almost every year beginning in 1978. When Lucci did not win the award after several consecutive nominations, her image in the media began to be lampooned, as she became notoriously synonymous with never winning an Emmy. NBC's Saturday Night Live exploited this by asking her to host an episode; during her monologue, the show's cast, crew, and even stagehands nonchalantly carried (and utilized; for example, as hammers and doorjambs) Emmys of their own in her presence. In addition, she appeared in a 1989 television commercial for the sugar substitute Sweet One, intended to portray her as the opposite of her villainess character, yet throwing one of Erica Kane's characteristic tantrums, shouting, "Eleven years without an Emmy! What does a person have to do around here to get an Emmy?" Her name eventually became part of the language, used as an avatar for artists who receive numerous award nominations without a win (e.g., "Peter O'Toole was the Susan Lucci of the Oscars.").
After 18 nominations, she finally won in 1999; Lucci received a standing ovation upon receiving the award, which was presented by Shemar Moore.
When ABC cancelled All My Children on April 14, 2011, after 41 years on the air, Lucci said in an interview: "It's been a fantastic journey. I've loved playing Erica Kane and working with Agnes Nixon and all the incredible people involved with All My Children. I'm looking forward to all kinds of new and exciting opportunities." Lucci publicly criticized ABC Daytime president Brian Frons over the cancellation of All My Children in the epilogue of her autobiography All My Life.
=== Primetime television, stage, hosting and film ===
Lucci has appeared in a number of television series and television movies. In 1982, she appeared in a cameo appearance in the comedy film Young Doctors in Love. During the 1980s, she made guest-starring appearances in prime time series, such as The Love Boat, Fantasy Island and The Fall Guy. In 1984 she played her first leading role in the supernatural horror film Invitation to Hell directed by Wes Craven.
In 1986, Lucci played the role of Darya Romanoff in the Golden Globe– and Emmy Award–winning made-for-television movie Anastasia: The Mystery of Anna. The same year she played the lead role as Antoinette Giancana, Salavatore 'Sam' Giancana's daughter's in the crime made-for-television movie, Mafia Princess. The following year she starred in another horror film, Haunted by Her Past. She later starred in the crime dramas Lady Mobster (1988) and The Bride in Black (1990). In 1990–1991, she began a series of guest spots on the nighttime soap opera Dallas. She hosted NBC's Saturday Night Live in October of that year; in one skit, she appeared as Erica Kane competing on a game show. In 1991 she starred in the thriller The Woman Who Sinned. She later starred in Double Edge (1992), Between Love and Hate (1993), French Silk (1994) and Seduced and Betrayed (1995).
In 1995, Lucci played Elizabeth 'Ebbie' Scrooge in the Lifetime Fantasy television film, Ebbie. This film was an updated version of A Christmas Carol. Lucci played a Scrooge-like department store owner visited by Marley and the three ghosts on Christmas.Television critic Lynne Heffley from Los Angeles Times gave it a positive review writing: "Soap queen Susan Lucci of “All My Children” is fun to watch as a severely tailored, unsmiling boss, spreading misery wherever she goes on Christmas Eve, whether firing a security guard or deciding the store's traditional window display has got to go." In 1998 she returned to thrillers with Blood on Her Hands.
In 1999, she played the title role of Annie Oakley in the revival of Irving Berlin's musical Annie Get Your Gun. Michael Logan of TV Guide said, "Susan Lucci didn't just take Great White Way by storm: she took it by tornado, hurricane and tsunami, too." In 2004, she guest starred in two episodes of the ABC comedy series Hope & Faith opposite Kelly Ripa. In 2005 she guest-starred on That's So Raven.
Lucci competed in season 7 of Dancing with the Stars with dance partner Tony Dovolani. She said that Dancing had asked her to appear before, but she had turned it down, in part, because of the travel it would have required of her (at the time Dancing taped in Los Angeles while All My Children taped in New York). Lucci later changed her mind, in part, because of the experience of fellow All My Children star Cameron Mathison, who finished fifth in season 5. She was voted off the show on November 5, 2008, rather than November 4 due to election night, finishing sixth in the competition.
=== 2012—present ===
From 2010 to 2014, Lucci made several appearances as herself, the arch rival of Wendie Malick's character, Victoria Chase, on the TV Land sitcom Hot in Cleveland , including the February 1, 2012 episode entitled "Life with Lucci". She appeared in Gloria Estefan's music video "Hotel Nacional" in February 2012. She guest starred in multi-episodes of the sixth season of Lifetime drama series, Army Wives in 2012. Lucci also hosted and narrated Deadly Affairs, a prime-time series airing on Investigation Discovery from 2012 to 2014. On November 15, 2012, Lucci appeared on The Colbert Report in a segment reflecting the soap-opera-like nature of the Petraeus scandal.
In 2013, Lucci began starring as Geneviève Delatour in the Lifetime comedy-drama series, Devious Maids created by Marc Cherry. Her comedic performance was well received by television critics. The series ended in 2016 after four seasons. In 2015 she appeared in the comedy-drama film, Joy directed by David O. Russell.
In 2017, Lucci played one of Kristen Bell and Dax Shepard's grandparents (with Henry Winkler) in Sia's music video, "Santa's Coming for Us". Also in 2017 she guest-starred in an episode of Hulu comedy series, Difficult People. She also appeared in television ads for Progressive Insurance that were styled as a soap opera.
In 2023, Lucci received Lifetime Achievement Award at the 50th Daytime Emmy Awards. In 2024, after seven years acting hiatus, Lucci returned to screen in the black comedy film, Outcome starring opposite Keanu Reeves, Jonah Hill and Cameron Diaz.
== Personal life ==
Lucci married Austrian-born chef and food-service manager Helmut Huber on September 13, 1969. They are the parents of two children: actress Liza Huber and a son, Andreas Huber. The couple were married 52 years until Helmut's death on March 28, 2022; he was 84 years old.
Lucci's autobiography, All My Life: A Memoir, was published in 2011. She is a registered Republican and has hosted fundraising events for Rudy Giuliani. She is a supporter of LGBT rights and equality, her support spurred by an All My Children storyline in 2000 in which her character Erica's daughter, Bianca Montgomery, came out as a lesbian.
In late 2018, Lucci had an emergency procedure to place two arterial stents in her heart after blocked arteries were discovered due to chest pain. Lucci postponed making her experience public until shortly before the American Heart Association's annual Go Red for Women fashion event in February 2019.
=== Business ventures ===
Lucci also has her own line of hair care products, perfumes, lingerie, and skin care, called The Susan Lucci Collection.
== Filmography ==
== Awards and nominations ==
Other awards and honors include:
Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement presented by Awards Council member Henry Kravis, 1991
Favorite Female Performer in a Daytime Serial, People's Choice Awards, 1992
Women in Film Lucy Award, 1994
New York Women in Film & Television Muse Award, 2004
Outstanding Female Lead in a Daytime Drama, Gracie Allen Awards, 2005
Hollywood Walk of Fame, 2005
NAB Broadcasting Hall of Fame, 2006
Ride of Fame inductee, 2013
Disney Legend, 2015
in 2002 Susan Lucci appears Atlantic City October 25 with Regis philbin
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Siegel, Barbara, and Scott Siegel. 1986. Susan Lucci. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-77963-1.
Lucci, Susan. 2011. All My Life: A Memoir. ISBN 0-06-206184-4.
== External links ==
Susan's Official Website
Susan Lucci at IMDb
Susan Lucci at the TCM Movie Database
Susan Lucci at The Interviews: An Oral History of Television |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birendra_of_Nepal | Birendra of Nepal | Birendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev (Nepali: श्री ५ महाराजाधिराज वीरेन्द्र वीर विक्रम शाह देव; 29 December 1945 – 1 June 2001) was King of Nepal from 1972 until his assassination in 2001.
Birendra was the second son of King Mahendra and became crown prince on account of Mahendra's first son being born out of wedlock. He inherited the panchayat system from his father when he acceded the throne in 1972, ruling as Nepal's absolute monarch. Following the 1990 revolution, he disbanded the system, lifted the concurrent ban on political parties and promulgated a new constitution in which he served as head of state of a democratic constitutional monarchy. The Nepalese Civil War began in the latter part of his reign when the Communist Party of Nepal launched an insurgency in 1996.
== Early life and education ==
Birendra was born at the Narayanhiti Royal Palace in Kathmandu as the second son of the then Crown Prince Mahendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev and his first wife, Crown Princess Indra Rajya Lakshmi Devi. Despite Birendra not being the eldest son of Mahendra, he was made crown prince and heir apparent due to Mahendra's first son, Rabindra Shah, being born when he was unmarried, and was born to a Gurung woman which made him an "illegitimate child."
Birendra spent eight years studying at St Joseph's School, a Jesuit school in Darjeeling, with his brother Gyanendra. On 13 March 1955, their grandfather King Tribhuvan died and their father succeeded the Nepalese throne. With his father's ascension, Birendra became the crown prince of Nepal.
In 1959, Birendra was enrolled at Eton College in the United Kingdom. After studying at Eton until 1964, he returned to Nepal where he began to explore the country by traveling on foot to the remote parts of the country where he lived humbly with what was available in the villages. He later completed his education by spending some time at the University of Tokyo, before studying political theory at Harvard University from 1967 to 1968. Birendra enjoyed travelling in his youth, and went on trips to Canada, Latin America, Africa, many parts of India, and a number of other Asian countries. He was also an art collector and supporter of Nepalese craftspeople and artists and learned to fly helicopters.
Birendra was married to Aishwarya Rajya Lakshmi Devi from the Rana family, his second cousin, on 27 February 1970. The wedding, which was billed as one of the most lavish Hindu nuptial ceremonies in history, cost $9.5 million to stage.
== Reign ==
=== Early years ===
Birendra ascended to the Nepalese throne on 31 January 1972, at the age of 26, after the death of his father, King Mahendra. However, his coronation was delayed until 24 February 1975, when he was 29, since the first year was considered to be a mourning period for death of king's father and the second year was deemed to be inauspicious by religious astrologers. As a Hindu monarch, he had to follow Nepalese tradition.
=== Panchayat era ===
On his ascension to the throne, Birendra was effectively an absolute monarch, as he inherited a country where political parties were banned and he ruled through a system of local and regional councils known as panchayats.
In an attempt to maintain the panchayat system of government, prominent leaders of the Nepali Congress Party were arrested frequently. During the 1980s the restraints that had been imposed on political organizations were eased, and liberal student-led groups started to demand constitutional change in Nepal. Because of the growing pro-democracy movement Birendra announced that a referendum to decide between a party-less or a multi-party system would be held. During, referendum options were given for a multi-party system or a Panchayati system. The referendum was held in May 1980 with the party-less system winning by a margin of 55% to 45%. The result of the election led the king to make mass restructuring of country both economically and politically. After the national referendum, he divided the nation into 5 development regions in order to create balanced development and visited each division once a year; the visits were discontinued after his status as a constitutional monarchy in 1990.
=== Democratic era ===
In 1990, a series of strikes and pro-democracy riots broke out in Nepal. Due to the riots, Birendra lifted the ban on political parties and agreed to become a constitutional monarch in April 1990. He appointed an independent Constitution Recommendation Commission to represent the main opposition factions and to prepare a new constitution to accommodate their demands for political reform. The commission presented him with the draft of the proposed constitution on 10 September 1990. The new constitution would make Birendra head of state of a constitutional monarchy with a system of multiparty democracy. The draft constitution was approved by the Prime Minister Krishna Prasad Bhattarai and his cabinet and so, on 9 November 1990, Birendra promulgated the new constitution transformed Nepal into a constitutional monarchy. As a constitutional monarch, Birendra became more popular than he had been as an autocratic ruler attributing to his democratic views and behaviors as well as the inability of the political parties. Birendra, however, could not prevent the Nepalese Civil War, a conflict between Maoist rebels and government forces, which lasted from 1996 until 2006.
=== Murder ===
On 1 June 2001, Birendra and his immediate family were massacred by his son, Crown Prince Dipendra, during a dinner event at the Narayanhiti Palace, the residence of the Nepali monarchy. After shooting himself, the comatose Dipendra was proclaimed King. He failed to regain consciousness and was declared dead a few days later. Birendra's younger brother Gyanendra was then made king.
== Notable works and improvements ==
=== Diplomatic campaign ===
He managed to maintain Nepal's independence despite encroaching influences by India, China, and the Soviet Union. His first trips abroad as king were to India in October 1973 and China two months later. He prevented the breaking up of Mustang from Nepal and Tibet from China during the Mustang revolution. The disarmament of Khampas rebellions working against China brought Nepal-China relations to a new height. His compatriots remember him for his extensive campaign and contribution for the establishment of South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation and South Asian food reserve. During his reign, he was also able to set up the SAARC Secretariat in Kathmandu. He was able to establish diplomatic relations with additional 46 countries taking the total number of countries for diplomatic relations from 49 to 96. He further strengthened Nepal's policy of neutrality by promoting Nepal as zone of Peace in the UN. He believed that Nepal, sandwiched between the two Asian powers, should have good relationship with both.
=== Promotion of peace ===
He proposed Nepal to be declared a zone of Peace in the United Nations meeting, taking into consideration Nepal's historic peace status, birth of Gautam Buddha and its historical policy of Non-alignment to any foreign powers. This proposal was supported by 116 countries in the UNO. He later established a "Peace Keeping Training Camp" in 1986. This was later restructured into a training institute in 2001 for training peace keeping forces. It was later renamed as Birendra Peace Operations Training Centre. This institute, was later restructured as the training organization through which Nepal started sending trained, peace-keeping forces in cooperation with the UN and became an active member of it. In 1974, King Birendra was successful in peacefully disarming the Khampas rebellions, settled in the northern Himalayan region, by giving land, money and citizenship to those who surrendered their arms, and by confiscating weapons as well. Thus who did not surrender would be prohibited from moving toward the Tibetan region. Birendra is also credited with blocking the use of the army for suppressing the Maoist revolution in the country, which would've further aggravated the situation and disturbed the peace in the nation.
=== Environmental protection ===
King Birendra was regarded as a lover of nature and a great supporter of nature conservation. The trend of nature conservation from the government started during his reign. The dramatic decline of the rhinoceros population due to massive Terai migration and the extent of poaching prompted the government to institute the Rhino Patrol force (Nepali: गैडा गस्ती ) of 130 armed men and a network of guard posts all over Chitwan. To prevent the extinction of rhinos through a legal system, National park law was introduced which gazetted the Chitwan National Park in December 1970, with borders delineated the following year and established in 1973.
For the purpose of conservation of Tigers in the nation, an area of 368 km2 was gazetted as Royal Karnali Wildlife Reserve in 1976 which was later proclaimed as Royal Bardiya Wildlife Reserve in 1982. The Babai River Valley was further added to this reserved area in 1984. A flourishing ecosystem in the reserve later led to the proclamation of the area as national park in 1988. The country's fourth protected area was established in 1976 from the Himalayan area of Langtang and named as Langtang National Park. For this purpose, an area of 1,710 km2 was reserved in the district of Nuwakot, Rasuwa and Sindhulpalchok. He also gazetted another wildlife reserve in 1976 as Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve. In the same year, he also established Royal Shuklaphanta Wildlife Reserve in the Terai region of far-western province which was later enlarged and converted to national park in the late 1980s. Also, another protected area, Rara National Park was established in the same year in order to protect the unique flora and fauna of Humla, Mugu and Jumla regions and to fulfil his father, King Mahendra's dream of creating a pristine nature reserve with a reserved area of 106 km2 in the Mugu and Jumla districts which also includes the famous Rara Lake. The last National Park to be established as part of the Sacred Himalayan Landscape in the same year was Sagarmatha National Park in with reservation of area of 1,148 km2 in the Solukhumbu District.
In 1984, a 225 km2 area of Bajhang, Bajura, Achham and Doti was set aside as a protected area in the Far-Western Region, Nepal and was named Khaptad National Park. In the same year, he also established Parsa Wildlife Reserve which was later extended to a National Park. Similarly, the nation's only trans-Himalayan national park, Shey Phoksundo National Park, was established in 1984 with an area of 3,555 square Kilometers in the districts of Dolpa and Mugu in the Karnali Province which also included the famous Phoksundo Lake.
In order to preserve the royal tradition of hunting as a hobby, but also to prevent the depleting wild life resource he established Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve in 1987 AD. King Mahendra Trust for Nature Conservation as a memorial to his father, with the then prince Gyanendra as the chairman, was also established in 1990. With the establishment of Mahendra trust, he declared Annapurna Conservation Area.
Moreover, with his efforts, Nepal was able to enlist Sagarmatha National Park in 1979 and Chitwan National Park in 1984 into the UNESCO World heritage sites. Similarly, monument zones such as the Durbar squares of Kathmandu, Lalitpur and Bhaktapur and religious sites such as Swayambhunath, Boudhanath, Pashupatinath Temple and Changu Narayan was also enlisted in 1979.
=== Economic reforms ===
Focusing on sustainability and environmental conservation, on 28 December 1975 (1975-12-28), trolley bus system was established in Nepal from the aid of People's Republic of China. He followed in the path of his father to establish industrial estates by establishing Nepalgunj Industrial Area(1973), Pokhara Industrial Area(1974), Butwal Industrial Area(1976), Bhaktapur Industrial Area(1979), Dhankuta Industrial Area(1980), Birendranagar Industrial Area(1981), Gajendranarayan Industrial Area(1986) respectively.
Birendra is initially credited for devising the plan of Melamchi water project to Kathmandu. Gorakhali Tires Industries, Udayapur Cement Industries Limited, Nepal Metal company, Nepal Pharmaceuticals were all established during his time. King Birendra, was the patron of Pashupati Area Development Trust. In April 1979, Nepal Oriental Magnesite factory was established with a joint investment of Nepal government and Orissa Industries, India at Lakuri Danda in Dolakha District with the objective of producing dead burnt magnesite and talc powder. In 1983 he was able to establish a Nepal-Pakistan Joint Economic Commission bringing in significant foreign investments in the country.
A 60 megawatt hydropower project at Kulekhani began operation in 1982 with economic aid from the World Bank, Kuwait, and Japan.
TU Teaching Hospital was established in 1982 with the economic support from Japan International Cooperation Agency. Nardevi Ayurvedic Hospital was established in 1974. Nepal Police Hospital was established by the king on the 27th of Chaitra, 2040 BS with an intention to provide free health services to in- service policemen and, their families.
He established Securities Exchange Center Ltd in 1976 to manage, promote and support the growth of trade of stocks and capitals in the nation. This center was later developed to what we know today as Nepal Stock Exchange.
He is also credited for establishing the first television channel of Nepal Nepal Television in 1984 which started its first channel in 1985 with French aid. Due to these economic reforms, by 1986, there were 2,054 industrial establishments employing about 125 thousand workers in the nation. By 1990, reach of people for television meant that video rental services and satellite dishes were commonly available.
King Birendra in the advice and consent of Rastriya Panchayat in 1986 established Mahendra Sanskrit University to manage Sanskrit education in Nepal in Dang which at the time of its commencement was the second university of the country.
=== Roads and transportation ===
Various Studies in 1972 showed that building road connectivity in hilly and rural areas were more expensive than air connectivity. So, the then government took the policy of connecting rural areas with airports and build roads only when there was a high amount of traffic flow. Under this policy, Baglung Airport (Balewa Airport), Dhorpatan Airport, Mahendranagar Airport and Rukum Chaurjahari Airport was established in the year 1973. Sanphebagar airport was established in 1975. Simikot Airport was established on 18 March 1977, Dolpa Airport, was established in 1978 and Ramechhap airport in 1979. Doti Airport, also known as Silgadhi Airport was established in 1973 with the blacktopped runway. Talcha Airport, also known as Rara Airport was built in 1975.Taplejung Airport located in Phungling, also called Suketar Airport, Jiri Airport and Phaplu Airport and Bajhang Airport was built in 1976. Rolpa Airport in 1980, Manang Airport in 1981, Bajura airport in 1984 and Darchula Airport in 1986.
Similarly, The Lamosangu-Jiri road leading to Solukhumbu was commissioned in 1985 with Swiss government aid.
=== Promotion of agriculture ===
The government, during Birendra's reign, focused highly on agriculture promotion. As a result, almost 90% of the population was directly or indirectly involved in agriculture by 1990. Bhrikuti Pulp and Paper was established in 1985 under the Companies Act 2021 (Bikram Sambat) with support from the People's Republic of China. Increase in agricultural lands and agricultural workforce provided increased supplies of food, resulting in better nutrition. Corn production was increased to over 1 million tons in 1991 from 500,000 tons in 1961. Lumbini Sugar Mills at Sunwal, Nawalparasi was built with the technical assistance from China in 1982. The establishment of Gorakhali rubber Industries led to the cultivation of rubber for the first time in Jhapa, Illam and many other places of eastern Nepal. Similarly. establishment of agriculture based industries such as Bhrikuti Pulp and Paper, Hetauda Textile and huge number of carpet and garment industry were established to convert raw agricultural produce which contributed greatly to the economy.
=== Political achievements ===
During the reign of King Birendra, referendum was held in 2037 BS for democracy wherein options were a multi-party system or a Panchayati system. During the Panchayat era and after the national referendum, he divided the nation into 5 development regions in order to create balanced development, and visited each division once a year; the visits were discontinued after 1990 democracy movement.
Despite previously being an autocratic rule and constant pressure from the supporters and royal members, the king always played the role of constitutional monarch by the book and never overstepped his boundaries. King Birendra was always there when there was some political crisis in the nation. Mid-term elections, 2051 and General Election, 2056 can be attributed to his good governance. The King regularly asked the Supreme Court for its advice on any political matters that could concern the constitution so that he would never overstep the boundaries of the constitution. He created a culture where the king and prime minister would meet every Thursday at his palace to discuss matters of state.
=== Social reforms ===
Recognizing low literacy levels as the main hindrance to national progress, King Birendra made development of education system his national priority. The five year plan starting from 1971 was mainly focused in building new educational institutions and upgrading the efficiency of the current education system. On the auspicious occasion of his coronation, King Birendra declared primary education to be free for all Nepalese citizens. Similarly, in 1978 with a royal approval all educational material started to be distributed free of costs to educational institutions. King Birendra became the patron of Royal Nepal Academy of Science and Technology which worked in the field of developing science and technology in the nation. He established Mahendra Sanskrit University in 1986 to preserve the language and culture in the region. Dowry system was criminalized in Nepal in 1976 under the Social Practices Reform Act (2033 B.S). Under the five year plan, King Birendra started the policy of National Service which required the post-graduate students to contribute their one-year of service to the development works in the rural areas. He initiated the process of preserving the history by establishing Natural History Museum in 1975. On 22 September 1976 he enacted Narcotic Drugs (Control) Act, 2033 prohibiting the trade, smuggling or any kind of drug trafficking in the country.
=== Development policy ===
Birendra took the policy of road development according to the population and daily road traffic and connecting the rural areas with airports. He restructured many governmental organization for the purpose of achieving developmental goals. He stressed roadbuilding, sanitation and scientific as well as technical trainings. A comprehensive study performed regarding the central planning agency triggered the restructuring of the National Planning Commission in 1972 and minor changes in 1987. The government policy focused mainly on environment conservation, agriculture and education.
== Criticism ==
=== Stagnant economy ===
Though King Birendra is remembered as a development-friendly king, he is also criticized for his inability to drive the country towards rapid development efforts like his father King Mahendra. He had the political will but simply not the skill through which development efforts could be rapidly gained. His policy of sustainable development, shown by his nature conservation efforts, culture, and history became hindrances for economic development. The Panchayat regime created a stagnant economy during his reign as an autocratic ruler.
=== Administrative failure ===
Historians point out that the Panchayat Regime under King Birendra was a failure. He was not able to bring in much direct foreign investment during his reign, and all the programs he brought, or all the reforms he made were the continuation of his father's legacy. He restructured various organization previously established by his father, and implemented various development plan envisioned by his father.
=== Failed development efforts ===
Birendra restructured various organization and brought many development plans, but his development efforts were mostly a failure; which hindered any radical change in the country. Many airports and roads built during his era were rarely used, and eventually had to be closed down. Moreover, the reason the newly built roads were rarely used was due to very low vehicle ownership or access to vehicles; so rarely contributing to economic development.
=== Fall of the Panchayat system ===
Some historians and anti-egalitarians blame Birendra solely for the fall of Panchayat regime. During the 1980s, the restraints that he had eased against political organizations provided a breeding ground for political parties which had previously been powerless and virtually non-existent until then.
== Personality ==
From a very young age, Birendra was described by his Eton teachers as a kind prince. He was remembered by his Eton classmates as a "very, very nice bloke who was embarrassed when his full title was read out at the school assembly." Very famous Nepalese media personality, Neer Shah describe Birendra as kind and development loving king. Royalist around the king and various scholars define him as a simple king who was able to listen to others view. They also criticize him for his weakness of not being able to deny the requests of people around him and his habit to act like a clerk and work himself rather than order others.
Birendra allowed the 2036 B.S. Janmat Sangraha (1980 Referendum) which was considered a move towards democracy. However, the leaders advocating for democracy and historians have claimed that the referendum was rigged. After People's Movement I that resulted in few hundred deaths, he established a constitutional monarchy in Nepal.
Some historians have speculated that Birendra's democratic views and simple nature may have led to the success of the People's Movement I (1990). He is credited for introducing SAARC in Asia in order to strengthen the foreign relations of Nepal with the other South Asian countries.
== Health ==
Birendra was diagnosed with coronary artery disease. In November 1999, he suffered a mild heart attack and was admitted to the Cromwell Hospital in London, where he underwent angioplasty.
== Memorial ==
Many structures, institutions and honors have been built in the memory of King Birendra. Monuments erected in his name were renamed after the restoration of the parliament in 2063 BS and the end of the monarchy in 2065 BS. After the political changes of 2063 BS, an attempt was made to rename the highway built in the name of the king as Lok Marg.
=== Statues ===
Birendra statue, Dhamboji Chowk, (Nepalgunj)
Birendra statue (Dang)
Birendra statue, Birendranagar (Surkhet)
Birendra statue, Swargapuri (Shivapuri)
Birendra statue, Jawalakhel (Lalitpur)
Birendra statue, Bindhyabasini Temple (Pokhara)
Birendra statue, Pashupatinath Temple (Kathmandu)
=== School ===
Shree Birendra Higher Secondary School, Bhadrapur, Jhapa
Shree Birendra Higher Secondary School, Charghare, Nuwakot
Shree Birendra Sarwajanik Higher Secondary School, Morang
Shree Birendra secondary school, Lakhantari, Morang
Shree Birendra secondary school, Belbari, Morang
Shree Birendra Madhyamik Bidhyalaya, Jhorahat, Morang
Birendra Secondary School, Katahari, Morang
Birendra Secondary School, Argakhanchi
Birendra Secondary School, Dasharathchanda, Baitadi
Birendra secondary school, Badikedar, Doti
Birendra Secondary School, Syangja
Birendra Secondary School, Nuwakot
Birendra Secondary School, Parbat
Birendra Sainik Awasiya Mahavidyalaya, Bhaktapur
Birendra jyoti Secondary School, Solukhumbu Sotang
=== College ===
Birendara Bidhya Mandir Campus, Tikapur, Kailali
Birendra Multiple Campus, Bharatpur
Birendra Memorial College, Dharan
Birendra Multiple Campus
=== Location ===
Birendranagar, Surkhet
Birendranagar, Chitwan
Birendra Chowk, (Birendranagar)
Birendra chowk, Kageshwari-Manohara Municipality
Birendra chowk, Phungling Municipality
Birendra Chowk, Dharan
Birendra Chowk, Tulsipur, (Dang)
Birendra Chowk, (Nepalgunj)
Birendra Chowk, (Itahari)
Birendra Chowk, (Beni, Myagdi)
Birendra Lake (Birendra Tal), Gorkha
Birendra Aishwarya Park, Dhangadi
Birendra Aishwarya Park, Baglung
=== Structure ===
Birendra Museum, Kathmandu Durbar Square
Birendra Army Hospital
Birendranagar Airport
=== Others ===
Birendra Beer, Zürich
Birendra Memorial Cup
Birendra Peace Operations Training Centre
Birendranagar Jaycees
== Honours ==
National orders
Sovereign of the Order of Nepal Pratap Bhaskara
Sovereign of the Order of Ojaswi Rajanya
Sovereign of the Order of Nepal Taradisha
Sovereign of the Order of Tri Shakti Patta
Sovereign of the Order of Gorkha Dakshina Bahu
Most Glorious Mahendra Chain
Recipient of the King Mahendra Investiture Medal (02/05/1956)
Foreign orders
Thailand: Knight of the Order of the Rajamitrabhorn (1986)
Denmark: Knight of the Order of the Elephant, (17 October 1989)
Japan: Knight Grand Cordon with Collar of the Order of the Chrysanthemum (1975)
Cyprus: Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Makarios III of Cyprus (1980)
Kingdom of Laos: Knight Grand Cordon with Collar of the Order of the Million Elephants and the White Parasol (1970)
Netherlands: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Gold Lion of the House of Nassau, (22 March 1975)
France: Grand Cross of the Order of the Legion of Honour, (02/05/1983)
Germany: Grand Cross Special Class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany (1986)
Spain: Knight Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Carlos III, (19 September 1983)
Pakistan: Nishan-e-Pakistan (1983)
Romania: Grand Cross of the Order of the Star of Romania (1975)
Chile: Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Merit of Chile (1989)
Finland: Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of the White Rose (1988)
Egypt: Collar of the Order of the Nile (1974)
Yugoslavia: Great Star of the Order of the Yugoslav Star, (2 February 1974)
Romania: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of 23 August (1987)
United Kingdom: Recipient of the Royal Victorian Chain (23 February 1975)
Association honours
Japan: Golden Pheasant Award of the Scout Association of Japan (1978)
== Ancestry ==
== See also ==
List of heads of state and government who were assassinated or executed
List of state visits made by Birendra of Nepal
Wedding of Birendra of Nepal and Aishwarya
Coronation of Birendra of Nepal
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worcester_Reed_Warner#Worcester_Reed_Warner_Medal | Worcester Reed Warner | Worcester Reed Warner (May 16, 1846 – June 25, 1929) was an American mechanical engineer, entrepreneur, manager, astronomer, and philanthropist. With Ambrose Swasey he cofounded the Warner & Swasey Company.
== Biography ==
=== Life and career ===
Warner was born and grew up on a farm near Cummington, Massachusetts. He met Swasey at the Exeter Machine Works where both were apprentices. In 1870, both entered the employ of Pratt & Whitney in Hartford, Connecticut.
In 1880, Warner and Swasey co-founded a business to manufacture sewing machines and lathes, but quickly turned to manufacturing telescopes, because Warner was always interested in astronomy. The firm, Warner & Swasey, was initially located in Chicago but soon moved to Cleveland. In 1880, Beloit College purchased one of its telescopes, which helped establish the company's name in the telescope-building industry, which experienced rapid growth at the time. Warner & Swasey would design and build the framework and the mounting for the 36-inch refracting telescope installed at Lick Observatory in 1888, which was the world's largest refractor telescope at the time. The company later built telescopes that were used in Canada and Argentina. The company and its founders prospered.
=== Further activities ===
Warner was a charter member of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, and from 1897 to 1898 he served as the 16th president of ASME. (Ambrose Swasey would later serve as the 23rd ASME president.) In 1900 the firm was incorporated as Warner & Swasey Company. Warner served as president and chairman of the board, but retired in 1911.
Both Warner and Ambrose Swasey also became trustees of the Case School of Applied Science. As both men had an interest in astronomy, they donated an entire observatory to the school. This became the Warner and Swasey Observatory. It was dedicated in 1920.
The Warner Building on Case Western Reserve University houses the Worcester Reed Warner Laboratory, named after the former university trustee. The construction of this building was partly funded by Worcester Warner.
The Warner Library in Tarrytown, New York, has served both Tarrytown and North Tarrytown (now Sleepy Hollow, New York) since 1929. It was built and gifted to the two communities by Warner and his wife, Cornelia. Constructed of Vermont limestone, the Neoclassical building was designed by Walter Dabney Blair. The library cost $250,000 (approximately $4,700,000 in today's value as of 2025) to build, and the Warners further endowed it with $50,000 (some $950,000 in today's value as of 2025) for the purchase of books.
The crater Warner on the Moon is named after Worcester Warner.
=== Later Years and Death ===
In 1911, Warner and his wife (he married Cornelia Blakemore of Philadelphia in 1890) moved to an estate named Wilholm in the Wilson Park neighborhood of Tarrytown, New York. Warner built a celestial observatory in his house, where he regularly invited guests for stargazing sessions. One of those guests was John D. Rockefeller, a neighbor and close friend. Warner was also a close friend of President Herbert Hoover, a fellow member of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
Warner died on a trip in Eisenach, Saxe-Weimar, Germany, four months after the Warner Library in Tarrytown was dedicated in his name. He is buried in Sleepy Hollow Cemetery.
== Worcester Reed Warner Medal ==
The Worcester Reed Warner Medal is awarded by the ASME for "outstanding contribution to the permanent literature of engineering". It was established by bequest in 1930. Some of the recipients are:
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Warner & Swasey Company (1920), The Warner & Swasey Company, 1880-1920, Cleveland, Ohio, US: Warner & Swasey Company.
Warner & Swasey Company (1930), The Warner & Swasey Company, 1880-1930, Cleveland, Ohio, US: Warner & Swasey Company. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miriam_A._Ferguson | Miriam A. Ferguson | Miriam Amanda "Ma" Ferguson (née Wallace; June 13, 1875 – June 25, 1961) was an American politician who served two non-consecutive terms as the governor of Texas: from 1925 to 1927, and from 1933 to 1935. She was the first female governor of Texas, and the second woman elected to the governorship of any U.S. state to assume office, after Nellie Tayloe Ross of Wyoming.
== Early life ==
Miriam Amanda Wallace Ferguson was born in Bell County, Texas. She studied at Salado College and Baylor Female College. When she was 24, she married James Edward Ferguson, a lawyer, at her father's farm near Belton in Bell County, Texas.
Her nickname, "Ma", came from her initials, "M. A.", and the fact that her husband was known as "Pa" Ferguson. They had two daughters: Ouida Wallace Ferguson and Dorrace Watt Ferguson.
== Early political career ==
Her husband served as Governor of Texas from 1915 to 1917. During his second term, he was investigated by State Attorney General Dan Moody (who would, incidentally, succeed her as Governor in 1927 after her first term) for actions that had been taken against the University of Texas. The Texas State Senate impeached him, convicted him on ten charges, and prohibited him from holding state office in Texas again.
== 1924 election and first term ==
After her husband's impeachment and conviction, Ma Ferguson ran in the primary for the Democratic nomination for governor and was successful, openly supported by her husband, whom she said she would consult for advice. She ran for office in the 1924 general election.
During her campaign, she said that voters would get "two governors for the price of one". Her speeches at rallies consisted of introducing him and letting him take the platform. A common campaign slogan was, "Me for Ma, and I Ain't Got a Durned Thing Against Pa." Patricia Bernstein of the Houston Chronicle stated "There was never a question in anyone's mind as to who was really running things when Ma was governor."
After her victory in the Democratic primary, Ferguson defeated George C. Butte, a prominent lawyer and University of Texas dean who emerged as the strongest Republican gubernatorial nominee in Texas since Reconstruction. Due to the widespread corruption of her husband's term, resulting in his impeachment, thousands of voters crossed party lines in the general election to vote for the Republican candidate. Republicans usually took between 11,000 and 30,000 votes for governor, but Butte won nearly 300,000 votes, many of them from women and suffragists. It was still primarily a Democratic state, and Ferguson received 422,563 votes (58.9 percent) to Butte's 294,920 (41.1 percent). Butte had been supported in the general election by former governor William P. Hobby, who had succeeded James Ferguson in 1917 and won a full term in 1918.
In 1924, Ma Ferguson became the first elected female chief executive of Texas. She was the second elected female state governor in the United States to assume office, and the first to be elected in a general election. Nellie Tayloe Ross had been sworn in as governor of Wyoming to finish the unexpired term of her late husband two weeks before Ferguson's inauguration, though Ross and Ferguson won their respective elections on the same day. Ferguson's campaign manager was Homer T. Brannon of Fort Worth, Texas.
In 1926, state attorney general Dan Moody, who had investigated her husband for embezzlement and recovered $1 million for Texas citizens, ran against her in a run-off election. He defeated her to become the next and then-youngest governor of Texas. Suffragist activism provided a major contribution to her defeat, as these women rallied behind Moody and campaigned for him.
== 1932 election and second term ==
Ferguson ran again in 1932. She narrowly won the Democratic nomination over incumbent Ross S. Sterling, then soundly defeated Republican Orville Bullington in the general election, 521,395 (61.6 percent) to 322,589 (38.1 percent). It was a year of Democratic successes as Franklin D. Roosevelt was elected as President of the United States. Bullington was a cousin of the first wife of John G. Tower, future U.S. Senator from Texas. He fared more strongly than most Texas Republican candidates did in that period, but did not match Butte's 1924 showing against Ferguson.
Ferguson's second term as governor was less controversial than her first. It was rumored that state highway contracts went only to companies that advertised in the Fergusons' newspaper, the Ferguson Forum. A House committee investigated the rumors, but no charges were ever filed. The Great Depression forced both the federal and state governments to cut down on personnel and funding of their organizations, and the Texas Rangers were no exception. The number of commissioned officers in the law-enforcement agency was reduced to 45, and the only means of transportation afforded to Rangers were free railroad passes, or using their personal horses. The situation worsened for the Rangers when they entangled themselves in politics in 1932 by publicly supporting Governor Ross Sterling in his re-election campaign over "Ma" Ferguson. Immediately after taking office in January 1933, she proceeded to discharge all serving Rangers. The force also saw its salaries and funds slashed by the Texas Legislature, and their numbers reduced further to 32 men. The result was that Texas became a safe hideout for the many Depression-era gangsters escaping from the law, such as Bonnie and Clyde, George "Machine Gun" Kelly, Pretty Boy Floyd and Raymond Hamilton. The hasty appointment of many unqualified Rangers to stop the increasing criminality proved ineffective.
The general disorganization of law enforcement in the state convinced the members of the Legislature that a thorough revision of the public security system was in order, and with that purpose it hired the services of a consulting firm from Chicago. The resulting report yielded many worrying conclusions, but the basic underlying facts were simple: the criminality levels in Texas were extremely high, and the state's means to fight them were underfunded, undermanned, loose, disorganized and obsolete. The consultants' recommendation, besides increasing funding, was to introduce a whole reorganization of state security agencies; especially, to merge the Rangers with the Texas Highway Patrol under a new agency called the Texas Department of Public Safety (DPS). After deliberating, the Legislature agreed with the suggestion. The resolution that created the new state law enforcement agency was passed in 1935 under the next governor of Texas, James V. Allred, and with an initial budget of $450,000, the DPS became operational on August 10.
In October 1933, Ferguson signed into law Texas House Bill 194, which was instrumental in establishing the University of Houston as a four-year institution.
== Views and policies ==
"Fergusonism", as the Fergusons' brand of populism was called, remains a controversial subject in Texas. As governor, she tackled some of the tougher issues of the day. Though a teetotaler like her husband, she aligned herself with the "wets" in the battle over prohibition. She opposed the Ku Klux Klan, which was on the decline after 1925 because of a national murder and sex scandal by its president, D. C. Stephenson.
Ferguson has been described as a fiscal conservative but also pushed for a state sales tax and corporate income tax. She is often credited with a quote allegedly referring to bilingualism in Texas schools: "If English was good enough for Jesus Christ, it ought to be good enough for the children of Texas." Variations of this statement have been dated to 1881, and were often used to ridicule the claimed backwardness of various unnamed Christians. Ferguson did not originate the quote.
Ferguson issued almost 4,000 pardons during her two nonconsecutive terms in office, many of them to free persons who had been convicted of violating prohibition laws. In 1930, between Ferguson's terms, the Secretary of State of Texas Jane Y. McCallum published a pamphlet criticizing the former governor's numerous pardons of prisoners. Though never proven, rumors persisted that pardons were available in exchange for cash payments to the governor's husband. In 1936, voters passed an amendment to the state constitution stripping the governor of the power to issue pardons and granting that power to a politically independent Texas Board of Pardons and Paroles (see Capital punishment in Texas).
A number of labor laws were also passed during Ferguson's two terms as governor.
In a 1932 speech, Ferguson's husband James E. Ferguson defended the record of "Fergusonism;" listing reforms such as child labor and workmen's compensation laws, aid for rural education, a free textbook law, and laws regulating the working hours of women. Miriam Ferguson herself defended “Fergusonism;” citing liberal measures such as a semi-monthly pay day law, an eight-hour law, the establishment of an Industrial Accident Board, and the creation of Lower Colorado and Brazos River Authorities.
== Post-governorship ==
Except for an unsuccessful bid to replace Governor W. Lee "Pappy" O'Daniel in 1940, the Fergusons remained retired from political life after 1935. In the 1940 campaign, Ma Ferguson trailed O'Daniel's principal rival, Ernest O. Thompson of Amarillo, who was Texas Railroad Commissioner.
Her husband, James, died of a stroke in 1944. Miriam Ferguson died from congestive heart failure in 1961 at the age of 86. She was buried in the Texas State Cemetery in Austin.
== See also ==
List of female governors in the United States
List of the first women holders of political offices in the United States
== Notes ==
== Further reading ==
Luthin, Reinhard H. (1954). "Ch. 7: Mr. and Mrs. Ferguson: 'Pa' & 'Ma' of the Lone Star State". American Demagogues: Twentieth Century. Beacon Press. pp. 153–181. ASIN B0007DN37C. LCCN 54-8426. OCLC 1098334.
== External links ==
Miriam Ferguson from the Handbook of Texas Online |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Avakian | George Avakian | George Mesrop Avakian (Armenian: Ջորջ (Գևորգ) Ավագյան; Russian: Геворк Авакян; March 15, 1919 – November 22, 2017) was an American record producer, artist manager, writer, educator and executive. Best known for his work from 1939 to the early 1960s at Decca Records, Columbia Records, World Pacific Records, Warner Bros. Records, and RCA Records, he was a major force in the expansion and development of the U.S. recording industry. Avakian functioned as an independent producer and manager from the 1960s to the early 2000s and worked with artists such as Louis Armstrong, Miles Davis, Duke Ellington, Benny Goodman, Dave Brubeck, Eddie Condon, Keith Jarrett, Erroll Garner, Buck Clayton, Sonny Rollins, Paul Desmond, Edith Piaf, Bob Newhart, Johnny Mathis, John Cage, Alan Hovhaness, Ravi Shankar, and many other notable jazz musicians and composers.
== Biography ==
=== Early life and career ===
Avakian was born in 1919 in Armavir, Russia, to Armenian parents, Mesrop and Manoushak Avakian; the family moved to the United States in July 1923 as first cabin class passengers on the S/S Argentina, sailing from Trieste to New York. His younger brother was the photographer and filmmaker Aram Avakian (1926–1987). George Avakian became a jazz fan in his early teens through listening to the radio at night; his first loves were Duke Ellington, Fletcher Henderson, Fats Waller, the Casa Loma Orchestra, and Benny Goodman, among others. He managed to meet and interview Goodman for the Horace Mann School Record during his senior year. This is when he began amassing his enormous collection of Jazz recordings. He also began writing letters to such companies as Decca and the American Record Corporation (ARC). ARC had acquired the catalogs of the bankrupt OKeh and Brunswick Records labels, both of which had recorded jazz extensively in the 1920s. Avakian began writing letters lobbying them to reissue those recordings.
While Avakian was still at Yale University, Decca Records Jack Kapp responded to his unrelenting letters, hiring him to produce his first recording, Chicago Jazz (1940), featuring musicians such as guitarist Eddie Condon, trumpeter Jimmy McPartland, and drummer George Wettling. This became known as the first "jazz album". It consisted of six 78rpm records, complete with Avakian's liner note essay providing full credits and background information, and set the template for future jazz releases.
By 1940, the swing era was in full bloom, and the Columbia Broadcasting System wanted to cash in on the craze by featuring the music's origins. Having acquired the bankrupt American Record Corporation, CBS was now the home of much recorded jazz. It decided to form a subsidiary called Columbia Records. The company's president, Edward Wallerstein, asked John Hammond to produce a reissue series. Hammond declined, but he suggested Columbia tap Avakian for the job.
Avakian, in his third year at Yale, leapt at the opportunity to comb through Columbia's vaults in Bridgeport, Connecticut to research and assemble what was to be called the Hot Jazz Classics series. Using the format he established at Decca, Avakian created boxed sets devoted to Louis Armstrong, Bix Beiderbecke, Fletcher Henderson, Bessie Smith, and Billie Holiday, among many others. In the process, he found many unreleased sides and included them in the reissues.
Avakian discovered a number of unreleased Louis Armstrong Hot 5 and Hot 7 sides while researching the first album of the series, King Louis. A strong, decades-long working and personal friendship formed when the young producer brought a few test pressings to play for Armstrong.
While serving in the US Army following his graduation from Yale, he was recalled to the United States in 1944 for special training in European languages at Harvard University. While stationed in Boston, he produced a jazz radio program for the Office of War Information featuring Eddie Condon, James P. Johnson, and Fletcher Henderson, among others. He had also continued to write for such magazines as Down Beat, Jazz Magazine, and Mademoiselle while stationed in the Pacific.
== Columbia Records ==
After the war, he returned to Columbia Records responsible for the Popular Music and International divisions, where he continued production of the Hot Jazz Classics series, as well as the Special Editions and Archives series. In addition to recording jazz and pop artists (such as Sidney Bechet, Arthur Godfrey, Doris Day, and Frank Sinatra), Avakian was assigned the role of head of popular albums, part of which involved issuing the first 100 pop records in the 331⁄3rpm long-playing format, a new technology perfected by Columbia that the company was determined to exploit to the full. Avakian was in the forefront of new methods of production to take advantage of the LP, which represented a marketing innovation no less than a technical one.
At around the same time he returned to Columbia, Avakian also met his wife-to-be, Anahid Ajemian (1925–2016), a violinist who was at the dawn of what would be a major performing and recording career. She and her sister, pianist Maro Ajemian (1921–1978), became great performers and boosters of contemporary music. Both sisters studied at the Institute of Musical Art (later the Juilliard School), launched their careers at New York's Town Hall (in 1940 and 1946), and became interested in contemporary composers. Together and separately, the Ajemians would premiere and make debut recordings of music by composers such as Aram Khatchaturian, John Cage, Alan Hovhaness, Lou Harrison, Ernst Krenek, and Elliott Carter. Avakian and Ajemian married in 1948, and remained so until Anahid's death in 2016.
During this time, Avakian continued to write for magazines, expanding into education in 1948 when he taught one of the first academic jazz history courses at New York University. That same year, Avakian collaborated with Walter Schaap and Charles Delaunay on The New Hot Discography, an English translation and expansion of Delaunay's Hot Discography, the first significant catalog of existing jazz records, originally available only in France. Avakian also financed the first recordings of John Cage and Alan Hovhaness (for Dial Records, after the label had switched from bebop to classical), and was one of the co-founders of the National Association of Recording Arts and Sciences (NARAS, now known as The Recording Academy, and presenters of the Grammy Awards) in 1957; he served as president from 1966 to 1967.
The list of artists with whom Avakian collaborated at Columbia, and later at Pacific Jazz, Warner Brothers, RCA, and as an independent producer, was extensive. In addition to those mentioned, it included Dave Brubeck, Erroll Garner, Mahalia Jackson, Ravi Shankar, Gil Evans, Lotte Lenya, Gerry Mulligan, Art Blakey, Buck Clayton, Eddie Condon, Tony Bennett, Edith Piaf, Johnny Mathis, and Frankie Yankovic. He signed Miles Davis and Dave Brubeck to the label, both of whom had only previously recorded for independents with limited distribution systems.
Beyond the LP, Avakian was innovative in other ways: he made Columbia the first major record company to record live performances of jazz and popular music. It released a 2-LP set of Benny Goodman's 1938 concert at Carnegie Hall in 1950, and recorded Lionel Hampton, Harry James, and Louis Armstrong live. He worked in the studio with Armstrong as well in this period to produce some of the trumpeter's best later recordings, including Louis Armstrong Plays W. C. Handy (1954). From 1956 to 1963, Avakian produced several cornerstone albums recorded live at the Newport Jazz Festival, including Ellington at Newport (1956) and the companion album to the film Jazz On A Summer's Day (1958). He was also one of the first producers of popular music to fully embrace multitrack recording and tape editing techniques, overdubbing Louis Armstrong on the best-selling single "Mack The Knife" in 1955 (he persuaded Armstrong to record it), and overdubbing and editing Miles Davis's Miles Ahead in 1957.
=== Later affiliations ===
In 1958, after an extraordinarily-busy and ground-breaking 12-year run at Columbia, he elected to depart. After a short stint as co-owner of the much smaller Pacific Jazz label, Avakian was invited, along with his former Columbia colleague Jim Conkling, to form a record company for Warner Brothers (at that time the only major film studio not to have its own record label). There, Avakian signed Bob Newhart, producing the first comedy album to win a Best Album Grammy Award. He also signed the Everly Brothers and Bill Haley & His Comets.
Avakian personally financed and produced the first three albums by Alan Hovhaness and John Cage (unrelated to his jobs at Columbia) and, in 1958, presented The 25-Year Retrospective Concert of the Music of John Cage at Town Hall, an event he also recorded and sold independently. The year before, Avakian and Ajemian produced a three-concert series at Town Hall titled Music For Moderns, featuring jazz musicians and modern composers on the same bill, a very unusual venture for its time. The concerts featured Anahid Ajemian, Dimitri Mitropoulos, the Duke Ellington Orchestra, the Modern Jazz Quartet, Mahalia Jackson, Chico Hamilton, the composers Virgil Thomson and Carlos Surinach, pianist William Masselos, violist Walter Trampler, and opera baritone Martial Singher, among others.
In 1960, Avakian left Warners to sign on as manager of popular artists and repertoire for RCA, which gave him the opportunity to work once again with jazz musicians. His roster included Lambert, Hendricks, and Bavan; Paul Desmond; Sonny Rollins (signed by Avakian for an unprecedented sum for a jazz musician); Gary Burton; and, once again, Benny Goodman. In 1962, Avakian planned and accompanied the clarinetist's landmark tour of the USSR, which provided him with valuable experience dealing with the Russians that would come in handy within a few short years.
By late 1962, Avakian was once again feeling the pressure of administering a record label on top of his production work, and he negotiated an independent production deal with RCA Records in which he was hired on a per-project basis, relieving him of the busy work. At the same time, he began to manage and produce his own artists as well, beginning with John Lewis and Gunther Schuller's Orchestra U.S.A. ensemble; singer/songwriter Bob Morrison; and saxophonist Charles Lloyd.
Though most known for jazz and pop album production, Avakian notably involved himself in two theater projects. In 1947, he arranged for a group of musicians under the leadership of the saxophonist Eddie Barefield to perform incidental music for the play A Streetcar Named Desire during its Philadelphia and Broadway runs. In 1965, he was an associate producer of the first Off-Broadway revival of Marc Blitzstein's The Cradle Will Rock, and he personally financed the recording of the cast album (the first complete recording of that show).
As the recording industry moved further away from the music closest to his heart, Avakian left RCA in 1964 and never again held a full-time job at a record label. He began working at Avakian Brothers, and through the rest of the 60s and into the 1970s, he managed to hold down that job while launching and running the high-flying career of Charles Lloyd, as well as that of Lloyd's young pianist, Keith Jarrett. Avakian arranged for the Charles Lloyd Quartet, which also featured Jack DeJohnette and Ron McClure, to be the first small American jazz group to perform in the Soviet Union (at the Tallinn Jazz Festival, 1967); he also produced several very successful Lloyd albums for Atlantic Records. Avakian did even more for Jarrett, arranging record deals, managing tours, and producing albums on Columbia, Atlantic, and Impulse. He also negotiated a contract for Jarrett with Manfred Eicher, the founder of a new German label, ECM Records, for whom Jarrett still records as of 2017.
Throughout his career, Avakian worked hard to foster intercultural exchange between the United States and the Soviet Union. He was the first to record Soviet and American artists together (Pavel Lisitsian Sings Armenian Songs With Maro Ajemian At The Piano, New York Records, recorded in 1957, released in 1960). After organizing the Benny Goodman 1962 tour and Lloyd's successful Tallinn appearance in 1967, Avakian assisted Duke Ellington and the Thad Jones/Mel Lewis orchestras in planning their Soviet visits, befriending many figures in Russian music, such as writer Leonid Pereverzev, bandleader Oleg Lundstrem, and trumpeter Valery Ponomarev. Avakian also sponsored the first performance by Soviet musicians in the United States (at the Village Gate in 1988) and arranged for the Branford Marsalis Quartet to play at the Moscow International Jazz Festival, the debut of American performers at that event, in 1990. For his lifelong efforts, the Soviet Composers Union successfully pushed for Avakian to receive the Order of Lenin, the former Soviet Union's highest honor, in 1990.
From the 1970s to the 2000s, Avakian continued to keep his hand in occasional record productions, and during the 1980s, he managed two vocalists, Helen Merrill and Datevik Hovanesian. In the 1990s and 2000s, Sony Legacy consulted him for the reissues of several Miles Davis and Louis Armstrong albums and compilations. Avakian also remained active in jazz research and writing and discovered several previously unknown Louis Armstrong compositions at the Library of Congress. In 1997, he produced performances and a recording of them by trumpeter Randy Sandke and other musicians (The Re-Discovered Louis and Bix, on Nagel-Heyer Records, 2000).
Avakian and Anahid Ajemian donated their extensive collection of Jazz recordings and memorabilia to the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts at Lincoln Center in 2014. A major exhibit was held there in 2016 entitled Music for Moderns: The Partnership of George Avakian and Anahid Ajemian. Once semi-retired, he became involved in harness racing, owning and breeding several racehorses. Avakian bred champion pacer Presidential Ball.
Avakian died on November 22, 2017, at the age of 98 at his home on the Upper West Side of Manhattan in New York City. The Avakians had three children: Maro, Anahid, and Gregory.
== Honors ==
He is a founding officer of the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences (presenters of the Grammy Awards). His awards over the past years include:
Honorary Doctor of Literature from Colgate University (May 2014)
2011 – Added to the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP) Jazz Wall of Fame as a Living Legend Giant of Jazz
2011 – "The Louie" Award, Louis Armstrong House Museum
2010 – National Endowment for the Arts AB Spellman Jazz Advocacy Award. The nations highest honor in Jazz for his work as a Producer, Manager, Critic, Jazz Historian and Educator.
2009 – The Trustees Lifetime Achievement Award (Grammy) from the National Association of Recording Arts and Sciences for contributions to the music industry worldwide.
2008 – France awarded the rank of Commandeur des Arts et Lettres in recognition of his significant contributions to the arts
2006 – Europe's prestigious jazz award, the Django d'Or
2006 – The W.C. Handy Heritage Master & Legend Award
2005 – The Armenian Professional Society, Professional of the Year
2003 – Man of the Year Award, The Sidney Bechet Society
2000 – A Lifetime Achievement award from Down Beat magazine
1998 – The Benny Carter Award from the American Federation of Jazz Societies
1996 – Grammy Award for "Best Album Notes - Miles Davis & Gil Evans - The Complete Columbia Studio Recordings"
1990 – The Order of Lenin, the Soviet Union's highest state order.
1984 – Knighthood from the Knights of Malta
1981 – President's Citation, New Jersey Jazz Society
== References ==
== External links ==
Article about Avakian Archived 2016-08-09 at the Wayback Machine
Interview with Avakian in 5 parts
George Avakian and Anahid Ajemian papers, 1908-2013 Music Division, The New York Public Library.
Interview with George Avakian, December 2009
George Avakian Interview NAMM Oral History Library (2009) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gavin_McInnes | Gavin McInnes | Gavin Miles McInnes (; born 17 July 1970) is a Canadian writer, podcaster, far-right commentator and founder of the Proud Boys. He is the host of Get Off My Lawn with Gavin McInnes on his website, Compound Censored. He co-founded Vice magazine in 1996 and relocated to the United States in 2001. In 2016 he founded the Proud Boys, an American far-right militant organization which was designated a terrorist group in Canada and New Zealand after he left the group. McInnes has been described as promoting violence against political opponents but has argued that he has only supported political violence in self-defense and that he is not far-right or a supporter of fascism, instead identifying as "a fiscal conservative and libertarian."
Born to Scottish parents in Hertfordshire, England, McInnes emigrated to Canada as a child. He graduated from Carleton University in Ottawa before moving to Montreal and co-founding Vice with Suroosh Alvi and Shane Smith. He relocated with Vice Media to New York City in 2001. During his time at Vice, McInnes was called a leading figure in the New York hipster subculture. He holds both Canadian and British citizenship and lives in Larchmont, New York.
In 2018, McInnes was fired from Blaze Media and was banned from Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram for violating terms of use related to promoting violent extremist groups and hate speech. In June 2020, McInnes's account was suspended from YouTube for violating YouTube's policies concerning hate speech by posting content that was "glorifying [and] inciting violence against another person or group of people."
== Early life ==
Gavin Miles McInnes was born on 17 July 1970 in Hitchin, Hertfordshire, England, the son of Scottish parents James McInnes, who later became the Vice-President of Operations at Gallium Visual Systems Inc. – a Canadian defence company – and Loraine McInnes, a retired business teacher. His family migrated to Canada when McInnes was four, settling in Ottawa, Ontario. He attended Ottawa's Earl of March Secondary School. As a teen, McInnes played in an Ottawa punk band called Anal Chinook. He graduated from Carleton University.
== Career ==
=== Vice Media (1994–2007) ===
McInnes joined Voice magazine (later Voice of Montreal) in 1994 as assistant editor and cartoonist, under editor Suroosh Alvi. The magazine was established by Interimages Communications under a job creation program of the Quebec government to allow social welfare recipients to gain work experience. It focused on Montreal's alternative cultural scene, including music, art, trends and drug culture, to compete with the already established Montreal Mirror. Alvi, McInnes and Shane Smith bought the magazine from the publisher and changed the magazine's name to Vice in 1996.
Richard Szalwinski, a Canadian software millionaire, acquired the magazine and relocated the operation to New York City in the late 1990s.
During McInnes's tenure he was described as the "godfather" of hipsterdom by WNBC and as "one of hipsterdom's primary architects" by AdBusters. He occasionally contributed articles to Vice, including "The VICE Guide to Happiness" and "The VICE Guide to Picking Up Chicks", and co-authored two Vice books: The Vice Guide to Sex and Drugs and Rock and Roll, and Vice Dos and Don'ts: 10 Years of VICE Magazine's Street Fashion Critiques.
In an interview in the New York Press in 2002, McInnes said that he was pleased that most Williamsburg hipsters were white. McInnes later wrote in a letter to Gawker that the interview was done as a prank intended to ridicule "baby boomer media like The Times". After he became the focus of a letter-writing campaign by a black reader, Vice apologized for McInnes's comments. McInnes was featured in a 2003 New York Times article about Vice magazine; McInnes' political views were described by the Times as "closer to a white supremacist's."
In 2006, he was featured in The Vice Guide to Travel with actor and comedian David Cross in China. He left Vice in 2008 due to what he described as "creative differences". In a 2013 interview with The New Yorker, McInnes said his split with Vice was about the increasing influence of corporate advertising on Vice's content, stating that "Marketing and editorial being enemies had been the business plan".
=== After Vice (2008–2018) ===
After leaving Vice in 2008, McInnes became increasingly known for far-right political views.
In 2008, McInnes created the website StreetCarnage.com. He also co-founded an advertising agency called Rooster where he served as creative director.
McInnes was featured in season 3 of the Canadian reality TV show Kenny vs. Spenny, as a judge in the "Who is Cooler?" episode. In 2010, McInnes was approached by Adult Swim and asked to play the part of Mick, an anthropomorphic Scottish soccer ball, in the short-lived Aqua Teen Hunger Force spin-off Soul Quest Overdrive. After losing a 2010 pilot contest to Cheyenne Cinnamon and the Fantabulous Unicorn of Sugar Town Candy Fudge, six episodes of Soul Quest Overdrive were ordered, with four airing in Adult Swim's 4 AM DVR Theater block on 25 May 2011 before quickly being cancelled. McInnes jokingly blamed the show's cancellation on the other cast members (Kristen Schaal, David Cross, and H. Jon Benjamin) not being "as funny" as him.
McInnes wrote a column for Taki's Magazine, beginning around 2011, that made casual use of racial and anti-gay slurs, as described by the Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC).
McInnes has also written columns for American Renaissance, a white supremacist magazine.
In 2012, McInnes wrote a memoir book called How to Piss in Public. In 2013 he directed The Brotherhood of the Traveling Rants, a documentary on his tour as an occasional standup comedian. For the film, he faked a serious car accident. Also that year, McInnes starred in the independent film How to Be a Man, which premiered at Sundance Next Weekend. He has also played supporting roles in other films including Creative Control (2015) and One More Time (2015).
In August 2014, McInnes was asked to take an indefinite leave of absence as chief creative officer of Rooster, following online publication at Thought Catalog of an essay about transphobia titled "Transphobia is Perfectly Natural" that sparked a call to boycott the company. In response, Rooster issued a statement, saying in part: "We are extremely disappointed with his actions and have asked that he take a leave of absence while we determine the most appropriate course of action."
In June 2015, broadcaster Anthony Cumia announced that McInnes would be hosting a show on his network, therefore retiring the Free Speech podcast that he had started in March. The Gavin McInnes Show premiered on Compound Media on 15 June. McInnes is a former contributor to Canadian far-right portal The Rebel Media and a regular on conspiracy theorist media platform Infowars' The Alex Jones Show, and Fox News' Red Eye, The Greg Gutfeld Show, and The Sean Hannity Show.
In 2016, he founded the Proud Boys, a neo-fascist, men's rights and male-only organisation classified as a "general hate" organization by the SPLC. He has rejected this classification, claiming that the group is "not an extremist group and [does] not have ties with white nationalists".
McInnes left Rebel News in August 2017, declaring that he was going to be "a multi-media Howard Stern-meets-Tucker Carlson". He later joined CRTV, an online television network launched by Conservative Review. The debut episode of his new show Get Off My Lawn aired on 22 September 2017.
=== Events in 2018 ===
On 10 August 2018, McInnes' Twitter account, as well as the account for the Proud Boys, was permanently suspended by Twitter due to their rules against violent extremist groups. The suspension was ahead of the first anniversary of the Unite the Right rally in Charlottesville, Virginia, and the small Unite the Right 2 Washington protest in August 2018 in which the Proud Boys participated.
On 12 October 2018, at the Metropolitan Republican Club, McInnes participated in a reenactment of the 1960 assassination of socialist politician Inejiro Asanuma by 17-year-old right-wing ultranationalist Otoya Yamaguchi during a televised debate. After the event, a contingent of Proud Boys were caught on tape beating a protester outside the venue, after a leftist protester threw a plastic bottle at them.
On 21 November 2018, shortly after news broke that the FBI had reportedly classified the Proud Boys as an extremist group with ties to white nationalists, McInnes said that his lawyers had advised him that quitting might help the nine members being prosecuted for the incidents in October and he said "this is 100% a legal gesture, and it is 100% about alleviating sentencing", and said it was a "'stepping down gesture', in quotation marks". Two weeks later the Special Agent in Charge of the FBI's Oregon office said that it had not been their intent to label the entire group as "extremist", only to characterize the possible threat from certain members of the group that way.
Later that month, McInnes was planning on travelling to Australia for a speaking tour with Milo Yiannopoulos and Tommy Robinson (Stephen Yaxley-Lennon's pseudonym), but was informed by Australian immigration authorities that "he was judged to be of bad character" and would be denied a visa to enter the country. Issuing a visa to McInnes was opposed by an online campaign called "#BanGavin", which collected 81,000 signatures.
On 3 December 2018, Conservative Review Television (CRTV), on which McInnes had hosted the Get Off My Lawn program, merged with BlazeTV, the television arm of Glenn Beck's TheBlaze, to become Blaze Media. McInnes was expected to host his program for the new company, whose co-president called McInnes "a comedian and provocateur, one of the many varied voices and viewpoints on Blaze Media platforms." Less than a week later, on 8 December, it was announced that McInnes was no longer associated with Blaze Media, with no details given as to why.
Two days later, on 10 December, McInnes, who had previously been banned by Amazon, PayPal, Twitter, and Facebook, was banned from YouTube for "multiple third-party claims of copyright infringement." Asked to comment about his firing and bannings, McInnes said that he had been victimized by "lies and propaganda", and that "there has been a concerted effort to de-platform me." In his e-mail to Huffington Post, McInnes stated that "Someone very powerful decided long ago that I shouldn't have a voice ... I'm finally out of platforms and unable to defend myself. ... We are no longer living in a free country." McInnes also indicated some personal responsibility for the situation in an interview on the ABC News program Nightline, saying. "I'm not guilt free in this. There's culpability there. I shouldn't have said, you know, violence solves everything or something like that without making the context clear and I regret saying things like that." McInnes stopped short of apologizing or actually retracting his past statements, saying, "That ship has sailed."
==== Larchmont lawn sign controversy ====
In reaction to the Proud Boys fight in October 2018, residents of the suburban Westchester community of Larchmont, where McInnes lives, began a "Hate Has No Home Here" campaign, which involved displaying that slogan on lawn signs around the community. One resident said "We stand together as a community, and violence and hate are not tolerated here." Several days after the signs began appearing, McInnes' wife sent emails to their neighbours saying that the media had misrepresented McInnes.
Amy Siskind, an activist and writer who lives in nearby Mamaroneck, posted on Facebook that she was planning an anti-hate vigil. After a local newspaper ran a story about it, McInnes and his family appeared at Siskind's door without invitation or forewarning; she called the police.
At the end of December, with the lawn sign campaign still ongoing, McInnes wrote a letter which was dropped off at the homes of his neighbours. In it, he asked them to take down their signs, and described himself as "a pro-gay, pro-Israel, virulently anti-racist libertarian," saying that there was nothing "hateful, racist, homophobic, anti-Semitic or intolerant" in "any of my expressions of my worldview," contrary to his past remarks, such as saying he was "becoming anti-Semitic" after a trip to Israel, or referring to transgender people as "gender niggers". McInnes said that the Proud Boys was a "drinking club [he] started several years ago as a joke". Despite the letter's formality, in a podcast on 4 January 2019, McInnes called the neighbours "assholes", described their behaviour as "cunty" and said "If you have that sign on your lawn, you're a fucking retard."
One Larchmont resident said about him: "I don't care what Gavin says, I've done my research ... He incites violence. He spouts divisive, racist language. And while he may try to say he disowns his followers, he's a part of the problem. So when I read his letter, I was like, yeah, right, this is ridiculous."
Several days after the letter was sent out, HuffPost reported that they had viewed evidence provided by some neighbours that McInnes' wife, Emily – who identifies as a liberal Democrat – had harassed and intimidated them, including with the threat of legal action. Her threats were such that several neighbours notified the police.
==== Lawsuit against the SPLC ====
Although McInnes cut ties with the Proud Boys publicly in November 2018, stepping down as chairman, in February 2019 he filed suit against the Southern Poverty Law Center over their designation of the Proud Boys as a "general hate" group. The defamation suit was filed in federal court in Alabama. In the papers filed, McInnes claimed that the hate group designation is false and motivated by fund-raising concerns, and that his career has been damaged by it. He claimed that SPLC contributed to his or the Proud Boys' being deplatformed by Twitter, PayPal, Mailchimp, and iTunes.
The SPLC says on its website that "McInnes plays a duplicitous rhetorical game: rejecting white nationalism and, in particular, the term 'alt-right' while espousing some of its central tenets," and that the group's "rank-and-file [members] and leaders regularly spout white nationalist memes and maintain affiliations with known extremists. They are known for anti-Muslim and misogynistic rhetoric. Proud Boys have appeared alongside other hate groups at extremist gatherings like the 'Unite the Right' rally in Charlottesville." In response to the suit, Richard Cohen, the president of SPLC, wrote "Gavin McInnes has a history of making inflammatory statements about Muslims, women, and the transgender community. The fact that he's upset with SPLC tells us that we're doing our job exposing hate and extremism."
=== Compound Censored and other ventures (2019-present) ===
==== Censored.TV and Get Off My Lawn launch ====
In 2019, McInnes launched Censored.TV, an online video platform. The platform was originally named FreeSpeech.TV, but was changed to its current title for copyright purposes. The platform features McInnes' primary show, Get Off My Lawn (GOML). GOML is a pre-recorded, daily show which airs on weekdays with Thursdays as an exception, in which the show airs live under the alternative title Get Off My Lawn Live.
In May 2021, Milo Yiannopoulos wrote on Telegram that Censored.TV is "laying off all its staff" and lacked enough funding to sustain production of Yiannopoulous' show on the platform. McInnes later dismissed these allegation whilst announcing the arrival of several new shows on his platform.
On 27 August 2022, McInnes faked his own arrest during a live broadcast of Censored.TV. In the recording, McInnes appeared to look off past the camera, before saying ""We're shooting a show, can we do this another time?" adding "I didn't let you in." McInnes then walked off the set. It was widely speculated that McInnes had been arrested, until former McInnes-ally Owen Benjamin outed McInnes by posting text messages between the two of them. "Prank. Don't tell," McInnes wrote to Benjamin. Benjamin responded, "U gonna reveal its a prank? Cuz I have friends writing blogs about it." McInnes replied "Never," adding that he "never said" the FBI had raided his studio. After being outed by Benjamin, McInnes returned to the public on 6 September 2022.
In December 2022, McInnes interviewed Kanye West and white nationalist Nick Fuentes. In the interview, McInnes claimed to be trying to save West from his own antisemitism; McInnes faulted not Jews but "liberal elites of all races", while West said Jews should forgive Adolf Hitler and predicted that antisemitism would be "awesome for a presidential campaign".
==== Compound Censored ====
In June 2024, radio personality Anthony Cumia announced that his subscription-based platform, Compound Media, was closing down, and that he was to merge his network and The Anthony Cumia Show with McInnes' Censored.TV network. The merger lead to the portmanteau renaming of Censored.TV to Compound Censored.
==== New York trial of Proud Boys ====
Although McInnes was not a defendant in the August 2019 trial of members of the Proud Boys for their part in the violence that occurred after a meeting of the Metropolitan Republican Club in October 2018, prosecutors repeatedly invoked his name, his words and his views in their questioning of the defendants, after testimony by the defendants and other Proud Boys opened the door to that line of questioning. During closing arguments, a prosecutor said that "Gavin McInnes is not a harmless satirist. He is a hatemonger," while the defense said that McInnes was being "demonized."
== Views ==
McInnes describes himself as "a fiscal conservative and libertarian" and part of the New Right, a term that he prefers rather than alt-right. The New York Times has described McInnes as a far-right provocateur. He has referred to himself as a "western chauvinist" and started a men's organization called Proud Boys who swear their allegiance to this cause.
In November 2018, it was reported on the basis of an internal memo of the Clark County, Washington Sheriff's Office – based on an FBI briefing – that the Bureau classified the Proud Boys "an extremist group with ties to white nationalism". Two weeks later, the Special Agent in Charge of the FBI's Oregon office denied that the FBI had made that designation about the entire group, ascribing it to a misunderstanding on the part of the Sheriff's Office. The SAIC, Renn Cannon, said that their intent was simply to characterize the possible threat from certain members of the group, not to classify the entire group. The Southern Poverty Law Center classifies them as a "general hate group". McInnes has said his group is not a white nationalist group.
In 2003, McInnes said, "I love being white and I think it's something to be very proud of. I don't want our culture diluted. We need to close the borders now and let everyone assimilate to a Western, white, English-speaking way of life."
In a speech given at New York University in February 2017, after a clash between the Proud Boys and antifa protestors, McInnes said: "Violence doesn't feel good, justified violence feels great, and fighting solves everything. ... I want violence. I want punching in the face." He says that he has only advocated for acting in self-defense.
In 2024, the question of how McInnes's views had evolved away from the relatively progressive values of Vice was examined in the Canadian television documentary It's Not Funny Anymore: Vice to Proud Boys.
=== Race and ethnicity ===
McInnes has been accused of racism and of promoting white supremacist rhetoric. He has used racial slurs against Susan Rice and Jada Pinkett Smith, and more widely against Palestinians and Asians. In September 2004, he told a reporter for the Chicago Reader at a party that he "wanted to fuck the shit out of [a young Asian lady] until she started talking." The reporter, Liz Armstrong, wrote: "He went on to posit that since Asians' eyes don't work so good in terms of facial expressions they have no choice but to emote with their mouths."
McInnes has said that there is a "mass conformity that black people push on each other". He is also listed as a contributor to the 2016 book Black Lies Matter which criticizes the Black Lives Matter movement. He said that New Jersey U.S. Senator Cory Booker, who is Black, is "kind of like Sambo."
=== Religion ===
==== Judaism ====
In March 2017, a group of Rebel Media hosts, including McInnes, spent a week touring Israel. On the trip, McInnes made a non-Rebel video in which he defended Holocaust deniers, blamed Jews for the Treaty of Versailles, and said he was "becoming anti-Semitic". The Times of Israel said he was "apparently drunk" in the video. Israel National News called it a "faux rant" and "intentionally offensive". He later said that his comments were taken out of context. McInnes also produced a comedic video for Rebel called "Ten Things I Hate about Jews", later retitled "Ten Things I Hate About Israel". After his statements were promoted by white supremacists (in contrast to other videos from the Rebel Media tour), McInnes publicly declined their support. Upon McInnes' return to America, Rebel Media produced a video of McInnes in which he said, "I've got tons of Nazi friends. David Duke and all the Nazis totally think I rock... No offence, Nazis, I don't want to hurt your feelings, but I don't like you. I like Jews." Rebel Media's owner, Ezra Levant, who is Jewish-Canadian, defended McInnes. In a December 2022 interview for Censored.TV with Kanye West and the white nationalist Nick Fuentes, he said he was trying to save West from antisemitism and said that "every individual I meet starts off with a clean slate".
==== Islam ====
McInnes is anti-Islam, once stating that "Muslims are stupid... the only thing they really respect is violence and being tough." He also has equated Islam with fascism, stating "Nazis are not a thing. Islam is a thing." In April 2018, McInnes labelled a significant section of Muslims as both mentally ill and incestuous, claiming that "Muslims have a problem with inbreeding. They tend to marry their first cousins... and that is a major problem [in the U.S.] because when you have mentally damaged inbreds – which not all Muslims are, but a disproportionate number are – and you have a hate book called the Koran [sic]... you end up with a perfect recipe for mass murder."
=== Gender ===
McInnes has described himself as "an Archie Bunker sexist", and has said that "95 percent of women would be happier at home". On the topic of female police officers, he said, "I understand [women] are good for domestics, but I don't understand why there are so many female police officers. They're not strong, they're like super fat police officers. It doesn't make any sense to me."
In 2003, Vanessa Grigoriadis in The New York Times quoted McInnes saying, "'No means no' is puritanism. I think Steinem-era feminism did women a lot of injustices, but one of the worst ones was convincing all these indie norts that women don't want to be dominated." McInnes has been accused of sexism by various media outlets including Chicago Sun-Times, Independent Journal Review, Salon, Jezebel, The Hollywood Reporter, and Slate. In October 2013, McInnes said during a panel interview that "people would be happier if women would stop pretending to be men" and that feminism "has made women less happy". He said, "We've trivialized childbirth and being domestic so much that women are forced to pretend to be men. They're feigning this toughness, they're miserable." A heated argument ensued with University of Miami School of Law professor Mary Anne Franks.
=== White genocide ===
McInnes has espoused the white genocide conspiracy theory, saying that white women having abortions and immigration is "leading to white genocide in the West". In 2018, regarding South African farm attacks and land reform proposals, he said that black South Africans were not "trying to get their land back – they never had that land", instead stating there were "ethnic cleansing" efforts against white South Africans.
== Filmography ==
=== Film ===
How to Be a Man (2013) – as Mark McCarthy
Creative Control (2015) – as Scott
One More Time (2015) – as Record Producer
White Noise (2020) – as Himself
=== Television ===
Kenny vs Spenny: "Who is Cooler" episode (2006) – as himself (guest judge)
Soul Quest Overdrive (2010, 2011) – as Mick (voice)
Vice Guide to Travel (2006) – as himself (host)
== Personal life ==
In 2005, he married Manhattan-based publicist and consultant Emily Jendrisak, the daughter of Native American activist Christine Whiterabbit Jendrisak who describes herself as a liberal Democrat. About his wife's ethnicity and their children together, McInnes said, "I've made my views on Indians very clear. I like them. I actually like them so much, I made three." They live in Larchmont, New York.
Daniel Lombroso, a journalist for The Atlantic, reported in his 2020 documentary White Noise - and in a follow up article about alt-right activist Lauren Southern - that McInnes sexually propositioned Southern after an appearance on his show in June 2018. McInnes denied having done so.
McInnes is a permanent resident of the United States.
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Gollner, Adam Leith (July–August 2021). "Original sins". Vanity Fair. Vol. 730. pp. 82–89, 131–133.
Jager, David (24 October 2025). "Banned for Life". Tablet Magazine.
== External links ==
Gavin McInnes at IMDb
Compound Censored |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Hawton#:~:text=Mary%20Renetta%20Hawton,Keith%20Ernest%20Hawton. | Mary Hawton | Mary Renetta Hawton (née Bevis; 4 September 1924 – 18 January 1981) was a tennis player from Australia. Her career ranged from the 1940s to the 1950s.
Hawton won the women's doubles title at the Australian Championships five times. In 1958 she also won the mixed doubles title together with compatriot Robert Howe.
In 1948, she married Keith Ernest Hawton.
She was captain of the Australian Fed Cup team in 1979 and 1980 and director of the NSW Tennis Association.
In 1979, Hawton published a book titled How to Play Winning Tennis. She died on 18 January 1981 in Sydney, Australia.
The Mary Hawton Trophy, the prize for the winner of the Australian teams championships for girls, was named after her, as is Hawton Place, in the Canberra suburb of Chisholm.
== Career ==
Mary Hawton found much success in Australia at the Australian Championships. She made it to the semifinals in singles six times in 1948, 1952, 1953, 1954, 1956 and 1959. Hawton reached 12 finals in Australia, eight of these being consecutive. She also reached the doubles finals at the Wimbledon and French Championships in 1957 and 1958 with Australian Thelma Coyne Long. Hawton ended her career with six Grand Slam titles: five in women's doubles and one in mixed doubles.
== Grand Slam finals ==
=== Doubles: 14 (5–9) ===
=== Mixed doubles: 2 (1–1) ===
== Grand Slam performance timelines ==
=== Singles ===
=== Doubles ===
== References ==
== External links ==
Mary Hawton at the Women's Tennis Association
Mary Hawton at the Billie Jean King Cup (archived)
Mary Hawton at Wimbledon |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidency_of_Ra%C3%BAl_Alfons%C3%ADn | Presidency of Raúl Alfonsín | Raúl Alfonsín was the president of Argentina from 1983 to 1989.
== New beginning ==
Chief among Alfonsín's inherited problems was an economic depression stemming from the 1981–82 financial collapse and its resulting US$43 billion foreign debt, with interest payments that swallowed all of Argentina's US$3 billion trade surplus. The economy recovered modestly in 1983 as a result of Bignone's lifting of wage freezes and crushing interest rates imposed by the Central Bank's "Circular 1050;" but inflation raged at 400%, GDP per capita remained at its lowest level since 1968 and fixed investment was 40% lower than in 1980. Naming a generally center-left cabinet led by Foreign Minister Dante Caputo and Economy Minister Bernardo Grinspun (his campaign manager), Alfonsín began his administration with high approval ratings and with the fulfillment of campaign promises such as a nutritional assistance program for the 27% of Argentines under the poverty line at the time, as well as the recission of Bignone's April 1983 blanket amnesty for those guilty of human rights abuses and his September decree authorizing warrantless wiretapping. Defense Minister Raúl Borrás advised Alfonsín to remove Fabricaciones Militares, then Argentina's leading defense contractor, from the Armed Forces' control, ordering the retirement of 70 generals and admirals known for their opposition to the transfer of the lucrative contractor.
Appointing renowned playwright Carlos Gorostiza as Secretary of Culture and exiled computer scientist Dr. Manuel Sadosky as Secretary of Science and Technology, hundreds of artists and scientists returned to Argentina during 1984. Gorostiza abolished the infamous National Film Rating Entity, helping lead to a doubling in film and theatre production. The harrowing La historia oficial (The Official Story) was released in April 1985 and became the first Argentine film to receive an Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film. Alfonsín created the National Commission on the Disappearance of Persons (CONADEP) to document human rights abuses. Led by novelist Ernesto Sábato, CONADEP documented 8,960 forced disappearances and presented the President with its findings on September 20. The report drew mixed reaction, however, as its stated total of victims fell short of Amnesty International's estimate of 16,000 and of the Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo's estimate of 30,000.
Alfonsín had leading members of leftist groups prosecuted, leading to jail sentences for, among others, Montoneros leader Mario Firmenich. He sought to improve relations with Peronists by pardoning former President Isabel Perón in May 1984 for her prominent role in the early stages of the Dirty War against dissidents and for her alleged embezzlement of public funds, though his introduction of legislation providing for secret ballot labor union elections led to opposition by the CGT, Argentina's largest, and handed his administration its first defeat when the Senate struck it down by one vote.
Relations with the United States suffered when Alfonsín terminated the previous regime's support for the Contras. Two meetings with U.S. President Ronald Reagan failed to bring economic concessions towards Argentina. Alfonsín initiated the first diplomatic contact with the United Kingdom since the Falklands War two years earlier, resulting in the lifting of British trade sanctions. Proposing a Treaty with Chile ending a border dispute over the Beagle Channel, he put the issue before voters in a referendum and won its approval with 82%.
== Tackling inflation and impunity ==
Inheriting a foreign debt crisis exacerbated by high global interest rates, Alfonsín had to contend with shattered business confidence and record budget deficits. GDP grew by a modest 2% in 1984, though fixed investment continued to decline and inflation rose to 700%. Losses in the State enterprises, service on the public debt and growing tax evasion left the federal budget with a US$10 billion shortfall in 1984 (13% of GDP). Unable to finance the budget, the Central Bank of Argentina "printed" money and inflation, which was bad enough at around 18% a month at the end of the dictatorship, rose to 30% in June 1985 (the world's highest, at the time). Attempting to control the record inflation, the new Minister of the Economy, Juan Sourrouille, launched the Austral Plan, by which prices were frozen and the existing currency, the peso argentino, was replaced by the Argentine austral at 1,000 to one.
Sharp budget cuts were enacted, particularly in military spending which, including cutbacks in 1984, was slashed to around half of its 1983 level. Responding to financial sector concerns, the government also introduced a mechanism called desagio, by which debtors whose installments were based on much higher built-in inflation would receive a temporary discount compensating for the sudden drop in inflation and interest rates; inflation, running at 30% in June, plummeted to 2% a month for the remainder of 1985. The fiscal deficit fell by two-thirds in 1985, helping pave the way for the first meaningful debt rescheduling since the start of the crisis four years earlier. Sharp cuts in military spending fed growing discontent in the military, and several bomb threats and acts of sabotage at numerous military bases were blamed on hard-line officers, chiefly former 1st Army Corps head Gen. Guillermo Suárez Mason, who fled to Miami following an October arrest order.
Unable to persuade the military to court martial officers guilty of Dirty War abuses, Alfonsín sponsored the Trial of the Juntas, whose first hearings began at the Supreme Court on April 22, 1985. Prosecuting some of the top members of the previous military regime for crimes committed during the Dirty War, the trial became the focus of international attention. In December, the tribunal handed down life sentences against former President Jorge Videla and former Navy Chief Emilio Massera, as well as 17-year sentences against three others. For these accomplishments, Alfonsín was awarded the first Prize For Freedom of the Liberal International and the Human Rights Prize by the Council of Europe, never before awarded to an individual. Four defendants were acquitted, notably former President Leopoldo Galtieri, though he and two others were court-martialed in May 1986 for malfeasance during the Falklands War, receiving 12-year prison sentences.
These developments contributed to a strong showing by the UCR in the November 1985 legislative elections. They gained one seat in the Lower House of Congress and would control 130 of the 254 seats. The Justicialists lost eight seats (leaving 103) and smaller, provincial parties made up the difference. Alfonsín surprised observers in April 1986 by announcing the creation of a panel entrusted to plan the transfer of the nation's capital to Viedma, a small coastal city 800 km (500 mi) south of Buenos Aires. His proposals boldly called for constitutional amendments creating a Parliamentary system, including a prime minister, and were well received by the Lower House, though they encountered strong opposition in the Senate.
Economic concerns continued to dominate the national discourse, and sharp fall in global commodity prices in 1986 stymied hopes for lasting financial stability. The nation's record US$4.5 billion trade surplus was cut in half and inflation had declined to 50% in the twelve months to June 1986 (compared to 1,130% to June 1985). Inflation, which had been targeted for 28% in the calendar year, soon began to rise, however, exceeding 80% in 1986. GDP, which had fallen by 5% in 1985, recovered by 7% in 1986, led by a rise in machinery purchases and consumer spending. Repeated wage freezes ordered by Economy Minister Sourouille led to an erosion in real wages of about 20% during the Austral Plan's first year, triggering seven general strikes by the CGT during the same period. The President's August appointment of a conservative economist, José Luis Machinea, as President of the Central Bank pleased the financial sector; but it did little to stem continuing capital flight. Affluent Argentines were believed to hold over US$50 billion in overseas deposits. Alfonsín made several state visits abroad, securing a number of trade deals.
The President's international reputation for his human rights record suffered in December 1986, when on his initiative Congress passed the Full Stop Law, which limited the civil trials against roughly 600 officers implicated in the Dirty War to those indicted within 60 days of the law's passage, a tall order given the reluctance of many victims and witnesses to testify. Despite these concessions, a group identified as Carapintadas ("painted faces," from their use of camouflage paint) loyal to Army Major Aldo Rico, staged a mutiny of the Army training base of Campo de Mayo and near Córdoba during the Easter weekend in 1987. Negotiating in person with the rebels, who objected to ongoing civil trials but enjoyed little support elsewhere in the Armed Forces, Alfonsín secured their surrender. Returning to the Casa Rosada, where an anxious population was waiting for news, he announced: La casa está en orden y no hay sangre en Argentina. ¡Felices pascuas! ("The house is in order and there's no blood in Argentina. Happy Easter!"), to signify the end of the crisis.
His subsequent appointment of General Dante Caridi as Army Chief of Staff further strained relations with the military and in June, Congress passed Alfonsín's Law of Due Obedience, granting immunity to officers implicated in crimes against humanity on the basis of "due obedience." This law, condemned by Amnesty International, among others, effectively halted most remaining prosecutions of Dirty War criminals. The climate of tension between those on either side of the issue was aggravated by the suspicious death in 1986 of Defense Minister Roque Carranza while at the Campo de Mayo military base and by the September 1987 discovery of the body of prominent banker Osvaldo Sivak, the victim of a police-orchestrated kidnapping for a ransom of over a million US dollars. During this political turn to the right, Alfonsín did manage the passage of the legalization of divorce, helping resolve the legal status of 3 million adults (1 in 6) who were separated from their spouses. He also passed the Antidiscrimination Law of 1987, a bill supported by Argentina's sizable Jewish and Gypsy communities. He was awarded the Moisés (Moses) Prize by the Argentine Jewish community for the accomplishment.
== A turn for the worse ==
A severe drought early in 1987 led to a new decline in exports, which reached their lowest level in a decade, nearly cancelling the vital trade surplus and leaving a US$6 billion current account deficit. The problem and the efforts of Alfonsín's debt negotiator, Daniel Marx, helped secure the record rescheduling of US$19 billion in foreign public debt (a third of the total); but speculators' concerns led to a sudden fall in the value of the austral, which lost half its value between June and October. As most Argentine wholesalers accepted only U.S. dollars at the time, this inevitably led to higher inflation, which leapt from 5% monthly in the first half of 1987 to 20% in October. Unimpressed by Alfonsín's appointment of a Labor Minister from within the CGT's ranks, their leader, Saúl Ubaldini, called two more general strikes during the year (hundreds of smaller, sectoral strikes erupted, as well).
A positive rapport between Alfonsín and the new, democratically elected President of Brazil, José Sarney, helped lead to initial agreements for a common market between the two nations and Uruguay in January 1988. Meeting in the Uruguayan resort of Punta del Este, they agreed to subsidize intra-regional exports with a special currency for the purpose (the Gaucho). A new Minister of Public Works, Rodolfo Terragno, an academic with a long history in the UCR, prevailed on the administration to allow a novel, if controversial, search for needed foreign exchange: privatizations. A number of factories and rail lines were offered for sale and, in September 1987, the effort yielded its first results with the sale of Austral Airlines, a domestic carrier. Subsequent instability and the fallout from the Wall Street Crash of 1987 dampened further deals, however, and left Sourouille little choice but to raise taxes. GDP managed a 3% rise in 1987, led by higher construction spending, though inflation rose to 175% and real wages declined around 10%, leaving them lower than they were in 1983.
This turn for the worse helped to a significant setback for Alfonsín's UCR in local and legislative elections in September 1987. The UCR lost 13 seats in Congress (leaving 117). Though still enjoying a 12-seat advantage over Justicialists, this deprived the UCR of its absolute majority in the Lower House and, five seats short of a majority in the Senate, this effectively suspended much of the UCR's legislative agenda, particularly the planned transfer of the capital to the Patagonia region. UCR governors fared even worse: the 1987 mid-term election left only two, toppling, among four others, Governor Armendáriz of the paramount Province of Buenos Aires. Ongoing military discontent reached a flash point when Major Aldo Rico, the instigator of the Easter Rebellion, escaped from house arrest and promptly organized a second mutiny in January 1988; this mutiny was, again, quickly subdued. The resulting tension and continuing stagflation set the stage for Alfonsín's announcement that elections, scheduled for October 1989, would be moved up five months earlier.
The campaign made strange bedfellows of Alfonsín and the CGT during the May 1988 Justicialist Party convention. The CGT was averse to the frontrunner for the nomination, Buenos Aires Governor Antonio Cafiero. The President, in turn, preferred to see his struggling UCR (14 points behind in the polls) matched against Cafiero's rival, Carlos Menem, a little-known and flamboyant governor of one of the nation's smallest provinces. The primaries resulted in an upset, however, and Menem was nominated the Justicialist Party's standard bearer. The UCR, for its part, made a safe choice: Eduardo Angeloz, the centrist governor of Córdoba Province (Argentina's second-largest) and the most prominent UCR figure not closely tied to the unpopular Alfonsín.
The Austral Plan continued to disintegrate as the economy slipped back into recession. Inflation continued at 15-20% a month and in August, reached 27%. Foreign debt installments fell into arrears in April when Alfonsín ordered the Central Bank to curtail payments. Coinciding with the Southern Hemisphere's change of seasons, Economy Minister Sorouille announced a Plan Primavera ("Springtime Plan") on August 3, whose centerpiece was a price truce agreed on with 53 leading wholesalers. The plan also included a fresh wage freeze, however, triggering a September 9 general strike by the CGT that turned violent when police repressed demonstrators at the Plaza de Mayo.
Violent and white collar crime were of increasing concern among the public and, though the judicial system scored a victory when Banco Alas executives were convicted the same day for fraud committed against the Central Bank totalling US$110 million, their receiving a suspended sentence in exchange for the return of half the funds and the subsequent discovery of a sub-rosa "parallel customs" operated by National Customs Director Juan Carlos Delconte cast serious doubts on Alfonsín's commitment against large-scale corruption, which had become endemic to Argentine government and business during the 1970s.
Alfonsín obtained INTERPOL's cooperation in extraditing fugitive Army Corps leader Gen. Guillermo Suárez Mason (a leading Dirty War perpetrator whose control over YPF nearly bankrupted the state oil concern in 1983) and Argentine Anticommunist Alliance mastermind José López Rega, who were found exiled in the United States and returned to stand trial in 1987. The President's relationship with the military remained tenuous. Continuing military budget cuts and opposition to democratic rule led the extremist Carapintadas to stage a third mutiny on December 1, receiving support from disaffected members of the Coast Guard, among others. The impasse lasted six days, resulting in the arrest of their leader, Col. Mohamed Alí Seineldín, an Army officer with a long history of violence and antisemitism. In the interest of compromise, Alfonsín announced a modest military budget increase and the dismissal of the moderate Gen. Dante Caridi as Army Chief of Staff. A January 23, 1989 attack on the Regiment of La Tablada by a leftist armed organization led to 39 deaths and tested Alfonsín's improved rapport with the military, which was consequently given wide latitude to prosecute the matter, leading to the alleged torture of a number of the conspirators.
The economy had benefited only modestly from lower inflation, which had fallen from 27% in August to 5-10% monthly for the rest of 1988. Owing to the mid-year recession, GDP fell 2% in 1988 and inflation rose to 380% while real wages continued to slide. Exports did recover and the trade surplus rose to nearly US$4 billion. The Springtime Plan, however, increasingly depended on its reserves to shore up the austral, whose stability guaranteed lower inflation rates. In so doing, the Central Bank shed almost all its US$3 billion in reserves and, in heavy trading on "Black Tuesday," February 7, 1989, the U.S. dollar gained around 40% against the austral. The sudden drop in the austral's value threatened the nation's tenuous financial stability and, later that month, the World Bank recalled a large tranche of a loan package agreed on in 1988, sending the austral into a tailspin: trading at 17 to the dollar in January, the dollar quoted at over 100 australes by election day, May 14. Inflation, which had been held below 10% a month as late as February, rose to 78.5% in May, shattering records and leading to a landslide victory for the Justicialist candidate, Carlos Menem. Polling revealed that economic anxieties were paramount among two-thirds of voters and Menem won in 19 of 22 provinces, while losing in the traditionally anti-Peronist Federal District (Buenos Aires).
The nation's finances did not stabilize after the election, as hoped. The dollar doubled in value that next week, alone and, on May 29, riots and looting broke out in the poorer outskirts of a number of cities, particularly Rosario. Inflation continued its dizzying rise: 114% a month in June and 197% in July. Income poverty leapt from around 30% to 47% during the debacle and the economy shrank by 7% in 1989, pushing per capita GDP to its lowest level since 1964. Having declared his intention to stay on until inaugural day, December 10, these events and spiraling financial chaos led Alfonsín to transfer power to President-elect Menem on July 8.
== Cabinet ==
=== Presidential secretariats ===
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winnipeg_Falcons#:~:text=During%20the%20following%20season%2C%20the,Cumbers%20%E2%80%94%20died%20in%20the%20war. | Winnipeg Falcons | The Winnipeg Falcons were a senior men's amateur ice hockey team based in Winnipeg, Manitoba. The Winnipeg Falcons won the 1920 Allan Cup. That team went on to represent Canada in the 1920 Olympic games held in Antwerp, Belgium. There the Falcons, soundly beating all their opponents, won for Canada the first Olympic gold medal in ice hockey.
The Winnipeg Falcons hockey team was founded in 1911 with a roster made almost entirely of Icelandic Canadian players who had not been able to join other Winnipeg teams due to ethnic prejudice. In their first season, 1911–1912, they finished at the bottom of their league. The next year, Konnie Johannesson and Frank Fredrickson joined the team. That team turned out to be a winner in the league.
== Early history ==
The early roots of the Winnipeg Falcons can be traced back to the Icelandic Athletic Club which was formed in 1898. The club consisted of a two team league called the Icelandic Athletic Club (IAC) and the Vikings. In 1908, the two teams agreed to become one team. The Winnipeg Falcons had been excluded from the city league because of their racial origin. Almost all of the Falcons' players were of Icelandic descent and the falcon is Iceland's national bird.
During the 1910–11 season, the Falcons became part of a new senior league. Other clubs in the league would include the Kenora Thistles, Brandon Wheat City and Winnipeg AAA. In 1913–14, the Falcons became part of the Independent Hockey League, joining the Strathconas from Winnipeg and teams from Selkirk and Portage la Prairie. The Falcons finished the season with 4 wins and 8 losses. During the following season, the Falcons beat Portage by a score of 4–3 to become league champions.
During the First World War, seven of the eight Falcons players enlisted to serve and went overseas. Two players — Frank Thorsteinson and George Cumbers — died in the war. The other five returned to Winnipeg after the war in 1919 and reassembled the team.
== 1920 Allan Cup ==
The Winnipeg Falcons won the 1920 Allan Cup, as part of the Manitoba Hockey League with Brandon Wheat City and the Selkirk Fishermen. The first place team of the Manitoba Hockey League would play the champion of the Winnipeg Hockey League for the opportunity to represent Western Canada in the Allan Cup playoffs. The Falcons beat the Fishermen 5–3 to claim the Manitoba Hockey League championship. Frank Fredrickson won the Manitoba Hockey League scoring title with 23 goals in 10 games. Wally Byron led the league with two shutouts and had a 2.57 goals against average. Bobby Benson led the league with 26 penalties in minutes. Winning the Allan Cup gave the Winnipeg Falcons their Olympic opportunity.
== 1920 Summer Olympics ==
The Canadian Amateur Hockey Association (CAHA) chose the Falcons as the Allan Cup champions to represent the Canada men's national team in ice hockey at the 1920 Summer Olympics, instead of forming a national all-star team on short notice. W. A. Hewitt represented the Canadian Olympic Committee and oversaw finances for the Falcons, and reported on the Olympic Games for Canadian newspapers. He and his wife were a father and mother figure to the Falcons, and sailed with them aboard SS Melita from Saint John to Liverpool, then onto Antwerp.
It was there that the team won the first Olympic gold medal in ice hockey, outscoring their opponents by a combined score of 29–1 in three games. Although an official part of those Summer Olympic Games, hockey and figure skating events were held in late April and early May, while the weather was still cool enough for suitable ice conditions in the arena. The players were welcomed home to Winnipeg in May with a parade, a banquet and gifts of gold watches.
=== Olympic roster ===
Executives:
Hebbie Axford D.F.C.(Club President)
Bill Fridfinnson (Secretary)
W. A. Hewitt (Canadian Olympic representative)
Gordon Sigurjonsson (Coach, Trainer)
Players:
Robert Benson (Left defence)
Walter Byron (Goal)
Frank Fredrickson (Captain, center)
Chris Fridfinnson (Substitute)
Magnus Goodman (Left wing)
Haldor Halderson (Right wing)
Konrad Johannesson (Right defence)
Allan Woodman (Rover)
Five other players also contributed to the Falcons 1919–20 season, but were not part of the Olympic roster. Their names were Harvey Benson, Ed Stephenson, Connie Neil, Babs Dunlop and Sam Laxdal.
== Post-Olympics ==
The Falcons and the Hewitts returned home aboard SS Grampian from Le Havre to Quebec City. The Falcons honoured Hewitt and his wife at a private dinner and presented them with a silver cup inscribed with the number 13, for the number of people who made the trip to the Olympics and the team's lucky number. Upon their return from the games, the Winnipeg Falcons were hailed as conquering heroes but this was a far cry from the attitude that had previously been expressed by Winnipeg hockey officials. The Falcons were given a large banquet upon their return and each played received a watch from the City of Winnipeg.
At the beginning of the 1920–21 season, CAHA president H. J. Sterling was suspicious of multiple players changing their addresses for the purpose of playing on a new team, and hired a detective to investigate the amateur status of players in Canada. The Amateur Athletic Union of Canada voided the amateur registration cards of former Falcons' players Haldor Halderson and Robert Benson halfway through the season. Sterling's detective discovered that neither had worked in Saskatoon and the pair received C$6,500 to play hockey. Sterling ordered the suspension of the Saskatoon team from the 1921 Allan Cup playoffs, although the Saskatchewan Amateur Hockey Association allowed the team and players to continue in the league playoffs.
The first member of the squad to pass away was Chris Fridfinnson who died at the age of 40 in 1938. The last surviving member was Mike Goodman. He was 93 years old when he died in 1991.
The Icelandic national hockey team honours the Falcons on their jerseys by using the Icelandic Falcon and the Canadian maple leaf as their emblem.
== NHL alumni ==
Winnipeg Falcons
Winnipeg Junior Falcons
== Legacy ==
The Falcons were honoured in a new Heritage Minute segment in 2014. The segment, narrated by George Stroumboulopoulos and featuring actor Jared Keeso, shares how the Falcons overcame discrimination and stayed together through the First World War on their way to the top of the hockey world. The Falcons segment premiered at the MTS Centre in Winnipeg on November 6, 2014, during the intermission of a game between the Winnipeg Jets and Pittsburgh Penguins.
The Hockey Hall of Fame in Toronto, Manitoba Hockey Hall of Fame and Manitoba Sports Hall of Fame and Museum have permanent displays honouring the Falcons and their Olympic victory. The 1920 Winnipeg Falcons were inducted into the Manitoba Hockey Hall of Fame in the team category.
On August 31, 2004, Hockey Canada, in recognition of the Falcons' achievement, used a replica yellow and black jersey as alternate jerseys for the 2004 World Cup of Hockey against Team USA. Later that year, on December 20 national junior team wore replicas of the famous old gold and black Falcons uniforms for a World Junior Championship pre-tournament game in Winnipeg.
On July 31, 2019, Parks Canada announced that in recognition of the Falcons winning the first gold medal in Olympic ice hockey in 1920, the victory would be recognized as a "National Historical Event".
== References ==
== Sources ==
== External links ==
1920 Winnipeg Falcons Archived March 11, 2012, at the Wayback Machine at Manitoba Hockey Hall of Fame Archived October 4, 2014, at the Wayback Machine
1920 Winnipeg Falcons Official Site |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godman-Salvin_Medal | Godman-Salvin Medal | The Godman-Salvin Medal is a medal of the British Ornithologists' Union awarded "to an individual as a signal honour for distinguished ornithological work." It was instituted in 1919 in the memory of Frederick DuCane Godman and Osbert Salvin.
== Medallists ==
Medallists include:
== See also ==
Alfred Newton Lecture
Union Medal
List of ornithology awards
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_McKeen_Cattell | James McKeen Cattell | James McKeen Cattell (May 25, 1860 – January 20, 1944) was the first professor of psychology in the United States, teaching at the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia. He was a long-time editor and publisher of scientific journals and publications, including Science, and served on the board of trustees for Science Service, now known as Society for Science from 1921 to 1944.
At the beginning of Cattell's career, many scientists regarded psychology simply as a minor field of study, or as a pseudoscience like phrenology. Cattell helped establish psychology as a legitimate science, worthy of study at the highest levels of the academy. At the time of his death, The New York Times credited him as "the dean of American science."
Cattell was uncompromisingly opposed to American involvement in World War I. His public opposition to the draft led to his dismissal from his position at Columbia University, which later led many American universities to establish academic tenure as a means of protecting unpopular beliefs.
== Early life and education ==
Cattell was born in Easton, Pennsylvania, on May 25, 1860, the eldest child of a wealthy and prominent family. His father, William Cassady Cattell, a Presbyterian minister, became president of Lafayette College in Easton shortly after James' birth. In 1859, William Cattell married Elizabeth "Lizzie" McKeen; together, they shared Lizzie's substantial inheritance. James' uncle Alexander G. Cattell represented New Jersey in the United States Senate.
Cattell entered Lafayette College in 1876 at the age of sixteen and graduated in four years with the highest honors. In 1883, the faculty at Lafayette awarded him an M.A., again with highest honors. At Lafayette, Cattell spent most of his time devouring English literature and also showed a gift for mathematics. Cattell said Francis March, a philogist, was a great influence during his time at Lafayette.
Cattell found his calling after arriving in Germany for doctoral studies, where he was supervised by Wilhelm Wundt at University of Leipzig. He also studied under Hermann Lotze at the University of Göttingen. An essay on Lotze won Cattell a fellowship at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore.
In October 1882, Cattell left Germany for his fellowship in October 1882. The fellowship was not renewed, and Cattell returned to Leipzig the next year as Wundt's assistant.
The partnership between Wundt and Cattell proved highly productive; the two helped to establish the formal study of intelligence. Under Wundt, Cattell became the first American to publish a dissertation in the field of psychology. The title of his German dissertation was Psychometrische Untersuchungen (Psychometric Investigation); it was accepted by the University of Leipzig in 1886. Cattell tried to explore the interiors of his own mind through the consumption of the then-legal drug hashish. Under the influence of this drug, Cattell once compared the whistling of a schoolboy to a symphony orchestra.
== Career ==
=== Academia ===
After completing his Ph.D. with Wundt in Germany in 1886, Cattell took up a lecturing post at the University of Cambridge in England, and became a Fellow of St. John's College at the University of Cambridge. He made occasional visits to the U.S., where he gave lectures at Bryn Mawr College in Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania, and the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia.
In 1889, he returned to the U.S. to become a professor of psychology at the University of Pennsylvania. In 1891, he moved to Columbia University, where he became department head of psychology, anthropology, and philosophy. In 1895, he was appointed president of the American Psychological Association. In 1888, he was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society.
From the beginning of his career, Cattell worked to establish psychology as a field as worthy of study as any of the hard physical sciences, such as chemistry or physics. He believed that further investigation would reveal that intellect itself could be parsed into standard units of measurements. He also established the methods of Wilhelm Wundt and Francis Galton, including mental testing, in the U.S.
In 1917, Cattell and English professor Henry Wadsworth Longfellow Dana, grandson of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow and Richard Henry Dana Jr., were fired from Columbia University for opposing the United States’ conscription policy during World War I. He later sued the university and won an annuity. In 1921, he used the money that he gained from the settlement to start The Psychological Corporation to foster his interest in applied psychology. Because he was never able to really explain how psychologists apply their work, the organization failed until it was taken over by other psychologists who had experience in applied psychology. Towards the end of his life, Cattell edited and published journals. To help himself in the process, he created the Science Press Printing Company in order to produce his journals. He continued his work on journals until his death in 1944.
=== Eugenicist beliefs ===
Like many eminent scientists and scholars of the time, Cattell's thought was influenced by belief in eugenics, defined as the "applied science or the bio-social movement which advocates the use of practices aimed at improving the genetic composition of a population, usually referring to human populations." Cattell's belief in eugenics was heavily influenced by the research of Charles Darwin, whose theory of evolution motivated Cattell's emphasis on studying “the psychology of individual differences”.
In connection with his eugenicist beliefs, Cattell's own research found that men of science were likely to have fathers who were clergymen or professors. Incidentally, Cattell's father was both.
Cattell believed that he had “inherited ability", but he also credited the influence of his environment, saying "it was my fortune to find a birthplace in the sun. A germplasm fairly well compounded [good genes] met circumstances to which it was unusually fit to react”. Cattell's belief in eugenics even motivated him to offer his own children monetary gifts of $1,000 if they married the offspring of a university professor or academic professional.
=== Mental tests ===
Cattell's research on individual differences played a significant role in introducing and emphasizing the experimental technique and importance of methodology in experimentation in America. Cattell's design of mental tests was influenced by Wundt's definition of psychology regarding the achievements of psychophysics and by Galton's view on the importance of the senses for judgement and intelligence. Regarding the beginnings of his mental tests, in Leipzig, Cattell independently began to measure “simple mental processes”
Between 1883 and 1886, influenced by Francis Galton, Cattell published nine articles on human reaction time rates and individual differences. As a professor at the University of Pennsylvania, Cattell administered a battery of ten tests to student volunteers, and for the first time introduced the term "mental tests" as a general term for his set of tests. These tests included measures of sensation, using weights to determine just-noticeable differences, reaction time, human memory span, and rate of movement. There are two types of perspectives on measuring intelligence. The first type was derived from Aristotle that asserts that it is only through the identification of intelligence that its measurement becomes possible; through identification does not necessarily imply a definition. Secondly, all measurement is based on comparison, and that different bases of comparison are possible. When Cattell moved to Columbia University, the battery of tests became compulsory for all freshmen. Cattell believed that his mental tests were measuring intelligence; however, in 1901 Clark Wissler, a student of Cattell, demonstrated that there was no statistical relationship between scores on Cattell's tests and academic performance. The tests were finally rendered irrelevant with the development of Alfred Binet’s intelligence measurements.
=== Journals ===
Cattell was well known for his involvement in creating and editing scientific journals. He was so involved in owning and publishing journals, that his research productivity declined. Along with James Mark Baldwin, he co-founded the journal Psychological Review. He also acquired the journal Science and, within five years of acquiring it, made it the official publication of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.
In 1900, Cattell purchased Popular Science Monthly from D. Appleton & Company. In 1915, the title was purchased from him and became Popular Science. He, in turn, founded and edited The Scientific Monthly, which went to the subscribers of the old Popular Science Monthly as a substitute.
Cattell was the editor of Science for nearly 50 years. During that time, he did much to promote psychology as a science by seeing to it that empirical studies in psychology were prominently featured in the journal. On Cattell's editorship of Science, Ludy T. Benjamin wrote "there is no denying that it significantly enhanced psychology’s visibility and status among the older sciences."
=== American Men of Science ===
In 1906, Cattell became the first compiler of American Men of Science. Despite the name, two women, Grace Andrews and Charlotte Angas Scott, were listed in this first edition of American Men of Science.
=== Skepticism ===
Cattell was skeptical of paranormal claims and spiritualism. He dismissed Leonora Piper as a fraud. He was involved in a debate over Piper with the psychologist William James in the Science journal. He took issue with James's support for psychical research. In a letter to James, Cattell wrote that the "Society for Psychical Research is doing much to injure psychology".
== Personal life ==
Cattell married Josephine Owen, the daughter of an English merchant, in 1888. Their seven children obtained their pre-college educations at home with their parents as instructors. The whole family shared in Cattell's editorial work. One daughter, Psyche Cattell (1893–1989), followed in her father's footsteps, establishing a small child psychology practice in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, and developing tests to assess the intelligence of infants.
== Death ==
Cattell died at Lancaster General Hospital in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, on January 20, 1944, at age 83.
== Legacy ==
The main street in the College Hill neighborhood of Easton, Pennsylvania, home to Lafayette College, Cattell's alma mater, is named after Cattell.
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Cattell, James McKeen (1886). "Psychometrische Untersuchungen".
Cattell, James McKeen (1921). American Men of Science: A Biographical Directory (3rd ed.). Garrison, New York: The Science Press.
Godin (2007). "From eugenics to scientometrics: Galton, Cattell, and men of science". Social Studies of Science. 37 (5): 691–728. doi:10.1177/0306312706075338. PMID 18348397. S2CID 13166578.
Whipple (2004). "Eminence revisited". History of Psychology. 7 (3): 265–96. doi:10.1037/1093-4510.7.3.265. PMID 15382378.
Benschop; Draaisma, D (2000). "In pursuit of precision: the calibration of minds and machines in late nineteenth-century psychology". Annals of Science. 57 (1): 1–25. doi:10.1080/000337900296281. PMID 11624166. S2CID 37504910.
Cattell (1992). "Retrospect: psychology as a profession. 1937". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 60 (1): 7–8, discussion 9–15. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.60.1.7. PMID 1556288.
Sokal (1980). "Science and James McKeen Cattell, 1894 to 1945". Science. 209 (4452): 43–52. Bibcode:1980Sci...209...43S. doi:10.1126/science.7025202. PMID 7025202.
Sokal (1971). "The unpublished autobiography of James McKeen Cattell". The American Psychologist. 26 (7): 626–35. doi:10.1037/h0032048. PMID 4934276.
== External links ==
James McKeen Cattell bibliography
Short biography, bibliography, and links on digitized sources in the Virtual Laboratory of the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science
National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir
Works by James McKeen Cattell at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about James McKeen Cattell at the Internet Archive
James McKeen Cattell at Find a Grave |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masaki_Tsuji#:~:text=On%20September%2024%2C%202008%2C%20Tsuji,Kobe%20for%20his%20writing%20work. | Masaki Tsuji | Masaki Tsuji (辻 真先, Tsuji Masaki; born March 23, 1932 in Nagoya) is a Japanese anime screenwriter, mystery writer, manga author, travel critic, essayist, professor as well as mystery fiction novels writer. Tsuji was most active in the business from the 1960s through the 1980s, and worked as a script writer on many popular anime television series for Mushi Production, Toei Animation, and Tokyo Movie Shinsha.
He is well known for his association with the animated adaptations of the works of Osamu Tezuka and Go Nagai.
In April 2007, Tsuji headed Japan's first international anime research lab as part of Digital Hollywood University. On December 4, 2007, Tsuji was given a lifetime achievement award at the 11th Japan Media Arts Festival. On September 24, 2008, Tsuji won a Special Award in the 13th Animation Kobe for his writing work.
== Filmography ==
== See also ==
Honkaku Mystery Writers Club of Japan
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website (in Japanese)
Masaki Tsuji at IMDb
Masaki Tsuji at Anime News Network's encyclopedia |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janet_Hubert#:~:text=After%20performing%20in%20the%20national,lived%20musical%20about%20Jackie%20Robinson. | Janet Hubert | Janet Louise Hubert (born January 13, 1956) is an American film and television actress and dancer. She is best known for playing the role of the original Vivian Banks on the sitcom The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air from its first season in 1990 until the end of its third season in 1993. Hubert was nominated for an NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Actress in a Comedy Series for her role in 1991. Her performance as Mignon on the digital series King Ester garnered her first Daytime Emmy Award nomination in 2020.
== Early life ==
Hubert was born in Chicago, Illinois and spent her early days growing up on Chicago's South Side. At the age of nine she moved with her family to rural Chicago. She won a scholarship to the Juilliard School in New York City, but did not complete her studies.
== Career ==
After performing in the national tour of Dancin', Hubert made her Broadway debut in 1981, in the ensemble of The First, a short-lived musical about Jackie Robinson. Hubert created the role of Tantomile in the original Broadway production of Cats, and also understudied Grizabella and Demeter. She left Cats in April 1983 to star in the national tour of Sophisticated Ladies, opposite Dee Dee Bridgewater and Gregg Burge. Hubert played Aunt Viv on The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air, the role she is most known for. After she was allegedly fired by the makers of The Fresh Prince, Hubert's character was recast and played by Daphne Maxwell Reid for the remainder of the show's run. At the time, Will Smith, the show's star, claimed that Hubert "brought her problems to work." Rumors then speculated that Smith had fired her following her departure. Hubert has since denied this, explaining that she had left the show after being informed that she had two months and a half of remaining on set and that she could not work on another project. Her role as Aunt Viv was subsequently played by actress Daphne Maxwell Reid.
Hubert was featured in a 2002 episode of Friends as Chandler's boss. In 2005, she began playing the recurring role of Lisa Williamson, mother of attorney Evangeline Williamson, on One Life to Live. Her character has made occasional appearances since then. She was featured as Michel Gerard's mother in an episode of the CW show Gilmore Girls. She has made appearances on episodes of All My Children, NYPD Blue, The Bernie Mac Show, and Tyler Perry's House of Payne, among others. In November 2018, it was announced that Hubert had been cast on the daytime soap opera, General Hospital; she made her debut as Yvonne on December 7, 2018.
Hubert appeared in The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air Reunion on HBO Max in November 2020. During the special, she and Smith spoke for the first time since her departure from the show. Hubert discussed issues regarding her personal life, which included domestic violence, and revealed she had not been fired from the show as largely believed. Smith admitted that he was neither "sensitive" nor "perceptive" to Hubert's situation and attributed his behavior to being "very young" and "immature" at the time. He has insisted that being a parent has taught him how to understand what she was dealing with and apologized for his actions. Hubert then joined the rest of the guests at the reunion.
Hubert appeared on FX's Pose in season 3 as a family member of Billy Porter's character, Pray Tell, alongside Jackée Harry and Anna Maria Horsford. In 2022, she appeared on The Ms. Pat Show as the title character's mother-in-law, Jewell.
== Personal life ==
In 1990, Hubert married James Whitten, who was verbally and physically abusive towards her until their split in 1994. From this marriage, she gave birth to a boy, Elijah Isaac Whitten. Hubert has been married to Larry Kraft since 2005.
She suffers from osteoporosis and is the ambassador of the National Osteoporosis Foundation.
== Filmography ==
=== Film ===
=== Television ===
=== Music videos ===
=== Stage ===
=== Video games ===
== Awards ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Janet Hubert at IMDb
"Smith, Whitten feud over her 'Fresh Prince' exit". Jet. Johnson Publishing Company. 1993-08-30.
"Ex-Aunt Vivian Has Her Own Studio and a Little Fresh Prince". The Los Angeles Times. 1993-08-23.
"Whitten Riled By Recent Firing From NBC-TVs 'Fresh Prince Of Bel-Air'". Jet. Johnson Publishing Company. 1993-08-09.
"'Bel-Air's' Smith sued". Variety. 1993-12-15. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deepwater_Horizon_oil_spill#:~:text=During%20the%20spill%20response%20operations,zone%20over%20the%20operations%20area. | Deepwater Horizon oil spill | The Deepwater Horizon oil spill was an environmental disaster beginning 20 April 2010 off the coast of the United States in the Gulf of Mexico, on the BP-operated Macondo Prospect. It is considered the largest marine oil spill in the history of the petroleum industry and estimated to be 8 to 31 percent larger in volume than the previous largest, the Ixtoc I oil spill, also in the Gulf of Mexico. Caused in the aftermath of a blowout and explosion on the Deepwater Horizon oil platform, the United States federal government estimated the total discharge at 4.9 million barrels (210,000,000 US gal; 780,000 m3). After several failed efforts to contain the flow, the well was declared sealed on 19 September 2010. Reports in early 2012 indicated that the well site was still leaking. The Deepwater Horizon oil spill is regarded as one of the largest environmental disasters in world history.
A massive response ensued to protect beaches, wetlands and estuaries from the spreading oil utilizing skimmer ships, floating booms, controlled burns and 1,840,000 US gal (7,000 m3) of oil dispersant. Due to the months-long spill, along with adverse effects from the response and cleanup activities, extensive damage to marine and wildlife habitats and fishing and tourism industries was reported. In Louisiana, oil cleanup crews worked four days a week on 55 mi (89 km) of Louisiana shoreline throughout 2013. 4,900,000 lb (2,200 t) of oily material was removed from the beaches in 2013, over double the amount collected in 2012. Oil continued to be found as far from the Macondo site as the waters off the Florida Panhandle and Tampa Bay, where scientists said the oil and dispersant mixture is embedded in the sand. In April 2013, it was reported that dolphins and other marine life continued to die in record numbers with infant dolphins dying at six times the normal rate. One study released in 2014 reported that tuna and amberjack exposed to oil from the spill developed deformities of the heart and other organs which would be expected to be fatal or at least life-shortening; another study found that cardiotoxicity might have been widespread in animal life exposed to the spill.
Numerous investigations explored the causes of the explosion and record-setting spill. The United States Government report, published in September 2011, pointed to defective cement on the well, faulting mostly BP, but also rig operator Transocean and contractor Halliburton. Earlier in 2011, a White House commission likewise blamed BP and its partners for a series of cost-cutting decisions and an inadequate safety system, but also concluded that the spill resulted from "systemic" root causes and "absent significant reform in both industry practices and government policies, might well recur".
In November 2012, BP and the United States Department of Justice settled federal criminal charges, with BP pleading guilty to 11 counts of manslaughter, two misdemeanors, and a felony count of lying to the United States Congress. BP also agreed to four years of government monitoring of its safety practices and ethics, and the Environmental Protection Agency announced that BP would be temporarily banned from new contracts with the United States government. BP and the Department of Justice agreed to a record-setting $4.525 billion in fines and other payments. As of 2018, cleanup costs, charges and penalties had cost the company more than $65 billion.
In September 2014, a United States District Court judge ruled that BP was primarily responsible for the oil spill because of its gross negligence and reckless conduct. In April 2016, BP agreed to pay $20.8 billion in fines, the largest environmental damage settlement in United States history.
== Background ==
=== Deepwater Horizon drilling rig ===
Deepwater Horizon was a 10-year-old semi-submersible, mobile, floating, dynamically positioned drilling rig that could operate in waters up to 10,000 ft (3,000 m) deep. Built by South Korean company Hyundai Heavy Industries and owned by Transocean, the rig operated under the Marshallese flag of convenience, and was chartered to BP from March 2008 to September 2013. It was drilling a deep exploratory well, 18,360 ft (5,600 m) below sea level, in approximately 5,100 ft (1,600 m) of water. The well is situated in the Macondo Prospect in Mississippi Canyon Block 253 (MC253) of the Gulf of Mexico, in the United States' exclusive economic zone. The Macondo well is found roughly 41 mi (66 km) off the Louisiana coast. BP was the operator and principal developer of the Macondo Prospect with a 65% share, while 25% was owned by Anadarko Petroleum, and 10% by MOEX Offshore 2007, a unit of Mitsui.
=== Explosion ===
At approximately 7:45 pm CDT, on 20 April 2010, high-pressure methane gas from the well expanded into the marine riser and rose into the drilling rig, where it ignited and exploded, engulfing the platform. Eleven missing workers were never found despite a three-day U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) search operation and are believed to have died in the explosion or its aftermath. Ninety-four crew members were rescued by lifeboat or helicopter, 17 of whom were treated for injuries. The Deepwater Horizon sank on the morning of 22 April 2010.
== Volume and extent of oil spill ==
The oil leak was discovered on the afternoon of 22 April 2010 when a large oil slick began to spread at the former rig site. The oil flowed for 87 days. BP originally estimated a flow rate of 1,000 to 5,000 barrels per day [bbl/d] (160 to 790 m3/d). The Flow Rate Technical Group (FRTG) estimated the initial flow rate was 62,000 bbl/d (9,900 m3/d). The total estimated volume of leaked oil approximated 4.9 million barrels (210,000,000 US gal; 780,000 m3) with plus or minus 10% uncertainty, including oil that was collected, making it the world's largest accidental spill. BP challenged the higher figure, saying that the government overestimated the prefaced volume. Internal emails released in 2013 showed that one BP employee had estimates that matched those of the FRTG, and shared the data with supervisors, but BP continued with their lower number. The company argued that government figures do not reflect over 810,000 bbl (34 million US gal; 129,000 m3) of oil that was collected or burned before it could enter the Gulf waters.
According to the satellite images, the spill directly affected 70,000 sq mi (180,000 km2) of ocean, comparable to the area of Oklahoma. By early June 2010, oil had washed up on 125 mi (201 km) of Louisiana's coast and along the Mississippi, Florida, and Alabama coastlines. Oil sludge appeared in the Intracoastal Waterway and on Pensacola Beach and the Gulf Islands National Seashore. In late June, oil reached Gulf Park Estates, its first appearance in Mississippi. In July, tarballs reached Grand Isle and the shores of Lake Pontchartrain. In September a new wave of oil suddenly coated 16 mi (26 km) of Louisiana coastline and marshes west of the Mississippi River in Plaquemines Parish. In October, weathered oil reached Texas. As of July 2011, about 491 mi (790 km) of coastline in Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama and Florida were contaminated by oil and a total of 1,074 mi (1,728 km) had been oiled since the spill began. As of December 2012, 339 mi (546 km) of coastline remain subject to evaluation and/or cleanup operations. The reported 3.19 million barrels of spilled oil was not the only effect of this disaster. A report detailed the release of thousands of tons of hydrocarbon gases (HC) into the atmosphere.
Concerns were raised about the appearance of underwater, horizontally-extended plumes of dissolved oil. Researchers concluded that deep plumes of dissolved oil and gas would likely remain confined to the northern Gulf of Mexico and that the peak impact on dissolved oxygen would be delayed and long-lasting.
Two weeks after the wellhead was capped on 15 July 2010, the surface oil appeared to have dissipated, while an unknown amount of subsurface oil remained. Estimates of the residual ranged from a 2010 NOAA report that claimed about half of the oil remained below the surface to independent estimates of up to 75%.
That means over 100×10^6 US gal (380 Ml) (2.4 million barrels) remained in the Gulf. As of January 2011, tar balls, oil sheen trails, fouled wetlands marsh grass and coastal sands were still evident. Subsurface oil remained offshore and in fine silts. In April 2012, oil was still found along as much as 200 mi (320 km) of Louisiana coastline and tar balls continued to wash up on the barrier islands. In 2013, some scientists at the Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill and Ecosystem Science Conference said that as much as one-third of the oil may have mixed with deep ocean sediments, where it risks damage to ecosystems and commercial fisheries.
In 2013, more than 4,600,000 lb (2,100 t) of "oiled material" was removed from the Louisiana coast. Although only "minute" quantities of oil continued to wash up in 2013, patches of tar balls were still being reported almost every day from Alabama and Florida Panhandle beaches. Regular cleanup patrols were no longer considered justified but cleanup was being conducted on an as-needed basis, in response to public reports.
It was first thought that oil had not reached as far as Tampa Bay, Florida; however, a study done in 2013 found that one of the plumes of dispersant-treated oil had reached a shelf 80 mi (130 km) off the Tampa Bay region. According to researchers, there is "some evidence it may have caused lesions in fish caught in that area".
== Efforts to stem the flow of oil ==
=== Short-term efforts ===
First, BP unsuccessfully attempted to close the blowout preventer valves on the wellhead with remotely operated underwater vehicles. Next, it placed a 125-tonne (280,000 lb) containment dome over the largest leak and piped the oil to a storage vessel. While this technique had worked in shallower water, it failed here when gas combined with cold water to form methane hydrate crystals that blocked the opening at the top of the dome. Pumping heavy drilling fluids into the blowout preventer to restrict the flow of oil before sealing it permanently with cement ("top kill") also failed.
BP then inserted a riser insertion tube into the pipe and a stopper-like washer around the tube plugged at the end of the riser and diverted the flow into the insertion tube. The collected gas was flared and oil stored on board the drillship Discoverer Enterprise. Before the tube was removed, it collected 924,000 US gal (22,000 bbl; 3,500 m3) of oil. On 3 June 2010, BP removed the damaged drilling riser from the top of the blowout preventer and covered the pipe by the cap which connected it to another riser. On 16 June, a second containment system connected directly to the blowout preventer began carrying oil and gas to service vessels, where it was consumed in a clean-burning system. The United States government's estimates suggested the cap and other equipment were capturing less than half of the leaking oil. On 10 July, the containment cap was removed to replace it with a better-fitting cap ("Top Hat Number 10"). Mud and cement were later pumped in through the top of the well to reduce the pressure inside it (which did not work either). A final device was created to attach a chamber of larger diameter than the flowing pipe with a flange that bolted to the top of the blowout preventer and a manual valve set to close off the flow once attached. On 15 July, the device was secured and time was taken closing the valves to ensure the attachment under increasing pressure until the valves were closed completing the temporary measures.
=== Well declared "effectively dead" ===
Transocean's Development Driller III started drilling a first relief well on 2 May 2010. GSF Development Driller II started drilling a second relief on 16 May 2010. On 3 August 2010, first test oil and then drilling mud was pumped at a slow rate of approximately 2 bbl (320 L) per minute into the well-head. Pumping continued for eight hours, at the end of which the well was declared to be "in a static condition." On 4 August 2010, BP began pumping cement from the top, sealing that part of the flow channel permanently.
On 3 September 2010, the 300-ton failed blowout preventer was removed from the well and a replacement blowout preventer was installed. On 16 September 2010, the relief well reached its destination and pumping of cement to seal the well began. On 19 September 2010, National Incident Commander Thad Allen declared the well "effectively dead" and said that it posed no further threat to the Gulf.
=== Recurrent or continued leakage ===
In May 2010, BP admitted they had "discovered things that were broken in the sub-surface" during the "top kill" effort.
Oil slicks were reported in March and August 2011, in March and October 2012, and in January 2013. Repeated scientific analyses confirmed that the sheen was a chemical match for oil from the Macondo well.
The USCG initially said the oil was too dispersed to recover and posed no threat to the coastline, but later warned BP and Transocean that they might be held financially responsible for cleaning up the new oil. USGS director Marcia McNutt stated that the riser pipe could hold at most 1,000 bbl (160 m3) because it is open on both ends, making it unlikely to hold the amount of oil being observed.
In October 2012, BP reported that they had found and plugged leaking oil from the failed containment dome, now abandoned about 1,500 ft (460 m) from the main well. In December 2012, the USCG conducted a subsea survey; no oil coming from the wells or the wreckage was found and its source remains unknown. In addition, a white, milky substance was observed seeping from the wreckage. According to BP and the USCG, it is "not oil and it's not harmful."
In January 2013, BP said that they were continuing to investigate possible sources of the oil sheen. Chemical data implied that the substance might be residual oil leaking from the wreckage. If that proves to be the case, the sheen can be expected to eventually disappear. Another possibility is that it is formation oil escaping from the subsurface, using the Macondo well casing as flow conduit, possibly intersecting a naturally occurring fault, and then following that to escape at the surface some distance from the wellhead. If it proves to be oil from the subsurface, then that could indicate the possibility of an indefinite release of oil. The oil slick was comparable in size to naturally occurring oil seeps and was not large enough to pose an immediate threat to wildlife.
== Containment, collection and use of dispersants ==
The fundamental strategies for addressing the spill were containment, dispersal and removal. In summer 2010, approximately 47,000 people and 7,000 vessels were involved in the project. By 3 October 2012, federal response costs amounted to $850 million, mostly reimbursed by BP. As of January 2013, 935 personnel were still involved. By that time cleanup had cost BP over $14 billion.
It was estimated with plus-or-minus 10% uncertainty that 4.9 million barrels (780,000 m3) of oil was released from the well; 4.1 million barrels (650,000 m3) of oil went into the Gulf. The report led by the Department of the Interior and the NOAA said that "75% [of oil] has been cleaned up by Man or Mother Nature"; however, only about 25% of released oil was collected or removed while about 75% of oil remained in the environment in one form or another. In 2012, Markus Huettel, a benthic ecologist at Florida State University, maintained that while much of BP's oil was degraded or evaporated, at least 60% remains unaccounted for.
In May 2010, a local native set up a network for people to volunteer their assistance in cleaning up beaches. Boat captains were given the opportunity to offer the use of their boats to help clean and prevent the oil from further spreading. To assist with the efforts the captains had to register their ships with the Vessels of Opportunity; however, an issue arose when more boats registered than actually participated in the clean-up efforts – only a third of the registered boats. Many local supporters were disappointed with BP's slow response, prompting the formation of The Florida Key Environmental Coalition. This coalition gained significant influence in the clean-up of the oil spill to try to gain some control over the situation.
=== Containment ===
Containment booms stretching over 4,200,000 ft (1,300 km) were deployed, either to corral the oil or as barriers to protect marshes, mangroves, shrimp/crab/oyster ranches or other ecologically sensitive areas. Booms extend 18–48 in (0.46–1.22 m) above and below the water surface and were effective only in relatively calm and slow-moving waters. Including one-time use sorbent booms, a total of 13,300,000 ft (4,100 km) of booms were deployed. Booms were criticized for washing up on the shore with the oil, allowing oil to escape above or below the boom, and for ineffectiveness in more than three- to four-foot (90–120 cm) waves.
The Louisiana barrier island plan was developed to construct barrier islands to protect the coast of Louisiana. The plan was criticised for its expense and poor results. Critics allege that the decision to pursue the project was political with little scientific input. The EPA expressed concern that the booms would threaten wildlife.
For a time, a group called Matter of Trust, citing insufficient availability of manufactured oil absorption booms, campaigned to encourage hair salons, dog groomers and sheep farmers to donate hair, fur and wool clippings, stuffed in pantyhose or tights, to help contain oil near impacted shores, a technique dating back to the Exxon Valdez disaster.
=== Use of Corexit dispersant ===
The spill was also notable for the volume of Corexit oil dispersant used and for application methods that were "purely experimental". Altogether, 1.84×10^6 US gal (7,000 m3) of dispersants were used; of this, 771,000 US gal (2,920 m3) were released at the wellhead. Subsea injection had never previously been tried but, due to the spill's unprecedented nature, BP, together with USCG and EPA, decided to use it. Over 400 sorties were flown to release the product. Although usage of dispersants was described as "the most effective and fast moving tool for minimizing shoreline impact", the approach continues to be investigated.
A 2011 analysis conducted by Earthjustice and Toxipedia showed that the dispersant could contain cancer-causing agents, hazardous toxins and endocrine-disrupting chemicals. Environmental scientists expressed concerns that the dispersants add to the toxicity of a spill, increasing the threat to sea turtles and bluefin tuna. The dangers are even greater when poured into the source of a spill, because they are picked up by the current and wash through the Gulf. According to BP and federal officials, dispersant use stopped after the cap was in place; however, marine toxicologist Riki Ott wrote in an open letter to the EPA that Corexit use continued after that date and a GAP investigation stated that "[a] majority of GAP witnesses cited indications that Corexit was used after [July 2010]".
According to a NALCO manual obtained by GAP, Corexit 9527 is an "eye and skin irritant. Repeated or excessive exposure ... may cause injury to red blood cells (hemolysis), kidney or the liver". The manual adds: "Excessive exposure may cause central nervous system effects, nausea, vomiting, anesthetic or narcotic effects". It advises, "Do not get in eyes, on skin, on clothing", and "Wear suitable protective clothing". For Corexit 9500, the manual advised, "Do not get in eyes, on skin, on clothing", "Avoid breathing vapor", and "Wear suitable protective clothing". According to FOIA requests obtained by GAP, neither the protective gear nor the manual were distributed to Gulf oil spill cleanup workers.
Corexit EC9500A and Corexit EC9527A were the principal variants. The two formulations are neither the least toxic, nor the most effective, among EPA's approved dispersants, but BP said it chose to use Corexit because it was available the week of the rig explosion. On 19 May, the EPA gave BP 24 hours to choose less toxic alternatives to Corexit from the National Contingency Plan Product Schedule and begin applying them within 72 hours of EPA approval or provide a detailed reasoning why no approved products met the standards. On 20 May, BP determined that none of the alternative products met all three criteria of availability, non-toxicity and effectiveness. On 24 May, EPA Administrator Lisa P. Jackson ordered EPA to conduct its own evaluation of alternatives and ordered BP to reduce dispersant use by 75%. BP reduced Corexit use by 25,689 to 23,250 US gal (97,240 to 88,010 L) per day, a 9% decline. On 2 August 2010, the EPA said dispersants did no more harm to the environment than the oil and that they stopped a large amount of oil from reaching the coast by breaking it down faster. However, some independent scientists and EPA's own experts continue to voice concerns about the approach.
Underwater injection of Corexit into the leak may have created the oil plumes which were discovered below the surface. Because the dispersants were applied at depth, much of the oil never rose to the surface. One plume was 22 mi (35 km) long, more than 1 mi (1,600 m) wide and 650 ft (200 m) deep. In a major study on the plume, experts were most concerned about the slow pace at which the oil was breaking down in the cold, 40 °F (4 °C) water at depths of 3,000 ft (900 m).
In late 2012, a study from Georgia Tech and Universidad Autonoma de Aguascalientes in Environmental Pollution journal reported that Corexit used during the BP oil spill had increased the toxicity of the oil by 52 times. The scientists concluded that "Mixing oil with dispersant increased toxicity to ecosystems" and made the gulf oil spill worse.
=== Removal ===
The three basic approaches for removing the oil from the water were: combustion, offshore filtration, and collection for later processing. USCG said 33,000,000 US gal (120,000 m3) of tainted water was recovered, including 5,000,000 US gal (19,000 m3) of oil. BP said 826,800 bbl (131,450 m3) had been recovered or flared. It is calculated that about 5% of leaked oil was burned at the surface and 3% was skimmed. On the most demanding day, 47,849 people were assigned on the response works and over 6,000 Marine vessels, 82 helicopters, and 20 fixed-wing aircraft were involved.
From April to mid-July 2010, 411 controlled in-situ fires remediated approximately 265,000 bbl (11.1 million US gal; 42,100 m3). The fires released small amounts of toxins, including cancer-causing dioxins. According to EPA's report, the released amount is not enough to pose an added cancer risk to workers and coastal residents, while a second research team concluded that there was only a small added risk.
Oil was collected from water by using skimmers. In total, 2,063 various skimmers were used. For offshore, more than 60 open-water skimmers were deployed, including 12 purpose-built vehicles. EPA regulations prohibited skimmers that left more than 15 parts per million (ppm) of oil in the water. Many large-scale skimmers exceeded the limit. Due to use of Corexit, the oil was too dispersed to collect, according to a spokesperson for shipowner TMT. In mid-June 2010, BP ordered 32 machines that separate oil and water, with each machine capable of extracting up to 2,000 bbl/d (320 m3/d). After one week of testing, BP began to proceed and, by 28 June, had removed 890,000 bbl (141,000 m3).
After the well was capped, the cleanup of shore became the main task of the response workers. Two main types of affected coast were sandy beaches and marshes. On beaches, the main techniques were sifting sand, removing tar balls, and digging out tar mats manually or by using mechanical devices. For marshes, techniques such as vacuum and pumping, low-pressure flush, vegetation cutting, and bioremediation were used.
=== Oil-eating microbes ===
Dispersants are said to facilitate the digestion of the oil by microbes but conflicting results have been reported on this in the context of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. Mixing dispersants with oil at the wellhead would keep some oil below the surface and, in theory, allow microbes to digest the oil before it reached the surface. Various risks were identified and evaluated, in particular, that an increase in microbial activity might reduce subsea oxygen levels, threatening fish and other animals.
Several studies suggest that microbes successfully consumed part of the oil. By mid-September, other research claimed that microbes mainly digested natural gas rather than oil. David L. Valentine, a professor of microbial geochemistry at UC Santa Barbara, said that the capability of microbes to break down the leaked oil had been greatly exaggerated. However, biogeochemist Chris Reddy said natural microorganisms are a big reason why the oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico was not far worse.
Genetically modified Alcanivorax borkumensis was added to the waters to speed digestion. The delivery method of microbes to oil patches was proposed by the Russian Research and Development Institute of Ecology and the Sustainable Use of Natural Resources.
== Access restrictions ==
On 18 May 2010, BP was designated the lead "Responsible Party" under the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, which meant that BP had operational authority in coordinating the response.
The first video images were released on 12 May, and further video images were released by members of Congress who had been given access to them by BP.
During the spill response operations, at the request of the Coast Guard, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) implemented a 900 sq mi (2,300 km2) temporary flight restriction zone over the operations area. Restrictions were to prevent civilian air traffic from interfering with aircraft assisting the response effort. All flights in the operations' area were prohibited except flight authorized by air traffic control; routine flights supporting offshore oil operations; federal, state, local and military flight operations supporting spill response; and air ambulance and law enforcement operations. Exceptions for these restrictions were granted on a case-by-case basis dependent on safety issues, operational requirements, weather conditions, and traffic volume. No flights, except aircraft conducting aerial chemical dispersing operations, or for landing and takeoff, were allowed below 1,000 m (3,300 ft). Notwithstanding restrictions, there were 800 to 1,000 flights per day during the operations.
Local and federal authorities citing BP's authority denied access to members of the press attempting to document the spill from the air, from boats, and on the ground, blocking access to areas that were open to the public. In some cases photographers were granted access only with BP officials escorting them on BP-contracted boats and aircraft. In one example, the U.S. Coast Guard stopped Jean-Michel Cousteau's boat and allowed it to proceed only after the Coast Guard was assured that no journalists were on board. In another example, a CBS News crew was denied access to the oil-covered beaches of the spill area. The CBS crew was told by the authorities, "This is BP's rules, not ours," when trying to film the area. Some members of Congress criticized the restrictions placed on access by journalists.
The FAA denied that BP employees or contractors made decisions on flights and access, saying those decisions were made by the FAA and Coast Guard. The FAA acknowledged that media access was limited to hired planes or helicopters, but was arranged through the Coast Guard. The Coast Guard and BP denied having a policy of restricting journalists; they noted that members of the media had been embedded with the authorities and allowed to cover response efforts since the beginning of the effort, with more than 400 embeds aboard boats and aircraft to date. They also said that they wanted to provide access to the information while maintaining safety.
== Cleanup ==
On 15 April 2014, BP announced that cleanup along the coast was substantially complete, while the United States Coast Guard work continued using physical barriers such as floating booms, the cleanup workers' objective was to keep the oil from spreading any further. They used skimmer boats to remove a majority of the oil and they used sorbents to absorb any remnant of oil like a sponge. Although that method did not remove the oil completely, chemicals called dispersants were used to hasten the oil's degradation to prevent the oil from doing further damage to the marine habitats below the surface water. For the Deep Horizon oil spill, cleanup workers used 1,400,000 US gal (5,300,000 L; 1,200,000 imp gal) of various chemical dispersants to further breakdown the oil.
The state of Louisiana received funding by BP to do regular testing of fish, shellfish, water, and sand. Initial testing regularly showed detectable levels of dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate, a chemical used in the clean up. Testing over 2019 reported by GulfSource.org, for the pollutants tested have not produced results.
Due to the Deepwater Horizon spill, marine life was suffering. Thousands of animals were visibly covered in oil. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, working with the Smithsonian's National Zoological Park, rescued animals to help with the spill cleanup, although there were many animals found dead.
== Consequences ==
=== Environmental impact ===
The spill area hosts 8,332 species, including more than 1,270 fish, 604 polychaetes, 218 birds, 1,456 mollusks, 1,503 crustaceans, 4 sea turtles and 29 marine mammals. Between May and June 2010, the spill waters contained 40 times more polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) than before the spill. PAHs are often linked to oil spills and include carcinogens and chemicals that pose various health risks to humans and marine life. The PAHs were most concentrated near the Louisiana Coast, but levels also jumped 2–3 fold in areas off Alabama, Mississippi and Florida. PAHs can harm marine species directly and microbes used to consume the oil can reduce marine oxygen levels. The oil contained approximately 40% methane by weight, compared to about 5% found in typical oil deposits. Methane can potentially suffocate marine life and create "dead zones" where oxygen is depleted.
A 2014 study of the effects of the oil spill on bluefin tuna funded by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), Stanford University, and the Monterey Bay Aquarium and published in the journal Science, found that the toxins from oil spills can cause irregular heartbeats leading to cardiac arrest. Calling the vicinity of the spill "one of the most productive ocean ecosystems in the world", the study found that even at very low concentrations "PAH cardiotoxicity was potentially a common form of injury among a broad range of species in the vicinity of the oil." Another peer-reviewed study, released in March 2014 and conducted by 17 scientists from the United States and Australia and published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, found that tuna and amberjack that were exposed to oil from the spill developed deformities of the heart and other organs that would be expected to be fatal or at least life-shortening.
The scientists said that their findings would most likely apply to other large predator fish and "even to humans, whose developing hearts are in many ways similar." BP responded that the concentrations of oil in the study were a level rarely seen in the Gulf, but The New York Times reported that the BP statement was contradicted by the study.
The oil dispersant Corexit, previously only used as a surface application, was released underwater in unprecedented amounts, with the intent of making it more easily biodegraded by naturally occurring microbes. Thus, oil that would normally rise to the surface of the water was emulsified into tiny droplets and remained suspended in the water and on the sea floor. The oil and dispersant mixture permeated the food chain through zooplankton. Signs of an oil-and-dispersant mix were found under the shells of tiny blue crab larvae. A study of insect populations in the coastal marshes affected by the spill also found a significant impact. Chemicals from the spill were found in migratory birds as far away as Minnesota. Pelican eggs contained "petroleum compounds and Corexit". Dispersant and PAHs from oil are believed to have caused "disturbing numbers" of mutated fish that scientists and commercial fishers saw in 2012, including 50% of shrimp found lacking eyes and eye sockets. Fish with oozing sores and lesions were first noted by fishermen in November 2010. Prior to the spill, approximately 0.1% of Gulf fish had lesions or sores. A report from the University of Florida said that many locations showed 20% of fish with lesions, while later estimates reached 50%. In October 2013, Al Jazeera reported that the gulf ecosystem was "in crisis", citing a decline in seafood catches, as well as deformities and lesions found in fish. According to J. Christopher Haney, Harold Geiger, and Jeffrey Short, three researchers with extensive experience in environmental monitoring and post-spill mortality assessments, over one million coastal birds died as a direct result of the Deepwater Horizon spill. These numbers, coupled with the National Audubon Society scientists' observations of bird colonies and bird mortality well after the acute phase, have led scientists to conclude that more than one million birds ultimately succumbed to the lethal effects of the Gulf oil spill.
In July 2010, it was reported that the spill was "already having a 'devastating' effect on marine life in the Gulf". Damage to the ocean floor especially endangered the Louisiana pancake batfish whose range is entirely contained within the spill-affected area. In March 2012, a definitive link was found between the death of a Gulf coral community and the spill. According to NOAA, a cetacean Unusual Mortality Event (UME) has been recognized since before the spill began, NOAA is investigating possible contributing factors to the ongoing UME from the Deepwater Horizon spill, with the possibility of eventual criminal charges being filed if the spill is shown to be connected. Some estimates are that only 2% of the carcasses of killed mammals have been recovered.
In the first birthing season for dolphins after the spill, dead baby dolphins washed up along Mississippi and Alabama shorelines at about 10 times the normal number. A peer-reviewed NOAA/BP study disclosed that nearly half the bottlenose dolphins tested in mid-2011 in Barataria Bay, a heavily oiled area, were in "guarded or worse" condition, "including 17 percent that were not expected to survive". BP officials deny that the disease conditions are related to the spill, saying that dolphin deaths actually began being reported before the BP oil spill. By 2013, over 650 dolphins had been found stranded in the oil spill area, a four-fold increase over the historical average. The National Wildlife Federation (NWF) reports that sea turtles, mostly endangered Kemp's ridley sea turtles, have been stranding at a high rate. Before the spill there was an average of 100 strandings per year; since the spill the number has jumped to roughly 500.
NWF senior scientist Doug Inkley notes that the marine death rates are unprecedented and occurring high in the food chain, strongly suggesting there is "something amiss with the Gulf ecosystem". In December 2013, the journal Environmental Science & Technology published a study finding that of 32 dolphins briefly captured from 24-km stretch near southeastern Louisiana, half were seriously ill or dying. BP said the report was "inconclusive as to any causation associated with the spill".
In 2012, tar balls continued to wash up along the Gulf coast and in 2013, tar balls could still be found in on the Mississippi and Louisiana coasts, along with oil sheens in marshes and signs of severe erosion of coastal islands, brought about by the death of trees and marsh grass from exposure to the oil. In 2013, former NASA physicist Bonny Schumaker noted a "dearth of marine life" in a radius 30 to 50 mi (48 to 80 km) around the well, after flying over the area numerous times since May 2010.
In 2013, researchers found that oil on the bottom of the seafloor did not seem to be degrading, and observed a phenomenon called a "dirty blizzard": oil in the water column began clumping around suspended sediments, and falling to the ocean floor in an "underwater rain of oily particles". The result could have long-term effects because oil could remain in the food chain for generations.
A 2014 bluefin tuna study in Science found that oil already broken down by wave action and chemical dispersants was more toxic than fresh oil. A 2015 study of the relative toxicity of oil and dispersants to coral also found that the dispersants were more toxic than the oil.
A 2015 study by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, published in PLOS ONE, links the sharp increase in dolphin deaths to the Deepwater Horizon oil spill.
On 12 April 2016, a research team reported that 88 percent of about 360 baby or stillborn dolphins within the spill area "had abnormal or under-developed lungs", compared to 15 percent in other areas. The study was published in the April 2016 Diseases of Aquatic Organisms.
=== Health consequences ===
By June 2010, 143 spill-exposure cases had been reported to the Louisiana Department of Health and Hospitals; 108 of those involved workers in the clean-up efforts, while 35 were reported by residents. Chemicals from the oil and dispersant are believed to be the cause; it is believed that the addition of dispersants made the oil more toxic.
The United States Department of Health and Human Services set up the GuLF Study in June 2010 in response to these reports. The study is run by the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, and will last at least five years.
Mike Robicheux, a Louisiana physician, described the situation as "the biggest public health crisis from a chemical poisoning in the history of this country." In July, after testing the blood of BP cleanup workers and residents in Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida for volatile organic compounds, environmental scientist Wilma Subra said she was "finding amounts 5 to 10 times in excess of the 95th percentile"; she said that "the presence of these chemicals in the blood indicates exposure." Riki Ott, a marine toxicologist with experience of the Exxon Valdez oil spill, advised families to evacuate the Gulf. She said that workers from the Valdez spill had suffered long-term health consequences.
Following the 26 May 2010 hospitalization of seven fishermen that were working in the cleanup crew, BP requested that the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health perform a Health Hazard Evaluation. This was to cover all offshore cleanup activities; BP later requested a second NIOSH investigation of onshore cleanup operations. Tests for chemical exposure in the seven fishermen were negative; NIOSH concluded that the hospitalizations were most likely a result of heat, fatigue, and terpenes that were being used to clean the decks. Review of 10 later hospitalizations found that heat exposure and dehydration were consistent findings but could not establish chemical exposure. NIOSH personnel performed air monitoring around cleanup workers at sea, on land, and during the application of Corexit. Air concentrations of volatile organic compounds and PAHs never exceeded permissible exposure levels. A limitation of their methodology was that some VOCs may have already evaporated from the oil before they began their investigation. In their report, they suggest the possibility that respiratory symptoms might have been caused by high levels of ozone or reactive aldehydes in the air, possibly produced from photochemical reactions in the oil. NIOSH did note that many of the personnel involved were not donning personal protective equipment (gloves and impermeable coveralls) as they had been instructed to and emphasized that this was important protection against transdermal absorption of chemicals from the oil. Heat stress was found to be the most pressing safety concern.
Workers reported that they were not allowed to use respirators, and that their jobs were threatened if they did. OSHA said "cleanup workers are receiving "minimal" exposure to airborne toxins...OSHA will require that BP provide certain protective clothing, but not respirators." ProPublica reported that workers were being photographed while working with no protective clothing. An independent investigation for Newsweek showed that BP did not hand out the legally required safety manual for use with Corexit, and were not provided with safety training or protective gear.
A 2012 survey of the health effects of the spill on cleanup workers reported "eye, nose and throat irritation; respiratory problems; blood in urine, vomit and rectal bleeding; seizures; nausea and violent vomiting episodes that last for hours; skin irritation, burning and lesions; short-term memory loss and confusion; liver and kidney damage; central nervous system effects and nervous system damage; hypertension; and miscarriages". Dr. James Diaz, writing for the American Journal of Disaster Medicine, said these ailments appearing in the Gulf reflected those reported after previous oil spills, like the Exxon Valdez. Diaz warned that "chronic adverse health effects, including cancers, liver and kidney disease, mental health disorders, birth defects and developmental disorders should be anticipated among sensitive populations and those most heavily exposed". Diaz also believes neurological disorders should be expected.
Two years after the spill, a study initiated by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health found biomarkers matching the oil from the spill in the bodies of cleanup workers. Other studies have reported a variety of mental health issues, skin problems, breathing issues, coughing, and headaches. In 2013, during the three-day "Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill & Ecosystem Science Conference", findings discussed included a '"significant percentage" of Gulf residents reporting mental health problems like anxiety, depression and PTSD. These studies also showed that the bodies of former spill cleanup workers carry biomarkers of "many chemicals contained in the oil".
A study that investigated the health effects among children in Louisiana and Florida living less than 10 miles from the coast found that more than a third of the parents reported physical or mental health symptoms among their children. The parents reported "unexplained symptoms among their children, including bleeding ears, nose bleeds, and the early start of menstruation among girls," according to David Abramson, director of Columbia University's National Center for Disaster Preparedness.
A cohort study of almost 2,200 Louisiana women found "high physical/environmental exposure was significantly associated with all 13 of the physical health symptoms surveyed, with the strongest associations for burning in nose, throat or lungs; sore throat; dizziness and wheezing. Women who suffered a high degree of economic disruption as a result of spill were significantly more likely to report wheezing; headaches; watery, burning, itchy eyes and stuffy, itchy, runny nose.
=== Economy ===
The spill had a strong economic impact to BP and also the Gulf Coast's economy sectors such as offshore drilling, fishing and tourism. Estimates of lost tourism dollars were projected to cost the Gulf coastal economy up to $22.7 billion through 2013. In addition, Louisiana reported that lost visitor spending through the end of 2010 totaled $32 million, and losses through 2013 were expected to total $153 million in this state alone. The Gulf of Mexico commercial fishing industry was estimated to have lost $247 million as a result of postspill fisheries closures. One study projects that the overall impact of lost or degraded commercial, recreational, and mariculture fisheries in the Gulf could be $8.7 billion by 2020, with a potential loss of 22,000 jobs over the same time frame. BP's expenditures on the spill included the cost of the spill response, containment, relief well drilling, grants to the Gulf states, claims paid, and federal costs, including fines and penalties. Due to the loss of the market value, BP had dropped from the second to the fourth largest of the four major oil companies by 2013. During the crisis, BP gas stations in the United States reported a sales drop of between 10 and 40% due to backlash against the company.
Local officials in Louisiana expressed concern that the offshore drilling moratorium imposed in response to the spill would further harm the economies of coastal communities as the oil industry directly or indirectly employs about 318,000 Louisiana residents (17% of all jobs in the state). NOAA had closed 86,985 sq mi (225,290 km2), or approximately 36% of Federal waters in the Gulf of Mexico, for commercial fishing causing $2.5 billion cost for the fishing industry. The U.S. Travel Association estimated that the economic impact of the oil spill on tourism across the Gulf Coast over a three-year period could exceed approximately $23 billion, in a region that supports over 400,000 travel industry jobs generating $34 billion in revenue annually.
=== Offshore drilling policies ===
On 30 April 2010, President Barack Obama ordered the federal government to hold the issuing of new offshore drilling leases and authorized the investigation of 29 oil rigs in the Gulf in an effort to determine the cause of the disaster. Later a six-month offshore drilling (below 500 ft (150 m) of water) moratorium was enforced by the United States Department of the Interior. The moratorium suspended work on 33 rigs, and a group of affected companies formed the Back to Work Coalition. On 22 June, a United States federal judge on the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Louisiana Martin Leach-Cross Feldman when ruling in the case Hornbeck Offshore Services LLC v. Salazar, lifted the moratorium finding it too broad, arbitrary and not adequately justified. The ban was lifted in October 2010.
Prior to the oil spill, on 31 March 2010, Obama ended a ban on oil and gas drilling along the majority of the East Coast of the United States and along the coast of northern Alaska in an effort to win support for an energy and climate bill and to reduce foreign imports of oil and gas.
On 28 April 2010, the National Energy Board of Canada, which regulates offshore drilling in the Canadian Arctic and along the British Columbia Coast, issued a letter to oil companies asking them to explain their argument against safety rules which require same-season relief wells. On 3 May California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger withdrew his support for a proposed plan to allow expanded offshore drilling projects in California. On 8 July, Florida Governor Charlie Crist called for a special session of the state legislature to draft an amendment to the state constitution banning offshore drilling in state waters, which the legislature rejected on 20 July.
In October 2011, the United States Department of the Interior's Minerals Management Service was dissolved after it was determined it had exercised poor oversight over the drilling industry. Three new agencies replaced it, separating the regulation, leasing, and revenue collection responsibilities respectively, among the Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement, the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, and Office of Natural Resources Revenue.
In March 2014, BP was again allowed to bid for oil and gas leases.
== Reactions ==
=== U.S. reactions ===
On 30 April, President Obama dispatched the Secretaries of the Department of Interior and Homeland Security, as well as the EPA Administrator and NOAA to the Gulf Coast to assess the disaster. In his 15 June speech, Obama said, "This oil spill is the worst environmental disaster America has ever faced... Make no mistake: we will fight this spill with everything we've got for as long as it takes. We will make BP pay for the damage their company has caused. And we will do whatever's necessary to help the Gulf Coast and its people recover from this tragedy." Interior Secretary Ken Salazar stated, "Our job basically is to keep the boot on the neck of British Petroleum." Some observers suggested that the Obama administration was being overly aggressive in its criticisms, which some BP investors saw as an attempt to deflect criticism of his own handling of the crisis. Rand Paul accused President Obama of being anti-business and "un-American".
Public opinion polls in the U.S. were generally critical of the way President Obama and the federal government handled the disaster and they were extremely critical of BP's response. Across the US, thousands participated in dozens of protests at BP gas stations and other locations, reducing sales at some stations by 10% to 40%. An academic study that assesses government response to the disaster notes that the severity of disruption substantially influences the social construction of the occasion as policy actors are ill-equipped to handle the challenges at all levels of government.
The petroleum industry claimed that disasters are infrequent and that this spill was an isolated incident and rejected claims of a loss of industry credibility. The American Petroleum Institute (API) stated that the offshore drilling industry is important to job creation and economic growth. CEOs from the top five oil companies all agreed to work harder at improving safety. API announced the creation of an offshore safety institute, separate from API's lobbying operation.
The Organization for International Investment, a Washington D.C.-based advocate for overseas investment in the United States, warned that the heated rhetoric was potentially damaging the reputation of British companies with operations in the United States and could spark a wave of U.S. protectionism that would restrict British firms from government contracts, political donations and lobbying.
In July 2010, President Obama issued an executive order, specifically citing the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, that adopted recommendations from the Interagency Ocean Policy Task Force and established the National Ocean Council. The council called together a number of federal committees and departments engaged in ocean issues to work with a newly established committee for conservation and resource management. In June 2018, the executive order establishing the National Ocean Council was revoked by then-U.S. president Donald Trump in an effort to roll back bureaucracy and benefit "ocean industries [that] employ millions of Americans".
=== United Kingdom reactions ===
In the UK, there was anger at the American press and news outlets for the misuse of the term "British Petroleum" for the company – a name which has not been used since British Petroleum merged with the American company Amoco in 1998 to form BP Amoco. It was said that the U.S. was "dumping" the blame onto the British people and there were calls for British Prime Minister David Cameron to protect British interests in the United States. British pension fund managers (who have large holdings of BP shares and rely upon its dividends) accepted that while BP had to pay compensation for the spill and the environmental damage, they argued that the cost to the company's market value from President Obama's criticism was far outweighing the direct clean-up costs.
Initially, BP downplayed the incident; its CEO Tony Hayward called the amount of oil and dispersant "relatively tiny" in comparison with the "very big ocean". Later, he drew an outpouring of criticism when he said that the spill was a disruption to Gulf Coast residents and himself adding, "You know, I'd like my life back." BP's chief operating officer Doug Suttles contradicted the underwater plume discussion noting, "It may be down to how you define what a plume is here… The oil that has been found is in very minute quantities." In June, BP launched a PR campaign and successfully bid for several search terms related to the spill on Google and other search engines so that the first sponsored search result linked directly to the company's website. On 26 July 2010, it was announced that CEO Tony Hayward was to resign and would be replaced by Bob Dudley, who is an American citizen and previously worked for Amoco.
Hayward's involvement in Deepwater Horizon has left him a highly controversial public figure. In May 2013, he was honored as a "distinguished leader" by the University of Birmingham, but his award ceremony was stopped on multiple occasions by jeers and walk-outs and the focus of a protest from People & Planet members.
In July 2013, Hayward was awarded an honorary degree from Robert Gordon University. This was described as a "sick joke" and "a very serious error of judgement" by Friends of the Earth Scotland. The student body president expressed that students would be "very disappointed".
=== International reactions ===
The U.S. government rejected offers of cleanup help from Canada, Croatia, France, Germany, Ireland, Mexico, the Netherlands, Norway, Romania, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the United Nations. The U.S. State Department listed 70 assistance offers from 23 countries, all being initially declined, but later, 8 had been accepted. The USCG actively requested skimming boats and equipment from several countries.
== Legal aspects and settlements ==
=== Investigations ===
In the United States the Deepwater Horizon investigation included several investigations and commissions, including reports by:
the USCG National Incident Commander, Admiral Thad Allen,
the National Commission on the BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill and Offshore Drilling,
Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcement (BOEMRE),
National Academy of Engineering,
National Research Council,
Government Accountability Office,
National Oil Spill Commission, and
Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board.
The Republic of the Marshall Islands Maritime Administrator conducted a separate investigation on the marine casualty. BP conducted its internal investigation.
An investigation of the possible causes of the explosion was launched on 22 April 2010 by the USCG and the Minerals Management Service. On 11 May the United States administration requested the National Academy of Engineering conduct an independent technical investigation. The National Commission on the BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill and Offshore Drilling was established on 22 May to "consider the root causes of the disaster and offer options on safety and environmental precautions." The investigation by United States Attorney General Eric Holder was announced on 1 June 2010. Also the United States House Committee on Energy and Commerce conducted a number of hearings, including hearings of Tony Hayward and heads of Anadarko and Mitsui's exploration unit. According to the US Congressional investigation, the rig's blowout preventer, built by Cameron International Corporation, had a hydraulic leak and a failed battery, and therefore failed.
On 8 September 2010, BP released a 193-page report on its web site. The report places some of the blame for the accident on BP but also on Halliburton and Transocean. The report found that on 20 April 2010, managers misread pressure data and gave their approval for rig workers to replace drilling fluid in the well with seawater, which was not heavy enough to prevent gas that had been leaking into the well from firing up the pipe to the rig, causing the explosion. The conclusion was that BP was partly to blame, as was Transocean, which owned the rig. Responding to the report, Transocean and Halliburton placed all blame on BP.
On 9 November 2010, a report by the Oil Spill Commission said that there had been "a rush to completion" on the well and criticised poor management decisions. "There was not a culture of safety on that rig," the co-chair said.
The National Commission on the BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill and Offshore Drilling released a final report on 5 January 2011. The panel found that BP, Halliburton, and Transocean had attempted to work more cheaply and thus helped to trigger the explosion and ensuing leakage. The report stated that "whether purposeful or not, many of the decisions that BP, Halliburton, and Transocean made that increased the risk of the Macondo blowout clearly saved those companies significant time (and money)." BP released a statement in response to this, saying, that "even prior to the conclusion of the commission's investigation, BP instituted significant changes designed to further strengthen safety and risk management." Transocean, however, blamed BP for making the decisions before the actual explosion occurred and government officials for permitting those decisions. Halliburton stated that it was acting only upon the orders of BP when it injected the cement into the wall of the well. It criticized BP for its failure to run a cement bond log test. In the report, BP was accused of nine faults. One was that it had not used a diagnostic tool to test the strength of the cement. Another was ignoring a pressure test that had failed. Still another was for not plugging the pipe with cement. The study did not, however, place the blame on any one of these events. Rather, it concluded that "notwithstanding these inherent risks, the accident of April 20 was avoidable" and that "it resulted from clear mistakes made in the first instance by BP, Halliburton and Transocean, and by government officials who, relying too much on industry's assertions of the safety of their operations, failed to create and apply a program of regulatory oversight that would have properly minimized the risk of deepwater drilling." The panel also noted that the government regulators did not have sufficient knowledge or authority to notice these cost-cutting decisions.
On 23 March 2011, BOEMRE (former MMS) and the USCG published a forensic examination report on the blowout preventer, prepared by Det Norske Veritas. The report concluded that the primary cause of failure was that the blind shear rams failed to fully close and seal due to a portion of drill pipe buckling between the shearing blocks.
The US government report issued in September 2011 stated that BP is ultimately responsible for the spill, and that Halliburton and Transocean share some of the blame. The report states that the main cause was the defective cement job, and Halliburton, BP and Transocean were, in different ways, responsible for the accident. The report stated that, although the events leading to the sinking of Deepwater Horizon were set into motion by the failure to prevent a well blowout, the investigation revealed numerous systems deficiencies, and acts and omissions by Transocean and its Deepwater Horizon crew, that had an adverse impact on the ability to prevent or limit the magnitude of the disaster. The report also states that a central cause of the blowout was failure of a cement barrier allowing hydrocarbons to flow up the wellbore, through the riser and onto the rig, resulting in the blowout. The loss of life and the subsequent pollution of the Gulf of Mexico were the result of poor risk management, last‐minute changes to plans, failure to observe and respond to critical indicators, inadequate well control response, and insufficient emergency bridge response training by companies and individuals responsible for drilling at the Macondo well and for the operation of the drilling platform.
=== Spill response fund ===
On 16 June 2010, after BP executives met with President Obama, BP announced and established the Gulf Coast Claims Facility (GCCF), a $20 billion fund to settle claims arising from the Deepwater Horizon spill. This fund was set aside for natural resource damages, state and local response costs, and individual compensation, but could not be used for fines or penalties. Prior to establishing the GCCF, emergency compensation was paid by BP from an initial facility.
The GCCF was administrated by attorney Kenneth Feinberg. The facility began accepting claims on 23 August 2010. On 8 March 2012, after BP and a team of plaintiffs' attorneys agreed to a class-action settlement, a court-supervised administrator Patrick Juneau took over administration. Until this more than one million claims of 220,000 individual and business claimants were processed and more than $6.2 billion was paid out from the fund. 97% of payments were made to claimants in the Gulf States. In June 2012, the settlement of claims through the GCCF was replaced by the court-supervised settlement program. During this transition period additional $404 million in claims were paid.
The GCCF and its administrator Feinberg had been criticized about the amount and speed of payments as well as a lack of transparency. An independent audit of the GCCF, announced by Attorney General Eric Holder, was approved by Senate on 21 October 2011. An auditor BDO Consulting found that 7,300 claimants were wrongly denied or underpaid. As a result, about $64 million of additional payments was made. The Mississippi Center for Justice provided pro bono assistance to 10,000 people to help them "navigate the complex claims process." In a New York Times opinion piece, Stephen Teague, staff attorney at the Mississippi Center for Justice, argued that BP had become "increasingly brazen" in "stonewalling payments." "But tens of thousands of gulf residents still haven't been fully compensated for their losses, and many are struggling to make ends meet. Many low-wage workers in the fishing and service industries, for example, have been seeking compensation for lost wages and jobs for three years."
In July 2013, BP made a motion in court to freeze payments on tens of thousands of claims, arguing inter alia that a staff attorney from the Deepwater Horizon Court-Supervised Settlement Program, the program responsible for evaluating compensation claims, had improperly profited from claims filed by a New Orleans law firm. The attorney is said to have received portions of settlement claims for clients he referred to the firm. The federal judge assigned to the case, Judge Barbier, refused to halt the settlement program, saying he had not seen evidence of widespread fraud, adding that he was "offended by what he saw as attempts to smear the lawyer administering the claims."
=== Civil litigation and settlements ===
By 26 May 2010, over 130 lawsuits relating to the spill had been filed against one or more of BP, Transocean, Cameron International Corporation, and Halliburton Energy Services, although it was considered likely by observers that these would be combined into one court as a multidistrict litigation. On 21 April 2011, BP issued $40 billion worth of lawsuits against rig owner Transocean, cementer Halliburton and blowout preventer manufacturer Cameron. The oil firm alleged failed safety systems and irresponsible behaviour of contractors had led to the explosion, including claims that Halliburton failed to properly use modelling software to analyze safe drilling conditions. The firms deny the allegations.
On 2 March 2012, BP and plaintiffs agreed to settle their lawsuits. The deal would settle roughly 100,000 claims filed by individuals and businesses affected by the spill. On 13 August, BP asked US District Judge Carl Barbier to approve the settlement, saying its actions "did not constitute gross negligence or willful misconduct". On 13 January 2013, Judge Barbier approved a medical-benefits portion of BP's proposed $7.8 billion partial settlement. People living for at least 60 days along oil-impacted shores or involved in the clean-up who can document one or more specific health conditions caused by the oil or dispersants are eligible for benefits, as are those injured during clean-up. BP also agreed to spend $105 million over five years to set up a Gulf Coast health outreach program and pay for medical examinations. According to a group presenting the plaintiffs, the deal has no specific cap. BP says that it has $9.5 billion in assets set aside in a trust to pay the claims, and the settlement will not increase the $37.2 billion the company budgeted for spill-related expenses. BP originally expected to spend $7.8 billion. By October 2013 it had increased its projection to $9.2 billion, saying it could be "significantly higher."
On 31 August 2012, the US Department of Justice (DOJ) filed papers in federal court in New Orleans blaming BP for the Gulf oil spill, describing the spill as an example of "gross negligence and willful misconduct". In their statement the DOJ said that some of BP's arguments were "plainly misleading" and that the court should ignore BP's
argument that the Gulf region is "undergoing a robust recovery". BP rejected the charges saying "BP believes it was not grossly negligent and looks forward to presenting evidence on this issue at trial in January." The DOJ also said Transocean, the owner and operator of the Deepwater Horizon rig, was guilty of gross negligence as well.
On 14 November 2012, BP and the US Department of Justice reached a settlement. BP will pay $4.5 billion in fines and other payments, the largest of its kind in US history. In addition, the U.S. government temporarily banned BP from new federal contracts over its "lack of business integrity". The plea was accepted by Judge Sarah Vance of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Louisiana on 31 January 2013. The settlement includes payments of $2.394 billion to the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation, $1.15 billion to the Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund, $350 million to the National Academy of Sciences for oil spill prevention and response research, $100 million to the North America Wetland Conservation Fund, $6 million to General Treasury and $525 million to the Securities and Exchange Commission. Oil sector analysts at London-based investment bank Canaccord Genuity noted that a settlement along the lines disclosed would only be a partial resolution of the many claims against BP.
On 3 January 2013, the US Justice Department announced "Transocean Deepwater Inc. has agreed to plead guilty to violating the Clean Water Act and to pay a total of $1.4 billion in civil and criminal fines and penalties". $800 million goes to Gulf Coast restoration Trust Fund, $300 million to the Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund, $150 million to the National Wild Turkey Federation and $150 million to the National Academy of Sciences. MOEX Offshore 2007 agreed to pay $45 million to the Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund, $25 million to five Gulf state and $20 million to supplemental environmental projects.
On 25 July 2013, Halliburton pleaded guilty to destruction of critical evidence after the oil spill and said it would pay the maximum allowable fine of $200,000 and will be subject to three years of probation.
In January 2014, a panel of the U.S. Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals rejected an effort by BP to curb payment of what it described as "fictitious" and "absurd" claims to a settlement fund for businesses and persons affected by the oil spill. BP said administration of the 2012 settlement was marred by the fact that people without actual damages could file a claim. The court ruled that BP had not explained "how this court or the district court should identify or even discern the existence of 'claimants that have suffered no cognizable injury.'" The Court then went further, calling BP's position "nonsensical". The Supreme Court of the United States later refused to hear BP's appeal after victims and claimants, along with numerous Gulf coast area chambers of commerce, objected to the oil major's efforts to renege on the Settlement Agreement.
In September 2014, Halliburton agreed to settle a large percentage of legal claims against it by paying $1.1 billion into a trust by way of three installments over two years.
=== Justice Department lawsuit ===
BP and its partners in the oil well, Transocean and Halliburton, went on trial on 25 February 2013 in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Louisiana in New Orleans to determine payouts and fines under the Clean Water Act and the Natural Resources Damage Assessment. The plaintiffs included the U.S. Justice Department, Gulf states and private individuals. Tens of billions of dollars in liability and fines were at stake. A finding of gross negligence would result in a four-fold increase in the fines BP would have to pay for violating the federal Clean Water Act, and leave the company liable for punitive damages for private claims.
The trial's first phase was to determine the liability of BP, Transocean, Halliburton, and other companies, and if they acted with gross negligence and willful misconduct. The second phase scheduled in September 2013 focused on the flow rate of the oil and the third phase scheduled in 2014 was to consider damages. According to the plaintiffs' lawyers the major cause of an explosion was the mishandling of a rig safety test, while inadequate training of the staff, poor maintenance of the equipment and substandard cement were also mentioned as things leading to the disaster. According to The Wall Street Journal the U.S. government and Gulf Coast states had prepared an offer to BP for a $16 billion settlement. However, it was not clear if this deal had been officially proposed to BP and if BP has accepted it.
On 4 September 2014, U.S. District Judge Carl Barbier ruled BP was guilty of gross negligence and willful misconduct. He described BP's actions as "reckless". He said Transocean's and Halliburton's actions were "negligent". He apportioned 67% of the blame for the spill to BP, 30% to Transocean, and 3% to Halliburton. Fines would be apportioned commensurate with the degree of negligence of the parties, measured against the number of barrels of oil spilled. Under the Clean Water Act fines can be based on a cost per barrel of up to $4,300, at the discretion of the judge. The number of barrels was in dispute at the conclusion of the trial with BP arguing 2.5 million barrels were spilled over the 87 days the spill lasted, while the court contends 4.2 million barrels were spilled. BP issued a statement strongly disagreeing with the finding, and saying the court's decision would be appealed.
Barbier ruled that BP had acted with "conscious disregard of known risks" and rejected BP's assertion that other parties were equally responsible for the oil spill. His ruling stated that BP "employees took risks that led to the largest environmental disaster in U.S. history", that the company was "reckless", and determined that several crucial BP decisions were "primarily driven by a desire to save time and money, rather than ensuring that the well was secure." BP strongly disagreed with the ruling and filed an immediate appeal.
On 2 July 2015, BP, the U.S. Justice Department and five gulf states announced that the company agreed to pay a record settlement of $18.7 billion. To date BP's cost for the clean-up, environmental and economic damages and penalties has reached $54 billion.
=== Criminal charges ===
In addition to the private lawsuits and civil governmental actions, the federal government charged multiple companies and five individuals with federal crimes.
In the November 2012 resolution of the federal charges against it, BP agreed to plead guilty to 11 felony counts related to the deaths of the 11 workers and paid a $4 billion fine. Transocean pled guilty to a misdemeanor charge as part of its $1.4 billion fine.
In April 2012, the Justice Department filed the first criminal charge against Kurt Mix, a BP engineer, for obstructing justice by deleting messages showing that BP knew the flow rate was three times higher than initial claims by the company, and knew that "Top Kill" was unlikely to succeed, but claimed otherwise. Three more BP employees were charged in November 2012. Site managers Donald Vidrine and Robert Kaluza were charged with manslaughter for acting negligently in their supervision of key safety tests performed on the rig prior to the explosion, and failure to alert onshore engineers of problems in the drilling operation. David Rainey, BP's former vice-president for exploration in the Gulf of Mexico, was charged with obstructing Congress by misrepresenting the rate that oil was flowing out of the well. Lastly, Anthony Badalamenti, a Halliburton manager, was charged with instructing two employees to delete data related to Halliburton's cementing job on the oil well.
None of the charges against individuals resulted in any prison time, and no charges were levied against upper level executives. Anthony Badalementi was sentenced to one year probation, Donald Vidrine paid a $50,000 fine and received 10 months probation, Kurt Mix received 6 months' probation, and David Rainey and Robert Kaluza were acquitted.
== In popular culture ==
=== Documentary ===
On 28 March 2011, Dispatches aired a documentary by James Brabazon, BP: In Deep Water, about the oil company, BP, covering oil spills in the Gulf of Mexico and other incidents and its relationship with governments.
In April 2012, the National Geographic Channel's documentary series Seconds From Disaster featured the accident in an episode titled "The Deepwater Horizon"
In 2012, Beyond Pollution 2012 traveled across the gulf coast interviewing environmental experts, government authorities, fishermen, scientists, drilling engineers, and key BP contractors, examining economic and health effects.
In 2012, The Big Fix, documented the April 2010 oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico following the sinking of the Deepwater Horizon oil rig
In 2014, The Great Invisible, by Margaret Brown chose to focus on the social impacts on people whose lives have been affected by this tragedy. Later airing 19 April 2015 as the season 16, episode 14 of Independent Lens.
In 2014, Vanishing Pearls: The Oystermen of Pointe a la Hache, Louisiana, documented a town of nearly 300 struggling to survive following the oil spill that left their crop dead and finances in ruin.
In 2016, Pretty Slick documented the cleanup effort and locals across four Gulf states about the largest man-made environmental disaster in U.S. history.
In 2016, After the Spill, Jon Bowermaster investigates how the disaster affected local economies and the health of humans, animals, and food sources, and with Corexit, where all the oil went, as a follow-up to the pre-spill SoLa, Louisiana Water Stories, in post-production when the Deepwater Horizon exploded.
In 2016, Dispatches from the Gulf, Hal Weiner follows scientists investigating the oil spill's effect on the Gulf.
=== Drama ===
In 2012, "We Just Decided To", the pilot of the HBO TV series The Newsroom, featured its characters covering the Deepwater Horizon story.
The 2015 film The Runner, directed by Austin Stark and starring Nicolas Cage, is a fictional story of a politician and his family set in the aftermath of the Deepwater Horizon disaster.
In 2016, Deepwater Horizon, a film based on the explosion, directed by Peter Berg and starring Mark Wahlberg, Kurt Russell and John Malkovich was released.
=== Music ===
In 2011, Jimmy Fallon, then host of Late Night with Jimmy Fallon, created a protest song about how there were still tarballs floating around the Gulf of Mexico called "Balls In Your Mouth". He performed it a number of times on the show with different guest singers, including Eddie Vedder, Russell Crowe, Brad Paisley, and Florence Welch. The live recording of the song featuring Eddie Vedder was included in Fallon's comedy album "Blow Your Pants Off".
In 2011, Rise Against released a song titled "Help Is on the Way" on their album Endgame. The song is about the slow response time for aid to disaster-stricken areas, with lyrics that allude to the Macondo spill and Hurricane Katrina.
In June 2011, Canadian musician City and Colour released a song titled "At the Bird's Foot" on his album Little Hell. The song is about the event and the greed of those involved.
On election day in the United States, 6 November 2012, Pete Seeger and Lorre Wyatt released the music video and single "God's Counting on Me, God's Counting on You", which they recorded and filmed live aboard the Hudson River Sloop Clearwater in 2010 immediately after the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. The song references the spill.
In 2012, American singer-songwriter Andrew Bird released the song "Hole in the Ocean Floor" referencing the Deepwater Horizon oil spill as his inspiration.
=== Television ===
The Deepwater Horizon oil spill is referenced in a 2010 episode of South Park, "Coon 2: Hindsight". When a BP drilling vessel drills a new hole in the Gulf, it accidentally causes an oil spill in a protected zone, prompting one of the crewmen to exclaim "Oh, don't tell me we did it again?". Later on in the episode, BP drilled again and opened up a portal to another dimension, causing the Gulf to be attacked by its creatures. Then they drilled on the Moon hoping to change the gravitational pull on the Earth and quell the swells on the ocean, allowing them to place a cap on the portal. However, in doing this, Cthulhu emerged from the portal. Each time they drilled, Tony Hayward released a "we're sorry" campaign. The hole in the Gulf wasn't shut until two episodes later.
The Beavis and Butt-Head season 8 episode, "Spill", takes place at the Gulf when their teacher, Mr. Van Driessen, organizes a trip to help clean baby birds affected by the oil spill. The boys mistakenly believe they will be having sex with "filthy chicks" and volunteer to go.
== See also ==
Exxon Valdez oil spill
List of industrial disasters
List of oil spills
Offshore oil and gas in the Gulf of Mexico (United States)
Taylor oil spill
Timeline of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill
Two barrier rule
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Khatchadourian, Raffi (11 March 2011). "A Reporter at Large: The Gulf war". The New Yorker. Vol. 87, no. 4. pp. 36–59. Retrieved 15 December 2013.
Liu, Yonggang; MacFadyen, Amy; Ji, Zhen-Gang; Weisberg, Robert H. (2011). "Monitoring and Modeling the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill: A Record-Breaking Enterprise". Geophysical Monograph Series. Washington DC American Geophysical Union Geophysical Monograph Series. 195. Bibcode:2011GMS...195.....L. doi:10.1029/GM195. ISBN 978-0-87590-485-6. Archived from the original on 6 November 2014. Retrieved 6 November 2014.
Marghany, Maged (15 December 2014). "Utilization of a genetic algorithm for the automatic detection of oil spill from RADARSAT-2 SAR satellite data". Marine Pollution Bulletin. 89 (1–2): 20–29. Bibcode:2014MarPB..89...20M. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.10.041. PMID 25455367.
Erik Stokstad (8 February 2013). "BP Research Dollars Yield Signs of Cautious Hope". Science. 339 (6120): 636–637. Bibcode:2013Sci...339..636S. doi:10.1126/science.339.6120.636. PMID 23393236. Retrieved 25 February 2013.
Daniel Kaniewski; James Carafano (9 August 2010). "Critical Lessons from the Federal Response to the Gulf Oil Spill". The Heritage Foundation. Archived from the original on 12 August 2010. Retrieved 31 July 2015.
== External links ==
Deepwater BP Oil Spill at the Wayback Machine (archive index) – at Whitehouse.gov
Deepwater Horizon Incident, Gulf of Mexico from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
RestoreTheGulf.gov official U.S. Government Web site, taking over content and functions from Deepwater Horizon Response site
Smithsonian's Ocean Portal
Science in a Time of Crisis: WHOI's response to the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill a multimedia presentation from Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
"Approaches for Ecosystem Services Valuation for the Gulf of Mexico After the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill: Interim Report by the National Academy of Sciences"
CDC – Oil Spill Response Resources – NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topic
The Role of BP in the Deepwater Horizon Explosion and Oil Spill: Hearing before the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations of the Committee on Energy and Commerce, House of Representatives, One Hundred Eleventh Congress, Second Session, June 17, 2010
=== Lead state agency websites ===
Florida Department of Environmental Protection (DEP)
Mississippi DEQ Archived 20 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine
State of Florida Oil Spill Academic Task Force
=== News media ===
Full coverage from The New York Times
Full coverage from The Times-Picayune (New Orleans)
ScientificAmerican.com 2015-04020 BP Gulf Oil Spill: 5 Years Later Indepth Report
Deepwater Horizon oil spill caused lasting damage, report says Archived 12 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine
BP Oil Spill, NPR
=== Interactive maps ===
Gulf Oil Spill Tracker interactive map and form for citizen reporting (SkyTruth.org)
Map and Estimates of the Oil Spilled (New York Times)
Where Oil Has Made Landfall (New York Times)
=== Images ===
Rig fire at Deepwater Horizon 4/21/10, video at CNN iReport
GOES-13 satellite images on the CIMSS Satellite Blog
Underwater Video Examines Multiple Leak Points Causing BP Oil Spill
The Big Fix. Documentary about the oil spill
=== Animations and graphics ===
Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill Interactive: Smithsonian Ocean Portal
BBC News – interactive animation to the disaster and blocking efforts
New York Times exploded view diagrams on the methods used to stop the oil spill
Graphic: Where the oil and gas went Archived 12 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine
CSB produced blowout animation and technical explanation of cause of disaster |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Briggs_%26_Stratton_Raptor#:~:text=Released%20in%201995%2C%20the%20third,Raptor%20III%2C%20had%20five%20horsepower. | Briggs & Stratton Raptor | The Briggs & Stratton Raptor series is a line of single-cylinder, four-cycle flathead engines. The series includes:
Raptor 1: an industrial-based 3-horsepower flathead Model 13 engine introduced in the early 1970s.
Raptor II: Released in the 1980s, it introduced the aluminum-bore dual-bearing block and had four horsepower standard. A cast-aluminum connecting rod decreased internal mass and extended engine life. It was designed after the company's kart-racing engines but without the racing parts.
Raptor III: The final Raptor variant, released in 1995, had five horsepower and added a cast-alloy crank with a carbon-infused piston. It is the best-selling kart-racing engine of all time; hundreds of thousands remain in service.
BlockZilla: The block is about 6 lb (2.7 kg) heavier and has more structural integrity. The exhaust and intake ports are set on an angle.
== External links ==
[1] A Briggs Raptor III. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_A._Prather_Award | Victor A. Prather Award | The Victor A. Prather Award is an award established by the American Astronautical Society "to promote understanding of high altitude environment on humans." It is awarded to "researchers, engineers and flight crew members in the field of extravehicular protection or activity in space."
The award is in honor of Victor A. Prather, a Naval flight surgeon.
== Recipients ==
Source: American Astronautical Society
1962 – Malcom Davis Ross
1963 – Col. Chuck Yeager
1964 – No award
1965 – Richard S. Johnston
1966 – No award
1967 – No award
1968 – Fred Forbes
1969 – Edward L. Hays and James V. Correale
1970 – Robert E. Smylie and Charles Lutz
1971 – Robert E. Breeding and Leonard Shepard
1972 – Harold I. Johnson
1973 – Walter Guy and Harley Stutesman, Jr.
1974 – Bruce McCandless II and Charles E. Whitsett, Jr.
1975 – David C. Schultz and Harold J. McMann
1976 – Larry E. Bell and Robert M. Bernarndin
1977 – No award
1978 – James W. McBarron II
1979 – Maurice A. Carson and Frederick A. Keune
1980 – No award
1981 – No award
1982 – Wilbert E. Ellis and James M. Waligora
1983 – No award
1984 – Bruce McCandless II
1985 – James D. van Hoften, William F. Fisher, Jerry L. Ross, and Sherwood C. Spring
1986 – Joseph P. Allen
1987 – Joseph J. Kosmo and Hubert C. Vykukal
1988 – Michael Brzezinski
1989 – No award
1990 – Jerry L. Ross
1992 – Kathryn D. Sullivan
1993 – STS-49 Extravehicular Crew: Thomas D. Akers, Pierre J. Thuot, Richard J. Hieb, and Kathryn C. Thornton
1994 – STS-61 Extravehicular Crew: F. Story Musgrave, Thomas D. Akers, Jeffrey A. Hoffman, and Kathryn C. Thornton
1995 – Clifford W. Hess, Scott A. Bleisath, Mark C. Lee
1996 – Willy Z. Sadeh
1997 – Alan M. Rochford
1998 – Guy Severin
1999 – Jerry L. Ross and James H. Newman
2000 – Michael L. Gernhardt
2001 – No award
2002 – G. Allen Flynt
2003 – No award
2004 – No award
2005 – No award
2006 – Scott Crossfield (posthumous) and David Clark (posthumous)
2007 – Curtis A. Stephenson
2008 – Joseph Kittinger
2009 – Joseph A. Ruseckas
2010 – STS-125 EVA Team
2011 – Joseph Kosmo
2012 – Jan Stepanek
2013 – Felix Baumgartner and the Red Bull Stratos Team
2013 - Award terminated
== See also ==
List of engineering awards
List of medicine awards
List of space technology awards
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Mateo,_Boyac%C3%A1 | San Mateo, Boyacá | San Mateo is a town and municipality in the Northern Boyacá Province, part of the Colombian department of Boyacá. The urban centre is located at an altitude of 2,500 metres (8,200 ft) in the Eastern Ranges of the Colombian Andes. San Mateo borders Guacamayas, Panqueba and El Cocuy in the east, Boavita in the west, Macaravita, Santander in the north and La Uvita in the south.
== Etymology ==
Before 1914, San Mateo was called La Capilla. It received its present name honouring the San Mateo field, where Antonio Ricaurte, hero of the Independence of Colombia died for the fatherland.
== History ==
The history of San Mateo is not well documented. The foundation of the town has been attributed by Ramón Correa to Archbishop of Bogotá Antonio Caballero y Góngora on September 21, 1773, while Caballero was working in Córdoba, Spain. Little data exists in the archives for the tumultuous period of civil wars of the republican era.
The symbol of San Mateo is the typical Colombian fruit chirimoya.
== Economy ==
The economy of San Mateo is centered around agriculture with potatoes, maize, beans, wheat, tobacco, pea and coffee as main products cultivated. The municipality also has livestock farming and mining activities of sand, gravel and carbon.
== Born in San Mateo ==
Luis Espinosa, former professional cyclist
Gregorio Ladino, former professional cyclist
== Gallery ==
== References ==
=== Notes === |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yolo_Akili | Yolo Akili | Yolo Akili (born October 14, 1981 as Michael Todd Robinson Jr), also known as Yolo Akili Robinson, is an activist, writer, poet, counselor, and community organizer who advocates for addressing mental and emotional health needs in the Black community. He is the author of Dear Universe: Letters of Affirmation and Empowerment, and the founder and executive director of BEAM (Black Emotional and Mental Health Collective).
== Early career ==
Born Michael Todd Robinson Jr, after graduating from Georgia State University with a degree in Women's and African American Studies, he adopted the name Yolo Akili. In the years following graduation, Akili worked as a counselor, yoga instructor and poet. During this period he released a spoken word album of poetic meditations ruminating on sexual identity called Purple Galaxy.
Moving into work as a community organizer, Akili joined AID Atlanta's HIV prevention team and served as a life support counselor at National AIDS & Education Services to Minorities (NAESM). Collaborating with Charles Stephens, Akili co-founded Sweet Tea: Southern Queer Men's Collective, a group of queer pro-feminist dedicated to combating sexism. As the regional training coordinator of Men Stopping Violence (MSV), Akili developed batterer intervention programs geared towards educating heterosexual African American men in their 40s about abetting violence and sexism against women.
In conjunction with this work, Akili began to focus on disentangling victims of violence from abusive patterns. Writing for Shondaland, Akili detailed his own struggle with overcoming domestic violence, the shame that afflicts members of the LBGTQ+ community who feel trapped in abusive relationships, and the need for victims of trauma to avoid normalizing destructive behaviour. During his time as a counselor, Akili saw that there were institutional barriers in place throughout the country that were preventing members of the Black community from engaging with their emotional healthcare needs, particularly after witnessing an HIV-testing counselor fail to connect a patient with care while working in Atlanta.
== BEAM ==
Seeking to address the disconnect between mental healthcare access in the Black community, and fed up with the failure of HIV/AIDS and domestic violence organizations to recognize the intersection between emotional trauma, recovery, and abuse, Akili founded BEAM, "Black Emotional and Mental Health Collective". Named in honor of Joseph Beam, the cultural and political activist who inspired Akili to reflect on his personal vulnerability as a Black gay man, BEAM works with a collection of artists, healers, advocates, legal professionals, activists, and religious leaders to provide mental and emotional healthcare to the historically marginalized and medically mistreated Black community. Akili has stated that BEAM's goal is to "remove the barriers Black people experience getting access to mental health care and healing". He has also cited the lack of emotional health support from licensed professionals as inspiration for training people in Black communities—from grocery clerks to aunties to barbers—to provide help where none would otherwise exist.
Through BEAM, Akili sponsors community engagement events that teach Black people how to recognize their emotional needs, develop self-care practices, and pinpoint specific organizations that offer help when trauma becomes unbearable. He also delivers grants to mental healthcare groups across the nation that engage with traditionally neglected communities. BEAM's outreach events have featured panels of notable mental health experts and activist including Jenifer Lewis, Raquel Willis, Patrisse Cullors, Vanessa Baden, Dr. Consuela Ward, Dr. Moya Bailley, Tre'Vell Andeson, James Bland, Nathan Hale Williams, Grant Emerson Harvey, Darryl Stephens, and Aaryn Lang.
== Other work ==
=== Advocacy and writing ===
Akili is an advocate for feminism, denouncing misogyny throughout the gay community, rejecting the agency that some gay men feel to fondle women's bodies, recognizing the need for therapy and addressing one's emotional well-being in the Black community (as opposed to self medicating or pushing through), embracing the "permission to get better: 'Healing is our birthright', and overcoming the vestiges of HIV/AIDS panic and trauma from the medical industrial complex in the Black community.
In 2015 he helped lead the Children's Hospital of Los Angeles' study into improving HIV treatment among young Black and Latino men (HYM). His writing has appeared in numerous publications including, TheBody.com, Essence, Everyday Feminism, The Atlanta Journal Constitution, Cassius, and Shondaland. As a contributor to HuffPost, he has challenged the power dynamics between sex roles in same-gender relationships, writing "...because a "bottom" still means weak, and "top" still means power — This is a call to become clearer to each other outside of checked boxes on Grindr or stats listed on Jacked", demanded that Black communities reject the narrative that "Black People are Deficient In Every Damn Thing and There are No 'Good' Black Men", and called for a "World Where Ending Partner Violence Was A Priority" in a "Black (Feminist) Future where Gendered socialization will be declared a public health emergency."
=== Media appearances ===
Akili has delivered keynotes, lectures, and led panels at National African American MSM Leadership Conference on HIV/AIDS and Other Health Disparities,Claremont McKenna College, AIDS United, Vanderbilt University, Ramapo College, Harvard University, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Clayton State University, Baruch College, Agnes Scott College, Fordham University, Northern Illinois University, and Columbia University.
== Awards ==
He was awarded the Creative Leadership Award in 2009 by the Feminist Women's Health Center for his work promoting feminism. After releasing his book Dear Universe in 2013, Akili was recognized by BET as a "Health Hero" for his work addressing emotional health in the Black community. He appeared on NBC News in 2016 as a part of Jarrett Hill's Back to Reality podcast, to discuss popular culture in the Black community. He was recognized by Blavity as one of "28 Young Black Creators And Leaders Making History Today" in 2018. That same year, in recognition of his work promoting the intersection between mental health and social justice, he was nominated by AIDS United to the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation which awarded him its Health Equity Award. On the heels of this accolade, he was declared a "Health Equity Hero" by TheBody.com. In 2019 he was recognized by Essence Magazine as a part of their Black History Month coverage for his work "Aiding in The Resistance" in the Black LGBTQ+ community. On June 10, 2020, Jordan Peele announced that he was donating $1 million to five Black Lives Matter centered organizations through his production firm MonkeyPaw Productions, including Akili and BEAM which received $200K. That same month, Akili was celebrated for his work during BET's 2020 Music Awards, where it was announced that Well's Fargo Bank was rewarding Akili and BEAM $25K for their work.
== References ==
== External links ==
Official biography on BEAM
Yolo Akili on Twitter |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Dragons%27_Den_(British_TV_programme)_offers_Series_11-20 | List of Dragons' Den (British TV programme) offers Series 11-20 | The following is a list of offers made on the British reality television series Dragons' Den in Series 11–20, aired during 2013–2023. 118 episodes were broadcast consisting of at least 893 pitches. A total of 182 pitches were successful, with 31 offers from the dragons rejected by the entrepreneurs and 680 failing to receive an offer of investment.
== Series overview ==
== Successful pitches ==
=== Series 11 ===
=== Series 12 ===
=== Series 13 ===
=== Series 14 ===
=== Series 15 ===
=== Series 16 ===
=== Series 17 ===
=== Series 18 ===
=== Series 19 ===
=== Series 20 ===
== Rejected offers ==
=== Series 11 ===
=== Series 12 ===
=== Series 13 ===
=== Series 14 ===
=== Series 15 ===
=== Series 16 ===
=== Series 17 ===
=== Series 18 ===
=== Series 19 ===
=== Series 20 ===
== Failed Pitches ==
=== Series 11 ===
=== Series 12 ===
=== Series 13 ===
=== Series 14 ===
=== Series 15 ===
=== Series 16 ===
=== Series 17 ===
=== Series 18 ===
=== Series 19 ===
=== Series 20 ===
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bure_Nangal | Bure Nangal | Bure Nangal is a village in Batala in Gurdaspur district of Punjab State, India. The village is administrated by Sarpanch an elected representative of the village.
== Demography ==
As of 2011, the village has a total number of 211 houses and a population of 1171 of which 610 are males while 561 are females according to the report published by Census India in 2011. The literacy rate of the village is 78.80%, highest than the state average of 75.84%. The population of children under the age of 6 years is 124 which is 10.59% of total population of the village, and child sex ratio is approximately 968 higher than the state average of 846.
== See also ==
List of villages in India
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Adams_%28sculptor%29 | Robert Adams (sculptor) | Robert Adams (5 October 1917 – 5 April 1984) was an English sculptor and designer. Whilst not widely known outside of artistic circles, he was nonetheless regarded as one of the foremost sculptors of his generation. In a critical review of a retrospective mounted by the Gimpel Fils gallery in London in 1993, Brian Glasser of Time Out magazine described Adams as "the neglected genius of post-war British sculpture", a sentiment echoed by Tim Hilton in the Sunday Independent, who ranked Adams' work above that of his contemporaries, Ken Armitage, Reg Butler, Lynn Chadwick and Bernard Meadows.
== Education and early life ==
Adams attended the village school in Hardingstone, Northamptonshire, now a suburb of the town of Northampton. He lived there until 1951. He left school at age 14 and did various manual jobs, firstly as a van-boy for a printer and later with the agricultural engineering company, Cooch & Sons, where experience gained in crafting metals proved useful in his later artistic creations.
From 1937 to 1946 he attended evening classes part-time in life drawing and painting at the Northampton School of Art.
During the Second World War, Adams was a conscientious objector, but joined the Civil Defence as a fire warden.
== Career ==
Some of his first sculptures were exhibited in London between 1942 and 1944 as part of group shows by artists working for Civil Defence
In April 1946 he exhibited fourteen of his early oil portraits in the Northampton Public Library.
Between 23 November 1947 and 3 January 1948, he held his first one-man exhibition at Gimpel Fils Gallery, 84 Duke Street, London.
From 1949 until 1959 he taught at the Central School of Art and Design in London. Whilst there he came into contact with Victor Pasmore and artists such as Kenneth Martin and Mary Martin who were pursuing the development of Constructivist ideas in Britain.
In the period 1950 to 1980 he was recognised as one of Britain's foremost abstract sculptors. His work was exhibited at the Venice Biennale in 1952 and again when he represented Britain with a retrospective occupying two galleries in 1962.
Some of his works are in the Tate Britain collection and the modern art in New York, Rome, and Turin, the São Paulo Museum of Modern Art and several other locations worldwide but he is virtually unknown in his home town. Apocalyptic Figure was commissioned by the Arts Council England for the Festival of Britain in 1951. Some of his large-scale sculptures can be seen at The Custom House, London, Heathrow Airport, Shell Mex House, London, and the Musiktheater im Revier, Gelsenkirchen, Germany. One of his works is in the Contemporary Art Museum of Macedonia.
He had a retrospective at the Northampton Art Gallery in 1971.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambda_Istanbul#:~:text=Lambda%20Istanbul%20is%20a%20Turkish,an%20official%20organization%20in%202006. | Lambda Istanbul | Lambda Istanbul is a Turkish LGBT organization. It was founded in 1993 as a cultural space for the LGBT community, and became an official organization in 2006. Clandestine Pride events were held in Turkey starting in 1993, and with Lambda Istanbul participation, they became public marches.
The organization was ordered dissolved in May 2008 following a court decision. The prosecutors claimed that Lambda Istanbul's objectives were "against the law and morality". The order has been criticized by Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International. The Supreme Court of Appeals overturned this order on November 25, 2008, and on April 30, 2009, a lower court granted Lambda Istanbul permission to continue operating.
The agenda of Lambda includes:
Reporting human rights violations.
Helping change the 10th article of the Constitution, pending its amendment. According to the Article No.10 of the Constitution of Turkey, discrimination based on language, race, skin color, gender, political opinion, religion, denomination and similar reasons is prohibited but it does not directly refer to sexual orientation or sexual identity.
== See also ==
LGBT rights in Turkey
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natasha_C._Merle#:~:text=From%202019%20to%202021%2C%20Merle,law%20at%20Columbia%20Law%20School. | Natasha C. Merle | Natasha Clarise Merle (born 1983) is an American lawyer from New York who serves as a United States district judge of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York.
== Education ==
Merle received her Bachelor of Arts in government and Spanish, with honors, from the University of Texas at Austin in 2005 and she graduated, cum laude, with a Juris Doctor from the New York University School of Law in 2008.
== Career ==
Merle began her legal career as a law clerk for Judge Robert L. Carter of the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York from 2008 to 2009. From 2009 to 2011, she was a staff attorney at the Gulf Region Advocacy Center. Merle then became an assistant federal public defender at the Office of the Federal Public Defender. She also served as a law clerk for Judge John Gleeson of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York from 2012 to 2013.
From 2013 to 2015, Merle was a litigation associate and civil rights fellow at Fried, Frank, Harris, Shriver & Jacobson in New York City.
From 2016 to 2021, she served as assistant counsel and then senior counsel for the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund ("LDF"). From 2021 to 2023, she was the deputy director of litigation at LDF.
From 2019 to 2021, Merle was a adjunct professor of clinical law at the New York University School of Law and from 2020 to 2021, she was a lecturer in law at Columbia Law School.
=== Notable cases ===
In 2017, Merle was a member of the petitioner team in Buck v. Davis.
In 2017, Merle was lead counsel for NAACP LDF v. Trump.
=== Federal judicial service ===
On January 19, 2022, President Joe Biden nominated Merle to serve as a United States district judge of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York. President Biden nominated Merle to a new seat created following the appointment of Roslynn R. Mauskopf as director of the Administrative Office of the United States Courts. On April 27, 2022, a hearing on her nomination was held before the Senate Judiciary Committee. During Merle's confirmation hearing, Republican senators criticized her over comments she made in 2017 in which she said that proposals for voter ID laws and a border wall were based in white supremacy. On May 26, 2022, her nomination was reported out of committee by a 12–10 vote. On January 3, 2023, her nomination was returned to the President under Rule XXXI, Paragraph 6 of the United States Senate; she was renominated later the same day. On February 2, 2023, the committee failed to report her nomination by a 10–10 vote. On February 9, 2023, her nomination was reported out of committee by an 11–10 vote. On June 21, 2023, the Senate invoked cloture on her nomination by a 51–50 vote, with Vice President Kamala Harris voting in the affirmative. Later that day, her nomination was confirmed by a 50–49 vote. Senator Joe Manchin joined all the Senate Republicans in opposing her nomination. Merle was President Biden's 100th district court judge to be confirmed. She received her judicial commission on August 11, 2023.
== See also ==
List of African-American federal judges
List of African-American jurists
Joe Biden judicial appointment controversies
== References ==
== External links ==
Natasha C. Merle at the Biographical Directory of Federal Judges, a publication of the Federal Judicial Center. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_d'Angoulême | Henri d'Angoulême | Henri de Valois, duc d'Angoulême (1551 – 2 June 1586, in Aix-en-Provence), sometimes called "Henri, bâtard de Valois" or "Henri de France", was a Légitimé de France, cleric, and military commander during the Wars of Religion.
== Biography ==
Henri was born the bastard son of Henri II of France and his mistress Janet Stewart, Lady Fleming, an illegitimate daughter of James IV of Scotland. Being the most highly favored natural son of the King, he was legitimized and made Duke of Angoulême. Henri would later serve as Abbot of La Chaise-Dieu, Grand Prior of France of the Sovereign Order of Malta and Admiral of the Levantine Sea, further ruling as Governor of Provence from 1579 until his death in 1586.
In 1570, Henri was chosen, by the supporters of Mary, Queen of Scots, as a potential leader of a French military force to aid them in their civil war against the supporters James VI of Scotland. They thought that Henri's Scottish and French royal ancestry would gain him respect in Scotland and England. Although the Queen's supporters put the idea to John Lesley, Queen Mary's ambassador in France, French soldiers and Henri were not sent to Scotland.
Henri de Valois, Duke d'Angoulême took a major role in the two extended military battle against Huguenot strongholds during the height of the French Wars of Religion, engaging in the massive Siege of La Rochelle (1572–1573), organized by the Duke of Anjou, future king Henry III of France, and leading the five-year Siege of Ménerbes (1573–1578), fought at a citadel in the Luberon foothills cherished by Pope Pius V.
While serving as Governor of Provence, his secretary was the poet François de Malherbe. Henri wrote many sonnets, one of which was set to music by Fabrice Caietain.
== Death ==
In 1586, Henri was killed at Aix-en-Provence in a duel with Philip Altoviti, who also was mortally wounded in the fight.
== Ancestry ==
== References ==
== Sources ==
Brooks, Jeanice (2000). Courtly song in late sixteenth-century France. The University of Chicago Press.
Cameron, Annie, ed. (1931). Warrender Papers. Vol. 1. T. and A. Constable Ltd.
Joseph, George; Green, Maria (2004). Rubin, David Lee (ed.). La Poésie Française du Premier 17e siècle: Textes et Contextes: "François Malherbe" (in French). Rookwood Press, Inc.
Kelly, Blanche M. (1913). "Francois Malherbe". In Herbermann, Charles George; Pace, Edward Aloysius (eds.). The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 9. The Encyclopedia Press, Inc.
Sealy, Robert J. (1981). The Palace Academy of Henry III. Droz.
Micaleff, Fabrice (2018). Le batard royal:Henri d'Angouleme dans l'ombre des Valois (1551-1586) (in French). Droz. ISBN 978-2-600-05808-7. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliviero_Diliberto | Oliviero Diliberto | Oliviero Diliberto (born 13 October 1956 in Cagliari) is an Italian politician. He has been leader of the Party of Italian Communists.
== Early life ==
Oliviero Diliberto was born in a family of public servants (his father Marco was employed as attorney in the Administration of the Region of Sardinia, his mother Lella was a teacher). His youth is scarred by the untimely death of his father in 1971, after which he had to be a fatherly role for his younger siblings: his sister Ludovica, then eight years old, and his brother Alessio, who was born just two months before.
Diliberto becomes involved with politics in 1969 at age 13, when he was in high school. It is a time of turmoil in Italian schools, and young Oliviero quickly rises through the ranks of the student movement during his University studies. He eventually becomes Secretary of the FGCI (Federation of Young Italian Communists, the youth organisation of the PCI) for the province of Cagliari in 1978, the same year of his graduation.
Fascinated by the philosophic thought of Michel Foucault, after graduating from high school he traveled for Paris where, to support himself, he briefly worked at the city morgue, preparing corpses that had to undergo autopsy.
From 1978 to 1986 he earns scholarships to further his law studies in Frankfurt and in Rome, then he works as researcher in the university of Cagliari, where later he will reach the post of Professor of Roman Law.
== Political career ==
A former member of the Italian Communist Party, Diliberto joined the Communist Refoundation Party after the breakup of his former party.
First elected as MP in 1994 for the Communist Refoundation Party, Diliberto left his party in 1998 in contrast with the leadership's line about a motion of no confidence in which Romano Prodi was defeated. So Diliberto, together with Armando Cossutta and others, founded the Party of Italian Communists, of which he became the secretary. Diliberto then served as Minister of Justice in the first government of Massimo D'Alema, becoming one of the only two party members which were part of that government. He maintained the position until 2000, leaving voluntarily in the reshuffle, in order to concentrate on the party.
On taking office as Minister of Justice, he declared to the press his pride in being "The second Communist appointed as Minister of Justice after Palmiro Togliatti", and made a point of having the same desk previously used by the postwar Communist leader restored and placed in his office at the Ministry.
In November 2004 he was widely criticized for meeting with the leader of Hizbollah, Sheik Hassan Nasrallah, during a visit to Lebanon. This prompted a protest note to the Italian Government from the Israeli Ambassador in Rome.
Before the April 2006 general election held in Italy (and won by the centre-left coalition), he declared he would not serve as minister in case of a centre-left win, and instead he would maintain his place as party leader, and so he has.
In May 2006 he was elected to the City Council of Rome. He is currently professor of Roman Law at the Faculty of Law of the "La Sapienza" University of Rome.
Before the April 2008 snap general election (caused by the fall of the Prodi II Cabinet), Diliberto refused candidacy to the Camera dei Deputati in the Turin constituency for the left-wing alliance The Left – The Rainbow, which his party was participating to, on grounds of giving a chance to be elected to a junior party fellow - a steel worker in the local Thyssen-Krupp steelworks, where a fire on 6 December 2007 had killed seven colleagues.
After the disastrous results of both the 2008 general elections and of the 2009 European election, where the Italian left-wing parties failed to reach the minimum threshold, Diliberto has been confirmed as party secretary, with a mandate to pursue unity of the left wing parties.
== Family ==
Oliviero Diliberto has been married twice: in 1985 he married Ms. Delia Cardia, from which he separated after some years. He is currently married (since 1997) to Ms. Gabriella Serrenti with whom he met in 1978 at the university where he was assistant lecturer.
== Electoral history ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrahedron_Prize#:~:text=1996%20Samuel%20Danishefsky | Tetrahedron Prize | The Tetrahedron Prize for Creativity in Organic Chemistry or Bioorganic and Medicinal Chemistry is awarded annually by Elsevier, the publisher of Tetrahedron Publications. It was established in 1980 and named in honour of the founding co-chairmen of these publications, Professor Sir Robert Robinson and Professor Robert Burns Woodward. The prize consists of a gold medal, a certificate, and a monetary award of US $15,000.
== Prizewinners ==
Winners of the prize are:
== See also ==
List of chemistry awards
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pehr_L%C3%B6fling#:~:text=He%20died%20in%20a%20remote,Linn%C3%A6us%20believed%20the%20loss%20irreparable. | Pehr Löfling | Pehr Löfling (31 January 1729 – 22 February 1756) was a Swedish botanist and an apostle of Carl Linnaeus.
== Biography ==
Löfling was born in Tolvfors Bruk, Gävle, Sweden. He studied at the University of Uppsala where he attended courses taught by Carl Linnaeus. When the Spanish ambassador asked Linnaeus to select a botanist for service in the American colonies, the professor at once named Loefling. He went to Spain in 1751 to learn Spanish, and then embarked with other scientists for South America in February 1754. The Treaty of Madrid (13 January 1750) had fixed the colonial borders of Spain and Portugal. In Cumaná, Venezuela (then a Spanish colony) Löfling joined a project to demarcate the border with Brazil, the Expedicion de Limites al Orinoco. He was put in charge of a natural history department evaluating the resources of the region. Assisted by two young Spanish doctors, he was involved in the expedition for the remainder of his life.
He died in a remote mission San Antonio de Caroni, on the banks of the Caroní River near the modern city of Ciudad Guayana, Venezuela. His death was considered a great loss to natural history, and especially to botany. Linnæus believed the loss irreparable. The manuscripts of Löfling, which were found after his death, were preserved by his two assistants.
== Legacy ==
In 1753, Linnæus used the name Loeflingia for the genus of some plants in the family Caryophyllaceae, one species of which grows in Spain and the other in Spanish America. Then in 1923, Sprague published Pehria, a monotypic genus of plant from South America in family Lythraceae and also named after Löfling.
Parque Löefling in Ciudad Guayana, Venezuela is named after him. The park includes a zoo.
=== Publications ===
Linnæus posthumously published his Iter Hispanicum, eller resa til Spanska Länderna uti Europa och America 1751 til 1756 in 1758.
== Notes ==
== References ==
Wilson, J. G.; Fiske, J., eds. (1888). "Loefling, Peter" . Appletons' Cyclopædia of American Biography. New York: D. Appleton.
== External links ==
Pehr Löfling. Polymath Virtual Library, Fundación Ignacio Larramendi |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garvan%E2%80%93Olin_Medal#:~:text=1947%20Mary%20Lura%20Sherrill | Garvan–Olin Medal | The Francis P. Garvan–John M. Olin Medal, previously called the Francis P. Garvan Medal, is an annual award that recognizes distinguished scientific accomplishment, leadership and service to chemistry by women chemists. The Award is offered by the American Chemical Society (ACS), and consists of a cash prize (US$5,000) and a medal. The medal was designed by Margaret Christian Grigor.
== Background ==
Any individual may nominate a single eligible chemist in one year. Nominees must be a female citizen of the United States.
The award was established by Francis Garvan and Mabel Brady Garvan in 1936 in honor of their daughter. It was initially an essay contest, that ran for seven years, as a memorial to their daughter (the American Chemical Society's Prize Essay Contest). It was solely funded by the Francis P. Garvan Medal Endowment from its establishment in 1936 until 1979. W. R. Grace & Co. assumed co-sponsorship of the award from 1979 to 1983. In 1984, Olin Corporation assumed co-sponsorship. Mabel Brady Garvan remained involved with the Award through 1967.
The Garvan–Olin Award is the ACS' third-oldest award, and the first award established to honor women chemists.
== Award recipients ==
== See also ==
List of chemistry awards
List of science and technology awards for women
== References ==
== External links ==
"Francis P. Garvan-John M. Olin Medal". American Chemical Society.
Special Collections and University Archives. "Finding Aid for MS 678 Garvan Medalists Survey Collection, 1981-2000". Iowa State University. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Sisulu#:~:text=to%20December%202017.-,Born%20in%20Soweto%2C,-Sisulu%20is%20the | Max Sisulu | Max Vuyisile Sisulu (born 23 August 1945) is a South African politician and businessman who was Speaker of the National Assembly from May 2009 to May 2014. A member of the African National Congress (ANC), he was a member of the party's National Executive Committee from December 1994 to December 2017.
Born in Soweto, Sisulu is the son of anti-apartheid activists Albertina and Walter Sisulu. Between 1963 and 1990, at the height of apartheid, he lived outside of South Africa with the exiled ANC and its military wing, Umkhonto we Sizwe. An economist by training, he was the ANC's head of economic planning from 1986 to 1990, and he remained influential in ANC economic policymaking in subsequent decades.
In April 1994, in South Africa's first democratic elections, Sisulu was elected to represent the ANC in the National Assembly, the lower house of the new South African Parliament. For much of the First Parliament, he was the chairperson of the Portfolio Committee on the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP). Then, from February 1997 to November 1998, he served as Chief Whip of the Majority Party. However, he resigned from his seat in November 1998 to work in business, first at Denel and later at Sasol.
He did not return to Parliament until the April 2009 general election, pursuant to which he was elected as the Speaker. He was the first man to serve as Speaker since the end of apartheid, and the first black man ever to serve as Speaker in the South African Parliament. He served in the office throughout the Fourth Parliament but was replaced by Baleka Mbete after the May 2014 general election.
== Early life ==
Sisulu was born on 23 August 1945 in Soweto. He was the eldest of five children born to Albertina and Walter Sisulu, who were prominent anti-apartheid activists in the African National Congress; his younger siblings were Mlungisi, Zwelakhe, Lindiwe, and Nonkululeko. In 1963, when he was aged 19, he and his mother were arrested and detained after his father went into hiding. Shortly after his release, he left South Africa for exile; his father, meanwhile, was apprehended by police later that year and was sentenced to life imprisonment in the Rivonia Trial.
== Exile and early career ==
Leaving South Africa via Gaborone, Botswana, Sisulu travelled to Tanzania, where he joined Umkhonto we Sizwe. Over the next decade, he spent stints in various regions of Africa and Europe. Among other things, he completed a master's degree in political economy from the Plekhanov Russian University of Economics in Moscow in 1969, a senior military training course in Skhodnya, Soviet Union in 1972, and a one year-research fellowship at the University of Amsterdam in 1985. He also spent a period as the ANC's representative in Budapest. From 1986 to 1990, he was stationed at the ANC's headquarters in Lusaka, Zambia, where he was head of the ANC's Department of Economic Planning.
In 1990, Sisulu returned to South Africa amid the negotiations to end apartheid. The following year, he became the founding director of the Director of the National Institute of Economic Policies, an ANC think-tank based in Johannesburg. In addition, in 1993, he completed Master of Public Administration at the Harvard Kennedy School of Government.
== First Parliament: 1994–1998 ==
In South Africa's first post-apartheid elections in April 1994, Sisulu was elected to represent the ANC in the National Assembly, the lower house of the new South African Parliament. He was also appointed as the inaugural chairperson of the portfolio committee that was tasked with oversight of the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP), the ANC's flagship economic and social policy; Sisulu had helped draft the policy itself. During the same period, Sisulu rose in the ANC: he was elected to the ANC National Executive Committee (NEC) for the first time at the party's congress in 1994, and in 1997 he was elected both to the NEC and to the smaller National Working Committee (NWC) at the next congress in 1997.
In February 1997, he was appointed as the second Chief Whip of the Majority Party, succeeding Arnold Stofile. Upon taking office, he announced a plan to restore and upgrade the status of Parliament's RDP committee. He also introduced academic training programmes for Members of Parliament and parliamentary staff. However, his tenure as whip was brief: he resigned from Parliament in November 1998 to enter the corporate world.
== Corporate hiatus: 1998–2009 ==
He was deputy chief executive officer of Denel from 1998 to 2001 and then group general manager of Sasol from 2003 to 2006. Thereafter he held various directorships, including at African Rainbow Minerals.
During this period, Sisulu remained active in the ANC; he was re-elected to the NEC, and re-appointed to the NWC, both in December 2002 and then in December 2007. He was particularly prominent as the chairperson of the NEC's Subcommittee on Economic Transformation, and the Mail & Guardian said that he brought "serious business nous" and "much-needed technical expertise" to the NWC.
== Fourth Parliament: 2009–2014 ==
In the April 2009 general election, Sisulu returned to the National Assembly, ranked 39th on the ANC's party list. When Parliament opened on 6 May, he was elected unopposed to replace Gwen Mahlangu-Nkabinde as the Speaker of the National Assembly, with Nomaindia Mfeketo as his deputy. He was nominated to the position by Andrew Mlangeni. The first man to hold the office since 1994, he used his acceptance speech to urge members to "resist the urge" to call him Madam Speaker. He served as Speaker throughout the Fourth Parliament, during which time he was "widely respected" for his fairness and levity. He also oversaw the establishment of the parliamentary budget office.
Simultaneously, Sisulu continued to serve as chairperson of the ANC NEC's Subcommittee on Economic Transformation until after the party's 53rd National Conference in December 2012, when Enoch Godongwana was elected to take over the position. The same conference re-elected Sisulu to his fifth term on the NEC, though he did not return to the NWC.
=== Nkandlagate ===
The end of Sisulu's term as Speaker was partly consumed by the so-called Nkandlagate scandal, which concerned state-funded upgrades to President Jacob Zuma's Nkandla homestead. In March 2014, shortly before the end of the parliamentary term, the Public Protector released a report which concluded that Zuma had benefitted unduly from the upgrades and should be required to repay the state. Opposition parties said that Sisulu was responsive to their requests for the Public Protector's report to be tabled in the National Assembly, and Sisulu ultimately announced that he would establish an ad hoc parliamentary committee to consider the report. Opposition politician Lindiwe Mazibuko welcomed his decision as a "bold move" and "a victory for Parliament, the constitution and accountability".
There were later reports – disputed by the ANC – that Sisulu had been rebuked by the party for establishing the committee. Although the ad hoc committee initially intended to complete its work before the end of the parliamentary term, it did not do so.
=== Departure ===
In the May 2014 general election, Sisulu was ranked 14th on the ANC's party list, but the ANC announced that Baleka Mbete would replace him as Speaker. Steven Friedman and others suggested that the move indicated that the ANC wanted to exert stricter partisan control of the Speaker's office and of Parliament. Sisulu was sworn in as an ordinary Member of Parliament on 21 May, but he resigned from his seat eight days later when he failed to gain appointment to Zuma's cabinet. Observers were surprised by his exclusion, but the ANC strenuously denied rumours that he was being punished for having instigated the Nkandla investigation.
== Retirement ==
After leaving Parliament, Sisulu remained active in the ANC. In 2016, he emerged as a critic of President Zuma, first expressing public dissatisfaction in April in the aftermath of the Economic Freedom Fighters v Speaker judgment. Later that year he called – both in public and during an ANC NEC meeting – for Zuma's resignation. He also said publicly that Zuma's failure to support Finance Minister Pravin Gordhan was "bloody foolish", and he attended a civil society march in support of Gordhan in Pretoria. Sisulu served the remainder of his five-year term as a member of the NEC, but he was not re-elected at the next national conference in December 2017.
On 31 January 2018, he was appointed as an independent non-executive director of Harmony Gold.
== Personal life ==
In 1966, Sisulu married Mercy Vutela, the daughter of activist Greta Ncapayi; she had been his high school sweetheart and reunited with him in exile in Moscow. Their son, Mlungisi, became a diplomat in the South African embassies to Khartoum and Prague; he died of cerebral malaria in London, England in January 2008, aged 40. Sisulu's first marriage was shortlived. His second child, Shaka, was born in 1979 to Makhosazana Msimang, Mendi Msimang's daughter, and went on to become an activist and media personality.
In September 1986, he married Elinor Sisulu, a writer whom he had met in Amsterdam in 1985. She later published a biography of her parents-in-law.
== References ==
== External links ==
Mr Max Vuyisile Sisulu at People's Assembly
Appearances on C-SPAN |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masaki_Tsuji | Masaki Tsuji | Masaki Tsuji (辻 真先, Tsuji Masaki; born March 23, 1932 in Nagoya) is a Japanese anime screenwriter, mystery writer, manga author, travel critic, essayist, professor as well as mystery fiction novels writer. Tsuji was most active in the business from the 1960s through the 1980s, and worked as a script writer on many popular anime television series for Mushi Production, Toei Animation, and Tokyo Movie Shinsha.
He is well known for his association with the animated adaptations of the works of Osamu Tezuka and Go Nagai.
In April 2007, Tsuji headed Japan's first international anime research lab as part of Digital Hollywood University. On December 4, 2007, Tsuji was given a lifetime achievement award at the 11th Japan Media Arts Festival. On September 24, 2008, Tsuji won a Special Award in the 13th Animation Kobe for his writing work.
== Filmography ==
== See also ==
Honkaku Mystery Writers Club of Japan
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website (in Japanese)
Masaki Tsuji at IMDb
Masaki Tsuji at Anime News Network's encyclopedia |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Els_Aarne | Els Aarne | Elze Janovna Paemurru (30 March 1917 – 14 June 1995), pseudonymously known as Els Aarne, was an Estonian composer, pianist and pedagogue, primarily during the Soviet Union.
== Life and career ==
Elze Janovna Paemurru was born as on 30 March 1917 in Makiivka, Russian Empire (now Ukraine); her pseudonym was Els Aarne. Her father was the scientist Jaan Aarmann (1885–1978). She studied at the Tallinn Conservatory, Tallinn, graduating as a music teacher in 1939 after instruction from Gustav Ernesaks, in 1942 as pianist with Artur Lemba and in 1946 as composer under Heino Eller.
Aarne lectured at the Tallinn Conservatory on music theory from 1944 to 1974. Aarne married the horn player Mart Paemurru (1908–1972); they had two sons, the cellist and politician Peeter Paemurru (born 1948) and Mait Paemurru. She died on 14 June 1995 in Tallinn.
Els was known, among other things, as a chamber music composer (preferring to compose for violoncello and double-bass); in addition, she wrote two symphonies.
== References ==
=== Citations ===
=== Sources ===
Cohen, Aaron I. (1987) [1981]. International Encyclopedia of Women Composers. Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). Chatham: R. R. Bowker. ISBN 978-0-9617485-2-4. OCLC 16714846.
Pilliroog, Ene, ed. (2007). Eesti muusika biograafiline leksikon [Estonian Music Biographical Lexicon] (in Estonian). Vol. 1, A–M. Tallinn: Estonian Encyclopaedia Publishers.
Scott, Pfitzinger (2017). Composer Genealogies: A Compendium of Composers, Their Teachers, and Their Students. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1-4422-7224-8. OCLC 961388789.
== Further reading ==
Kaevats, Ülo, ed. (2000). Eesti entsüklopeedia [Estonian Encyclopedia] (in Estonian). Vol. 14, Estonian Biographies. Tallinn: Estonian Encyclopaedia Publishers. ISBN 978-9949-765-31-7.
Lücker, Arno (8 September 2021). "90/250: Els Aarne: 250 Komponistinnen. Folge 90: Das kann niemand erklären" [90/250: Els Aarne 250 Women Composers. Episode 90: Nobody Can Explain That]. VAN (in German). Retrieved 2 August 2025. (subscription required)
== External links ==
Work list with recordings from the Estonian Music Information Centre
Els Aarne discography at Discogs
Letter from Aarne on WorldCat |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perkin_Prize_for_Organic_Chemistry#:~:text=2017%3A%20David%20A.%20Leigh | Perkin Prize for Organic Chemistry | The Perkin Prize for Organic Chemistry is a prestigious award established in 2008 by the Royal Society of Chemistry for sustained originality and achievement in research in any area of organic chemistry.
The prize is named after Sir William Henry Perkin (1838-1907), inventor of the first aniline dye, and is awarded on a biennial basis. The winner receives £5000, a medal and a certificate at an awards ceremony in November and undertakes a UK lecture tour.
== Winners ==
2009 (2009): Steven V. Ley, "for his outstanding creative work and innovative solutions in the art of organic synthesis"
2011 (2011): Stephen G. Davies, "for fundamental contributions that his research has made to the areas of stereocontrol in organometallic chemistry, asymmetric synthesis and total synthesis over 15 years"
2013 (2013): Varinder Aggarwal, "for his truly original contributions to the field of synthetic organic chemistry"
2015 (2015): Amos Smith, "for his continued outstanding contributions to new organic reaction development, complex natural product total synthesis, and new small molecules for medicinal chemistry"
2017 (2017): David A. Leigh, "for pioneering contributions to the synthesis and applications of complex catenanes, rotaxanes and molecular knots that underpin the field of artificial molecular machines"
2019 (2019): Sarah O'Connor, "for the discovery, enzymology and engineering of the biosynthetic pathways for complex natural products from plants."
== See also ==
List of chemistry awards
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_University_centers_and_institutes#Michelle_R._Clayman_Institute_for_Gender_Research | Stanford University centers and institutes | Stanford University has many centers and institutes dedicated to the study of various specific topics. These centers and institutes may be within a department, within a school but across departments, an independent laboratory, institute or center reporting directly to the dean of research and outside any school, or semi-independent of the university itself.
== Independent laboratories, institutes and centers ==
These report directly to the vice-provost and dean of research and are outside any school though any faculty involved in them must belong to a department in one of the schools. These include Bio-X and Spectrum in the area of Biological and Life Sciences; Precourt Institute for Energy and Woods Institute for the Environment in the Environmental Sciences area; the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences (CASBS), the Center for the Study of Language and Information (CSLI) (see below), Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies (FSI) (see below), Human-Sciences and Technologies Advance Research Institute (H-STAR), Stanford Center on Longevity (SCL), Stanford Humanities Center (see below), and the Stanford Institute for Economic Policy Research (SIEPR) in the area of Humanities and Social Sciences; and, for Physical Sciences, the Edward L. Ginzton Laboratory, the Geballe Laboratory for Advanced Materials, the Kavli Institute for Particle Astrophysics and Cosmology, Photon Ultrafast Laser Science and Engineering (PULSE), Stanford Institute for Materials and Energy Sciences (SIMES), and W. W. Hansen Experimental Physics Laboratory (HEPL).
=== Center for the Study of Language and Information ===
The Center for the Study of Language and Information (CSLI) is an independent research center at Stanford University. Founded in 1983 by philosophers, computer scientists, linguists, and psychologists from Stanford, SRI International, and Xerox PARC, it strives to study all forms of information and improve how humans and computers acquire and process it.
CSLI was initially funded by a US$15 million grant from the System Development Foundation (SDF) for the Situated Language Project, the name of which reflects the strong influence of the work on situation semantics by philosophers John Perry and Jon Barwise, two of the initial leaders of CSLI. This funding supported operations for the first few years as well as the construction of Cordura Hall. Subsequent funding has come from research grants and from an industrial affiliates program.
CSLI's publications branch, founded and still headed by Dikran Karagueuzian, has grown into an important publisher of work in linguistics and related fields. Researchers associated with CSLI include Ronald Kaplan, Patrick Suppes, Edward N. Zalta, the mathematicians Keith Devlin, and Solomon Feferman, the linguists Ivan Sag and Joan Bresnan, Annie Zaenen, Lauri Karttunen, and psychologists Herb Clark, B. J. Fogg and Clifford Nass.
CSLI houses the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. It also housed the Reuters Digital Vision Program.
==== Directors ====
Jon Barwise 1983–1985
John Perry 1985–1986, 1993–1999
Thomas Wasow 1986–1987, 2006–2007
John Etchemendy 1990–1993
David Israel c. 1999–2000
Byron Reeves c. 2001–2005
Stanley Peters 2008–2013
Chris Potts 2013–present
=== Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies ===
The Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies is a university-wide research and teaching institution at Stanford devoted to understanding international problems, policies, and institutions. The institute produces interdisciplinary scholarly research, engages in outreach to policymakers and public institutions throughout the world, and trains scholars and future leaders on international issues. Its teaching programs include the graduate-level Master of International Policy as well as honors programs in international security and in democracy, development, and the rule of law. The school is a full member of the Association of Professional Schools of International Affairs (APSIA), a group of schools of public policy, public administration, and international studies.
FSI's core and affiliated faculty represent a range of academic backgrounds and perspectives, including medicine, law, engineering, history, political science, economics, and sociology. The faculty's research and teaching focus on a variety of issues, including governance, domestic and international health policy, migration, development, and security. Their work often examines regional dynamics in areas such as Asia, Europe, Africa and Latin America. FSI faculty conduct research, lead interdisciplinary research programs, educate graduate and undergraduate students, and organize policy outreach that engages Stanford in addressing some of the world's most pressing problems.
The institute is composed of 12 centers and programs, including six major research centers:
Center on Democracy, Development and the Rule of Law (CDDRL)
Center on Food Security and the Environment (FSE)
Center for Health Policy, Primary Care and Outcomes Research (CHP/PCOR)
Center for International Security and Cooperation (CISAC)
The Europe Center (TEC)
Walter H. Shorenstein Asia–Pacific Research Center (APARC)
==== History ====
The institute was founded in 1987 following a faculty committee review that concluded Stanford "should be leading the way in International Studies as we do in science and technology", encompassing interdisciplinary teaching, research, public service and administrative functions. It was first called the institute for International Studies, and was created under the direction of former Stanford president Richard Wall Lyman.
The institute was renamed the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies in 2005 following a $50 million gift made by Stanford alumni Bradford M. Freeman and Ronald P. Spogli.
The immediate past director of FSI was Mariano-Florentino Cuéllar, the former Stanley Morrison Professor of Law at Stanford Law School and former official in the Obama and Clinton presidential administrations who then served on the California Supreme Court and as president of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Previous directors include Stanford President Emeritus Gerhard Casper; Coit D. Blacker, who served as Special Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs and Senior Director for Russian, Ukrainian and Eurasian Affairs at the National Security Council under National Security Advisor Anthony Lake during the Clinton administration; David Holloway; Walter Falcon; and Stanford President Emeritus Richard Lyman.
FSI appoints faculty and research staff, funds research and scholarly initiatives, directs research projects, and sponsors lectures, policy seminars and conferences. By tradition, FSI undertakes joint faculty appointments with Stanford's seven schools and draws faculty together from the university's academic departments and schools to conduct interdisciplinary research on international issues that transcend academic boundaries.
The institute is home to 40 billeted faculty members – most with joint appointments – and 115 affiliated faculty members with a wide range of academic perspectives.
In addition to its six centers, the institute sponsors the Ford Dorsey Master's in International Policy, the Inter-University Center for Japanese Language Studies, the Program on Energy & Sustainable Development, the Rural Education Action Program, the Stanford Center at Peking University, and the Stanford Program on International and Cross-Cultural Education.
==== Directors ====
2015–present Michael McFaul
2013–2015 Mariano-Florentino Cuéllar
2012–2013 Gerhard Casper
2003–2012 Coit D. Blacker
1998–2003 David Holloway
1991–1998 Walter Falcon
1987–1991 Richard Wall Lyman
=== Stanford Humanities Center ===
Founded in 1980, the Stanford Humanities Center is a multidisciplinary research institute dedicated to advancing knowledge about culture, philosophy, history, and the arts.
==== History ====
Since its founding in 1980, the Stanford Humanities Center has been sponsoring advanced research into the historical, philosophical, literary, artistic, and cultural dimensions of the human experience. The Humanities Center's annual fellows, international visitors, research workshops, digital humanities laboratory, and roughly fifty annual public events strengthen the intellectual and creative life of the university, foster innovative and interdisciplinary scholarship and teaching, and enrich our understanding of our common humanity. The humanities support democratic culture by nurturing an informed citizenry and seeking solutions to society's most formidable challenges.
==== Fellowships ====
The center offers approximately forty yearlong residential fellowships to Stanford and non-Stanford scholars at different career stages, giving them the opportunity to pursue their research in a supportive intellectual community.
==== Research Workshops ====
Each year, Stanford faculty and graduate students create fifteen diverse research workshops to ask new intellectual questions that often challenge disciplinary boundaries. In addition to providing a space for incubating new ideas in a collegial setting, the workshops professionalize graduate students by introducing them to the conventions of academic life.
==== Manuscript Workshops ====
Assembling a team of faculty experts from Stanford and other universities, the Manuscript workshops provide critical feedback to junior faculty preparing monographs or other academic manuscripts of similar scope for submission for publication.
==== Public Lectures ====
The center brings eminent scholars, public intellectuals, and renowned critics to the Stanford campus for lectures and interdisciplinary conferences that enrich the Stanford community with a lively exchange of ideas. Speakers have included Isabel Allende, Roger Chartier, Stephen Jay Gould, Douglas Hofstadter, Gayatri Spivak, Marilynne Robinson, David Adjaye, David Eggers, and other well-known scholars.
==== Digital Humanities ====
The Humanities Center, with the Center for Spatial and Textual Analysis (CESTA), is expanding the possibilities of humanities research and teaching at Stanford by creating opportunities for the discovery and dissemination of new knowledge. Humanities Center scholars are on the forefront of innovation with access to new digital tools to interpret the human experience.
==== International Visitors Program ====
The center's short-term visitorships draw distinguished international scholars to Stanford to share their research in lectures and seminars with Stanford faculty and students.
==== Hume Undergraduate Fellowships ====
The Humanities Center awards Hume Honors Fellowships to Stanford seniors writing an honors thesis in a humanities department. In residence for an academic year, Hume Fellows contribute to the collegial life of the center and receive intellectual guidance and mentoring from staff and fellows.
==== Directors ====
Ian P. Watt (1980–1985)
Bliss Carnochan (1985–1991)
Herbert Lindenberger (1991–1992; interim)
Wanda Corn (1992–1995)
Keith Baker (1995–2000)
Peter Stansky (2000–2001)
John Bender (2001–2008)
Aron Rodrigue (2008–2013)
Caroline Winterer (2013–2019)
Roland Greene (2019–Present)
=== Distinguished Careers Institute ===
The Distinguished Careers Institute (DCI), established in 2014, is a year-long residential fellowship for approximately 20 individuals who have already established leadership careers. Fellows are selected based on "how their participation in the program will shape their future life journeys" as well as "what future Fellows will contribute to the program and the broader global community."
=== Stanford High School Program ===
The collaboration among Stanford University's office for Digital Education, the Department of Computer Science, and the Graduate School of Education established Stanford's first dual-enrollment program for high school students from underrepresented backgrounds, which served as an impetus for the establishment of the Qualia Global Scholars Program.
== Other research centers ==
=== Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory ===
The Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (also known as the Stanford AI Lab, or SAIL) is the artificial intelligence (AI) research laboratory of Stanford University. The current director is Professor Christopher D. Manning.
==== Early years ====
SAIL was started in 1963 by John McCarthy, after he moved from Massachusetts Institute of Technology to Stanford. Lester D. "Les" Earnest, also previously of MIT, served as executive officer (self-deprecatingly, "Chief Bureaucrat") at SAIL from 1965 to 1980. During almost all of this period (1966–1979), SAIL was housed in the D.C. Power building, named not for "Direct Current" but rather for Donald Clinton Power, who held the positions of president, C.E.O. and chairman of General Telephone & Electronics Corporation (later GTE Corporation) between 1951 and 1971. GT&E donated the unfinished building to Stanford University after abandoning plans to establish a research center there. During this period SAIL was one of the leading centers for AI research and an early ARPANET site.
D.C. Power was on a hill overlooking Felt Lake in the foothills of the Santa Cruz Mountains behind Stanford.
It was about 5 miles (8 km) from the main campus, at 1600 Arastradero Road, midway between Page Mill Road and Alpine Road.
This area was, and remains, quite rural in nature. Combined with the rather extreme 1960s architecture of the place, this remote setting led to a certain isolation. Some people who worked there reported feeling as if they were already in the future. The building was demolished in 1986; as of 2003, the site is home to Portola Pastures (an equestrian center adjacent to the Arastradero Open Space Preserve).
SAIL created the WAITS operating system on a computer called SAIL. WAITS ran on various models of Digital Equipment Corporation PDP computers, starting with the PDP-6, then the KA10 and KL10. WAITS also ran on Foonly systems at CCRMA and LLL. The SAIL system was shut down in 1991.
SAIL, the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Language, was developed by Dan Swinehart and Bob Sproull of the Stanford AI Lab in 1970.
Around 1972, for its remote site use, people at SAIL developed a computer controlled vending machine, adapted from a machine rented from Canteen Vending, which sold for cash or, though a computer terminal (Teletype Model 33 KSR), on credit. Products included, at least, beer, yogurt, and milk. It was called the Prancing Pony, after the name of the room, named after an inn in Tolkien's Lord of the Rings, as each room at SAIL was named after a place in Middle Earth. A successor version still operates in the Computer Science Department at Stanford, with both hardware and software having been updated.
Alumni of the original SAIL played a major role in many Silicon Valley firms, becoming founders of now-large firms such as Cisco Systems and Sun Microsystems as well as smaller companies such as Vicarm Inc. (acquired by Unimation), Foonly, Elxsi, Imagen, Xidex, Valid Logic Systems, and D.E. Shaw & Co. Research accomplishments at SAIL were many, including in the fields of speech recognition and robotics. Notable people that worked at the original SAIL include Raj Reddy, Hans Moravec, Alan Kay, Victor Scheinman, Larry Tesler, Don Knuth, and Edward Feigenbaum.
==== Demise and rebirth ====
In 1979, SAIL's activities were merged into the university's Computer Science Department and it moved into Margaret Jacks Hall on the main Stanford campus.
After operating for more than 15 Years under the name Robotics Lab, we just re-inaugurated the new Stanford AI Lab. (April 2004)
SAIL was reopened in 2004, now in the Gates Computer Science Building, with Sebastian Thrun becoming its new director. SAIL's 21st century mission is to "change the way we understand the world"; its researchers contribute to fields such as bioinformatics, cognition, computational geometry, computer vision, decision theory, distributed systems, game theory, general game playing, image processing, information retrieval, knowledge systems, logic, machine learning, multi-agent systems, natural language, neural networks, planning, probabilistic inference, sensor networks, and robotics. The best-known achievement of the new SAIL is the Stanley self-driving car that won the 2005 DARPA Grand Challenge.
Knowledge Systems Laboratory (KSL) was an artificial intelligence research laboratory within the Department of Computer Science at Stanford University until 2007, located in the Gates Computer Science Building, Stanford.
=== Stanford Center for Entrepreneurial Studies ===
The Center for Entrepreneurial Studies (CES) at Stanford University is a multidisciplinary business oriented program targeted to both undergraduate and graduate students. It incorporates courses from Stanford University School of Engineering and Stanford Graduate School of Business. It also incorporates Stanford Mayfield Scholars Program that seeks to give select undergraduate students an opportunity to take business related coursework and to intern in high tech startups. CES was founded by Tom Byers and Charles A. Holloway.
=== Center for Computer Research in Music and Acoustics ===
The Stanford University Center for Computer Research in Music and Acoustics (CCRMA), founded by John Chowning, is a multi-discipline facility where composers and researchers work together using computer-based technology both as an artistic medium and as a research tool. CCRMA's director is Chris Chafe. CCRMA's current faculty includes a mix of musicians and engineers including Julius Smith, Jonathan Berger, Max Mathews (emeritus), Ge Wang, Takako Fujioka, Tom Rossing, Jonathan Abel, Marina Bosi, David Berners, Patricia Alessandrini, Jay Kadis, and Fernando Lopez-Lezcano. Emeritus professor Max Mathews died in 2011.
Widely used digital sound synthesis techniques like FM synthesis and digital waveguide synthesis were developed at CCRMA and licensed to industry partners. The FM synthesis patent brought Stanford $20 million before it expired, making it (in 1994) "the second most lucrative licensing agreement in Stanford's history".
Stanford CCRMA is a research center, studying areas of audio and technology including composition, computer music, physical modeling, audio signal processing, sound recording and reproduction, psychoacoustics, acoustics, music information retrieval, audio networking, and spatial sound. The center houses academic courses for Stanford students as well as seminars, small interest group meetings, summer workshops and colloquia for the broader community. Concerts of computer and experimental music are presented regularly throughout year.
==== The Knoll ====
Almost 100 years ago, this Spanish Gothic residence, known as the Knoll, was originally designed by Louis Christian Mullgardt, and built as a residence for the university's president. In 1946, the building became home to the Music Department, and then in 1986, CCRMA took over residency.
Damaged in 1989 during the Loma Prieta earthquake, the Knoll nonetheless housed CCRMA in its damaged condition until a complete internal reconstruction between 2004 and 2005. The reopening of the facility was celebrated in the Spring of 2005 with the CCRMA: newStage Festival. This unique building now comprises several state-of-the-art music studios and top-notch research facilities, hosting a variety of students, artists and scientists.
CCRMA is affiliated with the Center for Computer Assisted Research in the Humanities (CCARH), also located at Stanford. CCARH conducts research on constructing computer databases for music and on creating programs that allow researchers to access, analyze, print, and electronically perform the music.
=== Stanford Institute for Creativity and the Arts (SiCa) ===
The Stanford Institute for Creativity and the Arts (SiCa), established in 2006, serves as the core programmatic hub for the Stanford Arts Initiative, leading the development of new undergraduate arts programs, hosting artists in residence, awarding grants for multidisciplinary arts research and teaching, incubating collaborative performances and exhibitions with campus partners and other institutions, and providing centralized communication for arts events and programs at Stanford University.
=== National Performance of Dams Program ===
The Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering maintains the National Performance of Dams Program, a national database of structural and operational data related to dam systems in the U.S. Begun in 1994, this program provides data to the dam engineering and safety community about the in-service performance of dam systems. The analysis of this data covering both successful operations and incidents, including failures, is intended to lead to improvements in design and requirements, engineering processes and standards, operational procedures and guidelines, and public policy development.
=== Michelle R. Clayman Institute for Gender Research ===
Founded in 1974, and named after economist Michelle R. Clayman, the Michelle R. Clayman Institute for Gender Research at Stanford University is one of the nation's oldest research organizations focused on the study of gender. The Clayman Institute designs basic interdisciplinary research, creates knowledge, networks people and ideas at Stanford, nationally, and internationally to effect change and promote gender equality. The Clayman Institute plays an integral role in the Stanford community by bringing together local, national and international scholars and thought leaders from across disciplines to create knowledge and effect change. The place where the Clayman Institute is located was renamed the Carolyn Lewis Attneave House in 2019. It was formerly named Serra House after Junípero Serra.
==== History ====
In 1972 faculty and graduate students in the feminist movement were the impetus behind the formation of the institute. In 1974, the Center for Research on Women (CROW) was the first interdisciplinary center or institute of its kind and quickly built a strong reputation under the direction of Myra Strober, the founding Director. The reputation of CIGR grew outside Stanford, and the University of Chicago Press chose Stanford as the base of the second five-year rotation of its new interdisciplinary journal, Signs.
In 1983 the institute was renamed the Institute for Research on Women and Gender (IRWG) and continued to expand the gender conversation with the "Difficult Dialogues" program, which ran in the 1990s through 2004. In 2004, the new director, Professor Londa Schiebinger, a historian of science, formed a plan to create a series of research initiatives on gender issues, backed by a research fellowship program, that would attract scholars from Stanford and abroad. With the help of matching funds from the Hewlett Foundation and strong support from the institute's Advisory Council, Schiebinger spearheaded a fundraising drive to create an endowment for the institute. IRWG was renamed in honor of Michelle R. Clayman, the major donor in the campaign, who serves as the chair of the institute's Advisory Council.
==== Research ====
The Clayman Institute designs basic research and supports the creation of knowledge through its Fellowships and interdisciplinary programs. Recent reports/publications include:
Gendered Innovations in Science and Engineering, Londa Schiebinger, ed., 2008.
Dual-Career Academic Couples: What Universities Need to Know. The Michelle R. Clayman Institute, 2008. This Clayman Institute research study shows that over 70% of faculty are in dual-career relationships. This report tackles tough questions and recommends policies to maximize options.
Climbing the Technical Ladder: Obstacles and Solutions for Mid-Level Women in Information Technology. The Michelle R. Clayman Institute and the Anita Borg Institute, 2008. This report provides an in-depth look into the barriers to retention and advancement of technical women in Silicon Valley's high tech industry and provides practical recommendations to employers on overcoming these barriers.
==== Fellowships ====
The Clayman Institute runs two fellowship programs. The Faculty Research Fellowships seek to drive intellectual and social innovation through interdisciplinary gender studies. They include residential fellowships for tenured, tenure-track, and postdoctoral scholars from Stanford University, and U.S. and foreign universities. The Clayman Institute also offers Graduate Dissertation Fellowships for Stanford University doctoral students. Fellowships are awarded to students who are in the writing stages of their dissertations, and whose research focuses on women and/or gender.
==== Directors ====
1974–77 Myra Strober
1977–79 Diane Middlebrook
1979–84 Myra Strober
1984–85 Marilyn Yalom (deputy director, as acting director)
1985–86 Judith Brown (acting director)
1986–90 Deborah Rhode
1990–97 Iris Litt
1997–2001 Laura Carstensen
2001–04 Barbara Gelpi (acting director)
2004–10 Londa Schiebinger
2010–present Shelley J. Correll
=== Martin Luther King Jr. Research and Education Institute ===
Stanford is home to the Martin Luther King Jr. Research and Education Institute which grew out of and still contains the Martin Luther King Jr. Papers Project, a collaboration with the King Center to publish the King papers held by the King Center.
=== Stanford Internet Observatory ===
The Stanford Internet Observatory is a multidisciplinary program for the study of abuse in information technologies, with a focus on social media, established in 2019. It is part of the Stanford Cyber Policy Center, a joint initiative of the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies and Stanford Law School. The Observatory has identified the Russian government's online involvement in global elections since the program began. The program's projects such as the "Virality Project" have been criticized as censorship since the release of the Twitter files by some students, Matt Taibbi, and others outside the university.
=== Stanford Institute for Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence (HAI) ===
Stanford HAI was founded in 2019 by Fei-Fei Li, John Etchemendy, James Landay, and Chris Manning. HAI's mission is to advance AI research that prioritizes human well-being, fostering collaboration across disciplines to ensure AI is developed ethically and inclusively.
In its first five years, HAI has directed over $40 million into AI research, supported over 300 scholars, and launched specialized centers like the Stanford Digital Economy Lab and the Center for Research on Foundation Models. The institute has also fostered partnerships with policymakers and industry leaders, advocating for the democratization of AI research. HAI continues to push for new models of collaboration, emphasizing the need for large-scale resources to address the growing complexity of AI systems.
==== Stanford HAI's Role in Governor Gavin Newsom's AI Policy ====
The Stanford Institute for Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence (HAI) plays a crucial role in Governor Gavin Newsom's efforts to ensure the safe and responsible development of artificial intelligence (AI) in California. Dr. Fei-Fei Li, co-director of Stanford HAI, has been a key figure in advising the state on AI policy, contributing to initiatives aimed at balancing innovation with risk mitigation.
Building on the partnership established by Newsom's 2023 executive order, the Governor has called upon Stanford HAI to continue its leadership in developing empirical, science-based guidelines for the deployment of generative AI (GenAI). This future work will focus on assessing the potential risks and benefits of frontier AI models, crafting adaptive policies, and ensuring that California remains at the forefront of AI governance. Newsom's administration relies on HAI's expertise to navigate AI's rapid advancements while protecting the public from potential harms.
== Affiliations ==
Stanford's Center for Computer Research and Acoustics is part of a consortium with CNMAT and the Institut de Recherche et Coordination Acoustique/Musique (IRCAM) in Paris.
== See also ==
Hoover Institution, a conservative think tank affiliated with Stanford. It has staffed numerous positions for Republican presidents from Richard Nixon to Donald Trump.
SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, a particle physics research facility. Run by Stanford University under the programmatic direction of the United States Department of Energy
SRI International, originally the Stanford Research Institute, but independent since 1970
== References ==
== External links ==
Dean of Research list of Independent Laboratories, Institutes and Centers
Research Centers (not independent)
SAIL homepage
CCRMA homepage
Searchable CCRMA archive: https://web.archive.org/web/20090118104407/http://www.nabble.com/CCRMA-f2875.html
CSLI's website
Official Web Site of FSI
Arts Initiative/SiCa Website
Stanford Humanities Center main website
National Performance of Dams Program (NPDP)
Michelle R. Clayman Institute
Oral history interviews on the Michelle R. Clayman Institute with Nannerl Keohane and Marilyn Yalom, Stanford Historical Society Oral History Program
Oral history interviews with Terry Winograd, Raj Reddy, Bruce Buchanan and Allen Newell. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden_at_the_1956_Summer_Olympics | Sweden at the 1956 Summer Olympics | Sweden competed at the 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne, Australia, with the exception of the equestrian events, which could not be held in Australia due to quarantine regulations. Instead, those events were held five months earlier in Stockholm, Sweden.
97 competitors, 83 men and 14 women, took part in 74 events in 14 sports in Australia and 6 events in 1 sport in Sweden. Swedish athletes won a total of 19 medals at the games, including 3 golds in the equestrian events held in their own country.
== Medalists ==
== Athletics ==
Men's Marathon
Jvert Nyberg — 2:31:12 (→ 8th place)
Thomas Nilsson — 2:33:33 (→ 9th place)
Arnold Waide — 2:36:21 (→ 11th place)
== Boxing ==
== Canoeing ==
== Cycling ==
Men's Team Time Trial
Lars NordwallKarl-Ivar AnderssonRoland Ströhm — 47 points (→ 5th place)
Men's Individual Road Race
Lars Nordwall — 5:23:40 (→ 10th place)
Karl-Ivar Andersson — 5:23:50 (→ 17th place)
Roland Ströhm — 5:24:44 (→ 20th place)
Gunnar Göransson — 5:30:45 (→ 31st place)
== Diving ==
Women
== Equestrian ==
Dressage
Henri Saint Cyr
Gehnäll Persson
Gustaf Adolf Boltenstern Jr.
Eventing
Hans von Blixen-Finecke Jr.
Petrus Kastenman
Johan Asker
Jumping
Anders Gernandt
Tor Burman
Douglas Wijkander
== Fencing ==
Five fencers, all men, represented Sweden in 1956.
Men's épée
Per Carleson
Carl Forssell
Berndt-Otto Rehbinder
Men's team épée
Berndt-Otto Rehbinder, Carl Forssell, Per Carleson, Bengt Ljungquist, John Sandwall
== Gymnastics ==
== Modern pentathlon ==
Three male pentathletes represented the Sweden in 1956. Lars Hall won gold in the individual event.
Individual
Lars Hall
Bertil Haase
Björn Thofelt
Team
Lars Hall
Bertil Haase
Björn Thofelt
== Rowing ==
Sweden had nine male rowers participate in two out of seven rowing events in 1956.
Men's coxed four
Olle Larsson
Gösta Eriksson
Ivar Aronsson
Evert Gunnarsson
Bertil Göransson
Men's eight
Olle Larsson
Lennart Andersson
Kjell Hansson
Rune Andersson
Lennart Hansson
Gösta Eriksson
Ivar Aronsson
Evert Gunnarsson
Bertil Göransson
== Sailing ==
== Shooting ==
Eight shooters represented Sweden in 1956. Olof Sköldberg won a silver in the 100m running deer and John Sundberg won a bronze in the 50 m rifle, three positions.
50 m pistol
Torsten Ullman
Åke Lindblom
300 m rifle, three positions
John Sundberg
Anders Kvissberg
50 m rifle, three positions
John Sundberg
Anders Kvissberg
50 m rifle, prone
John Sundberg
Anders Kvissberg
100m running deer
Olof Sköldberg
Benkt Austrin
Trap
Knut Holmqvist
Hans Liljedahl
== Swimming ==
Men
Women
== Weightlifting ==
== Wrestling ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emerald_ash_borer | Emerald ash borer | The emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis), also known by the abbreviation EAB, is a green buprestid or jewel beetle native to north-eastern Asia that feeds on ash species (Fraxinus spp.). Females lay eggs in bark crevices on ash trees, and larvae feed underneath the bark of ash trees to emerge as adults in one to two years. In its native range, it is typically found at low densities and does not cause significant damage to trees native to the area. Outside its native range, it is an invasive species and is highly destructive to ash trees native to Europe and North America. Before it was found in North America, very little was known about the emerald ash borer in its native range; this has resulted in much of the research on its biology being focused in North America. Local governments in North America are attempting to control it by monitoring its spread, diversifying tree species, and through the use of insecticides and biological control.
== History ==
French priest and naturalist Armand David collected a specimen of the species during one of his trips through Imperial China in the 1860s and 1870s. He found the beetle in Beijing and sent it to France, where the first brief description of Agrilus planipennis by the entomologist Léon Fairmaire was published in the Revue d'Entomologie in 1888. Unaware of Fairmaire's description, a separate description naming the species as Agrilus marcopoli was published in 1930 by Jan Obenberger.
== Identification ==
Adult beetles are typically bright metallic green and about 8.5 mm (0.33 in) long and 1.6 mm (0.063 in) wide. Elytra are typically a darker green, but can have copper hues. Emerald ash borer is the only North American species of Agrilus with a bright red upper abdomen when viewed with the wings and elytra spread. The species has a small spine at the tip of the abdomen, and serrate antennae that begin at the fourth antennal segment. They leave tracks below the bark in the trees they damage that are sometimes visible. Adult beetles of other species are often misidentified by the public.
== Life cycle ==
The emerald ash borer life cycle can occur over one or two years depending on the time of year of oviposition, the health of the tree, and temperature.
After 400–500 accumulated degree-days above 10 °C (50 °F), adults begin to emerge from trees in late spring, and peak emergence occurs around 1,000 degree-days. After emergence, adults feed for one week on ash leaves in the canopy before mating, but cause little defoliation. Males hover around trees, locate females by visual cues, and drop directly onto the female to mate. Mating can last 50 minutes, and females may mate with multiple males over their lifespan. A typical female can live around six weeks and lay approximately 40–70 eggs; females that live longer can lay up to 200 eggs.
Eggs are deposited in bark crevices, flakes, or cracks and hatch about two weeks later. Eggs are approximately 0.6 to 1.0 mm (0.02 to 0.04 in) in diameter, and are initially white, later turning reddish-brown if fertile. After hatching, larvae chew through the bark to the inner phloem, cambium, and outer xylem where they feed and develop. Emerald ash borer has four larval instars. By feeding, larvae create long serpentine galleries. Fully mature fourth-instar larvae are 26 to 32 mm (1.0 to 1.3 in) long. In fall, mature fourth-instars excavate chambers about 1.25 cm (0.49 in) into the sapwood or outer bark where they fold into a J-shape. These J-shaped larvae shorten into prepupae and develop into pupae and adults the following spring. To exit the tree, adults chew holes from their chamber through the bark, which leaves a characteristic D-shaped exit hole. Immature larvae can overwinter in their larval gallery, but can require an additional summer of feeding before overwintering again and emerging as adults the following spring. This two-year life cycle is more common in cool climates, such as European Russia.
== Range ==
The native range of the emerald ash borer is temperate north-eastern Asia, which includes Russia, Mongolia, northern China, Japan, and Korea.
The beetle is invasive in North America where it has a core population in Michigan and surrounding states and provinces. Populations are more scattered outside the core area, and the edges of its known distribution range north to Ontario, south to northern Louisiana, west to Nebraska, and east to New Brunswick. Satellite populations exist in Colorado and in the Pacific Northwest in Oregon. In eastern Europe, a population was found in Moscow in 2003. From 2003 to 2016, this population has spread west towards the European Union at up to 40 km (25 mi) per year and is expected to reach central Europe between 2031 and 2036. Although not recorded from the European Union as of 2019, it has already spread to far eastern Ukraine from neighboring Russia.
== Host plants ==
In its native range, emerald ash borer is only a nuisance pest on native trees, as population densities typically do not reach levels lethal to healthy trees. In China, it infests native Fraxinus chinensis, F. mandshurica, and F. rhynchophylla; in Japan it also infests F. japonica and F. lanuginosa.
Emerald ash borer primarily infest and can cause significant damage to ash species including green ash (F. pennsylvanica), black ash (F. nigra), white ash (F. americana), and blue ash (F. quadrangulata) in North America. In Europe, F. excelsior is the main ash species colonized, which is moderately resistant to emerald ash borer infestation. Ash susceptibility can vary depending on the attractiveness of chemical volatiles to adults, or the ability of larvae to detoxify phenolic compounds. Emerald ash borer has been found infesting white fringe tree in North America, which is a non-ash host, but it is unclear whether the trees were healthy when first infested, or were already in decline because of drought. Another non-ash host has been discovered, Olea europaea, albeit in a lab setting.
Adults prefer to lay eggs on open grown or stressed ash but readily lay eggs on healthy trees amongst other tree species. Ashes that grow in pure stands, whether naturally occurring or in landscaping, are more prone to attack than isolated trees or those in mixed forest stands. Ashes used in landscaping tend to be subjected to higher amounts of environmental stresses including compacted soil, lack of moisture, heating effects from urban islands, road salt, and pollution, which may reduce their resistance to the borer. Furthermore, most ashes used in landscaping are produced from a handful of cultivars, resulting in low genetic diversity. Young trees with bark between 1.5 mm (0.059 in) to 5 mm (0.20 in) are preferred. Both males and females use leaf volatiles and sesquiterpenes in the bark to locate hosts. Damage occurs in infested trees by larval feeding. The serpentine feeding galleries of the larvae disrupt the flow of nutrients and water, effectively girdling, thus killing the tree, as it cannot transport water and nutrients to the leaves. Girdled ashes will often attempt to regenerate through stump sprouting, and there is evidence that stressed trees may generate higher than normal seed crops as an emergency measure.
== Invasiveness ==
Outside its native range, emerald ash borer is an invasive species that is highly destructive to ash trees in its introduced range. Before emerald ash borer was found in North America, very little was known about the insect in its native range aside from a short description of life-history traits and taxonomic descriptions, which resulted in focused research on its biology in North America. The insect was first identified in Canton, Michigan in 2002, but it may have been in the U.S. since the late 1980s. It is suspected that it was introduced from overseas in shipping materials such as packing crates.
Without factors that would normally suppress emerald ash borer populations in its native range (e.g., resistant trees, predators, and parasitoid wasps), populations can quickly rise to damaging levels. After initial infestation of an area and without control measures, all ash trees are expected to die within 10 years. Every North American ash species is susceptible to emerald ash borer, but some Asian ash species are resistant, including F. baroniana, F. chinensis, F. floribunda, F. mandshurica, and F. platypoda.
Green ash and black ash trees are preferred by emerald ash borer. White ash is also killed rapidly but usually only after all green and black ash trees are eliminated. Blue ash exhibits a higher degree of resistance to emerald ash borer, believed to be caused by the leaves' high tannin content making the foliage unpalatable to the insect. While most Asian ashes have evolved this defense, it is absent from American species other than blue ash. Researchers have examined populations of so-called "lingering ash", trees that have survived ash borer attack with little or no damage, for the grafting or breeding of new, resistant stock. Many lingering ashes have unusual phenotypes that may increase resistance. Aside from their higher tannin content, Asian ashes employ natural defenses to repel, trap, and kill emerald ash borer larvae. Although studies of American ashes have suggested that they are capable of mustering similar defensive mechanisms, the trees do not appear to recognize when they are under attack. Many of the specialized predators and parasitoids that suppress emerald ash borer in Asia are not present in North America. Predators and parasitoids native to North America do not sufficiently suppress emerald ash borer, so populations continue to grow. Birds such as woodpeckers feed on emerald ash borer larva, although the adult beetles have not been used by any American fauna as food. Emerald ash borer populations can spread between 2.5 to 20 km (1.6 to 12.4 mi) per year. It primarily spreads through flight or by transportation of ash bark contained in products such as firewood or nursery stock, which allows it to reach new areas and create satellite populations outside of the main infestation.
Other factors can limit spread. Winter temperatures of approximately −38 °C (−36 °F) limit range expansion, and overwintering emerald ash borer survive down to average temperatures of −30 °C (−22 °F) because of antifreeze chemicals in the body and insulation provided by tree bark. Larvae can survive high heat up to 53 °C (127 °F). Conversely, much like ashes grown in the nursery trade, the population of emerald ash borer in North America is believed to have originated from a single group of insects from central China and exhibits low genetic diversity.
North American predators and parasitoids can occasionally cause high emerald ash borer mortality, but generally offer only limited control. Mortality from native woodpeckers is variable. Parasitism by parasitoids such as Atanycolus cappaerti can be high, but overall such control is generally low.
The United States Department of Agriculture's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service published a rule on 14 December 2020, ending all EAB quarantine activities in the United States due to ineffectiveness so far. Other means will be used instead, especially biological controls (see §Biological control below).
Emerald ash borer have eliminated the majority of the 300,000 ash trees in the National Capital Region in nine years, leaving fewer than 80,000. These forests had 17-18 ash trees per hectare prior to infestation, and 5-6 per hectare subsequently, with an impact on ecosystems. Ash-dominated swamplands have become shrublands, impacting wildlife.
=== Environmental and economic impacts ===
Emerald ash borer threatens the entire North American genus Fraxinus. It has killed tens of millions of ash trees so far and threatens to kill most of the 8.7 billion ash trees throughout North America. Emerald ash borer kills young trees several years before reaching their seeding age of 10 years. In both North America and Europe, the loss of ash from an ecosystem can result in increased numbers of invasive plants, changes in soil nutrients, and effects on species that feed on ash.
Damage and efforts to control the spread of emerald ash borer have affected businesses that sell ash trees or wood products, property owners, and local or state governments. Quarantines can limit the transport of ash trees and products, but economic impacts are especially high for urban and residential areas because of treatment or removal costs and decreased land value from dying trees. Costs for managing these trees can fall upon homeowners or local municipalities. For municipalities, removing large numbers of dead or infested trees at once is costly, so slowing down the rate at which trees die through removing known infested trees and treating trees with insecticides can allow local governments more time to plan, remove, and replace trees that would eventually die. This strategy saves money as it would cost $10.7 billion in urban areas of 25 states over 10 years, while removing and replacing all ash trees in these same areas at once would cost $25 billion (with another estimate putting the removal alone at $20–60 billion). Some urban areas such as Minneapolis have large amounts of ash with slightly more than 20% of their urban forest as ash.
=== Monitoring ===
In areas where emerald ash borer has not yet been detected, surveys are used to monitor for new infestations. Visual surveys are used to find ash trees displaying emerald ash borer damage, and traps with colors attractive to emerald ash borer, such as purple or green, are hung in trees as part of a monitoring program. These traps can also have volatile pheromones applied to them that attract primarily males.
Sometimes trees are girdled to act as trap trees to monitor for emerald ash borer. The stressed tree attracts egg-laying females in the spring, and trees can be debarked in the fall to search for larvae. If detected, an area is often placed under a quarantine to prevent infested wood material from causing new infestations. Further control measures are then taken within the area to slow population growth by reducing beetle numbers, preventing them from reaching reproductive maturity and dispersing, and reducing the abundance of ash trees.
Government agencies in both the U.S. and Canada have utilized a native species of parasitoid wasp, Cerceris fumipennis, as a means of detecting areas to which emerald ash borer has spread. The females of these wasps hunt other jewel beetles and emerald ash borer if it is present. The wasps stun the beetles and carry them back to their burrows in the ground where they are stored until the wasps' eggs hatch and the wasp larvae feed on the beetles. Volunteers catch the wasps as they return to their burrows carrying the beetles to determine whether emerald ash borer is present. This methodology is known as biological surveillance, as opposed to biological control, because it does not appear that the wasps have a significant negative impact on emerald ash borer populations.
=== Management ===
In areas where emerald ash borer is non-native and invasive, quarantines, infested tree removal, insecticides, and biological control are used to reduce damage to ash trees.
==== Quarantine and tree removal ====
Once an infestation is detected, quarantines are typically imposed by state, or previously, national government agencies disallowing transport of ash firewood or live plants outside of these areas without permits indicating the material has been inspected or treated (i.e., heat treatment or wood chipping) to ensure no live emerald ash borer are present in the bark and phloem. In urban areas, trees are often removed once an infestation is found to reduce emerald ash borer population densities and the likelihood of further spread. Urban ash are typically replaced with non-ash species such as maple, oak, or linden to limit food sources. In rural areas, trees can be harvested for lumber or firewood to reduce ash stand density, but quarantines may apply for this material, especially in areas where the material could be infested.
Kentucky Extension specialists suggest selecting uncommon species to replace removed ashes in the landscape. Previous generations created monocultures by planting ash trees in an overabundance, a factor in the extent of the devastation caused by the emerald ash borer. Favoring instead a diversity in species helps keep urban forests healthy. University of Kentucky scientists suggest choosing monotypic species such as the pawpaw, yellowwood, Franklin tree, Kentucky coffeetree, Osage orange, sourwood, and bald cypress.
==== Insecticides ====
Insecticides with active ingredients such as azadirachtin, imidacloprid, emamectin benzoate, and dinotefuran are currently used. Dinotefuran and imidacloprid are systemic (i.e., incorporated into the tree) and remain effective for one to three years depending on the product. Insecticides are typically only considered a viable option in urban areas with high value trees near an infestation. Ash trees are primarily treated by direct injection into the tree or soil drench. Some insecticides cannot be applied by homeowners and must be applied by licensed applicators. Damage from emerald ash borer can continue to increase over time even with insecticide applications. Insecticide treatments are not feasible for large forested areas outside of urban areas.
==== Biological control ====
The native range of emerald ash borer in Asia was surveyed for parasitoid species that parasitize emerald ash borer and do not attack other insect species in the hope they would suppress populations when released in North America. Three species imported from China were approved for release by the USDA in 2007 and in Canada in 2013: Spathius agrili, Tetrastichus planipennisi, and Oobius agrili, while Spathius galinae was approved for release in 2015. Excluding Spathius galinae, which has only recently been released, the other three species have been documented parasitizing emerald ash borer larvae one year after release, indicating that they survived the winter, but establishment varied among species and locations. Tetrastichus planipennisi and Oobius agrili established and have had increasing populations in Michigan since 2008; Spathius agrili has had lower establishment success in North America, which could be caused by a lack of available emerald ash borer larvae at the time of adult emergence in spring, limited cold tolerance, and better suitability to regions of North America below the 40th parallel.
The USDA is also assessing the application of Beauveria bassiana, an insect fungal pathogen, for controlling emerald ash borer in conjunction with parasitoid wasps.
== See also ==
Forest integrated pest management
Forest pathology
Chestnut blight
Dutch elm disease
Invasive species
== References ==
== External links ==
Species Profile, Canadian Food Inspection Agency
Species Profile – Emerald Ash Borer (Agrilus planipennis), National Invasive Species Information Center, United States National Agricultural Library. Lists general information and resources for emerald ash borer.
The short film Emerald Ash Borer: The Green Menace is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudi_Dekkers | Rudi Dekkers | Rudi Dekkers (July 27, 1956 – April 11, 2024) was a Dutch businessman and convicted drug trafficker. The former owner of Huffman Aviation (a flight school in Venice, Florida), he became the subject of worldwide attention after the September 11 attacks when it was revealed Dekkers had trained two of the hijackers—Mohamed Atta and Marwan al-Shehhi—who crashed American Airlines Flight 11 and United Airlines Flight 175, respectively, into the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center.
== Early life and career ==
Dekkers was born on July 27, 1956, in Apeldoorn, The Netherlands. He grew up in the Jordaan neighborhood of Amsterdam. Dekkers grew up poor in an abusive home where his father would routinely punish him. He would often run away from home at the age of eight wandering through the streets of Amsterdam.
=== Career ===
He worked as a housing broker in Ede selling three to four houses a week. In 1983, he met Bill Gates at a computer conference and became inspired to set up a computer business in the Netherlands via Miami, bypassing tax authorities, and becoming one of the first computer dealers in the Netherlands. In between working as a broker and the computer business, he obtained his pilot's license at Teuge Airport.
Dekkers moved to Florida in 1993, following a conviction of tax fraud that was later acquitted on appeal, and difficulties with former business partners and staff. Former business partners accused him of defrauding them of tens of thousands of guilder. He also faced sexual harassment allegations from a former female employee, a case that was later settled.
By 2001, before the attacks, Dekkers estimated he was worth $12 million. He owned a Dodge Viper sports car and helicopter, and had a landing pad in front of his Naples, Florida, home.
== September 11 attacks ==
Dekkers purchased Huffman Aviation in 1999. At the time of purchase, the school had a fleet of 12 small aircraft. Huffman offered private pilot, instrument rating, commercial pilot licence, multi-engine ratings, and flight instructor training, but did not offer training on larger jet aircraft.
Atta and al-Shehhi had attended the school to learn how to fly small aircraft. The two first trained at Huffman in July 2000 after they first met with Dekkers while he was on a coffee break in his office at the school. In August, the school filed the M-1 student visa request forms for Atta and al-Shehhi to switch from tourist visas, to student visas, in order to allow them to enroll in the school's professional pilot program that would last from September 1, 2000, until September 1 the next year. The student visa requests were granted on July 17, 2001, for Atta, and August 9, 2001, for al-Shehhi. For a short while, during their time at the school, both Marwan and Atta lived with a company employee named Charlie Voss.
Following the attacks, media reports and the investigation into the attacks led the FBI to Huffman Aviation. The FBI seized records from the flight school which revealed that both Atta and al-Shehhi paid $10,000 for two months of flight instruction. Dekkers cooperated with the FBI from the start with former FBI investigator Kerry Myers who said that "Rudi was very cooperative. He didn't require a subpoena, he didn't require a court order. He was a good American citizen." Meyers stated that evidence linking Ramzi bin al-Shibh, described as one of the people to be the possible 20th hijacker, to the attacks came from Dekkers' cooperation and records found from both hijackers. Dekkers also maintained that he did not feel guilty and he had made copies of their passports and their visas, but he said there were no red flags asserting "Nothing was out of the ordinary. We did our job."
After the attacks, Dekkers went bankrupt, lost his business and house, crashed a helicopter, and got divorced, losing custody of his daughters. He received death threats, and had trouble also occur with the Internal Revenue Service, lenders, and the Federal Aviation Administration.
In January 2002, Huffman Aviation again made headlines when the local paper sent a reporter onto its property, who managed to casually move between airplane cockpits, fuel tanks, and other "safety concerns" without anybody noticing or stopping him. In March, the school was cited for having left fuel trucks unlocked, with keys in the ignition, at the Venice Municipal Airport.
On February 24, 2002, Dekkers suspected someone tried to have him killed when, while piloting a helicopter, he crashed into the Caloosahatchee River after its fuel lines were cut.
Since media attention focused on him, Dekkers enjoyed his time in the spotlight saying "The camera loves me." He had been criticized for his alleged lack of oversight at the school. He countered back with the United States' lax national border security and visa systems which would be confirmed when he found two approved visa applications from the U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service for Atta and al-Shehhi in March 2002. After the attacks, he wound up losing four hundred thousand dollars, and most of his students who were primarily international later dropped out. A second school he operated in Naples, Florida, was closed after he was sued by a former business partner after defaulting on a series of loans, one of which accounted for $1.7 million.
Dekkers sold Huffman Aviation in 2003.
Dekkers stated in 2011 that the two men "never displayed any behaviors that would have labeled them as terrorists." And at one point during their training, "the two men were on the verge of being kicked out of the school because they did not appear to be taking their training seriously and were too busy fooling around and not listening to their instructors. They had to be warned, and went on to become average students." He would get along with al-Shehhi describing him as "a more likable person. He laughed and joked." However, Dekkers and his employees described Atta as "dead man walking" due to his "white face and no emotions and was a nasty person, very unfriendly". Dekkers stated that he did not know what they were going to do and maintained his innocence, "I don't feel guilty at all. I couldn't do nothing about it. I wish I could be a hero. I think about this often. Why me? But that's fate. You can't turn away from fate, I guess."
Dekkers stated in 2016 that his personal "9/11" began on September 12, when the FBI appeared at his business. "For me, it's not an anniversary. I live 9/11 every day".
== Later life and death ==
In 2003, he established an air charter service out of Naples, Florida. In 2007, Dekkers made a comfortable living selling swimming pools in Fort Myers, Florida, living in a villa in a gated community. He was remarried to a Cuban woman, who was pregnant with their child. A year later, the 2007–2008 financial crisis resulted in the Great Recession, causing the Florida housing market to collapse, and he lost his business. He then ran a cellphone store in Naples.
By 2011, Dekkers was divorced again and in severe financial shape, with no job and facing imminent eviction from his house, which had been reclaimed by the bank. He lived on food stamps, only ate once a day, and illegally tapped electricity. He was chased by bailiffs who wanted to confiscate his car, and his U.S. visa had expired, meaning he was in the country illegally. In 2011, Dekkers published an autobiography, Guilty by Association, detailing his life, passion for flying, and his interactions with Atta and al-Shehhi.
Dekkers praised the killing of Osama bin Laden, "Like a lot of people, I wish I was the one. And bravo to everyone who was behind this. The head of the snake is gone."
On December 2, 2012, Dekkers was arrested on federal drug charges by the United States Department of Homeland Security in Houston after accepting a blue suitcase containing 18.7 kilograms of cocaine and 860 grams of heroin. He was sentenced to five years in prison after a year and a half in pre-trial detention. He was reportedly hospitalised after an assault by Mexican gang members.
Following his release from federal custody, Dekkers moved to the Dominican Republic.
On April 11, 2019, Dutch authorities arrested Dekkers at Amsterdam Airport Schiphol with 118 swallowed scoops of cocaine. He was sentenced to seven months in prison, two of which were suspended, but fled during a furlough abroad. He returned to the country in June 2022 and was ordered by a court to serve the two months probation for cocaine smuggling, plus a month that he has not served due to his flight.
Dekkers was the subject of a 2021 three-part Dutch television documentary, Rudi - Achtervolgd door 9/11 (Rudi - Haunted by 9/11)
In 2022, Dekkers lived in Medellín, Colombia, with his girlfriend Alexandra. Later, he moved to the Philippines where he died from heart failure on April 11, 2024.
== References ==
== External links ==
Appearances on C-SPAN |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohamed_Abdelaziz_Dja%C3%AFt | Mohamed Abdelaziz Djaït | Mohamed Abdelaziz Dja'it (1886–1970) (Arabic: محمد عبد العزيز جعيط) was an Islamic scholar who served as Mufti of the Republic of Tunisia from 1957 to 1960.
== Historical significance ==
In the early period of Tunisian independence, Tunisia's first President, Habib Bourguiba, compared the new Code of Personal Status, with its associated laws on family life and women's status, to Dja'it's 1949 majalla publication in an attempt to bolster the legitimacy of the former from a religious stand-point. Dja'it issued a fatwa against the code in September 1956 but eventually acquiesced and was appointed Mufti of the Republic. He was dismissed after criticizing Bourguiba's stance on fasting.
== See also ==
Religion in Tunisia
Islam in Tunisia
Maliki school
== References ==
== External links == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clive_Derby-Lewis | Clive Derby-Lewis | Clive John Derby-Lewis (22 January 1936 – 3 November 2016) was a South African politician, who was involved first in the National Party and then, while serving as a member of parliament, in the Conservative Party. In 1993, he was convicted of conspiracy to murder South African Communist Party leader Chris Hani and sentenced to death, a sentence which was later reduced to life imprisonment. Derby-Lewis was described as a "right-wing extremist" by The Daily Telegraph; and as someone who "even by South African standards ... has acquired over the years a reputation as a rabid racist" by journalist and South Africa commentator John Carlin.
He was repeatedly denied parole after he began applying in 2010, after objections from the Hani family. After his parole was declined a number of times, his appeal was taken to court where the judge granted him medical parole on 29 May 2015. He was released from prison in June 2015 after serving 22 years, due to terminal lung cancer. He died from the disease on 3 November 2016.
== Background ==
Derby-Lewis, who was born in Cape Town, was a South African with German and Scots ancestry. He grew up in Kimberley and was educated at the then-Christian Brothers' College. He articled as a chartered accountant and worked for both an accounting firm and an oil company; he also became an extraordinary minister of Holy Communion at Blessed Sacrament Church in Johannesburg before he left the Catholic Church in the early 1980s. He later joined the Afrikaanse Protestantse Kerk (English: Afrikaans Protestant Church), notable as a staunch supporter of Apartheid.
He spent nineteen years as a volunteer in the South African Citizen Force and became the youngest ever commanding officer of the Witwatersrand Rifles Regiment, affiliated with the Cameronians. He was awarded the John Chard Medal for long and meritorious service.
== Community and political history ==
Derby-Lewis joined the National Party and became a town councillor for Bedfordview (1972–1977), Deputy Mayor (1973–1974) and ultimately Mayor (1974–1975), and was made a Freeman of the Johannesburg Mini-Council. He served as the member representing Edenvale, Gauteng, on the Transvaal Provincial Council (1972–1981) where he spent several years as the National Party spokesman for Education and Hospital Services. He also served on the boards of numerous other bodies including hospitals, primary and high schools, and a school for physically challenged children.
Through his involvement in politics, he met Gaye Derby-Lewis, a former nun originally from Australia. They married in 1986. This was his second marriage. Derby-Lewis had three children from his first marriage.
== Parliamentary history ==
Derby-Lewis was a founder member of the Conservative Party at the time of its split from the National Party in 1982, due to a softening of the government's apartheid policies of racial segregation. He was a member of the new party's General Council and Parliamentary Caucus until 1993. He also served on the Transvaal Party Council, in addition to the council's Information and Financial Committee.
Following his unsuccessful election bid in the Krugersdorp constituency, Derby-Lewis was nominated as a member of parliament in 1987 (after the then constitution allowed for political parties to nominate members to the House of Assembly, in addition to their elected representatives). Derby-Lewis served on a number of parliamentary committees. He also represented the Conservative Party on the Standing Committees of Parliament dealing with the Provincial Affairs of Natal, as well as Trade and Commerce.
When the Conservative Party became the Official Opposition he was appointed Chief Spokesman on Economic Affairs, Technology and Mineral Affairs. He was the only member of the Conservative Party Parliamentary Caucus to have served in all four levels of government in South Africa.
During his tenure in Parliament, Derby-Lewis and others in the Conservative Party were staunchly opposed by the anti-apartheid Progressive Federal Party. In March 1988, Derby-Lewis was described by opposition leader Harry Schwarz as the "biggest racist in Parliament".
Derby-Lewis lost his seat after the 1989 election, and was subsequently appointed to the State President's Council, an advisory group, where he served as a member of the Economic Affairs and the Amenities Committees.
He visited London twice in an official Conservative Party of South Africa delegation, including that of June 1989, which included their leader, Dr. Andries Treurnicht and Natal party chief Carl Werth. About that time he joined the London-based Western Goals Institute as an honorary Vice-President, and was one of their delegation to the 22nd World Anti-Communist League Conference in Brussels in July 1990.
During his political career Derby-Lewis had a long history of racially inflammatory remarks, a number of which were considered off-putting even by his Conservative Party colleagues who themselves favoured a racially divided South Africa. In 1989 he claimed in Parliament that "If AIDS stops Black population growth it will be like Father Christmas." He was also overheard in 1989 remarking "What a pity" in response to a report by a minister that an aircraft had had to brake to avoid a black man on the runway at Johannesburg's airport (he later apologised, alleging that the comment had just "slipped out"). Commenting on this, Andries Beyers (a senior Conservative Party official at the time) said: "I think sometimes he became an embarrassment to us. He was very, very hardline. He had a calling to bring English-speakers to the CP, but his personal style put them off."
== Assassination of Chris Hani ==
After the arrest of Janusz Waluś, a Polish immigrant to South Africa, for the assassination on 10 April 1993 of Chris Hani (general secretary of the South African Communist Party and leader of the African National Congress's military wing), it appeared that Derby-Lewis was involved. He had abetted Waluś and had aided him by delivering him the gun used in the assassination. A list of senior ANC and South African Communist Party figures had been developed allegedly by Arthur Kemp and included Nelson Mandela and Joe Slovo.
In October 1993, Derby-Lewis was convicted of conspiracy to murder and sentenced to death for his role in the assassination. The sentence was commuted to life imprisonment when capital punishment was outlawed in 1995. Derby-Lewis confessed his role in the assassination in his application to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission for amnesty. He said the assassination was encouraged or sanctioned by senior leaders of the Conservative Party. In his defence, Derby-Lewis said that he was acting "in defence of my people, who were threatened with a Communist take-over." He added that his Christian faith within the Afrikaanse Protestant Church was central to his decision: "As a Christian, my first duty is to the Almighty God before everything else. We were fighting against communism, and communism is the vehicle of the Antichrist."
The amnesty application was denied in April 1999. In 2000, the Cape High Court dismissed an application by Derby-Lewis and Waluś to overturn the Truth and Reconciliation Commission's decision.
Derby-Lewis applied in June 2010 for parole, on the grounds that he was over 70, and was entitled to parole in terms of South African law for having served more than 15 years in prison. The following November, Derby-Lewis's lawyer reported that Derby-Lewis was receiving treatment for skin cancer and prostate cancer, hypertension, and for a gangrenous spot in his leg.
On three further occasions (2011, 2013, and 2015) Derby-Lewis was denied medical parole. According to his representative advocate Roelof du Plessis: "The recommendation of the medical parole advisory board refers to a stage 3b cancer of the right lung with probable or inconclusive spread to the left adrenal glands, is inoperable and there is marginal response to concurrent chemo and radiotherapy with poor prognostic features". He died in November 2016.
== References ==
== External links ==
Media related to Clive Derby-Lewis at Wikimedia Commons |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockabye_(song) | Rockabye (song) | "Rockabye" is a song by British electronic group Clean Bandit featuring Jamaican dancehall musician Sean Paul and English singer Anne-Marie. It was released on 21 October 2016 and was their first single since Neil Amin-Smith's departure from the group and it serves as the lead single from their second studio album, What Is Love? (2018). The song is about hardships of single mothers and alludes to the nursery rhyme and lullaby, Rock-a-bye Baby. "Rockabye" is included on the deluxe edition of Anne-Marie's debut studio album, Speak Your Mind.
The song became 2016's Christmas number one on 23 December 2016, beating the likes of Rag'n'Bone Man, Little Mix, Zara Larsson, Mariah Carey, Matt Terry, Louis Tomlinson and Steve Aoki to the Christmas number one spot. It is the first song in chart history to become Christmas number one after already being at the top of the charts for six weeks. In total, the song spent nine weeks at the summit of the UK Singles Chart while also topping the charts in over 28 other countries. It is certified 3× Diamond in Poland, Diamond in France, 9× Platinum in Canada, and multi-Platinum in twelve additional countries.
== Background and composition ==
"Rockabye" was written by Clean Bandit and Norwegian singer Ina Wroldsen, together with Amar Malik and Steve Mac. Wroldsen wrote the lyrics about her son, which, according to Grace Chatto, "is why it rings so true for Clean Bandit and is so emotional and special." Wroldsen originally provided the vocal for the song but at last minute was swapped for Anne-Marie. The band fought their label to get Ina on the records but failed. Grace described the situation as a terrible experience, and almost quit the band because, she said, "I did feel like I couldn’t do it anymore because the idea that my business was hurting people […] that was really painful. I went completely crazy for a while after that. I just had to carry on, but inside it was really hard." Clean Bandit announced the single on 21 October 2016, just two days after Neil Amin-Smith quit the band. Talking to Digital Spy, Chatto said, "We've wanted to work with Sean Paul for a long, long while and it's a dream that we've managed to finally do it. Anne-Marie tells the story and we love her voice. We first heard her singing with Rudimental and we've met her at a million festivals over the past couple of years – it's been so lovely to collaborate together".
"Rockabye" is written in the key of A minor. It was composed in common time with a tempo of 102 beats per minute, and follows a chord progression of Am–F–G–Em. The vocals span from G3 to E5.
== Music video ==
The video has 3.2 billion views on YouTube as of September 2025,. It was written and directed by Grace Chatto and Jack Patterson of Clean Bandit. Cinematography by Anna Patarakina and Daria Geller, who the band originally met when Jack was at film school in Moscow aged 21. They have worked on many music videos directed by Jack and Grace, including Mozart's House, Dust Clears, and Symphony. The actress pole dancer in the video, Rita Conte, Grace met and cast in Italy.
The video for the song was released on 21 October 2016 and has a running time of 4 minutes and 11 seconds. Parts of it were shot on location in Cap Sa Sal, Begur, Spain and the George Tavern, London.
== Commercial performance ==
On 28 October 2016, "Rockabye" entered the UK Singles Chart at number seven. The following week, it climbed to three, before high performance in streaming got it to number one on its third week, dethroning "Shout Out to My Ex" by Little Mix, making it their second number one after "Rather Be", it also became Sean Paul's third and Anne-Marie's first number one in the UK. It subsequently spent nine consecutive weeks at number one, became Clean Bandit's first number one single in Australia, and additionally reached number one in Austria, Finland, Germany, the Republic of Ireland, New Zealand and Switzerland. On 23 December 2016, having already spent six weeks on top of the charts, "Rockabye" became the Christmas number one for 2016, making it the first song to do so that was not an X Factor winner's song, charity single, or stunt song since "Mad World" in 2003. However, it sold just 57,631 copies, becoming the lowest-selling Christmas number one of all time due to being helped by streaming (while actually being number two on the sales-only chart). It's gone on to spend a total of 41 weeks on the UK Singles Chart.
In the United States, "Rockabye" debuted at number 100 on the Billboard Hot 100 during the week of 24 December 2016, becoming Clean Bandit's first entry in this chart since "Rather Be" in 2014. It has since reached the top 10, reaching a current peak of number nine, the group's highest-charting song, exceeding the number 10 peak of "Rather Be". It is also Anne-Marie's first entry on the Billboard Hot 100 and her highest-charting song. On Billboard's Dance/Mix Show Airplay chart, the song reached number one in its 18 February 2017 issue, giving both Clean Bandit and Sean Paul their second number one on this chart, as well as Anne-Marie's first.
== Track listing ==
== Charts ==
== Certifications ==
== Release history ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groove_Coaster | Groove Coaster | Groove Coaster (Japanese: グルーヴコースター, Hepburn: Gurūvu Kōsutā) is a series of iOS / Android and arcade rhythm game franchise developed by Matrix Software and published by Taito. The first Groove Coaster was released for iOS on July 28, 2011. This rhythm game follows a roller coaster type track on screen, where players must make the appropriate controller inputs. Like many rhythm games, a life bar is attached to the game play. Players gain or lose points on the bar depending on the input timings.
== Releases ==
Groove Coaster Zero was a free-to-play updated version of the game, that got released on November 20, 2012.
The arcade version of Groove Coaster (also known as Rhythmvaders in some areas outside Japan) was released on November 5, 2013, with the touchscreen replaced by two giant controllers called "BOOSTERs" with a white button on each.
Groove Coaster EX (also known as Rhythmvaders EX in some areas outside Japan) is an update of the arcade version released on May 26, 2014.
Groove Coaster 2: Heavenly Festival (also known as Rhythmvaders 2 in some areas outside Japan) was released on January 22, 2015, in which the "LEVEL" system was removed and was replaced by a new system called the "GROOVE COIN" system, in which players can get "GROOVE COINs" according to their performance and use them as currency for virtual goods.
Groove Coaster 2: Original Style was released on iOS and Android on July 1, 2015. In this version, stage charts from arcade version are added for some tracks, which makes two-finger play available. A new input mode is introduced, in which players play the stages by making sound instead of touching the screen. This version was now shut down as of 31 March 2025.
Groove Coaster 3: Link Fever was released on March 10, 2016, in which an online multiplayer system is added and the "MUSIC PANEL" system is removed. A fictional navigator introduced to the series, named Linka (リンカ; voiced by Moe Toyota in Japanese version and Jennifer Skidmore in overseas versions), who guided the player throughout the whole playthrough, was added.
Groove Coaster 3EX: Dream Party was released on March 16, 2017. In this version, the player is allowed to select the navigators. Another navigator introduced in 3EX, named Yume (ユメ; voiced by Nanami Takahashi in Japanese version) is added as well. Also, Solo Event Mode, similar to the one until 2HF, returned in 3EXDP.
Groove Coaster 4: Starlight Road, was released on March 29, 2018, with a brand new "LEVEL" system, in which the Difficulty level range is re-arranged from 1 to 15, a new stage unlocking system, and various new functions online. Another navigator introduced in 4SR, named Seine (セイネ; voiced by Eriko Kawakami), is introduced as well.
The Steam version of Groove Coaster was released on July 16, 2018.
Groove Coaster 4EX: Infinity Highway was released on March 28, 2019. This version added new songs and adjusted the difficulty of some existing songs.
Groove Coaster: Wai Wai Party!!!! was released on Nintendo Switch on November 7, 2019.
Groove Coaster 4MAX: Diamond Galaxy was released on April 9, 2020. This was the final version of the arcade game, which had stopped getting updates in 2022 and was given offline service on April 1, 2024.
Groove Coaster: Future Performers was released on Nintendo Switch on July 31, 2025. This game introduces new target types, includes a story mode, and has a 16:9 play interface instead of the traditional 9:16.
== Gameplay ==
When the avatar reaches the target, input the command that the target requires. After a target is hit, a judgment is received, from the highest to lowest: GREAT, COOL, GOOD and MISS, depending on the timing of hitting the target. GREAT, COOL and GOOD fill the GROOVE gauge on the top of the screen, while MISS depletes it (Starting from 4SR, the FAST or SLOW is displayed on the top-right of the avatar, if COOL and GOOD is received). The player is required to fill up at least 70% of the GROOVE gauge to clear the stage (the gauge will flash in white in iOS version, yellow in arcade version) when the song ends, otherwise fails it.
When the target is hit, the target triggers a sound sample that recomposes or accompanies the song, or is a consistent sound for every target hit, depending on the song; these samples are consistent across all difficulties for the former. However, in Groove Coaster: Wai Wai Party!!!!, targets will always play a consistent sound when hit, with different sounds for different target types, which can be configured by style and/or volume.
As the player continuously hits the target successfully, the CHAIN count will increase. FEVER is activated when CHAIN count reaches 10, and CHAIN number acquired from each successful hit will be doubled in FEVER. In arcade version, TRANCE is activated when CHAIN count reaches 100, and CHAIN number acquired from each successful hit will be quadrupled in TRANCE. However, if the player misses a target, the CHAIN count will be reset and FEVER or TRANCE will end.
After the player finished a song, a RATING (RATE in arcade version) is given, from lowest to highest, E, D, C, B, A, and S (two higher RATING, S+ and S++, are added in the EX and 2OS versions), according to the performance.
The player selects the song first, then the mode to play. However, not all the modes are initially available.
In 2OS, each song contains EASY, NORMAL, HARD, and for some songs that contains arcade mode stages, AC-EASY, AC-NORMAL, and AC-HARD. HARD, AC-EASY, AC-NORMAL can be unlocked by clearing NORMAL, while AC-HARD can be unlocked by clearing AC-NORMAL.
In arcade version, each song contains SIMPLE, NORMAL and HARD. Some songs also contains EXTRA, which can be unlocked by getting S-Rank on SIMPLE, NORMAL, and HARD mode of the same song. Starting from 4SR, for the stage with the difficulty of 11 and above, the player need an S-Rank on either one of the stage that contains the difficulty that is lower by 1 than the target difficulty to unlock (For example, to unlock Level 11 the player need an S-Rank on one of the Level 10 stages, and so on.), making two locks on most of the EXTRA mode stages.
== Multiplayer Matching (Arcade version only) ==
In the arcade version, multiplayer matches are separated into two types: Local Matching and Online Matching.
=== Local Matching (Multiplayer Mode) ===
The player can start the play in multiplayer mode. Once a player starts recruiting, a 90-second countdown will start. Other players (up to three more, which can make a four-player match) can join the match before the countdown ends. The recruiting player can also end the recruitment by pressing the BOOSTER button.
Stage selecting is almost the same as single-player mode. Any player can decide the song that will be played in the match. Each player selects their own mode, items, and skins. However, EXTRA mode selecting goes differently. If the songs that contain EXTRA mode were selected by the player that has already unlocked the mode, then all the players can select EXTRA mode. If not, then only the player who has already unlocked the mode can select it.
=== Online Matching (Event Play) ===
The system will recruit players from all over the world. Usually, the match begins when the fourth player is recruited. However, a two- or three-player match will be triggered if the system cannot find enough players in a period of time.
Each player selects the song they want to play in a set list. When all players finish selecting, the system will select a song from the players' choices via roulette. The players then select their own mode, items, and skins. The EXTRA mode will be unavailable if the player has not yet unlocked it.
=== Gameplay ===
In the stage, the player's own avatar is shown on the course line, while other players are shown beside it. Also, the player's own rank is shown right below the avatar. As the stage progresses, the relative position of the players' avatars will differ, depending on their own play scores.
When the stage ends, a match result screen will be shown. From 2, the player competes with each other with total number of stars earned from three tunes. The player with the most stars wins the match.
In 3LF, for some rewards, the star given to players will increase in later Tunes, making the game easier to be reversed if any mistake is made. Also the number of stars the player gets in Online Matching will become Battle Point reward, which can be used to compete with others in the Event. Playing in multiplayer mode lets the player receive bonus EXP reward (GC reward in 2) and one extra "MUSIC PANEL".
== Critical reception ==
The original, mobile version of the game had a Metacritic rating of 87% based on 21 critic reviews.
SlideToPlay said "We don't know what Space Invaders are doing in a rhythm game, but we like it." IGN wrote "Nearly perfect. The music is great. The visuals are great. The rhythm action itself feels tight and perfectly matches each tune. Best of all, this is an experience that would be very hard to replicate on a traditional platform – this is a game built from the ground-up for iPhone, and it shows." The AV Club said "Its elegance surpasses some of its antecedents, like Osu! Tatke! Ouendan! " AppSafari wrote "The bigger screen is nice, but the levels scales so well, you won't miss out by using a smaller one." GamePro said "Groove Coaster is a textbook example of how to make an iOS game correctly. Simple one-finger controls and quick play sessions belie a game with a considerable amount of depth and replay value." DaGameboyz wrote "It's definitely one of the "must plays" of the iOS, and at only $2.99 on the App Store, you should go grab it right now!" PocketGamerUK said "Gorgeous, challenging and thrillingly different, Groove Coaster is a treat for the eyes, the ears, and the soul." Gamezebo said "The only real complaint to be had with Groove Coaster is that there isn't more of it." 148Apps said "Just as crazy-awesome a game as one would expect to get from the people who brought us Space Invaders-Infinity Gene." Multiplayer.it said "Groove Coaster is another little masterpiece by Reisuke Ishida; a great rhythm game that fits perfectly on the Apple devices and that any lover of the genre should check out."
Eurogamer said "Groove Coaster still lacks enough of a challenge to be interesting, and it's only when you play each song on hard that the game's potential reveals itself. Even then, it's unlikely that hardcore rhythm action fiends will care much for its casual approach." MetroCentral said "One of the best marriages of gameplay, graphics and music ever seen on a portable and a triumphant return to the roots of rhythm action." Modojo wrote "A wonderful fusion of stimulating graphics, music and touch based play, making it an essential download for iPhone and iPad users. Great job, Taito." VideoGamer said "Groove Coaster isn't as ambitious a project as Space Invaders Infinity Gene, but it's certainly more fun while it lasts. Whether it's flying along at juddering right angles, or gently cruising around a relaxing curve, Groove Coaster is a consistently enjoyable audiovisual experience." TouchArcdae said "Groove Coaster is a good game with a fundamental flaw. It also has a few nit-picky problems, too, like its spectacularly abrupt ending and horrible "How To," but the strength of its presentation, music, and RPG-lite systems make up for anything that could sour the experience." AppSpy said "While it's not the first time we've seen this blending of visual style and rhythm-based gameplay, Groove Coaster is none-the-less a unique experience that constantly rewards players for delving in again and again." TouchGen wrote "It doesn't quite offer the same originality in gameplay as Bit Trip beat, but its attack on your senses will knock your socks off, and more than makes up for it. Beautiful! "
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Groove Coaster EX Official Site (JP)
Rhythmvaders EX Official Site |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allegro_(typeface) | Allegro (typeface) | Allegro is a serif typeface intended for display use. It was designed by Hans Bohn for the Ludwig & Mayer type foundry of Frankfurt, and released in 1936.
Allegro is inspired by the Didone style dating from around the start of the nineteenth century onwards, that emphasised alternation of very thick and very thin strokes. However, it emphasises this through breaks in the letter where thin strokes would normally be found, producing an effect similar to stencilled lettering, with a slight inclination suggesting handwriting and ball terminals and swashes suggesting music. Allegro is particularly used for decorative purposes, such as on book jackets.
Allegro has been digitised and is sold by Bitstream. Its description of Allegro writes that it blends:
characteristics of roman and italic, fat face and stencil, modern and script.
== See also ==
Samples of display typefaces
== References ==
== External links ==
Fonts in Use
1955 specimen (digitised by Florian Hardwig) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authorization_for_Use_of_Military_Force_Against_Iraq_Resolution_of_2002 | Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq Resolution of 2002 | The Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq Resolution of 2002, informally known as the Iraq Resolution, is a joint resolution passed by the United States Congress in October 2002 as Public Law No. 107-243, authorizing the use of the United States Armed Forces against Saddam Hussein's Iraq government in what would be known as Operation Iraqi Freedom.
== Contents ==
The resolution cited many factors as justifying the use of military force against Iraq:
Iraq's noncompliance with the conditions of the 1991 ceasefire agreement, including interference with U.N. weapons inspectors.
Iraq "continuing to possess and develop a significant chemical and biological weapons capability" and "actively seeking a nuclear weapons capability" posed a "threat to the national security of the United States and international peace and security in the Persian Gulf region."
Iraq's "brutal repression of its civilian population."
Iraq's "capability and willingness to use weapons of mass destruction against other nations and its own people".
Iraq's hostility towards the United States as demonstrated by the 1993 assassination attempt on former president George H. W. Bush and firing on coalition aircraft enforcing the no-fly zones following the 1991 Gulf War.
Members of al-Qaeda, an organization bearing responsibility for attacks on the United States, its citizens, and interests, including the attacks that occurred on September 11, 2001, are known to be in Iraq.
Iraq's "continu[ing] to aid and harbor other international terrorist organizations," including anti-United States terrorist organizations.
Iraq paid bounty to families of suicide bombers.
The efforts by the Congress and the President to fight terrorists, and those who aided or harbored them.
The authorization by the Constitution and the Congress for the President to fight anti-United States terrorism.
The governments in Israel, Turkey, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia feared Saddam and wanted him removed from power.
Citing the Iraq Liberation Act of 1998, the resolution reiterated that it should be the policy of the United States to remove the Saddam Hussein regime and promote a democratic replacement.
The resolution "supported" and "encouraged" diplomatic efforts by President George W. Bush to "strictly enforce through the U.N. Security Council all relevant Security Council resolutions regarding Iraq" and "obtain prompt and decisive action by the Security Council to ensure that Iraq abandons its strategy of delay, evasion, and noncompliance and promptly and strictly complies with all relevant Security Council resolutions regarding Iraq."
The resolution authorized President Bush to use the Armed Forces of the United States "as he determines to be necessary and appropriate" in order to "defend the national security of the United States against the continuing threat posed by Iraq; and enforce all relevant United Nations Security Council Resolutions regarding Iraq."
== Passage ==
An authorization by Congress was sought by President George W. Bush soon after his September 12, 2002 statement before the U.N. General Assembly asking for quick action by the Security Council in enforcing the resolutions against Iraq.
Of the legislation introduced by Congress in response to President Bush's requests, S.J.Res. 45 sponsored by Sen. Daschle and Sen. Lott was based on the original White House proposal authorizing the use of force in Iraq, H.J.Res. 114 sponsored by Rep. Hastert and Rep. Gephardt and the substantially similar S.J.Res. 46 sponsored by Sen. Lieberman were modified proposals. H.J.Res. 110 sponsored by Rep. Hastings was a separate proposal never considered on the floor. Eventually, the Hastert–Gephardt proposal became the legislation Congress focused on.
=== Passage of the full resolution ===
Introduced in Congress on October 2, 2002, in conjunction with the administration's proposals, H.J.Res. 114 passed the House of Representatives on Thursday afternoon at 3:05 p.m. EDT on October 10, 2002, by a vote of 296–133, and passed the Senate after midnight early Friday morning, at 12:50 a.m. EDT on October 11, 2002, by a vote of 77–23. It was signed into law as Pub. L. 107–243 (text) (PDF) by President Bush on October 16, 2002.
==== United States House of Representatives ====
215 (96.4%) of 223 Republican representatives voted for the resolution.
81 (39.2%) of 208 Democratic representatives voted for the resolution.
6 (<2.7%) of 223 Republican representatives voted against the resolution: Reps. Duncan (R-TN), Hostettler (R-IN), Houghton (R-NY), Leach (R-IA), Morella (R-MD), Paul (R-TX).
126 (~60.3%) of 209 Democratic representatives voted against the resolution.
The only Independent representative voted against the resolution: Rep. Sanders (I-VT)
Reps. Ortiz (D-TX), Roukema (R-NJ), and Stump (R-AZ) did not vote on the resolution.
==== United States Senate ====
29 (58%) of 50 Democratic senators voted for the resolution. Those voting for the resolution were:
Sens. Baucus (D-MT),
Bayh (D-IN),
Biden (D-DE),
Breaux (D-LA),
Cantwell (D-WA),
Carnahan (D-MO),
Carper (D-DE),
Cleland (D-GA),
Clinton (D-NY),
Daschle (D-SD),
Dodd (D-CT),
Dorgan (D-ND),
Edwards (D-NC),
Feinstein (D-CA),
Harkin (D-IA),
Hollings (D-SC),
Johnson (D-SD),
Kerry (D-MA),
Kohl (D-WI),
Landrieu (D-LA),
Lieberman (D-CT),
Lincoln (D-AR),
Miller (D-GA),
Nelson (D-FL),
Nelson (D-NE),
Reid (D-NV),
Rockefeller (D-WV),
Schumer (D-NY), and
Torricelli (D-NJ).
21 (42%) of 50 Democratic senators voted against the resolution. Those voting against the resolution were:
Sens. Akaka (D-HI),
Bingaman (D-NM),
Boxer (D-CA),
Byrd (D-WV),
Conrad (D-ND),
Corzine (D-NJ),
Dayton (D-MN),
Durbin (D-IL),
Feingold (D-WI),
Graham (D-FL),
Inouye (D-HI),
Kennedy (D-MA),
Leahy (D-VT),
Levin (D-MI),
Mikulski (D-MD),
Murray (D-WA),
Reed (D-RI),
Sarbanes (D-MD),
Stabenow (D-MI),
Wellstone (D-MN), and
Wyden (D-OR).
1 (2%) of 49 Republican senators voted against the resolution: Sen. Chafee (R-RI).
The only independent senator voted against the resolution: Sen. Jeffords (I-VT)
=== Amendments offered to the House Resolution ===
==== Lee Amendment ====
Amendment in the nature of a substitute sought to have the United States work through the United Nations to seek to resolve the matter of ensuring that Iraq is not developing weapons of mass destruction, through mechanisms such as the resumption of weapons inspections, negotiation, enquiry, mediation, regional arrangements, and other peaceful means.
Sponsored by Rep. Barbara Lee (D-CA).
Failed by the Ayes and Nays: 72 – 355
==== Spratt Amendment ====
Amendment in the nature of a substitute sought to authorize the use of U.S. armed forces to support any new U.N. Security Council resolution that mandated the elimination, by force if necessary, of all Iraqi weapons of mass destruction, long-range ballistic missiles, and the means of producing such weapons and missiles. Requested that the president should seek authorization from Congress to use the armed forces of the U.S. in the absence of a U.N. Security Council resolution sufficient to eliminate, by force if necessary, all Iraqi weapons of mass destruction, long-range ballistic missiles, and the means of producing such weapons and missiles. Provided expedited consideration for authorization in the latter case.
Sponsored by Rep. John Spratt (D-SC-5).
Failed by the Yeas and Nays: 155 – 270
==== House Rules Amendment ====
An amendment considered as adopted pursuant to the provisions of H.Res. 574
Sponsored by House Rules.
Resolution (H.RES.574) agreed to by voice vote
=== Amendments offered to the Senate Resolution ===
==== Byrd Amendments ====
To provide statutory construction that constitutional authorities remain unaffected and that no additional grant of authority is made to the president not directly related to the existing threat posed by Iraq.
Sponsored by Sen. Robert Byrd (D-WV).
Amendment SA 4868 not agreed to by Yea-Nay Vote: 14 – 86
To provide a termination date for the authorization of the use of the Armed Forces of the United States, together with procedures for the extension of such date unless Congress disapproves the extension.
Sponsored by Sen. Robert Byrd (D-WV).
Amendment SA 4869 not agreed to by Yea-Nay Vote: 31 – 66
==== Levin Amendment ====
To authorize the use of the United States Armed Forces, pursuant to a new resolution of the United Nations Security Council, to destroy, remove, or render harmless Iraq's weapons of mass destruction, nuclear weapons-usable material, long-range ballistic missiles, and related facilities, and for other purposes.
Sponsored by Sen. Carl Levin (D-MI).
Amendment SA 4862 not agreed to by Yea-Nay Vote: 24 – 75
==== Durbin Amendment ====
To amend the authorization for the use of the Armed Forces to cover an imminent threat posed by Iraq's weapons of mass destruction rather than the continuing threat posed by Iraq.
Sponsored by Sen. Dick Durbin (D-IL).
Amendment SA 4865 not agreed to by Yea-Nay Vote: 30 – 70
== Legal challenges ==
=== U.S. law ===
The United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit refused to review the legality of the invasion in 2003, citing a lack of ripeness.
In early 2003, the Iraq Resolution was challenged in court to stop the invasion from happening. The plaintiffs argued that the president does not have the authority to declare war. The final decision came from a three-judge panel from the US Court of Appeals for the First Circuit which dismissed the case. Judge Lynch wrote in the opinion that the Judiciary cannot intervene unless there is a fully developed conflict between the President and Congress or if Congress gave the President "absolute discretion" to declare war.
Similar efforts to secure judicial review of the invasion's legality have been dismissed on a variety of justiciability grounds.
=== International law ===
United Nations secretary general Kofi Annan stated in 2004 that the invasion was illegal, and that it was "not in conformity with the UN Charter".
==== U.N. security council resolutions ====
Debate about the legality of the 2003 invasion of Iraq under international law, centers around ambiguous language in parts of U.N. Resolution 1441 (2002). The U.N. Charter in Article 39 states: "The Security Council shall determine the existence of any threat to the peace, breach of the peace, or act of aggression and shall make recommendations, or decide what measures shall be taken in accordance with Articles 41 and 42, to maintain or restore international peace and security".
The position of the U.S. and U.K. is that the invasion was authorized by a series of U.N. resolutions dating back to 1990 and that since the U.N. security council has made no Article 39 finding of illegality, that no illegality exists.
Resolution 1441 declared that Iraq was in "material breach" of the cease-fire under U.N. Resolution 687 (1991), which required cooperation with weapons inspectors. The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties states that under certain conditions, a party may invoke a "material breach" to suspend a multilateral treaty. Thus, the U.S. and U.K. claim that they used their right to suspend the cease-fire in Resolution 687 and to continue hostilities against Iraq under the authority of U.N. Resolution 678 (1990), which originally authorized the use of force after Iraq invaded Kuwait. This is the same argument that was used for Operation Desert Fox in 1998. They also contend that, while Resolution 1441 required the UNSC to assemble and assess reports from the weapons inspectors, it was not necessary for the UNSC to reach an agreement on the course of action. If, at that time, it was determined that Iraq breached Resolution 1441, the resolution did not "constrain any member state from acting to defend itself against the threat posed by Iraq". The United States government argued, wholly apart from Resolution 1441, that it has a right of pre-emptive self-defense to protect itself from terrorism fomented by Iraq.
It remains unclear whether any party other than the Security Council can make the determination that Iraq breached Resolution 1441, as U.N. members commented that it is not up to one member state to interpret and enforce U.N. resolutions for the entire council. In addition, other nations have stated that a second resolution was required to initiate hostilities.
== Repeal ==
On June 17, 2021, the House of Representatives voted for House Resolution 256, to repeal the 2002 resolution by a vote of 268–161. 219 House Democrats and 49 House Republicans voted to repeal, while 160 Republicans and 1 Democrat voted to oppose the repeal.
In July 2021, three senators, Christopher Murphy, Mike Lee & Bernie Sanders, introduced S.2391, the National Security Powers Act of 2021, which would have repealed previous war authorizations and established new procedures, but a Senator put a quasi-anonymous hold on it in committee until it was dead. Its companion in the House, H.R.5410, the National Security Reforms and Accountability Act, did not contain the repeal language (which prevented the Senators' attempt to repeal), and again, this companion bill was quasi-anonymously held in committee til it was dead.
On March 16, 2023, a bill (S. 316) to repeal the 1991 and 2002 AUMFs, introduced by senators Tim Kaine and Todd Young, was advanced by the Senate by 68 votes to 27, but its companion, H.R.932, has been quasi-anonymously held by a Representative in the House Committee on Foreign Affairs since February 9, 2023.
On July 13, 2023, in a further attempt to repeal the 1991 and 2002 AUMFs, Tim Kaine & Todd Young introduced S.Amdt.427 to S.2226, the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2024. But they didn't timely propose it on the floor so that when the bill passed the Senate, no action was taken on their amendment & it was therefore, by default, excluded by law. The POTUS remains authorized by Congress to strike at will, any targets of his choosing in Iraq.
== See also ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Text of joint resolution as amended (PDF/details) in the GPO Statute Compilations collection
Text of joint resolution as enacted (details) in the US Statutes at Large
Iraq War Resolution, Roll Call Vote – House (clerk.house.gov)
Iraq War Resolution, Roll Call Vote – Senate (senate.gov)
Bill status and summary on Congress.gov
President Signs Iraq Resolution, East Room Remarks
Statement by President George W. Bush on his signing the resolution into law
October 16, 2002 Press Briefing by Ari Fleischer
Floor speeches
Floor Speech of Sen Hillary Clinton (earthhopenetwork.net)
Floor Speech of Sen Russ Feingold (feingold.senate.gov)
Floor Speech of Sen Jay Rockefeller (rockefeller.senate.gov)
Floor Speech of Rep Ron Paul (www.house.gov/paul)
Floor Speech of Rep Pete Stark
Floor Speech of Rep Dennis Kucinich
Congressional Records related to the Congress' consent to the Authorization of the Use of Military Force in Iraq |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%ADquiza | Chíquiza | Chíquiza (Spanish pronunciation: [tʃiˈkisa]) is a town and municipality in the Central Boyacá Province, part of the Colombian Department of Boyacá. Chíquiza was called San Pedro de Iguaque until July 17, 2003, when the name was changed to Chíquiza. The municipality is situated on the Altiplano Cundiboyacense with the urban centre at an altitude of 2,900 metres (9,500 ft) and 24 kilometres (15 mi) from the department capital Tunja. Chíquiza borders Arcabuco in the north, Sora and Sáchica in the south, Villa de Leyva in the west and Motavita in the east.
== Etymology ==
The name Chíquiza comes from Chibcha and means "only" or "alone", "Chiqui" means priest. Another origin is given from the word chequiza; "hairy field".
== History ==
Before the Spanish conquest, Chíquiza was part of the loose Muisca Confederation and ruled by a cacique who was loyal to the zaque of Hunza. The village was important in the religion of the Muisca as it was close to the sacred Lake Iguaque; the birthplace of Bachué, mother goddess of the Muisca.
Modern Chíquiza was founded in 1556 and became a part of Tunja until 1982. In 2003 the name was changed from San Pedro de Iguaque to Chíquiza.
== Economy ==
The economy of Chíquiza is centered around agriculture and livestock farming. Main agricultural products are maize, potatoes, peas, wheat, nabo, ibia, ruba and onions.
== Gallery ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WWQB | WWQB | WWQB (102.3 FM) is a radio station licensed to serve the community of Westwood, Kentucky. The station is owned by Serge Martin Enterprises, Inc., and airs a classic hits format, as a simulcast of sister station WMXE in Charleston, West Virginia.
The station was assigned the WWQB call letters by the Federal Communications Commission on March 28, 2011.
== References ==
== External links ==
Official Website
FCC Public Inspection File for WWQB
Facility details for Facility ID 166078 (WWQB) in the FCC Licensing and Management System
WWQB in Nielsen Audio's FM station database |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doab#The_Doab | Doab | Doab (English: ) is a term used in South Asia for the tract of land lying between two confluent rivers. It is similar to an interfluve. In the Oxford Hindi-English Dictionary, R. S. McGregor refers to its Persian origin in defining it as do-āb (دوآب, literally "two [bodies of] water") "a region lying between and reaching to the confluence of two rivers."
== Khadir, bangar, barani, nali and bagar ==
Since North India and Pakistan are coursed by a multiplicity of Himalayan rivers that divide the plains into doabs (i.e. regions between two rivers), the Indo-Gangetic plains consist of alternating regions of river, khadir and bangar. The regions of the doabs near the rivers consist of low-lying, floodplains, but usually, very fertile khadir and the higher-lying land away from the rivers consist of bangar, less prone to flooding but also less fertile on average.
Khadir is also called nali or naili, specially in northern Haryana the fertile prairie tract between the Ghaggar river and the southern limits of the Saraswati channel depression in that gets flooded during the rains.
Within bangar area, the barani is any low rain area where the rain-fed dry farming is practiced, which nowadays are dependent on the tubewells for irrigation. Bagar tract, an example of barani land, is the dry sandy tract of land on the border of Rajasthan state adjoining the states of Haryana and Punjab. Nahri is any canal-irrigated land, for example, the Rangoi tract which is an area irrigated by the Rangoi channel/canal made for the purpose of carrying flood waters of Ghagghar river to dry areas.
Historically, villages in the doabs have been officially classified as khadir, khadir-bangar (i.e. mixed) or bangar for many centuries, and different agricultural tax rates applied based on a tiered land-productivity scale.
== The Doab ==
The Doab designates the flat alluvial tract between the Ganges and Yamuna rivers extending from the Sivalik Hills to the two rivers' confluence at Prayagraj. It is also called as Ganges-Yamuna Doab or Ganga Doab. The region has an area of about 23,360 square miles (60,500 square km); it is approximately 500 miles (805 km) in length and 60 miles (97 km) in width.
The British Raj] divided the Doab into three administrative districts, viz., Upper Doab (Meerut), Middle Doab (Agra) and Lower Doab (Allahabad).
Currently the following states and districts form part of The Doab:
=== Upper Doab ===
Main article : Upper Doab
Uttarakhand:
Dehradun and Haridwar
Uttar Pradesh:
Saharanpur, Shamli, Muzaffarnagar, Baghpat, Meerut, Ghaziabad, Hapur, Gautam Buddh Nagar and Bulandshahr
Delhi
=== Central or Middle Doab ===
Etah, Kasganj, Aligarh, Agra, Hathras, Firozabad, Mainpuri and Mathura is in the trans-Yamuna region of Braj.
=== Lower Doab ===
Farrukhabad, Kannauj, Etawah, Auraiya, Kanpur (Urban & Rural), Fatehpur, Kaushambi and Allahabad.
== The Punjab Doabs ==
Each of the tracts of land lying between the confluent rivers of the Punjab region of Pakistan and India has a distinct name, said to have been coined by Raja Todar Mal, a minister of the Mughal emperor Akbar. The names (except for "Indus Sagar") are a combination of the first letters, in the Persian alphabet, of the names of the rivers that bound the Doab. For example, "Chaj" (چج) = Chanāb (چناب, "Chenab") + Jehlam (جہلم, "Jhelum"). The names are from east to west.
=== Sind Sagar Doab ===
The Sind Sagar Doab lies between the Indus and Jhelum rivers.
=== Chaj Doab ===
The Chaj Doab lies between the Jhelum and the Chenab rivers.
=== Rachna Doab ===
The Rachna Doab (considerable portion of the Rechna Doab is Majha) lies between the Chenab and the Ravi rivers.
=== Bari Doab ===
The Bari Doab (considerable portion of the Bari Doab is Majha) lies between the Ravi, Beas and Sutlej rivers.
=== Bist Doab ===
The Bist Doab (or Doaba) - between the Beas and the Sutlej rivers.
== Other doabs ==
=== Raichur Doab ===
The Raichur Doab is the triangular region of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka states which lies between the Krishna River and its tributary the Tungabhadra River, named for the town of Raichur.
== See also ==
Ap (water)
Interamnia, an ancient Latin placename, meaning "between rivers"
Mesopotamia, in Ancient Greek: Μεσοποταμία '[land] between rivers'.
== Notes ==
== References ==
McGregor, Ronald Stuart (1993), The Oxford Hindi-English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, p. 513, ISBN 978-0-19-864339-5, retrieved 11 September 2013 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manny_D%C3%ADaz_Jr. | Manny Díaz Jr. | Manny Díaz Jr. (born March 2, 1973) is an American politician who is currently serving as the president of the University of West Florida. Díaz served as the 28th education commissioner of Florida from 2022-2025. A Republican, Díaz was a member of the Florida Senate from 2018 to 2022, representing the 36th district, which encompasses the Hialeah area in northwest Miami-Dade County. He also served three terms in the Florida House of Representatives from 2012 to 2018, which encompassed parts of Hialeah and Northwest Miami-Dade County, Florida.
== Background ==
Díaz was born in Hialeah, graduated from Miami Springs High School, and attended St. Thomas University, where he graduated with a degree in human resources in 1994. He then attended Nova Southeastern University, graduating with a Master's degree in educational leadership in 1998. In 2006 Díaz completed the Harvard University Graduate School of Education Principal's Summer Institute as part of the Superintendent's Urban Principal Initiative.
== Education career ==
Díaz first worked as a teacher and baseball coach at Miami Springs High School. From 1995 to 1999, he taught social studies at Hialeah-Miami Lakes High School, where he spent eight years as an assistant principal. In 2013, he was assistant principal at George T. Baker Aviation School, a public vocational school near Miami International Airport.
From 2013 to 2022, Díaz worked for Doral College, a private college affiliated with the for-profit Academica charter school operator founded by Fernando Zulueta. For most of this time, he was its chief operating officer.
== Political career ==
In 2010, Díaz ran for the Miami-Dade County School Board, but lost to Perla Tabares Hantman in the primary, receiving only 39% of the vote to her 61%.
=== Florida House of Representatives ===
In 2012, following the reconfiguration of Florida House of Representatives districts, Díaz ran in the newly created 103rd district in the Republican primary against former state representative Renier Díaz de la Portilla and Alfredo Naredo-Acosta. Despite the nastiness and perceived closeness of the race, Díaz ended up defeating his opponents by a wide margin, winning 55% of the vote to Díaz de la Portilla's 39% and Naredo-Acosta's 6%. He faced only write-in opposition in the general election and won by a wide margin. Díaz went on to be re-elected in 2014 and 2016.
He was Chair of the Choice and Innovation and K-12 Appropriations committee during his tenure. He was a key member of Representative José R. Oliva's team. Oliva rose to become the second Cuban-American speaker of the House in Florida.
=== Florida Senate ===
In 2018, Díaz was elected to the Florida Senate District 36, defeating Democrat David Perez 54.1% to 45.9%. His re-election bid received substantial funding from health care and education companies. Díaz was Chair of the Senate Education committee from 2018 to 2020 and chaired the Senate Health Policy committee from 2020 to 2022.
During the 2022 legislative session, Díaz was the sole Republican to vote against the congressional redistricting plan, thus signaling his allegiance to Governor Ron DeSantis.
=== Florida Education Commissioner ===
On June 1, 2022, he assumed the office of Education Commissioner after his predecessor, Richard Corcoran, stepped down. In 2024, the Florida Board of Governors eliminated sociology as a core course at its public universities. Díaz said, "Sociology has been hijacked by left-wing activists and no longer serves its intended purpose as a general knowledge course for students."
== Political positions ==
=== Education ===
While serving in the legislature, Díaz sponsored legislation that would "allow more private online education providers, some from outside Florida," to offer classes to public school students; allow students to take classes in public virtual schools in other counties, and require the Florida Department of Education "to create a catalogue of online offerings."
He rejected allegations of conflict of interest when, in 2017, he sponsored, along with Richard Corcoran and Michael Bileca, legislation that directed $140 million of public funds to charter schools. The three men and their wives were involved in the charter school industry.
Díaz sponsored the 2019 Family Empowerment Scholarship legislation and in 2020 a bill that significantly expanded publicly-funded vouchers for private schools, seen as the largest expansion of school choice in the nation by many.
=== Public health ===
During the COVID-19 pandemic, Díaz opposed COVID-19 vaccine requirements. In 2021, Díaz also said that he wanted to "review" any additional vaccine requirements for students, such as those for mumps and measles. As of September 2021, Díaz had not been vaccinated against COVID-19.
=== Culture wars ===
In 2022, Díaz sponsored SB148/ HB7 in the Florida Senate, the "anti-woke" legislation backed by Governor Ron DeSantis. After the legislation was signed into law in April 2022, Chief U.S. district judge Mark E. Walker blocked key provisions of the law in November 2022. In his 139-page decision, he called the law "positively dystopian."
== Personal life ==
Díaz was a four year letterman college baseball player at St. Thomas University where he played for head coach Al Avila. Díaz's second wife, Jennifer, worked in Miami Dade Public Schools and in Miami-Dade charter schools. They married on December 11, 2010. She is former vice-chair of the governing board of the Tallahassee Classical School, affiliated with Hillsdale College. They have three children. Díaz's son Dominic, from his first marriage to Linet Gonzalez, played baseball at Longwood University.
== References ==
== External links ==
Florida House of Representatives - Manny Díaz Jr.
Better Florida Education - contribution records of Díaz's political committee. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Uttarakhand_avalanche | 2022 Uttarakhand avalanche | On 4 October 2022, an avalanche at the Draupadi Ka Danda peak in Uttarakhand, India killed 27 mountaineers in the Advanced Mountaineering Course of the Nehru Institute of Mountaineering. The death toll makes this the worst mountaineering disaster recorded in India. 24 of the bodies were of trainee mountaineers and 2 were of their instructors. As of 7 March 2024, one mountaineer is still missing.
Mountaineers at the Nehru Institute of Mountaineering announced that they will climb 11 previously unclimbed mountain peaks as a tribute to the victims of the avalanche.
== See also ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arboletes | Arboletes | Arboletes is a town and municipality in the subregion of Urabá in Antioquia Department, Colombia.
The municipality is bounded by the Caribbean Sea to the north, the department of Córdoba to the north and east, the municipality of San Pedro de Urabá to the south and west, and the municipalities of Turbo and Necoclí. The town is 502 km from the city of Medellín, capital of the department of Antioquia. The municipality covers an area of 710 km².
Arboletes has 8 rural townships (corregimientos): El Carmelo, La Trinidad, Naranjitas, El Guadual, La Candelaria, Buenos Aires, Las Platas and Pajillal.
== Etymology ==
The name "Arboletes" means "land of trees", though this is purely historical. Almost all forests in the area were cleared for a thriving cattle industry, an activity on which the municipality depends. However, there are wilderness areas in the municipality, formed by the rain forests that gave rise to the name of the municipality.
== History ==
Arboletes is now a municipality of the department of Antioquia, born of a land dispute between that department and its neighboring department of Córdoba.
The town of Arboletes was founded in 1920 by José Torres Vargas y José María Reales, and was a township (corregimiento) of the municipality of Turbo, Antioquia. The municipality of Arboletes was established in August 1958.
== Economy ==
Arboletes is primarily a livestock region, and ranching occupies 90% of the land of the municipality. Cattle, swine, goats, and horses are raised in the area. Agriculture in the area includes Bananas, Yams, Cassava, Maize, Rice, and Fruit.
== Mud Volcano ==
Arboletes has a mud volcano located in the Santa Fe de la Plata corregimiento. The mud volcano has had eruptions in 2006 and 2010. The mud density allows people to float and swim on the surface. This place is visited by tourists from around the world and is renowned for its medicinal benefits.
== Climate ==
Arboletes has a tropical savanna climate (Aw) with moderate to little rainfall from December to March and heavy rainfall from April to November.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ange_Postecoglou#Brisbane_Roar | Ange Postecoglou | Angelos Postecoglou ( ANJ POS-tə-KOG-loo; born 27 August 1965) is a soccer manager and former player who was most recently the head coach of Premier League club Nottingham Forest.
Born in Greece, Postecoglou grew up in Melbourne from the age of five. As a player, he spent most of his club career as a defender for South Melbourne Hellas and played four games for the Australia national team in the late 1980s. He began managing at South Melbourne Hellas in 1996, winning the National Soccer League twice and the OFC Champions League in 1999. He then led the national under-17 and under-20 teams.
Known for his heavily attacking style of play, dubbed "Angeball", Postecoglou managed Brisbane Roar and Melbourne Victory in the A-League, winning the Premiership in 2011 and the Championship in 2011 and 2012 with Brisbane Roar. He was the men's senior national team manager from 2013 to 2017, winning the AFC Asian Cup in 2015 and also going to the 2014 FIFA World Cup. He won the J1 League with Yokohama F. Marinos in 2019, and then won five trophies (including two league titles) in two seasons with Scottish side Celtic. He became head coach of Premier League club Tottenham Hotspur in 2023, where he won the UEFA Europa League in 2025, marking the club's first trophy since 2008 and its first European trophy since 1984, before being dismissed as the triumph came amid a historically poor domestic performance that season. In September 2025, Postecoglou was appointed manager of Nottingham Forest, but was sacked after 39 days having failed to win any of his eight matches in charge.
== Early life ==
Angelos Postecoglou was born on 27 August 1965 in Nea Filadelfeia, a suburb of Athens, Greece, to a family that migrated from the Alaşehir district of Manisa during the population exchange between Turkey and Greece in 1923. Nea Filadelfeia, a settlement founded by families who had migrated from Alaşehir, Manisa, meant New Alaşehir. After his father, Dimitris ("Jim"), lost his business following the 1967 Greek military coup, the Postecoglou family migrated to Australia in 1970, when he was five years old. He grew up in Melbourne, Victoria. At the age of 10, his parents changed his surname to "Postekos", remarking: "It was a fad in those days to shorten your name if you were Greek, so that's what they did." Although Postekos is still his surname legally, he opts for Postecoglou.
== Playing career ==
After first joining South Melbourne Hellas as a nine-year-old, Postecoglou rose through the youth ranks to play 193 games from 1984 to 1993 for them in the National Soccer League.
As a player, he was involved in their 1984 and 1990–91 titles, the latter as captain in a penalty shootout win over rivals Melbourne Croatia. He was coached by Hungarian Ferenc Puskás, a renowned player whom his father had told him about as a child. According to Postecoglou, Puskás played a 4–3–3 formation rigid full-backs and attacking wingers. Postecoglou built on this strategy in his own coaching; however, his use of attacking full backs in a non-traditional inverted position differs from Puskás.
A knee injury prematurely ended Postecoglou's NSL career at the age of 27. In 2000, he went on to be named as the starting left back in South Melbourne's team of the century as voted by fans and an expert panel.
Postecoglou remained active as a player in the lower tiers of Victorian soccer, making appearances for Western Suburbs SC in the Victorian State League Division One in 1994 and Stonnington City in the Victorian State League Division Four in 1995.
== International career ==
Postecoglou represented Australia at senior level four times between 1986 and 1988. Prior to this, he represented Australia at youth level in 1985.
His international debut came on 3 August 1986 during a 1–1 draw against Czechoslovakia. The only other international opponent he ever played against was New Zealand, playing during both legs of the 1988 Trans-Tasman Cup which Australia won 4–1 on aggregate.
== Managerial career ==
=== Western Suburbs ===
In 1994, Postecoglou took charge of Western Suburbs SC in the Victorian State League Division One.
=== South Melbourne ===
Following his retirement, Postecoglou took up the role of an assistant coach at South Melbourne under coaches Jim Pyrgolios and Frank Arok. He gained the head coaching position in 1996, following the firing of Arok. He took charge of South Melbourne's final three matches of the 1995–96 National Soccer League season before being made permanent coach in June 1996.
Postecoglou led South to consecutive National Soccer League titles in 1997–98 (ending a seven-year drought) and 1998–99, as well as winning the 1999 Oceania Club Championship, which in turn led to South's participation in the 2000 FIFA Club World Championship.
After the 1999–2000 NSL season, he stood down from the South Melbourne coaching role when he was appointed coach of the Australian youth team. He is the only person to have been involved in all four of South Melbourne's NSL title-winning teams, the first two as a player and the latter two as coach.
=== Young Socceroos ===
Following his domestic coaching success, Postecoglou became coach of Australia's youth sides in May 2000. During his tenure, he played a role in identifying and developing Australian players. Postecoglou was involved in an on-air argument with football pundit Craig Foster on the television show The World Game. He was replaced as coach in February 2007 after Australia failed to qualify for the 2007 FIFA U-20 World Cup. After his departure as coach of the Australian youth teams, Postecoglou worked as a football pundit for Fox Sports and as an elite consultant to Football Federation Victoria.
Feeling that his much-publicised argument with Foster had made him unemployable, Postecoglou coached Panachaiki in the Greek third division, and Whittlesea Zebras back in Melbourne, while running coaching clinics in the city.
=== Brisbane Roar ===
On 16 October 2009, Postecoglou was signed as the new Brisbane Roar coach, replacing Frank Farina. Postecoglou started rebuilding the team by releasing Liam Reddy, Craig Moore, Bob Malcolm and Charlie Miller. Tommy Oar, Michael Zullo and Adam Sarota were bought by Dutch club Utrecht, and striker Sergio van Dijk went to Adelaide United. Postecoglou, who asked to be judged a year from the time he took over, proved the critics wrong by winning and playing an entertaining brand of football.
The 4–0 win against Adelaide United in round 13 was highly praised in the media as some of the best football the A-League has ever seen. Postecoglou led the Roar to the Premiership and Championship in the 2010–11 season, winning the Grand Final 4–2 on penalties against the Central Coast Mariners in front of 52,168 people at Lang Park. The Roar only lost one game all season and went on a 36-game unbeaten run, which broke the previous Australian football record. On 18 March 2011, he signed a two-year extension with the club until the 2013–14 season.
In the 2011–12 season, Brisbane Roar became the first team to win back-to-back A-League championships and Postecoglou became the most successful Australian domestic football coach, with four national titles.
On 24 April 2012, Postecoglou announced his resignation as head coach of Brisbane Roar. Postecoglou left the Roar after two-and-a-half years, during which he led the club to back-to-back A-League championships, a premiership and consecutive qualification for the AFC Champions League.
=== Melbourne Victory ===
On 26 April 2012, it was announced that Postecoglou had signed a three-year contract with A-League club Melbourne Victory as head coach. His first game in charge of the club was the Round 1 clash against crosstown rivals Melbourne Heart, an encounter which the Melbourne Victory lost 2–1. His first win came against Adelaide United in Round 4, with the Victory prevailing 2–1. The following year, Melbourne Victory made the A-League Preliminary Final after beating Perth Glory in an Elimination Final 2–1 at Docklands Stadium. Melbourne Victory then played in the Preliminary Final against Central Coast Mariners and lost 2–0.
=== Australia national team ===
Postecoglou was appointed head coach of the Australia national team on 23 October 2013 on a five-year contract, replacing German Holger Osieck. Postecoglou was tasked with regenerating the Australian national team, which was deemed to have been too reliant on members of their Golden Generation of 2006, subsequently leading to a stagnation of results that culminated in successive 6–0 defeats to Brazil and France. In his first game as Australia's manager, a home friendly match against Costa Rica, Australia won 1–0, courtesy of a goal from Tim Cahill.
For the 2014 FIFA World Cup, Australia were drawn in Group B alongside holders Spain, 2010 runners-up the Netherlands and Chile. The team lost to Chile 3–1 and the Netherlands 3–2 to be eliminated from Group B, and concluded with a 3–0 loss to also-eliminated Spain. Australia's competitive performances in a difficult group led to belief that a new Golden Generation was about to begin.
Postecoglou coached Australia in 2015 AFC Asian Cup, where they beat Kuwait (4–1) and Oman (4–0), but lost to South Korea (0–1) in the group stage. They then beat China 2–0 in the quarter-final and the United Arab Emirates 2–0 in the semi-final. Australia beat South Korea 2–1 after extra time to win in the final for its first AFC Asian Cup.
Two weeks after Australia qualified for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, on 22 November 2017, Postecoglou announced his resignation as Socceroos coach.
=== Yokohama F. Marinos ===
On 19 December 2017, Yokohama F. Marinos announced they had appointed Postecoglou as head coach with his tenure set to begin after the 2017 Japanese Emperor's Cup. Postecoglou's first domestic game as coach of Yokohama ended with a 1–1 draw against Cerezo Osaka at Yanmar Stadium, Osaka. After an initial difficult start to the season, which saw Yokohama F. Marinos facing potential relegation, Postecoglou guided the club to the final of the J-League Cup, and a 12th-place finish in the league.
After receiving interest from the Greece national team to become their new manager, Postecoglou extended his contract with Yokohama F. Marinos. Yokohama's belief in Postecoglou was rewarded during the 2019 season when he guided the club to their first J. League title in 15 years.
=== Celtic ===
Postecoglou became the manager of Scottish Premiership club Celtic on 10 June 2021, signing a 12-month rolling contract, making him the first Australian manager to coach a major club in Europe. Celtic, who had just lost their league title to Rangers for the first time in a decade, had abruptly missed out on hiring English manager Eddie Howe. The new appointment was mocked by Celtic fan and Talksport presenter Alan Brazil, who apologised on his show a year later, after Postecoglou had won the league. Australian Celtic player Tom Rogic reflected on the atmosphere at the appointment: "I laugh sometimes when I look back. Although I knew him quite well, there was a perception of: 'Who's this guy?'"
==== 2021–22 ====
Postecoglou's first game was a UEFA Champions League qualifier on 20 July, drawing 1–1 against Danish Superliga club FC Midtjylland; a 2–1 loss in the second leg in Denmark led to elimination eight days later. He lost his first league game 2–1 away to Heart of Midlothian on 31 July. On 19 December 2021, Celtic won the Scottish League Cup after defeating Hibernian 2–1 at Hampden Park in the final. The following 2 February, a 3–0 win over rivals Rangers put Celtic to the top of the league table for the first time in the season, ending a 13-game unbeaten start for opposing manager Giovanni van Bronckhorst. Having not let their lead slip, the league title was sealed on 11 May with a game remaining, after a 1–1 draw at Dundee United.
Though some sources called Postecoglou the first Australian to win a league title in Europe, he was preceded by several weeks by Anthony Limbrick, who won the Cymru Premier for The New Saints. He was the league Manager of the Month five times in his first season, for October 2021 and January to April 2022, while winning the PFA Scotland Manager of the Year and SFWA Manager of the Year.
==== 2022–23 ====
Celtic began the 2022–23 season with a 2–0 win against Aberdeen on 31 July at Celtic Park. Celtic dominated the Premiership in Postecoglou's second season, remaining on top and winning the league for a second straight season. On 26 February 2023, Postecoglou won his second Scottish League Cup in a row after beating rivals Rangers 2–1 in the final. Celtic ended the season with a record eighth domestic treble after they won the Scottish Cup at Hampden Park against Inverness Caledonian Thistle on 2 June in Postecoglou's last match in charge.
Postecoglou was also announced as a candidate for FIFA World Coach of the Year after winning the domestic treble.
=== Tottenham Hotspur ===
On 6 June 2023, it was announced Postecoglou would be appointed head coach of English club Tottenham Hotspur, starting 1 July, on a four-year contract. His appointment saw him become both the first Australian and first Greek to manage in the Premier League.
==== 2023–24 ====
After managing Tottenham to an unbeaten start to the 2023–24 season with two wins and a draw in his first three matches, Postecoglou received the Premier League Manager of the Month award for August, becoming the first manager since David Wagner to win the award in his first month in the division. On 24 September, Postecoglou became the first Tottenham manager to earn points from Arsenal away at the Emirates Stadium in four years since Pochettino, after the North London derby ended in a 2–2 draw. After continuing Tottenham Hotspur's unbeaten streak for a second month, Postecoglou was nominated for the Premier League Manager of the Month award for September, eventually winning it and becoming the first ever manager to win the award in each of his first two months in the competition.
On 1 October, Postecoglou guided Spurs to their first victory against Liverpool in five years, following a 2–1 win at home. On 23 October, Postecoglou achieved his seventh victory in his ninth league game, following a 2–0 win over Fulham at home. He broke the record for most points earned by a Premier League manager in their first nine games, with his side accumulating 23 points and overtaking the 22 achieved by Guus Hiddink from Chelsea in the 2008–09 season. Postecoglou guided Tottenham to three consecutive wins and the league's top spot in October, leading him to be named Manager of the Month for a third consecutive time. In doing so, Postecoglou became the first manager to win the award for the first three months of a single season.
On 6 November, Postecoglou suffered his first defeat as Tottenham manager in the 4–1 home defeat to London rivals Chelsea during which his side were down to nine men, following a straight red card to Cristian Romero and a second yellow card to Destiny Udogie. The loss marked the beginning of a five-game winless streak for the club, where they would draw one match and lose the rest, dropping their league position from first to fifth.
Leading Tottenham to an unbeaten run in their first ten games contributed to Postecoglou winning Manager of the Year honours at the London Football Awards on 29 February 2024. However, Tottenham would be unable to recapture their strong season start; a 4–2 loss to Liverpool on 5 May marked the club's first four-game league losing streak in 20 years. Postecoglou would ultimately lead Tottenham to a fifth-place finish, qualifying the team for the 2024–25 UEFA Europa League after a year-long absence from European football.
==== 2024–25: Europa League title and departure ====
Prior to the 2024–25 season, Postecoglou mentioned in an interview that he usually won things in his second year. Tottenham began their league campaign poorly, winning only one of their first four games. On 15 September, after a 1–0 loss to Arsenal, Postecoglou clarified his preseason statement, stating:
"I'll correct myself – I don't usually win things, I always win things in my second year. Nothing's changed. I've said it now. I don't say things unless I believe them." Many in the media interpreted this as Postecoglou promising a trophy by the end of the season. The campaign was marred by injuries to several players, causing many to miss a significant number of matches. This resulted in Tottenham's worst-ever Premier League finish at 17th, one spot above the relegation zone, with the club accumulating their most defeats and lowest-ever points tally in a single Premier League season. The run of bad results raised speculation throughout the year that Postecoglou would be dismissed.
Despite the poor league form, Postecoglou led Tottenham to their first trophy in 17 years when they defeated Manchester United 1–0 in the 2025 UEFA Europa League final on 21 May 2025. It was their first title since the 2007–08 Football League Cup, and their first European trophy since the 1983–84 UEFA Cup. The win earned a league phase spot in the 2025–26 UEFA Champions League and the right to play against the winners of the 2024–25 UEFA Champions League for the 2025 UEFA Super Cup. Postecoglou became the first Australian and first Greek manager to win a European competition.
During the Europa League victory parade on 23 May, Postecoglou openly campaigned to return for the next season, stating "all the best TV series, season three is better than season two." However, on 6 June, exactly two years since his appointment, Postecoglou was relieved of his duties as Tottenham's head coach.
=== Nottingham Forest ===
On 9 September 2025, Postecoglou was announced as head coach of English Premier League club Nottingham Forest, signing a two-year contract, as successor of Nuno Espírito Santo. Postecoglou lost his first game as Nottingham Forest manager 3–0 to Arsenal, soon followed by a defeat by Swansea City in the League Cup and draws against Burnley and Real Betis, having led in all three. These draws were followed by defeats by Sunderland and Newcastle United in the Premier League and FC Midtjylland in the Europa League, meaning Postecoglou was winless in his first seven fixtures – the worst start by a Forest manager in over a century – and saw his job security being questioned after less than a month in charge.
After a 3–0 home defeat by Chelsea on 18 October 2025 which saw the team drop into the relegation zone, Forest announced the departure of Postecoglou only 18 minutes after the final whistle, making him the shortest reigning manager in the club's history. Evangelos Marinakis, the club's owner, had already left his seat when Forest were 2–0 down. Postecoglou won none of his 8 games in charge, drawing 2 and losing 6. His managerial reign of just 39 days is the second shortest in English Premier League history; only Sam Allardyce's 30-day tenure at Leeds United was shorter.
He was replaced by Sean Dyche.
== Personal life ==
Postecoglou grew up in Melbourne, Victoria. He played Australian rules football from a young age and became a lifelong supporter of the Carlton Football Club in the Australian Football League (AFL).
Postecoglou married his first wife, Georgia, in December 1988. He had a son from that marriage. Postecoglou's current wife, also named Georgia, worked at South Melbourne as a marketing manager when he served as manager of the club. Together they have two sons.
He said in a 2018 interview that his father, who died that year, worked hard every day of his life: "People say they go to another country for a better life. My parents did not have a better life, they went to Australia to provide opportunities for me to have a better life." Father and son had time together only during their outings together to soccer games, from where young Ange got a life-long "fascination" with the sport. He said of his management "My motivation is always to produce teams [my] dad would enjoy watching." Postecoglou also grew up supporting Liverpool and AEK Athens.
In November 2022, Postecoglou was inducted into the Football Australia Hall of Fame for his outstanding contribution to Australian football on and off the field as a player and as a coach.
In addition to English, Postecoglou is fluent in Greek. He is a Greek Orthodox Christian. Postecoglou has been nicknamed "Big Ange", and is often mononymously called Ange or Angie by media sources.
In the post-match press conference of the 2025 UEFA Europa League final, Postecoglou mentioned that his favourite Australian Prime Minister was Paul Keating, and quoted him, stating: "After an unlikely victory, this is one for the true believers."
== Career statistics ==
=== International ===
As of match played 16 October 1988.
== Managerial statistics ==
As of 18 October 2025
== Honours ==
=== Player ===
South Melbourne
National Soccer League: 1984, 1990–91
NSL Cup: 1989–90
Dockerty Cup: 1989, 1991
Buffalo Cup: 1988
Australia
Trans-Tasman Cup: 1988
=== Manager ===
South Melbourne
National Soccer League: 1997–98, 1998–99
Oceania Club Championship: 1999
Brisbane Roar
A-League Championship: 2010–11, 2011–12
A-League Premiership: 2010–11
Yokohama F. Marinos
J1 League: 2019
Celtic
Scottish Premiership: 2021–22, 2022–23
Scottish Cup: 2022–23
Scottish League Cup: 2021–22, 2022–23
Tottenham Hotspur
UEFA Europa League: 2024–25
Australia U17
OFC U-17 Championship: 2001, 2003, 2005
Australia U20
OFC U-20 Championship: 2001, 2002, 2005
AFF U-20 Youth Championship: 2006
Australia
AFC Asian Cup: 2015
Individual
National Soccer League Coach of the Year: 1997–98
Australian Sports Medal: 2000
PFA Manager of the Year: 2010–11
A-League Coach of the Year: 2010–11
PFA Manager of the Decade: 2015
AFC Coach of the Year: 2015
Scottish Premiership Manager of the Month: October 2021, January 2022, February 2022, March 2022, April 2022, August 2022, September/October 2022
PFA Scotland Manager of the Year: 2021–22, 2022–23
SFWA Manager of the Year: 2021–22, 2022–23
Premier League Manager of the Month: August 2023, September 2023, October 2023
London Football Awards Manager of the Year: 2023–24
Football Australia Hall of Fame inductee: 2022
Football Australia Team of the Century (as a coach)
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Melbourne Victory profile
Oz Football profile
Ange Postecoglou – FIFA competition record (archived)
Ange Postecoglou at National-Football-Teams.com
Ange Postecoglou manager profile at J.League (archive) (in Japanese) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paya,_Boyac%C3%A1 | Paya, Boyacá | Paya is a town and municipality in the La Libertad Province, part of the Colombian department of Boyacá. Paya limits Pisba, Labranzagrande of Boyacá and Támara, Nunchía and Yopal (Casanare).
== Etymology ==
Paya in Chibcha means "People of hope".
== History ==
Before the Spanish conquest in the 1530s, Paya was inhabited by the Muisca, organized in their loose Muisca Confederation.
Modern Paya was founded on September 14, 1600.
== Economy ==
The majority of the economy of Paya comes from horticulture (47%). Other areas of income are livestock farming (37%) and agriculture (16%).
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Crowe_(diplomat) | Christopher Crowe (diplomat) | Christopher Crowe (c. 1681 – 9 November 1749) was an English consul and landowner.
In 1705, aged 24, Crowe was appointed English Consul at Livorno, Grand Duchy of Tuscany. He was awarded the "lucrative" contract to supply the British Mediterranean fleet with wine and olive oil during the War of the Spanish Succession, from 1703 to 1711.
He also worked as a prize agent for captured enemy merchant ships, and acquired artworks on behalf of the English nobility, and grew rich.
In 1707, he bought Woodford Hall, a large house and estate in Woodford, Essex, adjacent to Epping Forest from Sir Richard Child.
In 1715, he married Charlotte Lee, Lady Baltimore who had been married to Benedict Leonard Calvert, 4th Baron Baltimore, and they had five children.
In 1728, he sold Woodford Hall to William Hunt in 1727, having obtained a private act of Parliament, Crowe's Estate Act 1727 (1 Geo. 2. St. 2. c. 8 Pr.), to do so.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolmar-Salzbr%C3%BCcke | Dolmar-Salzbrücke | Dolmar-Salzbrücke is a Verwaltungsgemeinschaft ("collective municipality") in the district Schmalkalden-Meiningen, in Thuringia, Germany. The seat of the Verwaltungsgemeinschaft is in Schwarza. It was formed on 1 January 2012 from the former Verwaltungsgemeinschaften Dolmar and Salzbrücke.
The Verwaltungsgemeinschaft Dolmar-Salzbrücke consists of the following municipalities:
Belrieth
Christes
Dillstädt
Einhausen
Ellingshausen
Kühndorf
Leutersdorf
Neubrunn
Obermaßfeld-Grimmenthal
Ritschenhausen
Rohr
Schwarza
Utendorf
Vachdorf
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_State_University,_East_Bay#:~:text=Founded%20in%201957%2C%20California%20State,were%20on%20the%20tenure%20track. | California State University, East Bay | California State University, East Bay (Cal State East Bay, CSU East Bay, or CSUEB) is a public university in Hayward, California. The university is part of the California State University system and offers 136 undergraduate and 60 post-baccalaureate areas of study. Founded in 1957, California State University, East Bay had a student body of approximately 11,544 as of Spring 2025. As of Fall 2024, it had 760 faculty. The university's largest and oldest college campus is located in Hayward, with additional centers in the nearby cities of Oakland and Concord.
== History ==
The university was established as State College for Alameda County (Alameda State College), with its primary mission to serve the higher education needs of both Alameda County and Contra Costa County. Its construction was part of the California Master Plan for Higher Education as proposed by Clark Kerr and the original site for the school was Pleasanton, California. The campus was moved to Hayward before plans were finalized due to the efforts of State Assembly member Carlos Bee and other boosters from the Hayward community, including S.E. Bond Jr, and E. Guy Warren, namesake of Warren Hall. At the time of its opening in 1959, classes were first held on the campus of Sunset High School and then Hayward High School. With the addition of the school, higher education in the San Francisco Bay Area became more accessible. To the south was San Jose State College (now San Jose State University) serving the South Bay counties. To the west was San Francisco State College (now San Francisco State University) serving San Francisco and San Mateo Counties. To the north is Sonoma State University, serving Marin, Napa and Sonoma counties. Chabot College, a part of the California Community College system, opened nearby in Hayward in 1961.
The university has undergone numerous transitions in its history, making name changes accordingly. In 1961, the school was moved to its present location in the Hayward Hills and renamed Alameda County State College. In 1963, the name was changed to California State College at Hayward. The school was granted university status in 1972, changing its name to California State University, Hayward. In 2005, the university implemented a new, broader mission to serve the eastern San Francisco Bay Area and adopted the name California State University, East Bay. The proposal to rename the campus to California State University, East Bay was approved by the California State University Board of Trustees on January 26, 2005.
=== Presidents ===
Cathy Sandeen, an Oakland native and alumnus of two other California State University institutions: Humboldt State University (B.S. in Speech Pathology summa cum laude) and San Francisco State University (M.A. in Broadcast & Electronic Communication Arts), became the sixth president of CSU East Bay on January 4, 2021, following the announcement of her appointment to the position by the Board of Trustees on October, 29, 2020. She previously served as chancellor of the University of Alaska Anchorage (UAA). Prior to her time at UAA, Sandeen served as chancellor of the University of Wisconsin Colleges and University of Wisconsin-Extension from 2014 to 2018. In that role, she served as leader and chief administrator and was responsible for the academic, financial and administrative activities of two statewide higher education institutions.
== Campus ==
The school's main campus is located in Hayward, California on a plateau east of the Hayward fault that overlooks the southeast part of the city. CSUEB also has a branch in Concord, California in Contra Costa County, and a professional development center in Oakland.
For 40 years, Warren Hall was CSUEB's signature building; the building was visible from cities throughout the San Francisco Bay Area and served as a landmark for Hayward and the surrounding Eastern San Francisco Bay Area. Warren Hall was rated the least earthquake-safe building in the California State University system by the CSU Seismic Review Board. In January 2013 the CSU Board of Trustees authorized $50 million to demolish the former administrative building and replace it with a new structure. Warren Hall was demolished by implosion on August 17, 2013. Construction for the new 67,000 square foot-building began in November 2013, and doors opened in December 2015 on the completed structure.
California State University, East Bay is also known for its Solar Energy Project. Solar panels were installed on four campus rooftops and are used to generate supplemental power during peak periods and is one of the largest photovoltaic systems in Northern California.
On April 8, 2010, the California Public Utilities Commission approved a fuel cell project of Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PG&E) allowing Cal State East Bay's Hayward campus to become one of the first college campuses in Northern California to have a fuel cell. Once installed, the waste heat generated by the fuel cell will be converted into hot water to be used in campus buildings.
Since 2004, the Pioneer Amphitheatre on campus has been home of the KBLX Stone Soul Picnic, a day-long festival of R&B, soul and Urban Adult Contemporary music. Featured performers have included Ronald Isley, The Whispers, Teena Marie, Rick James, and The O'Jays. California State University, East Bay's Associated Student Incorporated also hosts concerts with artists like Lupe Fiasco and Goapele.
In 2005, Cal State East Bay began to build three new facilities: the Wayne and Gladys Valley Business and Technology Center (VBT), the Pioneer Heights student housing expansion and the University Union annex. The 67,000-square-foot (6,200 m2) VBT center was dedicated in February 2007, making it the first new academic building on the Hayward Campus in more than 30 years. The building houses programs in business, technology management, engineering, multimedia, science, and online degree programs. An expansion to Pioneer Heights was dedicated in fall 2008. Student housing was able to accommodate more than 450 new residents and offer a 16,000-square-foot (1,500 m2) dining commons. An annex to the existing University Union opened in January 2007.
The campus is home to the C. E. Smith Museum of Anthropology, created in 1975. The museum, open to the public, has rotating exhibits, and archives including records of 18 Bay Area archaeological sites.
== Academics ==
The university is best known for its College of Business and Economics; a strong Education Department, where a large percentage of California teachers receive their certification; and the thriving Music Department where the California State University, East Bay Jazz Ensemble, directed by Dave Eshelman (retired June 2007), holds annual performances in Yoshi's at Jack London Square in Oakland and frequently tours Europe and parts of South America. The Biotechnology Program developed at California State University, East Bay affords the university a status as the center of research and development in the Life sciences, Bioinformatics and technologies for the Eastern San Francisco Bay Area.
California State University, East Bay also participates in the Internet2 project, a collaboration led by over 200 U.S. universities, private industries, and governments to develop advanced network technologies for research and higher education in the 21st century.
California State University, East Bay offers 48 undergraduate degree programs and 34 Master's degree programs in addition to its teaching credential program. The university also has a doctoral program in Educational Leadership (Ed.D.) held in cooperation with the University of California, Berkeley, San Francisco State University and San José State University. The most popular undergraduate majors are: Business administration, Psychology, Health science, Kinesiology, Criminal justice, Biological sciences, Sociology, Computer science, Human development, Fine art.
The five most popular majors for 2019 graduates.
Business Administration and Management, General at 21%
Health Professions and Related Programs at 16%
Social Sciences at 10%
Psychology, General at 10%
Family and Consumer Economics and Related Services, Other at 6%
The academic departments of the university are organized into four colleges. Two of these are Liberal Arts colleges,
College of Letters, Arts, and Social Sciences (CLASS)
College of Science
and two of these are vocational colleges:
College of Business and Economics
College of Education and Allied Studies (CEAS)
First year students are put into Freshman Learning Communities which help students to:
earn higher GPAs
develop superior writing and communication skills
graduate reliably in four years.
=== Rankings ===
== Student life ==
The university's Department of Communications publishes a weekly newspaper called The Pioneer, its name referring to the school mascot, Pioneer Pete. The paper is staffed by faculty and students. East Bay is a diverse state university as indicated by the annual headcount report. As of fall 2018 CSU East Bay has the largest enrollment percentage of Filipino Americans, the second largest enrollment percentage of Pacific Islanders, African Americans and non-residents in the Cal State system.
=== Associated Students Incorporated ===
Associated Students Incorporated (ASI) is a student-run and student-owned organization that represents the student body at California State University, East Bay. Elected by the California State University, East Bay student body, the 15-member ASI Board of Directors is the governing body of Associated Students, Inc. The Board makes policy and oversees the fiscal responsibility of ASI. Additionally, the Board assists the university in planning, implementing, and evaluating campus programs, events, and curriculum. ASI currently has four departments: ASI Presents, ASI Business Office, Student Government, and the Early Childhood Education Center. In 2007 the university administration did not allow ASI to hold a student referendum on increasing student fees to fund a recreation and wellness center. It substituted 'alternative consultation'. In 2008, the administration again did not allow ASI to hold a referendum on increasing student fees to fund athletic scholarship for a move to Division II sports. Again, it substituted 'alternative consultation'.
=== Greek letter organizations ===
There are several fraternities and sororities on campus.
== Athletics ==
The Cal State–East Bay (CSUEB) athletic teams are called the Pioneers. The university is a member of the Division II level of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), primarily competing in the California Collegiate Athletic Association (CCAA) for most of their sports since the 2009–10 academic year; while its women's water polo teams compete in the Western Water Polo Association (WWPA). The Pioneers previously competed in the California Pacific Conference (Cal Pac) of the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) from 1998–99 to 2008–09.
CSUEB competes in 15 intercollegiate varsity sports: Men's sports include baseball, basketball, cross country, golf, soccer and track & field (indoor and outdoor); while women's sports include basketball, cross country, golf, soccer, softball, swimming, track & field (indoor and outdoor), volleyball and water polo.
=== Mascot ===
The mascot of the university is the Pioneer. At the inception of the athletic program in 1961 the student body chose an astronaut as the mascot.
=== Water polo ===
The NCAA Women's Water Polo Championship of Effective Division I sports is open to members of all three NCAA divisions and Only East Bay and CSU Monterey Bay from the CCAA participate in the Western Water Polo Association.
=== Soccer ===
In 1988 the women's soccer team won the NCAA Division II Women's Soccer Championship. The Pioneers of CSU East Bay has earned 2 NCAA team championships at the Division II level.
== Notable people ==
== External links ==
Official website
Athletics website
== Notes ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Indian_state_animals | List of Indian state animals | India, officially the Republic of India is a country in South Asia, consisting of 28 states and eight union territories. All Indian states and some of the union territories have their own elected government and the union territories come under the jurisdiction of the Central Government. India has its own national symbols. Apart from the national symbols, the states and union territories have adopted their own seals and symbols including animals listed below.
== States ==
== Union territories ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kathleen_Antonelli | Kathleen Antonelli | Kathleen Rita Antonelli (née McNulty; formerly Mauchly;
12 February 1921 – 20 April 2006), known as Kay McNulty, was an Irish computer programmer and one of the six original programmers of the ENIAC, one of the first general-purpose electronic digital computers. The other five ENIAC programmers were Betty Holberton, Ruth Teitelbaum, Frances Spence, Marlyn Meltzer, and Jean Bartik.
== Early life and education ==
She was born Kathleen Rita McNulty in Feymore, part of the small village of Creeslough in what was then a Gaeltacht area (Irish-speaking region) of County Donegal in Ulster, the northern province in Ireland, on February 12, 1921, during the Irish War of Independence. She was the third of six children of James and Anne (née
Nelis) McNulty. On the night of her birth, her father, an Irish Republican Army training officer, was arrested and imprisoned in Derry Gaol for two years as he was a suspected member of the IRA. On his release, the family emigrated to the United States in October 1924 and settled in the Chestnut Hill section of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, where he found work as a stonemason. At the time, Kathleen McNulty was unable to speak any English, only Irish; she would remember prayers in Irish for the rest of her life.
She attended parochial grade school in Chestnut Hill (1927–1933) and J. W. Hallahan Catholic Girls High School (1933–1938) in Philadelphia. In high school, she had taken a year of algebra, a year of plane geometry, a second year of algebra, and a year of trigonometry and solid geometry. After graduating high school, she enrolled in Chestnut Hill College for Women. During her studies, she took every mathematics course offered, including spherical trigonometry, differential calculus, projective geometry, partial differential equations, and statistics. She graduated with a degree in mathematics in June 1942, one of only a few mathematics majors out of a class of 92 women.
During her third year of college, McNulty was looking for relevant jobs, knowing that she wanted to work in mathematics but did not want to be a school teacher. She learned that insurance companies' actuarial positions required a master's degree; therefore, feeling that business training would make her more employable, she took as many business courses as her college schedule would permit: accounting, money and banking, business law, economics, and statistics.
== Career ==
=== Computer programmer ===
A week or two after graduating, she saw a US Civil Service ad in The Philadelphia Inquirer looking for women with degrees in mathematics. During World War II, the US Army was hiring women to calculate bullet and missile trajectories at Ballistic Research Laboratory, which had been established at the Aberdeen Proving Ground in Aberdeen, Maryland, with staff from both the Aberdeen Proving Ground and the Moore School of Engineering at the University of Pennsylvania. She immediately called her two fellow math majors, Frances Bilas and Josephine Benson about the ad. Benson couldn't meet up with them, so Antonelli and Bilas met in Philadelphia one morning in June 1942 for an interview in a building on South Broad Street (likely the Union League of Philadelphia Building).
One week later, they were both hired as human "computers" at a pay grade of SP-4, a subprofessional civil service grade. The starting pay was $1620 annually. Antonelli stated the pay was "very good at the time". They were notified to report to work at the Moore School of Engineering. Their job was to compute ballistics trajectories used for artillery firing tables, mostly using mechanical desk calculators and extremely large sheets of columned paper. The pay was low, but both Antonelli and Bilas were satisfied to have attained employment that used their educations and that served the war effort.
Her official civil service title, as printed on her employment documentation, was "computer". She and Bilas began work with about 10 other "girls" (as the female computers were called) and 4 men—a group recently brought to the Moore School from Aberdeen Proving Ground. Antonelli and Bilas conducted their work in a large, former classroom in the Moore School; the same room would later be the one where the ENIAC was built and operated until December 1946.
Despite all their coursework, their mathematics training had not prepared Antonelli and Bilas for their work calculating trajectories for firing tables: they were both unfamiliar with numerical integration methods used to compute the trajectories, and the textbook lent to them to study from (Numerical Mathematical Analysis, 1st Edition by James B. Scarborough, Oxford University Press, 1930) provided little enlightenment. The two newcomers ultimately learned how to perform the steps of their calculations, accurate to ten decimal places, through practice and the advisement of a respected supervisor, Lila Todd. A total of about 75 female computers were employed at the Moore School in this period, many of them taking courses from Adele Goldstine, Mary Mauchly, and Mildred Kramer. Each gun required its own firing table, which had about 1,800 trajectories. Computing just one trajectory required approximately 30–40 hours of handwork with a calculator.
After two or three months, Antonelli and Bilas were moved to work on the differential analyser in the basement of the Moore School, the largest and most sophisticated analogue mechanical calculator of the time, of which there were only three in the United States and five or six in the world (all of the others were in Great Britain). The analyser had been lent to the University of Pennsylvania for the duration of the war. Using the analyser (invented by Vannevar Bush of MIT a decade prior and made more precise with improvements by the Moore School staff), a single trajectory computation—about 40 hours of work on a mechanical desk calculator—could be performed in about 50 minutes. Antonelli was further promoted to supervising calculations on the analyser. The analyser room staff worked six days a week, with their only official holidays as Christmas and the Fourth of July.
=== Working with ENIAC ===
The Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer was developed for the purpose of performing these same ballistics calculations between 1943 and 1946. In June 1945, Antonelli was selected to be one of its first programmers, along with several other women from the computer corps: Betty Snyder, Marlyn Wescoff, and Ruth Lichterman, and a fifth computer named Helen Greenman. When Greenman declined to go to Aberdeen for training and a 1st alternate refused as well, Betty Jean Jennings, the 2nd alternate, got the job, and between June and August 1945 they received training at Aberdeen Proving Ground in the IBM punched card equipment that was to be used as the I/O for the ENIAC. Later, Antonelli's college schoolmate and fellow computer, Bilas, would join the team of ENIAC programmers at the Moore School, though she did not attend the initial training at Aberdeen. The computer could complete the same ballistics calculations described above in about 10 seconds, but it would often take one or two days to set the computer up for a new set of problems, via plugs and switches. It was the computer programmer's responsibility to determine the sequence of steps required to complete the calculations for each problem and set up the ENIAC according; early on, they consulted with ENIAC engineers such as Arthur Burks to determine how the ENIAC could be programmed. In 1996, Antonelli said that John Mauchly pronounced the name of the computer "EN-ee-ack", unlike the common pronunciation at the time of "EEN-ee-ack".
The ENIAC was programmed using subroutines, nested loops, and indirect addressing for both data locations and jump destinations. During her work programming the ENIAC, Antonelli is credited with the invention of the subroutine. Her colleague, Jean Jennings, recalled when Antonelli proposed the idea to solve the problem where the logical circuits did not have enough capacity to compute some trajectories. The team collaborated on the implementation.
Because the ENIAC was a classified project, the programmers were not at first allowed into the room to see the machine, but they were given access to blueprints from which to work out programs in an adjacent room. Programming the ENIAC involved discretising the differential equations involved in a trajectory problem to the precision allowed by the ENIAC and calculating the route to the appropriate bank of electronics in parallel progression, with each instruction having to reach the correct location in time to within 1/5000th of a second. Having devised a program on paper, the programmers were allowed into the ENIAC room to physically program the machine. Antonelli would later find out that her team had been testing the conveniency of the H-bomb.
Much of the programming time of the ENIAC consisted of setting up and running test programs that assured its operators of the whole system's integrity: every vacuum tube, every electrical connection needed to be verified before running a problem.
As the team was preparing for the launch, Antonelli and the other women who had worked on the ENIAC were told to act as hostesses and greet those around them. They were to stand near the machine and "look good." Thus, at the time, they did not receive the recognition they deserved.
Antonelli was transferred to Aberdeen Proving Ground's Ballistics Research Laboratory along with the ENIAC when it was moved there in mid-1947. She was joined by Ruth Lichterman and Bilas, but the other three programmers preferred to stay in Philadelphia rather than relocate to the remote Aberdeen.
== Personal life ==
ENIAC co-inventor John Mauchly, who had since departed his post as a professor at the Moore School to found his own computer company along with Presper Eckert, made frequent trips to Washington, D.C., during this period, and stopped in to check up on the ENIAC in Aberdeen. Mauchly had already hired Jean Bartik (née Betty Jean Jennings) and Betty Holberton (née Snyder); and had hoped to attract McNulty as well.
Instead, Mauchly married McNulty in 1948 against the wishes of her parents and she resigned her post at Aberdeen. The couple, along with his two children from his first marriage, lived initially in his row house on St. Mark's Street near the University of Pennsylvania. They later moved to a large farmhouse called Little Linden in Ambler, Pennsylvania. With Mauchly, McNulty had five children, Sally (born 1949), Kathy (born 1951), Bill (born 1953), Gini (born 1954) and Eva (born 1958). Mauchly's first wife had died in a September 1946 drowning accident.
== Later life ==
Kay McNulty worked on the software design for later computers including the BINAC and UNIVAC I computers whose hardware was designed by her husband. John Mauchly died in 1980 following several bouts of illness and recoveries.
She then married photographer Severo Antonelli in 1985. After a long struggle with Parkinson's disease, her second husband died in 1996; Kay herself had suffered a heart attack while caring for her husband, but made a full recovery.
Following Mauchly's death, Kay carried on the legacy of the ENIAC pioneers by authoring articles, giving talks (frequently along with Jean Bartik, with whom she remained lifelong friends), and making herself available for interviews with reporters and researchers. She was inducted into the Women in Technology International Hall of Fame in 1997 along with the other original ENIAC programmers, and she accepted the induction of John Mauchly into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in Akron, Ohio, in 2002.
Kay McNulty died from cancer in Wyndmoor, Pennsylvania, on April 20, 2006, at the age of 85.
== Legacy ==
In 1997, Antonelli was inducted into the Women in Technology International Hall of Fame, along with the five other ENIAC programmers, for their contributions on programming ballistics trajectories.
During the heyday of ENIAC, proper recognition escaped Antonelli and her fellow programmers. The invisibility of the ENIAC programmers (both from being women and the secrecy of their work, especially during the war) kept them from the public eye. In 2010, a documentary called, "Top Secret Rosies: The Female "Computers" of WWII" was released. The film centered around in-depth interviews of three of the six women programmers, focusing on the commendable patriotic contributions they made during World War II.
The ENIAC team is also the inspiration behind the award-winning 2013 documentary The Computers. This documentary, created by Kathy Kleiman and the ENIAC Programmers Project, combines actual footage of the ENIAC team from the 1940s with interviews with the female team members as they reflect on their time working together on the ENIAC. It is the first documentary of a series of three, and parts two and three will be entitled The Coders and The Future-Maker, respectively.
In July 2017, Dublin City University (DCU) honoured Antonelli by naming their computing building after Kathleen (Kay) McNulty.
In 2019, the Irish Centre for High-End Computing (ICHEC) at the National University of Ireland, Galway, named its new Waterford-based primary supercomputer, which is to serve as Ireland's national supercomputer for academic researchers, Kay, following a public poll, wherein Antonelli beat out candidates including botanist Ellen Hutchins, scientist and inventor Nicholas Callan, geologist Richard Kirwan, chemist Eva Philbin, and hydrographer Sir Francis Beaufort.
On 3 April 2023 a plaque was unveiled in her honour in Creeslough, County Donegal in the presence of her granddaughter Naomi Most, organised by the community council and the National Committee for Commemorative Plaques in Science and Technology and Women in Technology and Science (WITS).
== See also ==
Timeline of women in science
== References ==
== External links ==
WITI Hall of Fame
Biography from The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews, Scotland
Oral history interview with Frances E. Holberton – Holberton was, with Antonelli, one of the six original ENIAC programmers. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota.
Death of Donegal's Computing Pioneer |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PSR_J0952%E2%80%930607#:~:text=PSR%20J0952%E2%80%930607%20is%20a,Earth%20in%20the%20constellation%20Sextans. | PSR J0952–0607 | PSR J0952−0607 is a massive millisecond pulsar in a binary system, located between 3,200–5,700 light-years (970–1,740 pc) from Earth in the constellation Sextans. As of 2022, it holds the record for being the most massive neutron star known, with a mass 2.35±0.17 times that of the Sun—potentially close to the Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff mass upper limit for neutron stars. The pulsar rotates at a frequency of 707.31 Hz (a period of 1.4137 ms), making it the second-fastest-spinning pulsar known, and the fastest-spinning pulsar known within the Milky Way.
PSR J0952−0607 was discovered by the Low-Frequency Array (LOFAR) radio telescope during a search for pulsars in 2016. It is classified as a black widow pulsar, a type of pulsar harboring a closely-orbiting substellar-mass companion that is being ablated by the pulsar's intense high-energy solar winds and gamma-ray emissions. The pulsar's high-energy emissions have been detected in gamma-ray and X-ray wavelengths.
== Discovery ==
PSR J0952−0607 was first identified as an unassociated gamma-ray source detected during the first seven years of the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope's all-sky survey since 2008. Because of its optimal location away from the crowded Galactic Center and its pulsar-like gamma-ray emission peak at 1.4 GeV, it was deemed a prime millisecond pulsar candidate for follow-up. The pulsar was reobserved and confirmed by the Low-Frequency Array (LOFAR) radio telescope in the Netherlands on 25 December 2016, which revealed a 707-Hz radio pulsation frequency alongside radial acceleration by an unseen binary companion. Further LOFAR observations took place from January to February 2017, alongside radio observations by the Green Bank Telescope in Green Bank, West Virginia in March 2017. Optical observations by the 2.54-meter Isaac Newton Telescope on La Palma detected and confirmed the pulsar's companion at a faint apparent magnitude of 23 in January 2017. The discovery was published in The Astrophysical Journal Letters and was announced in a NASA press release in September 2017.
== Distance and location ==
The distance of PSR J0952−0607 from Earth is highly uncertain.
== Binary system ==
The PSR J0952−0607 binary system is composed of a massive pulsar and a substellar-mass (<0.1 M☉) companion in close orbit around it. Because of this configuration, this system falls under the category of black widow pulsars that "consume" their companion, by analogy with the mating behavior of the eponymous black widow spider. The companion is continuously losing mass through ablation by intense high-energy solar winds and gamma-ray emissions from the pulsar, which then accretes some of the companion's lost material onto itself.
=== Companion ===
The companion orbits the pulsar at a distance of 1.6 million km (1 million mi) with an orbital period of 6.42 hours. Because it orbits so closely, the companion is presumably tidally locked, with one hemisphere always facing the pulsar. The companion does not appear to eclipse the pulsar, indicating that its orbit is oriented nearly face-on with an inclination of 60° with respect to the plane perpendicular to Earth's line of sight. The companion's orbital motion also does not appear to modulate the pulsar's pulsations, signifying a circular orbit with negligible orbital eccentricity.
The companion was likely a former star that had been reduced to the size of a large gas giant planet or brown dwarf, with a present-day mass of 0.032±0.002 M☉ or 34±2 MJ according to radial velocity measurements. Due to intense irradiation and heating by the host pulsar, the companion's radius is bloated up to 80% of its Roche lobe and brightly glows with a thermal luminosity of about 10 L☉, thereby accounting for much of the system's optical brightness. As a result of bloating, the companion attains a low density likely around 10 g/cm3 (with significant uncertainty due to the system's unknown distance from Earth), making it susceptible to tidal deformation by the pulsar.
The companion's pulsar-facing irradiated hemisphere is continuously heated up to a temperature of 6,200 K, whereas the companion's unirradiated hemisphere experiences a uniform temperature of 3,000 K. This hemispherical temperature difference corresponds to a difference in hemisphere luminosities, which in turn causes significant variability in apparent brightness as the companion rotates around the pulsar. This brightness variability is demonstrated in PSR J0952−0607's optical light curve, which exhibits an amplitude greater than one magnitude.
== Mass ==
PSR J0952−0607 has a mass of 2.35±0.17 M☉, making it the most massive neutron star known as of 2022. The pulsar likely acquired most of its mass by accreting up to 1 M☉ of lost material from its companion.
== Rotation and age ==
PSR J0952−0607 rotates at a frequency of 707.31 Hz (1.4137 ms period), making it the second-fastest-spinning pulsar known, and the fastest-spinning pulsar that is located in the Milky Way. Assuming a standard neutron star radius of 10 km (6.2 mi), the equator of PSR J0952−0607 rotates at a tangential velocity over 44,400 km/s (27,600 mi/s)—about 14% the speed of light. Based on 7 years of precise pulsation timing data from gamma-ray and radio observations, the pulsar's rotation period is estimated to be slowing down at a spin-down rate less than 4.6×10−21 seconds per second, corresponding to a characteristic age of 4.9 billion years.
== Magnetic field ==
Measurements of PSR J0952−0607's spin-down rate show that the pulsar has a remarkably weak surface magnetic field strength of 6.1×107 gauss (6.1×103 T), placing it among the 10 weakest pulsar magnetic fields known as of 2022. For context, ordinary pulsar magnetic fields usually lie on the order of teragauss (1×1012 G, 1.0×108 T), over 10,000 times greater than that of PSR J0952−0607. Other millisecond pulsars exhibit similarly weak magnetic fields, hinting at a common albeit unknown mechanism in these types of systems; possible explanations range from accreted matter burying the pulsar's surface magnetic field to heat-driven evolution of the pulsar's solid crust.
== Gamma-ray emissions ==
PSR J0952−0607 appears very faint in gamma-rays and was not detected in July 2011.
== See also ==
Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit
Black Widow Pulsar, the prototypical namesake for the class of binary pulsars with ablating companions
PSR J1748−2446ad, the fastest-spinning pulsar located in the globular cluster Terzan 5
== Notes ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Morrison_(politician)#:~:text=4%20References-,Early%20life,D.C.%2C%20Bangkok%20and%20Kuala%20Lumpur. | Bill Morrison (politician) | William Lawrence Morrison (3 November 1928 – 15 February 2013) was an Australian politician and diplomat. He was a member of the Australian Labor Party (ALP) and held ministerial office in the Whitlam government as Minister for External Territories (1972–1973), Science (1972–1975), and Defence (1975). He had been a member of the diplomatic service before entering politics, and later served a term as Ambassador to Indonesia (1985–1989).
== Early life ==
Morrison was born in Lithgow, New South Wales and graduated with an honours degree in economics from the University of Sydney in 1949. He was a diplomat in the Department of External Affairs from 1950 to 1969, with postings to London, Moscow, Washington, D.C., Bangkok and Kuala Lumpur. His posting to Moscow was terminated by the expulsion of the entire mission in 1954 as a result of the Petrov Affair. His posting to Malaysia was as Deputy High Commissioner. In 1958, he married Marty Hessell, an American citizen, in Bangkok.
== Political career ==
In 1969 Morrison resigned from the diplomatic service to successfully contest the seat of St George in the 1969 election for the Australian Labor Party. In 1969 he was elected deputy chairman of the Joint Parliamentary Foreign Affairs Committee and chairman of the Sub-committee on Australia's Relations with Indonesia of that committee. He also became a member of the Select Committee on Aircraft Noise, a matter of relevance to his electorate, which was close to Sydney Airport. Following the election of the Whitlam government in 1972 Morrison was appointed Minister for External Territories and Minister for Science in the Second Whitlam Ministry. With the granting of self-government to Australia's main external territory, Papua New Guinea, on 1 December 1973, the position of Minister for External Territories was abolished and he became Minister assisting the Minister for Foreign Affairs in matters relating to Papua New Guinea. From 6 June 1975, he was Minister for Defence and Minister assisting the Minister for Foreign Affairs in matters relating to the Islands of the Pacific. He was Minister for Defence during Indonesia's invasion of East Timor. He lost his seat in the 1975 election.
Morrison was a visiting fellow at the Australian National University in 1976 and a research fellow at the University of New South Wales from 1979 to 1980. In the 1980 election, he was re-elected to Parliament as the member for St George. He became a member of the Joint Parliamentary Foreign Affairs and Defence Committee and Deputy Chairman of its Defence Sub-committee. In 1983, he was elected as chairman of the Foreign Affairs and Defence Committee. He did not stand for re-election in 1984.
== Later life ==
In 1985, Morrison was appointed Ambassador to Indonesia. In 1988, he was made an Officer of the Order of Australia for service to the Commonwealth Parliament and to international relations. He retired in 1989.
Morrison was a councillor of Rockdale Council in the early 1990s. In 2005, he tried to restore the reputation of Mamdouh Habib. In May 2007, he was a witness to an inquest into the death of one of the Balibo Five, Brian Peters.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streamy_Awards#:~:text=The%2011th%20Streamy%20Awards%20were,party%20bus%20around%20Los%20Angeles. | Streamy Awards | The YouTube Streamy Awards, also known as the Streamy Awards or Streamys, are an awards show presented annually by Dick Clark Productions and Tubefilter to recognize excellence in online video, including directing, acting, producing, and writing. The formal ceremony at which the awards are presented takes place in Los Angeles, California. It was the first awards show dedicated entirely to web series.
== History ==
The Streamy Awards were initially devised by Drew Baldwin, Brady Brim-DeForest and Marc Hustvedt of Tubefilter and Joshua Cohen and Jamison Tilsner of Tilzy.tv. Prior to the Streamy Awards, other award shows existed to celebrate online content, but the Streamy Awards was the first to celebrate web series in particular.
The 1st Annual Streamy Awards were held on March 28, 2009 at the Wadsworth Theatre in Los Angeles. Presented by the International Academy of Web Television (IAWTV) and co-hosted by Tubefilter, NewTeeVee and Tilzy.TV, the event was reportedly attended by 1,300 audience members. Winners in the 25 categories included The Guild and Dr. Horrible's Sing-Along, which both won multiple awards, Joss Whedon and Felicia Day.
The 2nd Annual Streamy Awards were hosted by comedian Paul Scheer and streamed live online from the Orpheum Theatre on April 11, 2010. The production experienced technical problems and interruptions due to people streaking the stage. Scheer's jokes were also poorly received with audience members and influencers in attendance finding them unfunny, sexist and deprecatory of internet culture. Due to poor reception and execution of the show, the IAWTV halted its partnership with Tubefilter and co-production of the award ceremony and formed their own Web TV awards presentation.
Following the poorly received 2nd Streamy Awards, the Streamys went into hiatus for two years. During this time, in 2011, Tubefilter entered a partnership with established entertainment industry awards show producer Dick Clark Productions (producers of the American Music Awards, among others) to co-produce the 3rd Streamy Awards in an attempt to repair the award's legitimacy. They were held in 2013 at the Hollywood Palladium in Los Angeles, and livestreamed across YouTube and multiple streaming networks simultaneously. Commentators noted the show's increased professionalism but some creators such as Felicia Day criticized the shift towards acceptance of old media.
The 4th Streamy Awards were hosted by Grace Helbig and Hannah Hart and were held on September 7, 2014 at The Beverly Hilton hotel in Beverly Hills. The event introduced ten new award categories, including one for the short-form video website Vine, and featured fan-voted submissions for the first time. A toast dedicated to the recently passed-away Joan Rivers was described as "the evening's most somber moment" and "an authentic and intimate salute". But the show was also criticized for being more corporate, with the inclusion of product placement and shout-outs to large companies.
The 5th Streamy Awards were broadcast live on VH1 on September 17, 2015, and hosted by Grace Helbig and Tyler Oakley. Held at the Hollywood Palladium, they were the first Streamy Awards to be televised. They were also simultaneously livestreamed. New award categories were once again added for videos posted to social media websites such as Instagram, Snapchat, and Vine. They were also the first Streamys to feature the Breakout Creator and Breakthrough Artist awards.
The 6th Streamy Awards were hosted by King Bach and broadcast live on YouTube on October 4, 2016, from The Beverly Hilton hotel. Unlike the 5th Streamy Awards, the show was not televised, apparently due to a desire to "return to its digital roots". The ceremony featured a medley of songs dedicated to Christina Grimmie, who was shot and killed outside of a concert venue earlier in the year, which was praised by a number of publications.
The 7th Streamy Awards were hosted by Jon Cozart and broadcast live on Twitter on September 26, 2017, from The Beverly Hilton. It featured the first live musical performance by the Village People in over 30 years. TheWrap described the event as "rowdy, political and Jake Paul-hating" and The Hollywood Reporter said that the night's main themes were politics and diversity. The first annual Purpose Awards @ the Streamys were also held on September 25, 2017, hosted by Burnie Burns and Ashley Jenkins.
The 8th Streamy Awards were hosted by The Try Guys and was broadcast live on YouTube on October 22, 2018, from the Beverly Hilton Hotel.
The 9th Streamy Awards was broadcast live on YouTube on December 13, 2019, from the Beverly Hilton Hotel. It was the first Streamy Award ceremony to run without a host.
In 2020, YouTube acquired the naming rights to the Streamy Awards.
The 10th Streamy Awards were broadcast on YouTube on December 12, 2020, and were hosted by drag queens Trixie Mattel and Katya Zamolodchikova. To adhere to social distancing restrictions, the duo presented the awards on a party bus being driven around Los Angeles.
The 11th Streamy Awards were broadcast on YouTube on December 11, 2021. They were hosted by American YouTuber Larray, alongside Issa Twaimz, once again being driven in a party bus around Los Angeles.
The 12th Streamy Awards were held on December 4, 2022, at The Beverly Hilton in Los Angeles and were hosted by the YouTuber Airrack (known in real life as Eric Decker), and also featured a performance by Yung Gravy.
The 13th Streamy Awards was held on August 27, 2023, at The Beverly Hilton and was hosted by MatPat. MrBeast won Creator of the year for the fourth year in a row.
The Streamy Awards did not hold ceremonies in 2024 and 2025.
== Award categories ==
The current award categories for the Streamy Awards are separated into the main Streamy Awards and the Streamys Brand Awards.
== List of shows ==
== See also ==
Shorty Awards
Emmy Awards
Webby Awards
List of web awards
TikTok Awards Night
== References ==
== External links ==
Streamy Awards |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_We_Do_in_the_Shadows_(TV_series)#Season_2_(2020) | What We Do in the Shadows (TV series) | What We Do in the Shadows is an American comedy horror mockumentary fantasy television series created by Jemaine Clement, first broadcast on FX on March 27, 2019, until concluding its run with the end of its sixth season on December 16, 2024. Based on the 2014 New Zealand film written and directed by Clement and Taika Waititi, both of whom act as executive producers, the series follows four vampire roommates on Staten Island, and stars Kayvan Novak, Matt Berry, Natasia Demetriou, Harvey Guillén, Mark Proksch, and Kristen Schaal.
What We Do in the Shadows is the second television series in the franchise after the spin-off Wellington Paranormal (2018–2022). Both shows share the same canon as the original film, with several characters from the film making appearances, including Clement's and Waititi's. The show received critical acclaim, particularly for its cast and writing, and 35 Emmy Award nominations, including four for Outstanding Comedy Series in 2020, 2022, 2024, and 2025, for its second, third, fifth and sixth season, respectively.
== Premise ==
Traditional vampires Nandor, Laszlo, and Nadja, together with energy vampire Colin Robinson, share a Staten Island residence, maintained by Nandor's familiar Guillermo. The vampires routinely clash with the modern world, other supernatural beings, and each other, while Guillermo earnestly endeavors to balance his loyalty to Nandor with his desire to become a vampire, complicated by his ancestry as a descendant of vampire hunter Van Helsing.
== Cast and characters ==
=== Main ===
Kayvan Novak as Nandor the Relentless – Once the bloodthirsty leader of the fictional kingdom of Al-Quolanudar in southern Iran and a warrior serving the Ottoman Empire. At age 760, he is the oldest of the group and their self-proclaimed leader, though it is obvious he has little to no authority. Although he genuinely cares for his human familiar Guillermo, he has difficulty expressing it. Nandor is also quite naïve to the ways of modern society and humans, which often results in Guillermo becoming frustrated with him.
Matt Berry as Leslie "Laszlo" Cravensworth – A 310-year-old vampire from British nobility who was turned by Nadja and is now married to her. A pansexual and former porn actor who is often preoccupied with sexual thoughts, he enjoys sexual encounters with both Nadja and Nandor. His interests are more varied and intellectual than the other characters. He frequently performs scientific experiments on the humans killed by him and the other vampires. According to Nadja, he once forgot to eat for an extended period of time because he was "writing poetry and wanking". He and Nadja were at one time prolific songwriters, and, it seems, wrote what eventually became "Row, Row, Row Your Boat", "Come on Eileen" and "Kokomo". Laszlo also enjoys making topiary sculptures of vulvas in the yard, including those of his wife, and mother.
Natasia Demetriou as Nadja of Antipaxos – A 500-year-old Greek Romani vampire who turned Laszlo into a vampire and later married him. Abrasive and aggressive, she is frequently frustrated with her male housemates and nostalgic about her human life. The only character she shows any affection for is Laszlo, often wrathfully lashing out at Guillermo. She has entertained an affair with a reincarnated knight named Gregor for hundreds of years, only for him to be decapitated in every reincarnation. She later becomes manager of her own vampire nightclub.
Demetriou also plays Nadja's human ghost, split from its corporeal form when Nadja was turned into a vampire, who inhabits a doll which has appeared since the second season.
Harvey Guillén as Guillermo de la Cruz – Nandor's long-suffering Latino familiar. Despite his frustration with his unreasonable workload and Nandor's disregard for his mortality, he has served his master for more than a decade in the hope of being made a vampire. Guillermo discovers that he is a descendant of the famous vampire hunter Abraham Van Helsing and proves to be very skilled at killing vampires, giving him conflicting feelings about his desire to become a vampire. Guillermo's skill as a vampire slayer leads to him becoming a bodyguard for Nandor, Nadja, and Laszlo. He comes out as gay to his family but reveals his desire to become a vampire at the same time, prompting Nadja to erase their memories of his confession.
Mark Proksch as Colin Robinson (and Baby Colin / "The Boy") – An energy vampire who lives in the basement. He sustains himself by draining humans and fellow vampires of their life force by being extremely boring or frustrating. As a "day walker", he is not harmed by sunlight or entry into churches, and thus holds a regular job in an office where he feeds on his coworkers' frustrations. This also means that he financially supports the group. Unlike the others, he shows no outward signs of vampirism and appears as a regular human, with the only hints being his glowing irises and demonic facial expression when he feeds on energy, and his reflection showing a pale and decrepit version of himself. Following his 100th birthday, he dies and his infant offspring bursts out of his chest. Having rapidly grown to adulthood, Colin Robinson's son discovers a hidden room filled with Colin Robinson's diaries and regains Colin Robinson's memories as a result, forgetting his time as a child and essentially becoming a reincarnation of Colin Robinson.
Kristen Schaal as The Guide (also known as the "Floating Woman") – An envoy of the Vampiric Council who is able to teleport short distances and sometimes speaks in a demonic voice. She frequently expresses her desire to be socially accepted by the other vampires, yet is almost always rejected. She later works for Nadja as the latter turns the Vampiric Council's headquarters into a nightclub. (seasons 5–6; guest season 1; recurring seasons 3–4)
=== Recurring ===
Doug Jones as Baron Afanas – An ancient vampire from the Old Country who believes vampires should rule the world. Both Nadja and Laszlo had secret affairs with the Baron despite his lack of genitals. Later it is disclosed that he is not actually a Baron, but simply "barren" because he was unable to have children. In the first season, Guillermo inadvertently kills the Baron by opening a door and exposing him to sunlight. In the third season, however, it is revealed that he barely survived, albeit reduced to his head, torso and left arm. In later seasons, The Baron chooses to live a quaint, suburban lifestyle with The Sire, another legendary vampire. (seasons 1, 3–6)
Anthony Atamanuik as Sean Rinaldi – The human next-door neighbor. He sometimes witnesses Laszlo doing something vampiric but is easily hypnotized into forgetting everything. The vampires spare him because he brings their trash cans in when they forget, and Laszlo considers Sean his best friend. In season 5, it's implied that Sean is slowly, yet consistently, becoming dumber due to experiencing a constant stream of hypnosis and his rampant alcoholism.
Beanie Feldstein as Jenna – a LARPer and virgin whom Guillermo lured for the vampires to feast on. She was later transformed into a vampire by Nadja who witnessed her being treated poorly by her peers. During her vampire training with Nadja, she discovers she has the rare ability to turn invisible, which fits the tendency of people to ignore her, yet she struggles with turning into a bat. (season 1)
Veronika Slowikowska as Shanice – Jenna's college roommate who witnesses her transformation into a vampire. Shanice later joins the Mosquito Collectors of the Tri-State Area, a secret team of amateur vampire hunters. (seasons 1–2)
Nick Kroll as Simon the Devious – A vampire who rules over the Manhattan vampires and owns the Sassy Cat nightclub. He was initially a close friend to the Staten Island vampires when they first arrived in America, but he quickly became their shared enemy thanks to his willingness to trick and betray the trio. He is obsessed with Laszlo's cursed hat made out of witch skin and is often surrounded by a posse of vampires called "The Leatherskins". (guest seasons 1–2, 4)
Jake McDorman as Jeff Suckler – A reincarnation of Nadja's former human lover, Gregor, a knight who has been killed by decapitation in each of his lives. Nadja eventually restores Jeff's memories of his previous lives so that he can be more like his former self, leading to him falling into insanity and being committed to a mental institution. It is later revealed to Nadja and Gregor that Laszlo had been causing each of his deaths throughout history, which he does again. (season 1; guest season 2)
Vanessa Bayer as Evie Russell – Colin Robinson's co-worker. He discovers that she is an advanced form of energy vampire — an emotional vampire — who feeds off of the pity and sadness generated by her outlandish stories of suffering and misfortune. She and Colin Robinson date for a short time, feeding together on bored and pitying humans until he begins to feel the relationship is unhealthy. In season 5, she becomes Staten Island's City Comptroller, taking over for Colin Robinson's campaign after he intentionally exposed his penis in a video meeting. Her first name is a homophone of "E.V.", for Emotional Vampire. (guest seasons 1, 5)
Marceline Hugot as Barbara Lazarro – The president of the Staten Island Council. She was going to be the vampires' way of taking over Staten Island until Laszlo left a pile of dead raccoons on her doorstep in an attempt to win her trust, resulting in her believing it was a form of terrorist threat. She later appears running against Colin Robinson in the comptroller election. (guest seasons 1, 5)
Chris Sandiford as Derek – A vampire hunter turned vampire and convenience store clerk. (seasons 2–5, guest season 6)
Myrna Cabello as Silvia de la Cruz – Guillermo's mother (seasons 2, 4–5)
Haley Joel Osment as Topher – Nadja and Laszlo's familiar who is accidentally killed and revived as a zombie. Unlike Guillermo, Topher has no interest in becoming a vampire. He is energetic, fun-loving, and charismatic, and he is well-liked by all other members of the household, except Guillermo. (guest seasons 2, 5)
Benedict Wong as Wallace – A necromancer and tchotchke salesman whom Lazlo views as a fraud and con artist and often feuds with him. (guest seasons 2, 5)
Marissa Jaret Winokur as Charmaine Rinaldi – Sean's wife. (guest seasons 2–6)
Anoop Desai as Djinn – Nandor's magical genie, who is indebted to grant him a large number of wishes. (season 4; guest season 5)
Parisa Fakhri as Marwa – Nandor's resurrected ex-wife, now fiancée (season 4, guest season 6)
Frankie Quiñones as Miguel – Guillermo's cousin (guest seasons 4–6)
Mike O'Brien as Jerry the Vampire – The house's fifth roommate who has been in a "super slumber" since 1976, and intended to be awoken on New Year's Eve, 1996. (season 6)
Tim Heidecker as Jordan – Senior partner at Cannon Capital Strategies, the private equity firm where Guillermo, Nadja, and Nandor have been hired. (season 6)
Andy Assaf as Cravensworth's Monster – A Frankenstein-like creature assembled and animated by Laszlo. (season 6)
=== Guests ===
==== Season 1 ====
Arj Barker as Arjan – The pack leader of the Staten Island Werewolf Support Group. He entered into a truce between his kind and the vampires (which was created in 1993).
Dave Bautista and Alexandra Henrikson as Garrett and Vasillika the Defiler – A duo of vampires imprisoned by the council after Garrett was framed by Laszlo for turning a baby into a vampire (which is very illegal), and Vasillika for too much defiling.
Mary Gillis as June – Nadja and Laszlo's familiar. She appears to be an ill old woman who communicates through grunts. She is killed when the Baron sucks all her blood when he arrives on Staten Island.
Jeremy O. Harris as Colby – A human familiar to Dantos the Cruel and Radinka the Brutal, two 400-year-old vampires who appear to be children while Colby portrays as their father.
Gloria Laino as The Baron's Familiar – The Baron's familiar, who maintains a silent, watchful eye on the vampires of Staten Island as her master awakes. Guillermo says that she pops out of nowhere and hears "everything".
Paul Reubens as Paul – A member of the council.
Tilda Swinton as a fictionalized version of herself who is the leader of the Vampiric Council.
Wesley Snipes as Wesley the Daywalker / Wesley Sykes – A half-vampire member of the Council who could not participate in person but only video chat through Skype. Danny despises him, claiming he is a vampire hunter, which he denies.
Hayden Szeto as Jonathan – A LARPer college student that Guillermo lured for the vampires to feast on. However, Colin Robinson beat them to it by draining his energy instead.
Danny Trejo as Danny – A Hispanic tattooed member of the council. He has an open dislike towards Wesley.
Taika Waititi, Jonathan Brugh, and Jemaine Clement reprise their roles as Viago von Dorna Schmarten Scheden Heimburg, Deacon Brucke, and Vladislav the Poker from the original film. Three vampires arrived from New Zealand to participate in the Vampiric Council.
Bobby Wilson as Marcus – The actual Native American member of the Werewolf Pack. He is Native American, and a werewolf but, as he explains, "Not a werewolf because" he is Native American. "It's not an ethnic thing."
Evan Rachel Wood as Evan the Immortal Princess of the Undead – A member of the Council who just goes by her first name.
Hannan Younis as Ange – An African American werewolf and part of Arjan's group. She undermines Arjan's rules and is openly hostile towards Nadja due to Nadja's insulting the werewolves by assuming they are all "Indian" (as in, Native Americans).
==== Season 2 ====
James Frain as the voice of Black Peter – A goat and witch's familiar
Mark Hamill as Jim the Vampire – A vampire who claims that Laszlo owes him rent money from the 1800s and demands retribution.
Greta Lee as Celeste – A familiar who pretends to be a vampire
Lucy Punch as Lilith – A witch and rival of Nadja
Craig Robinson as Claude – The leader of the Mosquito Collectors of the Tri-State Area, a secret team of amateur vampire hunters.
==== Season 3 ====
Julie Klausner and Cole Escola as The Gargoyles – A duo of gargoyles who gossip and give tips to The Guide.
Lauren Collins as Meg – A gym receptionist on whom Nandor has a crush.
Tyler Alvarez as Wes Blankenship – The leader of a group of rebellious young vampires that refuse to follow the council's orders.
Aida Turturro as Gail – Nandor's on-again, off-again werewolf-turned-vampire girlfriend.
Catherine Cohen as Sheila – The siren
Scott Bakula as himself
Cree Summer as Jan – A vampire scam artist who is head of the Post-Chiropteran Wellness Center cult
Donal Logue as a fictionalized vampire version of himself
Khandi Alexander as Contessa Carmilla De Mornay
David Cross as Dominykas the Dreadful
==== Season 4 ====
Affion Crockett as Richie Suck, superstar vampire rapper
Fred Armisen as Doctor DJ Tom Schmidt, Richie Suck's familiar who is manipulating him for financial gain.
Sal Vulcano as himself
Sklar Brothers as Toby and Bran
Al Roberts as Freddie, Guillermo's boyfriend
Sofia Coppola as herself
Thomas Mars as himself
Jim Jarmusch as himself
Michael McDonald as Gustave Leroy
==== Season 5 ====
Robert Smigel as Alexander, a man Nandor befriends at the gym
Hannibal Buress as a member of the energy vampire council
Aparna Nancherla as a member of the energy vampire council
Martha Kelly as the chair of the energy vampire council
Gregg Turkington as a member of the energy vampire council
Jo Firestone as a member of the energy vampire council
John Slattery as himself
Wayne Federman as a vampire urgent care doctor
Kerri Kenney-Silver as Helen "The Magic Woman" Johnson
Patton Oswalt as himself
==== Season 6 ====
Steve Coogan as Lord Roderick Cravensworth, Laszlo's father
Jon Glaser as a demon
Kevin Pollak as Cal Bodian, the lead actor of the TV series P.I. Undercover: New York
Zach Woods as Joel, an old office work friend of Colin Robinson
Alexander Skarsgård as Eric Northman, reprising his role from the TV series True Blood
== Episodes ==
=== Season 1 (2019) ===
=== Season 2 (2020) ===
=== Season 3 (2021) ===
=== Season 4 (2022) ===
=== Season 5 (2023) ===
=== Season 6 (2024) ===
== Production ==
=== Development ===
On January 22, 2018, it was announced that FX had given the production a pilot order. The pilot was written by Jemaine Clement and directed by Taika Waititi, both of whom are also executive producers alongside Scott Rudin, Paul Simms, Garrett Basch, and Eli Bush. On May 3, 2018, it was announced that FX had given the production a series order for a first season consisting of ten episodes, which premiered on March 27, 2019.
According to Clement: "We stay pretty basic '70s/'80s vampire rules, with a little bit of '30s. They can turn into bats. They can't go in the sunlight; they don't sparkle in the sun, they die. They have to be invited in; in a lot of literature vampires have to be invited into private buildings, but this is a documentary so it's the real rules which means they have to be invited into any building." Clement has also stated that the part of Laszlo was written specifically for Berry. The main influences on the series are Fright Night, Martin, The Lost Boys, Nosferatu, Interview with the Vampire, Vampire's Kiss, and Bram Stoker's Dracula. The character Nadja was named after the 1994 film of the same name.
The song used in the opening credits is "You're Dead" by Norma Tanega (1966), which was used during the opening credits sequence in the original film.
The second season premiered on April 15, 2020. On May 22, 2020, FX renewed the series for a third season, which premiered on September 2, 2021. On August 13, 2021, FX renewed the series for a fourth season, ahead of the third-season premiere. Upon the fourth season's renewal, it was reported that Rudin would no longer be an executive producer, beginning with the third season, due to allegations of abusive behavior. On June 6, 2022, FX renewed the series for a fifth and sixth season, ahead of the fourth season premiere. On December 19, 2023, it was announced that the sixth season would be its last.
=== Filming ===
Principal photography for the first season took place from October 22 to December 18, 2018, in Toronto, Ontario. Filming for the third season began on February 8, 2021, and finished on May 3, 2021.
The writer/producer Paul Simms said that series does not use CGI effects: "There's no fully digital characters or anything like that. One of the movies we really talked about a lot when we were conceiving the show was Francis Ford Coppola's Dracula where he went back to really doing as many effects as possible in camera and figuring out ways to do that. One of my favorite supernatural moments is completely in camera. It's where Beanie Feldstein's character is walking along in the park and Nadja appears walking next to her. That was all just done completely the old fashioned way where Natasia was hiding behind a tree and the camera was tracking along and at the right moment, she walked out from behind a tree. I think there's something about that old fashioned way that makes things more interesting than when you can tell it's digital and rubbery and fake looking".
Among the cinematographers D.J. Stipsen and Christian Sprenger's influences for the series was the work of Michael Ballhaus and production designer Thomas E. Sanders on the Coppola-directed Bram Stoker's Dracula: "We referenced that film for the general sumptuousness of the vampires' mansion, which was our main set. Our take, however, was that the Staten Island vampires have let their place go. The former glory is evident but now exists in a worn, faded and distressed state. Production designer Kate Bunch and I had a lot of conversations about striking the right balance between sumptuousness and neglect. There are strong reds, but also yellow that has faded to the point of being a warm brown."
Filming for the sixth and final season concluded in May 2024.
== Release ==
=== Marketing ===
On October 31, 2018, a series of teaser trailers for the series were released. On January 10, 2019, another teaser trailer was released. On February 4, 2019, the official trailer for the series was released.
=== Premiere ===
On October 7, 2018, the series held a panel at the annual New York Comic Con moderated by Rolling Stone's Alan Sepinwall and featuring co-creators Taika Waititi and Jemaine Clement, along with fellow executive producer Paul Simms. Before the panel began, the first episode of the series was screened for the audience. The world premiere for the series was screened during the 2019 South by Southwest film festival in Austin, Texas as a part of the festival's "Episodic Premieres" series.
== Reception ==
=== Critical response ===
All six seasons of What We Do in the Shadows received critical acclaim. On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the overall series holds a 96% approval rating. On Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, the overall series has received a score of 83 out of 100.
==== Season 1 ====
The first season received positive reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, the first season has an approval rating of 94%, based on 72 reviews, with an average rating of 7.8/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Delightfully absurd and ridiculously fun, What We Do in the Shadows expands on the film's vampiric lore and finds fresh perspective in its charming, off-kilter cast to create a mockumentary series worth sinking your teeth into." On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 80 out of 100, based on 30 critics, indicating "generally favorable" reviews.
==== Season 2 ====
The second season also received positive reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, the second season has an approval rating of 98%, based on 44 reviews, with an average rating of 8.3/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Bat! What We Do In the Shadows loses no steam in a smashing second season that savvily expands its supernatural horizons while doubling down on the fast flying fun." On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 79 out of 100, based on 11 critics, indicating "generally favorable" reviews.
==== Season 3 ====
The third season was also praised. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has an approval rating of 100%, based on 28 reviews, with an average rating of 9/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Carried on the wings of its cast's incredible chemistry and the strongest writing of the series so far, What We Do in the Shadows' third season is scary good." On Metacritic, the third season has an average score of 96 out of 100, based on 11 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".
==== Season 4 ====
The fourth season also received acclaim from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has an approval rating of 100%, based on 29 reviews, with an average rating of 8.6/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Aside from turning this demonic household into Three Vampires and a Baby, What We Do in the Shadows doubles down on what it does best without drastically changing the formula – and remains fang-tastic all the same." On Metacritic, the fourth season has an average score of 84 out of 100, based on eight critics, indicating "universal acclaim". However, some critics complained of the reductive treatment of Nandor's wife, Marwa, in season 4. Comic Book Resources complained of the show "stripping a woman of her identity – physically and mentally – for laughs" and The Mary Sue stated that "What We Do in the Shadows missed hard with its treatment of Marwa."
==== Season 5 ====
The fifth season also received positive reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has an approval rating of 95%, based on 35 reviews, with an average rating of 7.65/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Displaying a comedic longevity that'd make even a vampire blush, What We Do in the Shadows enters its fifth season showing no signs of getting long in the fang." On Metacritic, the fifth season has an average score of 85 out of 100, based on 11 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".
==== Season 6 ====
The sixth season also received positive reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has an approval rating of 91%, based on 23 reviews, with an average rating of 7.8/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "What We Do in the Shadows wisely chooses to stick a stake in it before the Staten Island shenanigans become stale, preserving its integrity as one of television's best sitcoms." On Metacritic, the sixth season has an average score of 79 out of 100, based on 8 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".
=== Ratings ===
Nielsen Media Research, which records streaming viewership on U.S. television screens, reported that from June 1, 2024, to May 31, 2025, What We Do in the Shadows was streamed for a total of 55.6 million hours.
==== Season 1 ====
==== Season 2 ====
==== Season 3 ====
=== Accolades ===
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
What We Do in the Shadows at IMDb
What We Do in the Shadows at epguides.com |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baidu | Baidu | Baidu, Inc. ( BY-doo; Chinese: 百度; pinyin: Bǎidù; lit. 'hundred times') is a Chinese multinational technology company specializing in Internet services and artificial intelligence. It holds a dominant position in China's search engine market (via Baidu Search), and provides a wide variety of other internet services such as Baidu App (Baidu's flagship app for search and newsfeed), Baidu Baike (an online user created Wikipedia-like encyclopedia), iQIYI (a video streaming service), and Baidu Tieba (a keyword-based discussion forum similar to Reddit).
Besides its core internet search business, Baidu has diversified into several high-growth areas. The company is a player in autonomous driving (Baidu Apollo), and smart consumer electronics (Xiaodu). With over a decade of investment in artificial intelligence, Baidu is one of the few tech companies globally to offer a full-service AI stack, including software, chips, cloud infrastructure, foundation models, and applications.
A variable interest entity for Baidu to enable investment of foreign capital is incorporated in the Cayman Islands. Baidu was incorporated in January 2000 by Robin Li and Eric Xu. Baidu has origins in RankDex, an earlier search engine developed by Robin Li in 1996, before he founded Baidu in 2000. The company is headquartered in Beijing's Haidian District.
In December 2007, Baidu became the first Chinese company to be included in the NASDAQ-100 index. As of May 2018, Baidu's market cap rose to US$99 billion. In October 2018, Baidu became the first Chinese firm to join the United States–based computer ethics consortium Partnership on AI.
The Chinese government views Baidu as one of its national champion corporations.
== History ==
=== Early development ===
In 1994, Robin Li (Pinyin: Li Yanhong, Chinese: 李彦宏) joined IDD Information Services, a New Jersey division of Dow Jones and Company, where he helped develop software for the online edition of The Wall Street Journal. He also worked on developing better algorithms for search engines and remained at IDD Information Services from May 1994 to June 1997.
In 1996, while at IDD, Li developed the RankDex site-scoring algorithm for search engines results page ranking and received a US patent for the technology. Launched in 1996, RankDex was the first search engine that used hyperlinks to measure the quality of websites it was indexing. Li referred to his search mechanism as "link analysis," which involved ranking the popularity of a web site based on how many other sites had linked to it. It predated the similar PageRank algorithm used by Google two years later in 1998; Google founder Larry Page referenced Li's work as a citation in some of his U.S. patents for PageRank. Li later used his RankDex technology for the Baidu search engine.
Baidu was incorporated on 18 January 2000 by Robin Li and Eric Xu. In 2001, Baidu allowed advertisers to bid for ad space then pay Baidu every time a customer clicked on an ad, predating Google's approach to advertising. In 2003, Baidu launched a news search engine and picture search engine, adopting a special identification technology capable of identifying and grouping the articles.
=== 2005: Public Listing on NASDAQ ===
Baidu went public on Wall Street through a variable interest entity (VIE) based in the Cayman Islands on 5 August 2005.
In 2007, Chinese government and Chinese industry sources stated that Baidu received a license from Beijing, which allows the search engine to become a full-fledged news website. Thus Baidu is able to provide its own reports, besides showing certain results as a search engine. Baidu was the first Chinese search engine to receive such a license.
Baidu started its Japanese language search service, run by Baidu Japan, the company's first regular service outside of China in 2008. The Japanese search engine closed on 16 March 2015.
On 31 July 2012, Baidu announced that it would team up with Sina to provide mobile search results.
On 18 November 2012, Baidu announced that it would be partnering with Qualcomm to offer free cloud storage to Android users with Snapdragon processors.
On 2 August 2013, Baidu launched its Personal Assistant app, designed to help CEOs, managers and the white-collar workers manage their business relationships.
On 16 May 2014, Baidu appointed Dr. Andrew Ng as chief scientist. Dr. Ng will lead Baidu Research in Silicon Valley and Beijing.
On 18 July 2014, the company launched a Brazilian version of the search engine, Baidu Busca.
On 9 October 2014, Baidu announced acquisition of Brazilian local e-commerce site Peixe Urbano.
=== 2017: Launch of Autonomous Driving Business ===
In April 2017, Baidu announced the launch of its Apollo project (Apolong), a self-driving vehicle platform, in a bid to help drive the development of autonomous cars including vehicle platform, hardware platform, open-source software platform and cloud data services. Baidu plans to launch this project in July 2017, before gradually introducing fully autonomous driving capabilities on highways and open city roads by 2020. In September 2017, Baidu launched a $1.5billion autonomous driving fund to invest in as many as 100 autonomous driving projects over the ensuing three years. At the same time, Apollo open-source software version 1.5 was also launched.
In June 2017, Baidu partnered with Continental and Bosch, auto industry suppliers, on automated driving and connected cars.
In July 2017, Baidu GBU entered into a partnership with Snap Inc. to act as the company's official ad reseller for Snapchat in Greater China, South Korea, Japan and Singapore. The partnership was extended in 2019.
In September 2017, Baidu rolled out a new portable talking translator that can listen and speak in several different languages. Smaller than a typical smartphone, the 140-gram translation device can also be used as a portable Wi-Fi router and is able to operate on networks in 80 countries. It is still under development. Baidu will also be inserting artificial intelligence (AI) technology into smartphones, through its deep learning platform. At the same period, it has also led a joint investment of US$12billion with Alibaba Group, Tencent, JD.com and Didi Chuxing, acquiring 35% of China Unicom's stakes.
In October 2017, according to The Wall Street Journal, Baidu would launch self-driving buses in China in 2018. In the same month, Baidu announced that its first annual Baidu World technology conference (Bring AI to Life) would be held and live-streamed on 16 November 2017, at China World Summit Wing and Kerry Hotel, bringing together Baidu executives, employees, partners, developers, and media to discuss the company's mission and strategy, technology breakthroughs, new product developments, and its open artificial-intelligence (AI) ecosystem.
China's government designated Baidu as one of its "AI champions" in 2018.
In 2018, Baidu divested the "Global DU business" portion of its overseas business, which developed a series of utility apps including ES File Explorer, DU Caller, Mobojoy, Photo Wonder and DU Recorder, etc. This business now operates independently of Baidu under the name DO Global.
=== 2021: Hong Kong Secondary Listing ===
In March 2021, Baidu secured a secondary listing on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange, raising $3.1 billion. This marked the largest homecoming for a U.S.-traded Chinese company in Hong Kong since JD.com's listing the previous June.
In August 2021 Baidu revealed a new Robocar concept said to be capable of Level 5 autonomous driving. It also comes with the latest second-generation AI chip that can analyse the internal and external surroundings to provide predictive suggestions to proactively serve the needs of passengers.
In June 2022, Jidu Auto, an intelligent electric vehicle company originally backed by Baidu and Geely unveiled its first concept ROBO-01 in the form of a pre-production vehicle. The ROBO-01 rides on the Sustainable Experience Architecture (SEA) platform, a modular electric vehicle platform developed by Geely Holding.
In August 2023, Baidu publicly unveiled Ernie Bot, its large language model chatbot. In October 2023, Baidu released a newer version Ernie 4.0 chatbot. In September 2023, the search engine launched a chatbot based on its generative AI model, GenAI Ernie.
=== Robotaxi ===
As of April 2024, Apollo Go, Baidu's autonomous ride-hailing service, had completed six million rides using driverless robotaxis across 11 cities. The service operates a fleet of over 400 driverless vehicles in Wuhan.
In July 2025, Baidu announced its partnership with Uber, allowing it to deploy the Apollo Go outside the U.S and mainland China.
=== Domain name redirection attack ===
On 12 January 2010, Baidu.com's DNS records in the United States were altered such that browsers to baidu.com were redirected to a website purporting to be the Iranian Cyber Army, thought to be behind the attack on Twitter during the 2009 Iranian election protests, making the proper site unusable for four hours. Internet users were met with a page saying "This site has been attacked by Iranian Cyber Army". Chinese hackers later responded by attacking Iranian websites and leaving messages.
Baidu later launched legal action against Register.com for gross negligence after it was revealed that Register.com's technical support staff changed the email address for Baidu.com on the request of an unnamed individual, despite failing security verification procedures. Once the address had been changed, the individual was able to use the forgotten password feature to have Baidu's domain passwords sent directly to them, allowing them to accomplish the domain hijacking. The lawsuit was settled out of court under undisclosed terms after Register.com issued an apology.
=== Baidu workers arrested ===
On 6 August 2012, the BBC reported that three employees of Baidu were arrested on suspicion that they accepted bribes. The bribes were allegedly paid for deleting posts from the forum service. Four people were fired in connection with these arrests.
=== 91 Wireless acquisition ===
On 16 July 2013, Baidu announced its intention to purchase 91 Wireless from NetDragon. 91 Wireless is best known for its app store, but it has been reported that the app store faces privacy and other legal issues. On 14 August 2013, Baidu announced that its wholly owned subsidiary Baidu (Hong Kong) Limited has signed a definitive merger agreement to acquire 91 Wireless Web-soft Limited from NetDragon Web-soft Inc. for $1.85 billion in what was reported to be the biggest deal ever in China's IT sector.
=== 2024: Artificial Intelligence Launch ===
On 16 March 2025, Baidu released two new artificial intelligence models: ERNIE 4.5, a foundation model, and ERNIE X1, a reasoning model. Baidu claimed that ERNIE X1 performs comparably to DeepSeek's R1 model at half the price.
== Name ==
The name Baidu (百度) literally means "a hundred times", or alternatively, "countless times". It is a quote from the last line of Xin Qiji's (辛弃疾) classical poem "Green Jade Table in The Lantern Festival" (青玉案·元夕) saying: "Having searched hundreds of times in the crowd, suddenly turning back, she is there in the dimmest candlelight." (众里寻他千百度, 蓦然回首, 那人却在灯火阑珊处。)
== Travel ==
Qunar (Qunar Cayman Islands Limited), is a travel-booking service controlled by Baidu. As of 2013, Qunar had 31.4 million active users and raised $167 Million at its initial public offering that year. It is listed at NASDAQ.
== Advertisements ==
Baidu's primary advertising product is called Baidu Tuiguang and is similar to Google Ads and AdSense. It is a pay per click advertising platform that allows advertisers to have their ads shown in Baidu search results pages and on other websites that are part of Baidu Union. However, Baidu's search results are also based on payments by advertisers. This has prompted criticism and skepticism among Chinese users, with People's Daily commenting in 2018 on issues regarding reliability of Baidu results. Often as many as the first two pages of search results tend to be paid advertisers.
Baidu sells its advertising products via a network of resellers. Baidu's web administrative tools are all in Chinese, making it difficult for non-Chinese speakers to use. In 2012, a third-party company developed a tool with an interface in English for advertising on Baidu. Advertisers on Baidu must have a registered business address either in China or in specified East Asian countries.
== Competition ==
Baidu competes with Sogou, Google Search, 360 Search (www.so.com), Yahoo! China, Microsoft's Bing and MSN Messenger, Sina, NetEase's Youdao and PaiPai, Alibaba's Taobao, TOM Online, DuckDuckGo, and EachNet.
Baidu is the most used search engine in China, controlling 76.05 percent of China's market share. The number of Internet users in China had reached 705 million by the end of 2015, according to a report by the internetlivestats.com.
In an August 2010 Wall Street Journal article, Baidu played down its benefit from Google's having moved its China search service to Hong Kong, but Baidu's share of revenue in China's search-advertising market grew six percentage points in the second quarter to 70%, according to Beijing-based research firm Analysys International.
It is also evident that Baidu is attempting to enter the Internet social network market. As of 2011, it is discussing the possibility of working with Facebook, which would lead to a Chinese version of the international social network, managed by Baidu. This plan, if executed, would face off Baidu with competition from the three popular Chinese social networks Qzone, Renren and Kaixin001 as well as induce rivalry with instant-messaging giant, Tencent QQ.
On 22 February 2012, Hudong submitted a complaint to the State Administration for Industry and Commerce asking for a review of the behavior of Baidu, accusing it of being monopolistic.
By August 2014, Baidu's search market share in China dropped to 56.3%, where Qihoo 360, its closest competitor who has rebranded its search engine as so.com, has increased its market share to 29.0%, according to report from CNZZ.com.
In February 2015, Baidu was alleged to have used anticompetitive tactics in Brazil against the Brazilian online security firm PSafe and Qihoo 360 (the largest investor of PSafe).
In an ongoing competition in AI natural language processing called General Language Understanding Evaluation, otherwise known as GLUE, Baidu took a lead over Microsoft and Google in December 2019.
== Research and patents ==
Baidu has started to invest in deep learning research and is integrating new deep learning technology into some of its apps and products, including Phoenix Nest. Phoenix Nest is Baidu's ad-bidding platform.
In April 2012 Baidu JDC long live applied for a patent for its "DNA copyright recognition" technology. This technology automatically scans files that are uploaded by Internet users, and recognizes and filters out content that may violate copyright law. This allows Baidu to offer an infringement-free platform.
In April 2022, Baidu announced they gained permits from China to provide the first driverless taxis. The company aim to provide driverless ride-hailing services to the public and have 10 autonomous cars set to begin offering rides to passengers within a 23-square-mile area in suburban begin beginning 28 April 2022.
In July 2022, Baidu unveiled the Apollo RT6, a driverless vehicle that is planned to join Baidu's driverless fleet in 2023.
== Finances ==
The key trends for Baidu are (as of the financial year ending December 31)
== Censorship ==
According to the China Digital Times, Baidu has a long history of being the most active and restrictive online censor in the search arena. Documents leaked in April 2009 from an employee in Baidu's internal monitoring and censorship department show a long list of blocked websites and censored topics on Baidu search.
In May 2011, activists sued Baidu in the United States for violating the U.S. Constitution by the censorship it conducts in accord with the demand of the Chinese government. A U.S. judge has ruled that the Chinese search engine Baidu has the right to block works from its query results under freedom of speech rights, dismissing a lawsuit that sought to punish the company.
In 2017, Baidu began coordinating with the Chinese Ministry of Public Security as well as 372 Internet police departments to detect information related to "anti-government rumors" and then flooding "Baidu-linked web sites, news sites and devices with alerts dispelling misinformation." This was done using natural language processing, big data and artificial intelligence.
As part of the COVID-19 pandemic, Chinese regulators instructed Baidu, along with other Internet companies, to "conduct special supervision" on news and information related to the disease.
In November 2022, Sustainalytics downgraded Baidu to "non-compliant" with the United Nations Global Compact principles due to complicity with censorship.
== Controversies ==
=== Death of Wei Zexi ===
In 2016, Baidu's P4P search results reportedly contributed to the death of a student who tried an experimental cancer therapy he found online. The 21-year-old college student was named Wèi Zéxī (魏则西), who studied in Xidian University. Wei was diagnosed with synovial sarcoma, a rare form of cancer. He found the Second Hospital of the Beijing Armed Police Corps (武警北京市总队第二医院) through the search engine Baidu, on which the hospital had been promoting itself. The treatment proved unsuccessful and Wèi died in April 2016.
After Wei's family spent around 200,000 yuan (around US$31,150) for treatment in the hospital, Wei Zexi died on 12 April 2016. The incident triggered massive online discussions after Wei's death. On 2 May 2016, Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC), the top watchdog for China's Internet space, dispatched a team of investigators to Baidu. The case is still ongoing. One report claimed medical advertising makes up for 30% of Baidu's ad revenue, much of which comes from for-profit hospitals that belong to the "Putian Network", a collection of hospitals across the country founded by medical entrepreneurs associated with the Putian region of Fujian province. The investigation led Chinese regulators to impose several restrictions on Baidu, including adding disclaimers to promotional content and establishing channels for complaints about Baidu services. In addition, Baidu's search function now largely directs users to contents published on platforms under Baidu's control, Chinese media scholar Fang Kecheng to proclaim that "Search engine Baidu is dead".
=== Commercialization of Tieba ===
Baidu sold the hemophilia online community, one of the communities of Tieba, to unqualified hospitals. In January 2016, Baidu announced that it will stop selling all of its illness-related Tieba. On 12 January, Baidu officially announced to the public that all Baidu Tieba for all types of diseases will completely stop commercial cooperation and will only be open to authoritative public welfare organizations. In response to Baidu's decision, Lin Jinlong, president of the Hunan Medical and Health Industry Association, said that private hospitals have entered a period of industry transformation and upgrading, and are neither dependent on posting bar ads nor counting on competitive rankings anymore, so Baidu's decision will not have a negative impact on the industry.
=== DO Global subsidiary ad-fraud in downloaded apps ===
On 20 April 2019, it was reported that several applications for Android devices developed by the subsidiary company, DO Global (formerly DU Group), were surreptitiously running revenue enhancing background programs on user devices since at least 2016. These programs, part of six known applications developed by the company, and downloaded hundreds of millions times, were clicking on internet ads – even when the devices were idle, and unbeknownst to end users, to increase revenue generated by "clicks". Just one of the apps, all of which were available on Google Play Store, had been downloaded 50 million times alone and carried a user rating of 4.5 stars by tens of thousands.
Google banned DO Global and more than 100 of its apps from the Google Play Store on 26 April 2019. DO Global was also banned from Google's AdMob Network. Apps from another developer, ES Global, including the ES File Explorer, that were owned by DO Global were banned from the Play Store and the account was suspended.
=== Block in India ===
In August 2020, following the 2020 China–India skirmishes, Baidu was one of several Chinese websites that were banned or blocked in India for national security reasons.
=== 2024 head of communications controversy ===
In May 2024, Baidu's former vice president and head of communications Qu Jing (Chinese: 璩静) sparked major backlashes across the Chinese social media for endorsing toxic workplace culture, where, according to a Douyin video, she has asked a coworker to be on a 50-day business trip during the COVID-19 pandemic. The report has aroused further discussions amongst Chinese netizens regarding Baidu's corporate governance and internal culture. Qu openly apologized after the incident and has allegedly lost her job. Baidu’s stock price fell 2.17% in Hong Kong following the incident.
== See also ==
Panguso
Tencent
Sogou
Alibaba
Google
Intellectual property in the People's Republic of China
Software industry in China
Comparison of web search engines
List of search engines
List of search engines by popularity
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Lee, Melanie (19 January 2010). "NEWSMAKER-Baidu founder rules China's Web with pragmatism". Reuters.
Udeze, Chuka (26 March 2012). "Baidu Search to be Integrated by Apple on iOS Devices".
Kohout, Martin (30 October 2014). "Spyware Baidu to Sony Xperia smartphones". FreeBit.cz.
== External links ==
Official website
Business data for Baidu: |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Burke | Edmund Burke | Edmund Burke (; 12 January [NS] 1729 – 9 July 1797) was an Anglo-Irish writer, philosopher, and politician who is widely credited as the founder of the cultural and political philosophy of conservatism. Regarded as one of the most influential conservative thinkers and political writers of the 18th century, Burke spent the majority of his career in Great Britain and was elected as a member of Parliament (MP) from 1766 to 1794 in the House of Commons of Great Britain with the Whig Party. His writings played a significant role in influencing public views and opinions in both Great Britain and France following the French Revolution in 1789, and he remains a major figure in modern conservative circles.
Burke was a proponent of underpinning virtues with manners in society and of the importance of religious institutions for the moral stability and good of the state. These views were expressed in his satirical work, A Vindication of Natural Society (1756). He also criticised the actions of the British government towards the American colonies, including its taxation policies. Burke supported the rights of the colonists to resist metropolitan authority, although he opposed the attempt to achieve independence. He is further remembered for his long-term support for Catholic emancipation, the impeachment of Warren Hastings from the East India Company, and his opposition to the French Revolution. In 1774, Burke was elected a member of Parliament for Bristol.
In his Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790), Burke asserted that the revolution was destroying the fabric of good society and traditional institutions of state and society, and he condemned the persecution of the Catholic Church that resulted from it. This led to his becoming a popular leading figure within the conservative faction of the Whig Party which he dubbed the Old Whigs as opposed to the pro-French Revolution New Whigs led by Charles James Fox. Burke had a close relation with some of the public intellectuals of his time, including Samuel Johnson, David Garrick, Oliver Goldsmith and Joshua Reynolds. In his debates, he often argued against unrestricted ruling power and the importance of political parties having the ability to maintain a principled opposition that was capable of preventing abuse of power.
In the 19th century, Burke was praised by both conservatives and liberals. Subsequently, in the 20th century, he became widely regarded, especially in the United States and the United Kingdom, as the philosophical founder of conservatism, along with his ultra-royalist and ultramontane counterpart Joseph de Maistre. His writings and literary publications influenced British conservative thought to a great extent, and helped establish the earliest foundations for modern conservatism and liberal democracy.
== Early life ==
Burke was born in Dublin, Ireland. His mother Mary, née Nagle, was a Roman Catholic who hailed from a County Cork family and a cousin of the Catholic educator Nano Nagle, whereas his father Richard, a successful solicitor, was a member of the Church of Ireland. It remains unclear whether this is the same Richard Burke who converted from Catholicism. The Burgh (Burke) dynasty descends from the Anglo-Norman knight, William de Burgh, who arrived in Ireland in 1185 following Henry II's 1171 invasion of Ireland and is among the "chief Gall or Old English families that assimilated into Gaelic society" (the surname de Burgh (Latinised as de Burgo) was gaelicised in Irish as de Búrca or Búrc which over the centuries became Burke).
Burke adhered to his father's faith and remained a practising Anglican throughout his life, unlike his sister Juliana, who was brought up as and remained a Roman Catholic. Later, his political enemies repeatedly accused him of having been educated at the Jesuit College of St. Omer, near Calais, France; and of harbouring secret Catholic sympathies at a time when membership in the Catholic Church would disqualify him from public office per Penal Laws in Ireland. As Burke told Frances Crewe:
Mr. Burke's Enemies often endeavoured to convince the World that he had been bred up in the Catholic Faith, & that his Family were of it, & that he himself had been educated at St. Omer—but this was false, as his father was a regular practitioner of the Law at Dublin, which he could not be unless of the Established Church: & it so happened that though Mr. B was twice at Paris, he never happened to go through the Town of St. Omer.
After being elected to the House of Commons, Burke took the required oath of allegiance and abjuration, the oath of supremacy and the declaration against transubstantiation.
As a child, Burke sometimes spent time away from the unhealthy air of Dublin with his mother's family near Killavullen in the Blackwater Valley in County Cork. He received his early education at a Quaker school in Ballitore, County Kildare, some 67 kilometres (42 mi) from Dublin; and possibly like his cousin Nano Nagle at a hedge school near Killavullen. He remained in correspondence with his schoolmate from there, Mary Leadbeater, the daughter of the school's owner, throughout his life.
In 1744, Burke started at Trinity College Dublin, a Protestant establishment which up until 1793 did not permit Catholics to take degrees. In 1747, he set up a debating society, Edmund Burke's Club, which in 1770 merged with Trinity's Historical Club to form the College Historical Society, the oldest undergraduate society in the world. The minutes of the meetings of Burke's Club remain in the collection of the Historical Society. Burke graduated from Trinity in 1748. Burke's father wanted him to read Law and with this in mind, he went to London in 1750, where he entered the Middle Temple, before soon giving up legal study to travel in Continental Europe. After eschewing the Law, he pursued a livelihood through writing.
== Early writing ==
The late Lord Bolingbroke's Letters on the Study and Use of History was published in 1752 and his collected works appeared in 1754. This provoked Burke into writing his first published work, A Vindication of Natural Society: A View of the Miseries and Evils Arising to Mankind, appearing in Spring 1756. Burke imitated Bolingbroke's style and ideas in a reductio ad absurdum of his arguments for deistic rationalism in order to demonstrate their absurdity.
Burke claimed that Bolingbroke's arguments against revealed religion could apply to all social and civil institutions as well. Lord Chesterfield and Bishop Warburton as well as others initially thought that the work was genuinely by Bolingbroke rather than a satire. All the reviews of the work were positive, with critics especially appreciative of Burke's quality of writing. Some reviewers failed to notice the ironic nature of the book which led to Burke stating in the preface to the second edition (1757) that it was a satire.
Richard Hurd believed that Burke's imitation was near-perfect and that this defeated his purpose, arguing that an ironist "should take care by a constant exaggeration to make the ridicule shine through the Imitation. Whereas this Vindication is everywhere enforc'd, not only in the language, and on the principles of L. Bol., but with so apparent, or rather so real an earnestness, that half his purpose is sacrificed to the other". A minority of scholars have taken the position that in fact Burke did write the Vindication in earnest, later disowning it only for political reasons.
In 1757, Burke published a treatise on aesthetics titled A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful that attracted the attention of prominent Continental thinkers such as Denis Diderot and Immanuel Kant. It was his only purely philosophical work, completed in 1753. When asked by Sir Joshua Reynolds and French Laurence to expand it thirty years later, Burke replied that he was no longer fit for abstract speculation.
On 25 February 1757, Burke signed a contract with Robert Dodsley to write a "history of England from the time of Julius Caesar to the end of the reign of Queen Anne", its length being eighty quarto sheets (640 pages), nearly 400,000 words. It was to be submitted for publication by Christmas 1758. Burke completed the work to the year 1216 and stopped; it was not published until after Burke's death, in an 1812 collection of his works, An Essay Towards an Abridgement of the English History. G. M. Young did not value Burke's history and claimed that it was "demonstrably a translation from the French". On commenting on the story that Burke stopped his history because David Hume published his, Lord Acton said "it is ever to be regretted that the reverse did not occur".
During the year following that contract, Burke founded with Dodsley the influential Annual Register, a publication in which various authors evaluated the international political events of the previous year. The extent to which Burke contributed to the Annual Register is unclear. In his biography of Burke, Robert Murray quotes the Register as evidence of Burke's opinions, yet Philip Magnus in his biography does not cite it directly as a reference. Burke remained the chief editor of the publication until at least 1789 and there is no evidence that any other writer contributed to it before 1766.
On 12 March 1757, Burke married Jane Mary Nugent (1734–1812), daughter of Dr. Christopher Nugent, a Catholic physician who had provided him with medical treatment at Bath. Their son Richard was born on 9 February 1758 while a second son, Christopher (born that December), died in infancy. Burke also helped raise a ward, Edmund Nagle (later Admiral Sir Edmund Nagle), the son of a maternal cousin orphaned in 1763.
At about this same time, Burke was introduced to William Gerard Hamilton (known as "Single-speech Hamilton"). When Hamilton was appointed Chief Secretary for Ireland, Burke accompanied him to Dublin as his private secretary, a position he held for three years. In 1765, Burke became private secretary to the liberal Whig politician Charles, Marquess of Rockingham, then Prime Minister of Great Britain, who remained Burke's close friend and associate until his death in 1782.
== Member of Parliament ==
In December 1765, Burke entered the House of Commons of the British Parliament as Member for Wendover in Buckinghamshire, a pocket borough in the gift of Lord Fermanagh, later 2nd Earl Verney and a close political ally of Rockingham. After Burke delivered his maiden speech, William Pitt the Elder said he had "spoken in such a manner as to stop the mouths of all Europe" and that the Commons should congratulate itself on acquiring such a Member.
The first great subject Burke addressed was the controversy with the American colonies which soon developed into war and ultimate separation. In reply to the 1769 Grenvillite pamphlet The Present State of the Nation, he published his own pamphlet titled Observations on a Late State of the Nation. Surveying the finances of France, Burke predicts "some extraordinary convulsion in that whole system".
During the same year, with mostly borrowed money, Burke purchased Gregories, a 600-acre (2.4 km2) estate near Beaconsfield. Although the estate included saleable assets such as art works by Titian, Gregories proved a heavy financial burden in the following decades and Burke was never able to repay its purchase price in full. His speeches and writings, having made him famous, led to the suggestion that he was the author of the Letters of Junius.
At about this time, Burke joined the circle of leading intellectuals and artists in London of whom Samuel Johnson was the central luminary. This circle also included David Garrick, Oliver Goldsmith and Joshua Reynolds. Edward Gibbon described Burke as "the most eloquent and rational madman that I ever knew". Although Johnson admired Burke's brilliance, he found him a dishonest politician.
Burke took a leading role in the debate regarding the constitutional limits to the executive authority of the king. He argued strongly against unrestrained royal power and for the role of political parties in maintaining a principled opposition capable of preventing abuses, either by the monarch or by specific factions within the government. His most important publication in this regard was his Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents of 23 April 1770. Burke identified the "discontents" as stemming from the "secret influence" of a neo-Tory group he labelled as the "king's friends", whose system "comprehending the exterior and interior administrations, is commonly called, in the technical language of the Court, Double Cabinet". Britain needed a party with "an unshaken adherence to principle, and attachment to connexion, against every allurement of interest". Party divisions, "whether operating for good or evil, are things inseparable from free government".
During 1771, Burke wrote a bill that would have given juries the right to determine what was libel, if passed. Burke spoke in favour of the bill, but it was opposed by some, including Charles James Fox, not becoming law. When introducing his own bill in 1791 in opposition, Fox repeated almost verbatim the text of Burke's bill without acknowledgement. Burke was prominent in securing the right to publish debates held in Parliament.
Speaking in a Parliamentary debate on the prohibition on the export of grain on 16 November 1770, Burke argued in favour of a free market in corn: "There are no such things as a high, & a low price that is encouraging, & discouraging; there is nothing but a natural price, which grain brings at an universal market". In 1772, Burke was instrumental in the passing of the Repeal of Certain Laws Act 1772 which repealed various old laws against dealers and forestallers in corn.
In the Annual Register for 1772 (published in July 1773), Burke condemned the partition of Poland. He saw it as "the first very great breach in the modern political system of Europe" and as upsetting the balance of power in Europe.
On 3 November 1774, Burke was elected Member for Bristol, at the time "England's second city" with a large constituency in a genuine electoral contest. At the conclusion of the poll, he made his Speech to the Electors of Bristol at the Conclusion of the Poll, a remarkable disclaimer of the constituent-imperative form of democracy, for which he substituted his statement of the "representative mandate" form. He failed to win re-election for that seat in the subsequent 1780 general election.
In May 1778, Burke supported a Parliamentary motion revising restrictions on Irish trade. His constituents, citizens of the great trading city of Bristol, urged Burke to oppose free trade with Ireland. Burke resisted their protestations and said: "If, from this conduct, I shall forfeit their suffrages at an ensuing election, it will stand on record an example to future representatives of the Commons of England, that one man at least had dared to resist the desires of his constituents when his judgment assured him they were wrong."
Burke published Two Letters to Gentlemen of Bristol on the Bills relative to the Trade of Ireland in which he espoused "some of the chief principles of commerce; such as the advantage of free intercourse between all parts of the same kingdom ... the evils attending restriction and monopoly ... and that the gain of others is not necessarily our loss, but on the contrary an advantage by causing a greater demand for such wares as we have for sale."
Burke also supported the attempts of Sir George Savile to repeal some of the penal laws against Catholics. Burke also called capital punishment "the Butchery which we call justice" in 1776 and in 1780 condemned the use of the pillory for two men convicted for attempting to practice sodomy.
This support for unpopular causes, notably free trade with Ireland and Catholic emancipation, led to Burke losing his seat in 1780. For the remainder of his Parliamentary career, Burke represented Malton, another pocket borough under the Marquess of Rockingham's patronage.
== American War of Independence ==
Burke expressed his support for the grievances of the American Thirteen Colonies under the government of King George III and his appointed representatives. On 19 April 1774, Burke made a speech, "On American Taxation" (published in January 1775), on a motion to repeal the tea duty:
Again and again, revert to your old principles—seek peace and ensue it; leave America, if she has taxable matter in her, to tax herself. I am not here going into the distinctions of rights, nor attempting to mark their boundaries. I do not enter into these metaphysical distinctions; I hate the very sound of them. Leave the Americans as they anciently stood, and these distinctions, born of our unhappy contest, will die along with it .... Be content to bind America by laws of trade; you have always done it .... Do not burthen them with taxes.... But if intemperately, unwisely, fatally, you sophisticate and poison the very source of government by urging subtle deductions, and consequences odious to those you govern, from the unlimited and illimitable nature of supreme sovereignty, you will teach them by these means to call that sovereignty itself in question .... If that sovereignty and their freedom cannot be reconciled, which will they take? They will cast your sovereignty in your face. No body of men will be argued into slavery.
On 22 March 1775, Burke delivered in the House of Commons a speech (published in May 1775) on reconciliation with America. Burke appealed for peace as preferable to civil war and reminded the House of Commons of America's growing population, its industry and its wealth. He warned against the notion that the Americans would back down in the face of force since most Americans were of British descent:
[T]he people of the colonies are descendants of Englishmen.... They are therefore not only devoted to liberty, but to liberty according to English ideas and on English principles. The people are Protestants ... a persuasion not only favourable to liberty, but built upon it .... My hold of the colonies is in the close affection which grows from common names, from kindred blood, from similar privileges, and equal protection. These are ties which, though light as air, are as strong as links of iron. Let the colonies always keep the idea of their civil rights associated with your government—they will cling and grapple to you, and no force under heaven will be of power to tear them from their allegiance. But let it be once understood that your government may be one thing and their privileges another, that these two things may exist without any mutual relation—the cement is gone, the cohesion is loosened, and everything hastens to decay and dissolution. As long as you have the wisdom to keep the sovereign authority of this country as the sanctuary of liberty, the sacred temple consecrated to our common faith, wherever the chosen race and sons of England worship freedom, they will turn their faces towards you. The more they multiply, the more friends you will have; the more ardently they love liberty, the more perfect will be their obedience. Slavery they can have anywhere. It is a weed that grows in every soil. They may have it from Spain, they may have it from Prussia. But, until you become lost to all feeling of your true interest and your natural dignity, freedom they can have from none but you.
Burke prized peace with America above all else, pleading with the House of Commons to remember that the interest by way of money received from the American colonies was far more attractive than any sense of putting the colonists in their place:
The proposition is peace. Not peace through the medium of war, not peace to be hunted through the labyrinth of intricate and endless negotiations, not peace to arise out of universal discord ... [I]t is simple peace, sought in its natural course and in its ordinary haunts. It is peace sought in the spirit of peace, and laid in principles purely pacific.
Burke was not merely presenting a peace agreement to Parliament, but rather he stepped forward with four reasons against using force, carefully reasoned. He laid out his objections in an orderly manner, focusing on one before moving to the next. His first concern was that the use of force would have to be temporary and that the uprisings and objections to British governance in Colonial America would not be. Second, Burke worried about the uncertainty surrounding whether Britain would win a conflict in America. "An armament," Burke said, "is not a victory." Third, Burke brought up the issue of impairment, stating that it would do the British government no good to engage in a scorched earth war and have the object they desired (America) become damaged or even useless. The American colonists could always retreat into the mountains, but the land they left behind would most likely be unusable, whether by accident or design. The fourth and final reason to avoid the use of force was experience, as the British had never attempted to rein in an unruly colony by force and they did not know if it could be done, let alone accomplished thousands of miles away from home. Not only were all of these concerns reasonable, but some turned out to be prophetic—the American colonists did not surrender, even when things looked extremely bleak and the British were ultimately unsuccessful in their attempts to win a war fought on American soil.
It was not temporary force, uncertainty, impairment, or even experience that Burke cited as the primary reason for avoiding war with the American colonies. Rather, it was the character of the American people themselves: "In this character of Americans, a love of freedom is the predominating feature which marks and distinguishes the whole ... [T]his fierce spirit of liberty is stronger in the English colonies, probably, than in any other people of the earth ... [The] men [are] acute, inquisitive, dextrous, prompt in attack, ready in defence, full of resources." Burke concludes with another plea for peace and a prayer that Britain might avoid actions which in Burke's words "may bring on the destruction of this Empire."
Burke proposed six resolutions to settle the American conflict peacefully:
Allow the American colonists to elect their own representatives, settling the dispute about taxation without representation.
Acknowledge this wrongdoing and apologise for grievances caused.
Procure an efficient manner of choosing and sending these delegates.
Set up a General Assembly in America itself, with powers to regulate taxes.
Stop gathering taxes by imposition (or law) and start gathering them only when they are needed.
Grant needed aid to the colonies.
Had they been passed, though the effect of these resolutions can never be known, they might have quelled the colonials' revolutionary spirit. Unfortunately, Burke delivered this speech less than a month before the explosive conflict at Concord and Lexington. As these resolutions were not enacted, little was done that would help to prevent armed conflict.
Among the reasons this speech was so greatly admired was its passage on Lord Bathurst (1684–1775) in which Burke describes an angel in 1704 prophesying to Bathurst the future greatness of England and also of America: "Young man, There is America—which at this day serves little more than to amuse you with stories of savage men, and uncouth manners; yet shall, before you taste of death, shew itself equal to the whole of that commerce which now attracts the envy of the world." Samuel Johnson was so irritated at hearing it continually praised that he made a parody of it, where the devil appears to a young Whig and predicts that in a short time Whiggism will poison even the paradise of America.
The administration of Lord North (1770–1782) tried to defeat the colonist rebellion by military force. British and American forces clashed in 1775 and in 1776 came the United States Declaration of Independence. Burke was appalled by celebrations in Britain of the defeat of the Americans in New York and Pennsylvania. He claimed the English national character was being changed by this authoritarianism. Burke wrote: "As to the good people of England, they seem to partake every day more and more of the Character of that administration which they have been induced to tolerate. I am satisfied, that within a few years there has been a great Change in the National Character. We seem no longer that eager, inquisitive, jealous, fiery people, which we have been formerly."
In Burke's view, the British government was fighting "the American English" ("our English Brethren in the Colonies"), employing "the hireling sword of German boors and vassals" to destroy the "English privileges" of the colonists. On American independence, Burke wrote: "I do not know how to wish success to those whose Victory is to separate from us a large and noble part of our Empire. Still less do I wish success to injustice, oppression and absurdity."
During the Gordon Riots in 1780, Burke became a target of hostility and his home was placed under armed guard by the military.
== Paymaster of the Forces ==
The fall of North led to Rockingham being recalled to power in March 1782. Burke was appointed Paymaster of the Forces and a Privy Counsellor, but without a seat in Cabinet. Rockingham's unexpected death in July 1782 and replacement with Shelburne as Prime Minister put an end to his administration after only a few months, but Burke did manage to introduce two Acts.
The Paymaster General Act 1782 ended the post as a lucrative sinecure. Previously, Paymasters had been able to draw on money from HM Treasury at their discretion. Instead, now they were required to put the money they had requested to withdraw from the Treasury into the Bank of England, from where it was to be withdrawn for specific purposes. The Treasury would receive monthly statements of the Paymaster's balance at the Bank. This Act was repealed by Shelburne's administration, but the Act that replaced it repeated verbatim almost the whole text of the Burke Act.
The Civil List and Secret Service Money Act 1782 was a watered-down version of Burke's original intentions as outlined in his famous Speech on Economical Reform of 11 February 1780. However, he managed to abolish 134 offices in the royal household and civil administration. The third Secretary of State and the Board of Trade were abolished and pensions were limited and regulated. The Act was anticipated to save £72,368 a year.
In February 1783, Burke resumed the post of Paymaster of the Forces when Shelburne's government fell and was replaced by a coalition headed by North that included Charles James Fox. That coalition fell in 1783 and was succeeded by the long Tory administration of William Pitt the Younger which lasted until 1801. Accordingly, having supported Fox and North, Burke was in opposition for the remainder of his political life.
== Representative government ==
In 1774, Burke's Speech to the Electors at Bristol at the Conclusion of the Poll was noted for its defence of the principles of representative government against the notion that those elected to assemblies like Parliament are, or should be, merely delegates:
Certainly, Gentlemen, it ought to be the happiness and glory of a Representative, to live in the strictest union, the closest correspondence, and the most unreserved communication with his constituents. Their wishes ought to have great weight with him; their opinion, high respect; their business, unremitted attention. It is his duty to sacrifice his repose, his pleasures, his satisfactions, to theirs; and above all, ever, and in all cases, to prefer their interest to his own. But his unbiassed opinion, his mature judgment, his enlightened conscience, he ought not to sacrifice to you, to any man, or to any sett of men living. These he does not derive from your pleasure; no, nor from the Law and the Constitution. They are a trust from Providence, for the abuse of which he is deeply answerable. Your Representative owes you, not his industry only, but his judgment; and he betrays, instead of serving you, if he sacrifices it to your opinion.My worthy Colleague says, his Will ought to be subservient to yours. If that be all, the thing is innocent. If Government were a matter of Will upon any side, yours, without question, ought to be superior. But Government and Legislation are matters of reason and judgement, and not of inclination; and, what sort of reason is that, in which the determination precedes the discussion; in which one sett of men deliberate, and another decide; and where those who form the conclusion are perhaps three hundred miles distant from those who hear the arguments?To deliver an opinion is the right of all men; that of constituents is a weighty and respectable opinion which a Representative ought always to rejoice to hear; and which he ought always most seriously to consider. But authoritative instructions; mandates issued, which the member is bound blindly and implicitly to obey, to vote, and to argue for, though contrary to the clearest conviction of his judgment and conscience; these are things utterly unknown to the laws of this land, and which arise from a fundamental mistake of the whole order and tenour of our constitution.Parliament is not a congress of ambassadors from different and hostile interests; which interests each must maintain, as an agent and advocate, against other agents and advocates; but Parliament is a deliberative assembly of one nation, with one interest, that of the whole; where, not local purposes, not local prejudices ought to guide, but the general good, resulting from the general reason of the whole. You choose a member, indeed; but when you have chosen him, he is not a member of Bristol, but he is a member of Parliament.
It is often forgotten in this connection that Burke, as detailed below, was an opponent of slavery, and therefore his conscience was refusing to support a trade in which many of his Bristol electors were lucratively involved.
Political scientist Hanna Pitkin points out that Burke linked the interest of the district with the proper behaviour of its elected official, explaining: "Burke conceives of broad, relatively fixed interest, few in number and clearly defined, of which any group or locality has just one. These interests are largely economic or associated with particular localities whose livelihood they characterize, in his over-all prosperity they involve".
Burke was a leading sceptic with respect to democracy. While admitting that theoretically in some cases it might be desirable, he insisted a democratic government in Britain in his day would not only be inept, but also oppressive. He opposed democracy for three basic reasons. First, government required a degree of intelligence and breadth of knowledge of the sort that occurred rarely among the common people. Second, he thought that if they had the vote, common people had dangerous and angry passions that could be aroused easily by demagogues, fearing that the authoritarian impulses that could be empowered by these passions would undermine cherished traditions and established religion, leading to violence and confiscation of property. Third, Burke warned that democracy would create a tyranny over unpopular minorities, who needed the protection of the upper classes.
== Opposition to the slave trade ==
Burke proposed a bill to ban slaveholders from being able to sit in the House of Commons, claiming they were a danger incompatible with traditional notions of English liberty. He described slavery as a "weed that grows on every soil. While Burke did believe that Africans were "barbaric" and needed to be "civilised" by Christianity, Gregory Collins argues that this was not an unusual attitude amongst abolitionists at the time. Furthermore, Burke seemed to believe that Christianity would provide a civilising benefit to any group of people, as he believed Christianity had "tamed" European civilisation and regarded Southern European peoples as equally savage and barbarous. Collins also suggests that Burke viewed the "uncivilised" behaviour of African slaves as being partially caused by slavery itself, as he believed that making someone a slave stripped them of any virtues and rendered them mentally deficient, regardless of race. Burke proposed a gradual program of emancipation called Sketch of a Negro Code, which Collins argues was quite detailed for the time. Collins concludes that Burke's "gradualist" position on the emancipation of slaves, while perhaps seeming ridiculous to some modern-day readers, was nonetheless sincere.
== India and the impeachment of Warren Hastings ==
For years, Burke pursued impeachment efforts against Warren Hastings, formerly Governor-General of Bengal, that resulted in the trial during 1786. His interaction with the British dominion of India began well before Hastings' impeachment trial. For two decades prior to the impeachment, Parliament had dealt with the Indian issue. This trial was the pinnacle of years of unrest and deliberation. In 1781, Burke was first able to delve into the issues surrounding the East India Company when he was appointed Chairman of the Commons Select Committee on East Indian Affairs—from that point until the end of the trial, India was Burke's primary concern. This committee was charged "to investigate alleged injustices in Bengal, the war with Hyder Ali, and other Indian difficulties". While Burke and the committee focused their attention on these matters, a second secret committee was formed to assess the same issues. Both committee reports were written by Burke. Among other purposes, the reports conveyed to the Indian princes that Britain would not wage war on them, along with demanding that the East India Company should recall Hastings. This was Burke's first call for substantive change regarding imperial practices. When addressing the whole House of Commons regarding the committee report, Burke described the Indian issue as one that "began 'in commerce' but 'ended in empire'".
On 28 February 1785, Burke delivered a now-famous speech, The Nabob of Arcot's Debts, wherein he condemned the damage to India by the East India Company. In the province of the Carnatic, the Indians had constructed a system of reservoirs to make the soil fertile in a naturally dry region, and centred their society on the husbandry of water:
These are the monuments of real kings, who were the fathers of their people; testators to a posterity which they embraced as their own. These are the grand sepulchres built by ambition; but by the ambition of an insatiable benevolence, which, not contented with reigning in the dispensation of happiness during the contracted term of human life, had strained, with all the reachings and graspings of a vivacious mind, to extend the dominion of their bounty beyond the limits of nature, and to perpetuate themselves through generations of generations, the guardians, the protectors, the nourishers of mankind.
Burke claimed that the advent of East India Company domination in India had eroded much that was good in these traditions and that as a consequence of this and the lack of new customs to replace them the Indian populace under Company rule was needlessly suffering. He set about establishing a set of imperial expectations, whose moral foundation would in his opinion warrant an overseas empire.
On 4 April 1786, Burke presented the House of Commons with the Article of Charge of High Crimes and Misdemeanors against Hastings. The impeachment in Westminster Hall which did not begin until 14 February 1788 would be the "first major public discursive event of its kind in England", bringing the morality of imperialism to the forefront of public perception. Burke was already known for his eloquent rhetorical skills and his involvement in the trial only enhanced its popularity and significance. Burke's indictment, fuelled by emotional indignation, branded Hastings a "captain-general of iniquity" who never dined without "creating a famine", whose heart was "gangrened to the core" and who resembled both a "spider of Hell" and a "ravenous vulture devouring the carcasses of the dead". The House of Commons eventually impeached Hastings, but subsequently the House of Lords acquitted him of all charges.
== French Revolution: 1688 versus 1789 ==
Initially, Burke did not condemn the French Revolution. In a letter of 9 August 1789, he wrote: "England gazing with astonishment at a French struggle for Liberty and not knowing whether to blame or to applaud! The thing indeed, though I thought I saw something like it in progress for several years, has still something in it paradoxical and Mysterious. The spirit it is impossible not to admire; but the old Parisian ferocity has broken out in a shocking manner". The events of 5–6 October 1789, when a crowd of Parisian women marched on Versailles to compel King Louis XVI to return to Paris, turned Burke against it. In a letter to his son Richard Burke dated 10 October, he said: "This day I heard from Laurence who has sent me papers confirming the portentous state of France—where the Elements which compose Human Society seem all to be dissolved, and a world of Monsters to be produced in the place of it—where Mirabeau presides as the Grand Anarch; and the late Grand Monarch makes a figure as ridiculous as pitiable". On 4 November, Charles-Jean-François Depont wrote to Burke, requesting that he endorse the Revolution. Burke replied that any critical language of it by him should be taken "as no more than the expression of doubt", but he added: "You may have subverted Monarchy, but not recover'd freedom". In the same month, he described France as "a country undone". Burke's first public condemnation of the Revolution occurred during the debate in Parliament on the army estimates on 9 February 1790 provoked by praise of the Revolution by Pitt and Fox:
Since the House had been prorogued in the summer much work was done in France. The French had shewn themselves the ablest architects of ruin that had hitherto existed in the world. In that very short space of time they had completely pulled down to the ground, their monarchy; their church; their nobility; their law; their revenue; their army; their navy; their commerce; their arts; and their manufactures...[There was a danger of] an imitation of the excesses of an irrational, unprincipled, proscribing, confiscating, plundering, ferocious, bloody and tyrannical democracy...[In religion] the danger of their example is no longer from intolerance, but from Atheism; a foul, unnatural vice, foe to all the dignity and consolation of mankind; which seems in France, for a long time, to have been embodied into a faction, accredited, and almost avowed.
In January 1790, Burke read Richard Price's sermon of 4 November 1789 entitled A Discourse on the Love of Our Country to the Revolution Society. That society had been founded to commemorate the Glorious Revolution of 1688. In this sermon, Price espoused the philosophy of universal "Rights of Men". Price argued that love of our country "does not imply any conviction of the superior value of it to other countries, or any particular preference of its laws and constitution of government". Instead, Price asserted that Englishmen should see themselves "more as citizens of the world than as members of any particular community".
A debate between Price and Burke ensued that was "the classic moment at which two fundamentally different conceptions of national identity were presented to the English public". Price claimed that the principles of the Glorious Revolution included "the right to choose our own governors, to cashier them for misconduct, and to frame a government for ourselves".
Immediately after reading Price's sermon, Burke wrote a draft of what eventually became Reflections on the Revolution in France. On 13 February 1790, a notice in the press said that shortly Burke would publish a pamphlet on the Revolution and its British supporters, but he spent the year revising and expanding it. On 1 November, he finally published the Reflections and it was an immediate best-seller. Priced at five shillings, it was more expensive than most political pamphlets, but by the end of 1790, it had gone through ten printings and sold approximately 17,500 copies. A French translation appeared on 29 November and on 30 November the translator Pierre-Gaëton Dupont wrote to Burke saying 2,500 copies had already been sold. The French translation ran to ten printings by June 1791.
What the Glorious Revolution had meant was as important to Burke and his contemporaries as it had been for the last one hundred years in British politics. In the Reflections, Burke argued against Price's interpretation of the Glorious Revolution and instead, gave a classic Whig defence of it. Burke argued against the idea of abstract, metaphysical rights of humans and instead advocated national tradition:
The Revolution was made to preserve our antient indisputable laws and liberties, and that antient constitution of government which is our only security for law and liberty...The very idea of the fabrication of a new government, is enough to fill us with disgust and horror. We wished at the period of the Revolution, and do now wish, to derive all we possess as an inheritance from our forefathers. Upon that body and stock of inheritance we have taken care not to inoculate any cyon [scion] alien to the nature of the original plant...Our oldest reformation is that of Magna Charta. You will see that Sir Edward Coke, that great oracle of our law, and indeed all the great men who follow him, to Blackstone, are industrious to prove the pedigree of our liberties. They endeavour to prove that the ancient charter...were nothing more than a re-affirmance of the still more ancient standing law of the kingdom...In the famous law...called the Petition of Right, the parliament says to the king, "Your subjects have inherited this freedom", claiming their franchises not on abstract principles "as the rights of men", but as the rights of Englishmen, and as a patrimony derived from their forefathers.
Burke said: "We fear God, we look up with awe to kings; with affection to Parliaments; with duty to magistrates; with reverence to priests; and with respect to nobility. Why? Because when such ideas are brought before our minds, it is natural to be so affected". Burke defended this prejudice on the grounds that it is "the general bank and capital of nations, and of ages" and superior to individual reason, which is small in comparison. "Prejudice", Burke claimed, "is of ready application in the emergency; it previously engages the mind in a steady course of wisdom and virtue, and does not leave the man hesitating in the moment of decision, sceptical, puzzled, and unresolved. Prejudice renders a man's virtue his habit". Burke criticised social contract theory by claiming that society is indeed a contract, although it is "a partnership not only between those who are living, but between those who are living, those who are dead, and those who are to be born".
The most famous passage in Burke's Reflections was his description of the events of 5–6 October 1789 and the part of Marie-Antoinette in them. Burke's account differs little from modern historians who have used primary sources. His use of flowery language to describe it provoked both praise and criticism. Philip Francis wrote to Burke saying that what he wrote of Marie-Antoinette was "pure foppery". Edward Gibbon reacted differently: "I adore his chivalry". Burke was informed by an Englishman who had talked with the Duchesse de Biron that when Marie-Antoinette was reading the passage she burst into tears and took considerable time to finish reading it. Price had rejoiced that the French king had been "led in triumph" during the October Days, but to Burke, this symbolised the opposing revolutionary sentiment of the Jacobins and the natural sentiments of those who shared his own view with horror—that the ungallant assault on Marie-Antoinette was a cowardly attack on a defenceless woman.
Louis XVI translated the Reflections "from end to end" into French. Fellow Whig MPs Richard Sheridan and Charles James Fox disagreed with Burke and split with him. Fox thought the Reflections to be "in very bad taste" and "favouring Tory principles". Other Whigs such as the Duke of Portland and Earl Fitzwilliam privately agreed with Burke, but they did not wish for a public breach with their Whig colleagues. Burke wrote on 29 November 1790: "I have received from the Duke of Portland, Lord Fitzwilliam, the Duke of Devonshire, Lord John Cavendish, Montagu (Frederick Montagu MP), and a long et cetera of the old Stamina of the Whiggs a most full approbation of the principles of that work and a kind indulgence to the execution". The Duke of Portland said in 1791 that when anyone criticised the Reflections to him, he informed them that he had recommended the book to his sons as containing the true Whig creed.
In the opinion of Paul Langford, Burke crossed something of a Rubicon when he attended a levee on 3 February 1791 to meet the King, later described by Jane Burke as follows:
On his coming to Town for the Winter, as he generally does, he went to the Levee with the Duke of Portland, who went with Lord William to kiss hands on his going into the Guards—while Lord William was kissing hands, The King was talking to The Duke, but his Eyes were fixed on [Burke] who was standing in the Crowd, and when He said His say to The Duke, without waiting for [Burke]'s coming up in his turn, The King went up to him, and, after the usual questions of how long have you been in Town and the weather, He said you have been very much employed of late, and very much confined. [Burke] said, no, Sir, not more than usual—You have and very well employed too, but there are none so deaf as those that w'ont hear, and none so blind as those that w'ont see—[Burke] made a low bow, Sir, I certainly now understand you, but was afraid my vanity or presumption might have led me to imagine what Your Majesty has said referred to what I have done—You cannot be vain—You have been of use to us all, it is a general opinion, is it not so Lord Stair? who was standing near. It is said Lord Stair;—Your Majesty's adopting it, Sir, will make the opinion general, said [Burke]—I know it is the general opinion, and I know that there is no Man who calls himself a Gentleman that must not think himself obliged to you, for you have supported the cause of the Gentlemen—You know the tone at Court is a whisper, but The King said all this loud, so as to be heard by every one at Court.
Burke's Reflections sparked a pamphlet war. Mary Wollstonecraft was one of the first into print, publishing A Vindication of the Rights of Men a few weeks after Burke. Thomas Paine followed with the Rights of Man in 1791. James Mackintosh, who wrote Vindiciae Gallicae, was the first to see the Reflections as "the manifesto of a Counter Revolution". Mackintosh later agreed with Burke's views, remarking in December 1796 after meeting him that Burke was "minutely and accurately informed, to a wonderful exactness, with respect to every fact relating to the French Revolution". Mackintosh later said: "Burke was one of the first thinkers as well as one of the greatest orators of his time. He is without parallel in any age, excepting perhaps Lord Bacon and Cicero; and his works contain an ampler store of political and moral wisdom than can be found in any other writer whatever".
In November 1790, François-Louis-Thibault de Menonville, a member of the National Assembly of France, wrote to Burke, praising Reflections and requesting more "very refreshing mental food" that he could publish. This Burke did in April 1791 when he published A Letter to a Member of the National Assembly. Burke called for external forces to reverse the Revolution and included an attack on the late French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau as being the subject of a personality cult that had developed in revolutionary France. Although Burke conceded that Rousseau sometimes showed "a considerable insight into human nature", he mostly was critical. Although he did not meet Rousseau on his visit to Britain in 1766–1767, Burke was a friend of David Hume, with whom Rousseau had stayed. Burke said Rousseau "entertained no principle either to influence of his heart, or to guide his understanding—but vanity"—which he "was possessed to a degree little short of madness". He also cited Rousseau's Confessions as evidence that Rousseau had a life of "obscure and vulgar vices" that was not "chequered, or spotted here and there, with virtues, or even distinguished by a single good action". Burke contrasted Rousseau's theory of universal benevolence and his having sent his children to a foundling hospital, stating that he was "a lover of his kind, but a hater of his kindred".
These events and the disagreements that arose from them within the Whigs led to its break-up and to the rupture of Burke's friendship with Fox. In a debate in Parliament on Britain's relations with Russia, Fox praised the principles of the Revolution, although Burke was not able to reply at this time as he was "overpowered by continued cries of question from his own side of the House". When Parliament was debating the Quebec Bill for a constitution for Canada, Fox praised the Revolution and criticised some of Burke's arguments such as hereditary power. On 6 May 1791, Burke used the opportunity to answer Fox during another debate in Parliament on the Quebec Bill and condemn the new French Constitution and "the horrible consequences flowing from the French idea of the Rights of Man". Burke asserted that those ideas were the antithesis of both the British and the American constitutions. Burke was interrupted and Fox intervened, saying that Burke should be allowed to carry on with his speech. However, a vote of censure was moved against Burke for noticing the affairs of France which was moved by Lord Sheffield and seconded by Fox. Pitt made a speech praising Burke and Fox made a speech—both rebuking and complimenting Burke. He questioned the sincerity of Burke, who seemed to have forgotten the lessons he had learned from him, quoting from Burke's own speeches of fourteen and fifteen years before. Burke's response was as follows:
It certainly was indiscreet at any period, but especially at his time of life, to parade enemies, or give his friends occasion to desert him; yet if his firm and steady adherence to the British constitution placed him in such a dilemma, he would risk all, and, as public duty and public experience taught him, with his last words exclaim, "Fly from the French Constitution".
At this point, Fox whispered that there was "no loss of friendship". "I regret to say there is", Burke replied, "I have indeed made a great sacrifice; I have done my duty though I have lost my friend. There is something in the detested French constitution that envenoms every thing it touches". This provoked a reply from Fox, yet he was unable to give his speech for some time since he was overcome with tears and emotion. Fox appealed to Burke to remember their inalienable friendship, but he also repeated his criticisms of Burke and uttered "unusually bitter sarcasms". This only aggravated the rupture between the two men. Burke demonstrated his separation from the party on 5 June 1791 by writing to Fitzwilliam, declining money from him.
Burke was dismayed that some Whigs, instead of reaffirming the principles of the Whig Party he laid out in the Reflections, had rejected them in favour of "French principles" and that they criticised Burke for abandoning Whig principles. Burke wanted to demonstrate his fidelity to Whig principles and feared that acquiescence to Fox and his followers would allow the Whig Party to become a vehicle for Jacobinism.
Burke knew that many members of the Whig Party did not share Fox's views and he wanted to provoke them into condemning the French Revolution. Burke wrote that he wanted to represent the whole Whig Party "as tolerating, and by a toleration, countenancing those proceedings" so that he could "stimulate them to a public declaration of what every one of their acquaintance privately knows to be...their sentiments". On 3 August 1791, Burke published his Appeal from the New to the Old Whigs in which he renewed his criticism of the radical revolutionary programmes inspired by the French Revolution and attacked the Whigs who supported them as holding principles contrary to those traditionally held by the Whig Party.
Burke owned two copies of what has been called "that practical compendium of Whig political theory", namely The Tryal of Dr. Henry Sacheverell (1710). Burke wrote of the trial: "It rarely happens to a party to have the opportunity of a clear, authentic, recorded, declaration of their political tenets upon the subject of a great constitutional event like that of the [Glorious] Revolution". Writing in the third person, Burke asserted in his Appeal:
[The] foundations laid down by the Commons, on the trial of Doctor Sacheverel, for justifying the revolution of 1688, are the very same laid down in Mr. Burke's Reflections; that is to say,—a breach of the original contract, implied and expressed in the constitution of this country, as a scheme of government fundamentally and inviolably fixed in King, Lords and Commons.—That the fundamental subversion of this antient constitution, by one of its parts, having been attempted, and in effect accomplished, justified the Revolution. That it was justified only upon the necessity of the case; as the only means left for the recovery of that antient constitution, formed by the original contract of the British state; as well as for the future preservation of the same government. These are the points to be proved.
Burke then provided quotations from Paine's Rights of Man to demonstrate what the New Whigs believed. Burke's belief that Foxite principles corresponded to Paine's was genuine. Finally, Burke denied that a majority of "the people" had, or ought to have, the final say in politics and alter society at their pleasure. People had rights, but also duties and these duties were not voluntary. According to Burke, the people could not overthrow morality derived from God.
Although Whig grandees such as Portland and Fitzwilliam privately agreed with Burke's Appeal, they wished he had used more moderate language. Fitzwilliam saw the Appeal as containing "the doctrines I have sworn by, long and long since". Francis Basset, a backbench Whig MP, wrote to Burke that "though for reasons which I will not now detail I did not then deliver my sentiments, I most perfectly differ from Mr. Fox & from the great Body of opposition on the French Revolution". Burke sent a copy of the Appeal to the King and the King requested a friend to communicate to Burke that he had read it "with great Satisfaction". Burke wrote of its reception: "Not one word from one of our party. They are secretly galled. They agree with me to a title; but they dare not speak out for fear of hurting Fox... They leave me to myself; they see that I can do myself justice". Charles Burney viewed it as "a most admirable book—the best & most useful on political subjects that I have ever seen", but he believed the differences in the Whig Party between Burke and Fox should not be aired publicly.
Eventually, most of the Whigs sided with Burke and gave their support to William Pitt the Younger's Tory government which in response to France's declaration of war against Britain declared war on France's Revolutionary Government in 1793.
In December 1791, Burke sent government ministers his Thoughts on French Affairs where he put forward three main points, namely that no counter-revolution in France would come about by purely domestic causes; that the longer the Revolutionary Government exists, the stronger it becomes; and that the Revolutionary Government's interest and aim is to disturb all of the other governments of Europe.
As a Whig, Burke did not wish to see an absolute monarchy again in France after the extirpation of Jacobinism. Writing to an émigré in 1791, Burke expressed his views against a restoration of the Ancien Régime:
When such a complete convulsion has shaken the State, and hardly left any thing whatsoever, either in civil arrangements, or in the Characters and disposition of men's minds, exactly where it was, whatever shall be settled although in the former persons and upon old forms, will be in some measure a new thing and will labour under something of the weakness as well as other inconveniences of a Change. My poor opinion is that you mean to establish what you call 'L'ancien Régime,' If any one means that system of Court Intrigue miscalled a Government as it stood, at Versailles before the present confusions as the thing to be established, that I believe will be found absolutely impossible; and if you consider the Nature, as well of persons, as of affairs, I flatter myself you must be of my opinion. That was tho' not so violent a State of Anarchy as well as the present. If it were even possible to lay things down exactly as they stood, before the series of experimental politicks began, I am quite sure that they could not long continue in that situation. In one Sense of L'Ancien Régime I am clear that nothing else can reasonably be done.
Burke delivered a speech on the debate of the Aliens Bill on 28 December 1792. He supported the Bill as it would exclude "murderous atheists, who would pull down Church and state; religion and God; morality and happiness". The peroration included a reference to a French order for 3,000 daggers. Burke revealed a dagger he had concealed in his coat and threw it to the floor: "This is what you are to gain by an alliance with France". Burke picked up the dagger and continued:
When they smile, I see blood trickling down their faces; I see their insidious purposes; I see that the object of all their cajoling is—blood! I now warn my countrymen to beware of these execrable philosophers, whose only object it is to destroy every thing that is good here, and to establish immorality and murder by precept and example—'Hic niger est hunc tu Romane caveto' ['Such a man is evil; beware of him, Roman'. Horace, Satires I. 4. 85.].
Burke supported the war against Revolutionary France, seeing Britain as fighting on the side of the royalists and émigres in a civil war, rather than fighting against the whole nation of France. Burke also supported the royalist uprising in La Vendée, describing it on 4 November 1793 in a letter to William Windham as "the sole affair I have much heart in". Burke wrote to Henry Dundas on 7 October urging him to send reinforcements there as he viewed it as the only theatre in the war that might lead to a march on Paris, but Dundas did not follow Burke's advice.
Burke believed the British government was not taking the uprising seriously enough, a view reinforced by a letter he had received from the Prince Charles of France (S.A.R. le comte d'Artois), dated 23 October, requesting that he intercede on behalf of the royalists to the government. Burke was forced to reply on 6 November: "I am not in His Majesty's Service; or at all consulted in his Affairs". Burke published his Remarks on the Policy of the Allies with Respect to France, begun in October, where he said: "I am sure every thing has shewn us that in this war with France, one Frenchman is worth twenty foreigners. La Vendée is a proof of this".
On 20 June 1794, Burke received a vote of thanks from the House of Commons for his services in the Hastings Trial and he immediately resigned his seat, being replaced by his son Richard. A blow fell upon Burke with the loss of Richard in August 1794, to whom he was tenderly attached and in whom he saw signs of promise which were not patent to others and which in fact appear to have been non-existent, although this view may have rather reflected the fact that his son Richard had worked successfully in the early battle for Catholic emancipation. King George III, whose favour he had gained by his attitude on the French Revolution, wished to create him Earl of Beaconsfield, but the death of his son deprived the opportunity of such an honour and all its attractions, so the only award he would accept was a pension of £2,500. Even this modest reward was attacked by the Duke of Bedford and the Earl of Lauderdale, to whom Burke replied in his Letter to a Noble Lord (1796): "It cannot at this time be too often repeated; line upon line; precept upon precept; until it comes into the currency of a proverb, To innovate is not to reform". He argued that he was rewarded on merit, but the Duke of Bedford received his rewards from inheritance alone, his ancestor being the original pensioner: "Mine was from a mild and benevolent sovereign; his from Henry the Eighth". Burke also hinted at what would happen to such people if their revolutionary ideas were implemented and included a description of the English Constitution:
But as to our country and our race, as long as the well compacted structure of our church and state, the sanctuary, the holy of holies of that ancient law, defended by reverence, defended by power, a fortress at once and a temple, shall stand inviolate on the brow of the British Sion—as long as the British Monarchy, not more limited than fenced by the orders of the State, shall, like the proud Keep of Windsor, rising in the majesty of proportion, and girt with the double belt of its kindred and coeval towers, as long as this awful structure shall oversee and guard the subjected land—so long as the mounds and dykes of the low, fat, Bedford level will have nothing to fear from all the pickaxes of all the levellers of France.
Burke's last publications were the Letters on a Regicide Peace (October 1796), called forth by negotiations for peace with France by the Pitt government. Burke regarded this as appeasement, injurious to national dignity and honour. In his Second Letter, Burke wrote of the French Revolutionary government: "Individuality is left out of their scheme of government. The State is all in all. Everything is referred to the production of force; afterwards, everything is trusted to the use of it. It is military in its principle, in its maxims, in its spirit, and in all its movements. The State has dominion and conquest for its sole objects—dominion over minds by proselytism, over bodies by arms".
This is held to be the first explanation of the modern concept of totalitarian state. Burke regarded the war with France as ideological, against an "armed doctrine". He wished that France would not be partitioned due to the effect this would have on the balance of power in Europe and that the war was not against France, but against the revolutionaries governing her. Burke said: "It is not France extending a foreign empire over other nations: it is a sect aiming at universal empire, and beginning with the conquest of France".
== Later life ==
In November 1795, there was a debate in Parliament on the high price of corn and Burke wrote a memorandum to Pitt on the subject. In December, Samuel Whitbread MP introduced a bill giving magistrates the power to fix minimum wages and Fox said he would vote for it. This debate probably led Burke to edit his memorandum as there appeared a notice that Burke would soon publish a letter on the subject to the Secretary of the Board of Agriculture Arthur Young, but he failed to complete it. These fragments were inserted into the memorandum after his death and published posthumously in 1800 as Thoughts and Details on Scarcity. In it, Burke expounded "some of the doctrines of political economists bearing upon agriculture as a trade". Burke criticised policies such as maximum prices and state regulation of wages and set out what the limits of government should be:
That the State ought to confine itself to what regards the State, or the creatures of the State, namely, the exterior establishment of its religion; its magistracy; its revenue; its military force by sea and land; the corporations that owe their existence to its fiat; in a word, to every thing that is truly and properly public, to the public peace, to the public safety, to the public order, to the public prosperity.
The economist Adam Smith remarked that Burke was "the only man I ever knew who thinks on economic subjects exactly as I do, without any previous communications having passed between us".
Writing to a friend in May 1795, Burke surveyed the causes of discontent: "I think I can hardly overrate the malignity of the principles of Protestant ascendency, as they affect Ireland; or of Indianism [i.e. corporate tyranny, as practised by the British East Indies Company], as they affect these countries, and as they affect Asia; or of Jacobinism, as they affect all Europe, and the state of human society itself. The last is the greatest evil". By March 1796, Burke had changed his mind: "Our Government and our Laws are beset by two different Enemies, which are sapping its foundations, Indianism, and Jacobinism. In some Cases they act separately, in some they act in conjunction: But of this I am sure; that the first is the worst by far, and the hardest to deal with; and for this amongst other reasons, that it weakens discredits, and ruins that force, which ought to be employed with the greatest Credit and Energy against the other; and that it furnishes Jacobinism with its strongest arms against all formal Government".
== Illness and death ==
For more than a year prior to his death, Burke knew that his stomach was "irrecoverably ruind". He is believed to have had stomach cancer.
After hearing that Burke was nearing death, Fox wrote to Mrs. Burke enquiring after him. Fox received the reply the next day:
Mrs. Burke presents her compliments to Mr. Fox, and thanks him for his obliging inquiries. Mrs. Burke communicated his letter to Mr. Burke, and by his desire has to inform Mr. Fox that it has cost Mr. Burke the most heart-felt pain to obey the stern voice of his duty in rending asunder a long friendship, but that he deemed this sacrifice necessary; that his principles continue the same; and that in whatever of life may yet remain to him, he conceives that he must live for others and not for himself. Mr. Burke is convinced that the principles which he has endeavoured to maintain are necessary to the welfare and dignity of his country, and that these principles can be enforced only by the general persuasion of his sincerity.
Burke died in Beaconsfield, Buckinghamshire, on 9 July 1797 and was buried there alongside his son and brother.
== Personal life ==
Burke married Jane Mary Nugent (1734–1812) in 1757. They had 2 sons: Christopher died age 5, and Richard age 36. Jane managed Burke's household affairs for him, and was involved in his work.
== Legacy ==
Burke is regarded by most political historians in the English-speaking world as a liberal conservative and the father of modern British conservatism. Burke was utilitarian and empirical in his arguments while Joseph de Maistre, a fellow European conservative, was more providentialist and sociological and deployed a more confrontational tone in his arguments.
Burke believed that property was essential to human life. Because of his conviction that people desire to be ruled and controlled, the division of property formed the basis for social structure, helping develop control within a property-based hierarchy. He viewed the social changes brought on by property as the natural order of events which should be taking place as the human race progressed. With the division of property and the class system, he also believed that it kept the monarch in check to the needs of the classes beneath the monarch. Since property largely aligned or defined divisions of social class, class too was seen as natural—part of a social agreement that the setting of persons into different classes, is the mutual benefit of all subjects. Concern for property is not Burke's only influence. Christopher Hitchens summarises as follows: "If modern conservatism can be held to derive from Burke, it is not just because he appealed to property owners in behalf of stability but also because he appealed to an everyday interest in the preservation of the ancestral and the immemorial".
Burke's support for the causes of the "oppressed majorities", such as Irish Catholics and Indians, led him to be at the receiving end of hostile criticism from Tories; while his opposition to the spread of the French Republic (and its radical ideals) across Europe led to similar charges from Whigs. As a consequence, Burke often became isolated in Parliament.
In the 19th century, Burke was praised by both liberals and conservatives. Burke's friend Philip Francis wrote that Burke "was a man who truly & prophetically foresaw all the consequences which would rise from the adoption of the French principles", but because Burke wrote with so much passion, people were doubtful of his arguments. William Windham spoke from the same bench in the House of Commons as Burke had when he had separated from Fox and an observer said Windham spoke "like the ghost of Burke" when he made a speech against peace with France in 1801. William Hazlitt, a political opponent of Burke, regarded him as amongst his three favourite writers (the others being Junius and Rousseau) and made it "a test of the sense and candour of any one belonging to the opposite party, whether he allowed Burke to be a great man". William Wordsworth was originally a supporter of the French Revolution and attacked Burke in A Letter to the Bishop of Llandaff (1793), but by the early 19th century he had changed his mind and came to admire Burke. In his Two Addresses to the Freeholders of Westmorland, Wordsworth called Burke "the most sagacious Politician of his age", whose predictions "time has verified". He later revised his poem The Prelude to include praise of Burke ("Genius of Burke! forgive the pen seduced/By specious wonders") and portrayed him as an old oak. Samuel Taylor Coleridge came to have a similar conversion as he had criticised Burke in The Watchman, but in his Friend (1809–1810) had defended Burke from charges of inconsistency. Later in his Biographia Literaria (1817), Coleridge hails Burke as a prophet and praises Burke for referring "habitually to principles. He was a scientific statesman; and therefore a seer". Henry Brougham wrote of Burke that "all his predictions, save one momentary expression, had been more than fulfilled: anarchy and bloodshed had borne sway in France; conquest and convulsion had desolated Europe...[T]he providence of mortals is not often able to penetrate so far as this into futurity". George Canning believed that Burke's Reflections "has been justified by the course of subsequent events; and almost every prophecy has been strictly fulfilled". In 1823, Canning wrote that he took Burke's "last works and words [as] the manual of my politics". The Conservative Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli "was deeply penetrated with the spirit and sentiment of Burke's later writings".
The 19th-century Liberal Prime Minister William Gladstone considered Burke "a magazine of wisdom on Ireland and America" and in his diary recorded: "Made many extracts from Burke—sometimes almost divine". The Radical MP and anti-Corn Law activist Richard Cobden often praised Burke's Thoughts and Details on Scarcity. The Liberal historian Lord Acton considered Burke one of the three greatest Liberals, along with Gladstone and Thomas Babington Macaulay. Lord Macaulay recorded in his diary: "I have now finished reading again most of Burke's works. Admirable! The greatest man since Milton". The Gladstonian Liberal MP John Morley published two books on Burke (including a biography) and was influenced by Burke, including his views on prejudice. The Cobdenite Radical Francis Hirst thought Burke deserved "a place among English libertarians, even though of all lovers of liberty and of all reformers he was the most conservative, the least abstract, always anxious to preserve and renovate rather than to innovate. In politics, he resembled the modern architect who would restore an old house instead of pulling it down to construct a new one on the site". Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France was controversial at the time of its publication, but after his death, it was to become his best-known and most influential work and a manifesto for Conservative thinking.
Two contrasting assessments of Burke also were offered long after his death by Karl Marx and Winston Churchill. In a footnote to Volume One of Das Kapital, Marx wrote:
The sycophant—who in the pay of the English oligarchy played the romantic laudator temporis acti against the French Revolution just as, in the pay of the North American colonies at the beginning of the American troubles, he had played the liberal against the English oligarchy—was an out-and-out vulgar bourgeois. "The laws of commerce are the laws of Nature, and therefore the laws of God." (E. Burke, l.c., pp. 31, 32) No wonder that, true to the laws of God and Nature, he always sold himself in the best market.
In Consistency in Politics, Churchill wrote:
On the one hand [Burke] is revealed as a foremost apostle of Liberty, on the other as the redoubtable champion of Authority. But a charge of political inconsistency applied to this life appears a mean and petty thing. History easily discerns the reasons and forces which actuated him, and the immense changes in the problems he was facing which evoked from the same profound mind and sincere spirit these entirely contrary manifestations. His soul revolted against tyranny, whether it appeared in the aspect of a domineering Monarch and a corrupt Court and Parliamentary system, or whether, mouthing the watch-words of a non-existent liberty, it towered up against him in the dictation of a brutal mob and wicked sect. No one can read the Burke of Liberty and the Burke of Authority without feeling that here was the same man pursuing the same ends, seeking the same ideals of society and Government, and defending them from assaults, now from one extreme, now from the other.
The historian Piers Brendon asserts that Burke laid the moral foundation for the British Empire, epitomised in the trial of Warren Hastings, that was ultimately to be its undoing. When Burke stated that "[t]he British Empire must be governed on a plan of freedom, for it will be governed by no other", this was "an ideological bacillus that would prove fatal. This was Edmund Burke's paternalistic doctrine that colonial government was a trust. It was to be so exercised for the benefit of subject people that they would eventually attain their birthright—freedom". As a consequence of these opinions, Burke objected to the opium trade which he called a "smuggling adventure" and condemned "the great Disgrace of the British character in India". According to political scientist Jennifer Pitts, Burke "was arguably the first political thinker to undertake a comprehensive critique of British imperial practice in the name of justice for those who suffered from its moral and political exclusions." The extent of Burke's critique of imperial practices has been challenged by other political scientists and literary theorists who highlight Burke's strong support of British imperial practices in the New World.
A Royal Society of Arts blue plaque commemorates Burke at 37 Gerrard Street now in London's Chinatown.
Statues of Burke are in Bristol, England, Trinity College Dublin and Washington, D.C. Burke is also the namesake of a private college preparatory school in Washington, Edmund Burke School.
Burke Avenue, in The Bronx, New York, is named for him.
== Criticism ==
One of Burke's largest and most developed critics was the American political theorist Leo Strauss. In his book Natural Right and History, Strauss makes a series of points in which he somewhat harshly evaluates Burke's writings.
One of the topics that he first addresses is the fact that Burke creates a definitive separation between happiness and virtue and explains that "Burke, therefore, seeks the foundation of government 'in a conformity to our duties' and not in 'imaginary rights of man". Strauss views Burke as believing that government should focus solely on the duties that a man should have in society as opposed to trying to address any additional needs or desires. Government is simply a practicality to Burke and not necessarily meant to function as a tool to help individuals live as well as possible. Strauss also argues that in a sense Burke's theory could be seen as opposing the very idea of forming such philosophies. Burke expresses the view that theory cannot adequately predict future occurrences and therefore men need to have instincts that cannot be practised or derived from ideology.
This leads to an overarching criticism that Strauss holds regarding Burke which is his rejection of the use of logic. Burke dismisses a widely held view amongst theorists that reason should be the primary tool in the forming of a constitution or contract. Burke instead believes that constitutions should be made based on natural processes as opposed to rational planning for the future. However, Strauss points out that criticising rationality actually works against Burke's original stance of returning to traditional ways because some amount of human reason is inherent and therefore is in part grounded in tradition. In regards to this formation of legitimate social order, Strauss does not necessarily support Burke's opinion—that order cannot be established by individual wise people, but exclusively by a culmination of individuals with historical knowledge of past functions to use as a foundation. Strauss notes that Burke would oppose more newly formed republics due to this thought, although Lenzner adds the fact that he did seem to believe that America's constitution could be justified given the specific circumstances. On the other hand, France's constitution was much too radical as it relied too heavily on enlightened reasoning as opposed to traditional methods and values.
== Religious thought ==
Burke's religious writing comprises published works and commentary on the subject of religion. Burke's religious thought was grounded in the belief that religion is the foundation of civil society. He sharply criticised deism and atheism and emphasised Christianity as a vehicle of social progress. Born in Ireland to a Catholic mother and a Protestant father, Burke vigorously defended the Church of England, but he also demonstrated sensitivity to Catholic concerns. He linked the conservation of a state-established religion with the preservation of citizens' constitutional liberties and highlighted Christianity's benefit not only to the believer's soul, but also to political arrangements.
== Misattributed quotation ==
=== "When good men do nothing" ===
The well-known maxim that "The only thing necessary for the triumph of evil is for good men to do nothing" is widely misattributed to Burke. It is known that, in 1770, Burke wrote the following passage in "Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents":
[W]hen bad men combine, the good must associate; else they will fall, one by one, an unpitied sacrifice in a contemptible struggle.
In 1867, John Stuart Mill made a similar statement in an inaugural address delivered at the University of St Andrews:
Bad men need nothing more to compass their ends, than that good men should look on and do nothing.
== Timeline ==
== Bibliography ==
A Vindication of Natural Society (1756)
A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful (1757)
An Account of the European Settlement in America (1757)
The Abridgement of the History of England (1757)
Annual Register editor for some 30 years (1758)
Tracts on the Popery Laws (Early 1760s)
On the Present State of the Nation (1769)
Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents (1770)
On American Taxation (1774)
Conciliation with the Colonies (1775)
A Letter to the Sheriffs of Bristol (1777)
Reform of the Representation in the House of Commons (1782)
Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790)
Letter to a Member of the National Assembly (1791)
An Appeal from the New to the Old Whigs (1791)
Thoughts on French Affairs (1791)
Remarks on the Policy of the Allies (1793)
Thoughts and Details on Scarcity (1795)
Letters on a Regicide Peace (1795–97)
Letter to a Noble Lord (1796)
== See also ==
House of Burgh, an Anglo-Norman and Hiberno-Norman dynasty founded in 1193
Conservative Party
List of abolitionist forerunners
== References ==
=== Citations ===
=== Sources ===
=== Main sources ===
=== Further reading ===
== External links ==
Edmund Burke Society at Columbia University
Harris, Ian. "Edmund Burke". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Burke's works at The Online Library of Liberty
Burke's "Reflections on the Revolution in France", lightly modified for easier reading
Works by Edmund Burke at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Edmund Burke at the Internet Archive
Works by Edmund Burke at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
Edmund Burke on In Our Time at the BBC
Burke according to Dr Jesse Norman MP at bbc.co.uk
"Edmund Burke for a Postmodern Age" Archived 19 February 2018 at the Wayback Machine, William F. Byrne, Berfrois, 29 June 2011
"Archival material relating to Edmund Burke". UK National Archives.
Portraits of Edmund Burke at the National Portrait Gallery, London
"The Liberalism/Conservatism of Edmund Burke and F. A. Hayek: A Critical Comparison" Archived 24 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine by Linda C. Raeder. From Humanitas, Volume X, No. 1, 1997. National Humanities Institute.
Edmund Burke at Find a Grave |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emerald_ash_borer#:~:text=He%20found%20the%20beetle%20in,Revue%20d'Entomologie%20in%201888. | Emerald ash borer | The emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis), also known by the abbreviation EAB, is a green buprestid or jewel beetle native to north-eastern Asia that feeds on ash species (Fraxinus spp.). Females lay eggs in bark crevices on ash trees, and larvae feed underneath the bark of ash trees to emerge as adults in one to two years. In its native range, it is typically found at low densities and does not cause significant damage to trees native to the area. Outside its native range, it is an invasive species and is highly destructive to ash trees native to Europe and North America. Before it was found in North America, very little was known about the emerald ash borer in its native range; this has resulted in much of the research on its biology being focused in North America. Local governments in North America are attempting to control it by monitoring its spread, diversifying tree species, and through the use of insecticides and biological control.
== History ==
French priest and naturalist Armand David collected a specimen of the species during one of his trips through Imperial China in the 1860s and 1870s. He found the beetle in Beijing and sent it to France, where the first brief description of Agrilus planipennis by the entomologist Léon Fairmaire was published in the Revue d'Entomologie in 1888. Unaware of Fairmaire's description, a separate description naming the species as Agrilus marcopoli was published in 1930 by Jan Obenberger.
== Identification ==
Adult beetles are typically bright metallic green and about 8.5 mm (0.33 in) long and 1.6 mm (0.063 in) wide. Elytra are typically a darker green, but can have copper hues. Emerald ash borer is the only North American species of Agrilus with a bright red upper abdomen when viewed with the wings and elytra spread. The species has a small spine at the tip of the abdomen, and serrate antennae that begin at the fourth antennal segment. They leave tracks below the bark in the trees they damage that are sometimes visible. Adult beetles of other species are often misidentified by the public.
== Life cycle ==
The emerald ash borer life cycle can occur over one or two years depending on the time of year of oviposition, the health of the tree, and temperature.
After 400–500 accumulated degree-days above 10 °C (50 °F), adults begin to emerge from trees in late spring, and peak emergence occurs around 1,000 degree-days. After emergence, adults feed for one week on ash leaves in the canopy before mating, but cause little defoliation. Males hover around trees, locate females by visual cues, and drop directly onto the female to mate. Mating can last 50 minutes, and females may mate with multiple males over their lifespan. A typical female can live around six weeks and lay approximately 40–70 eggs; females that live longer can lay up to 200 eggs.
Eggs are deposited in bark crevices, flakes, or cracks and hatch about two weeks later. Eggs are approximately 0.6 to 1.0 mm (0.02 to 0.04 in) in diameter, and are initially white, later turning reddish-brown if fertile. After hatching, larvae chew through the bark to the inner phloem, cambium, and outer xylem where they feed and develop. Emerald ash borer has four larval instars. By feeding, larvae create long serpentine galleries. Fully mature fourth-instar larvae are 26 to 32 mm (1.0 to 1.3 in) long. In fall, mature fourth-instars excavate chambers about 1.25 cm (0.49 in) into the sapwood or outer bark where they fold into a J-shape. These J-shaped larvae shorten into prepupae and develop into pupae and adults the following spring. To exit the tree, adults chew holes from their chamber through the bark, which leaves a characteristic D-shaped exit hole. Immature larvae can overwinter in their larval gallery, but can require an additional summer of feeding before overwintering again and emerging as adults the following spring. This two-year life cycle is more common in cool climates, such as European Russia.
== Range ==
The native range of the emerald ash borer is temperate north-eastern Asia, which includes Russia, Mongolia, northern China, Japan, and Korea.
The beetle is invasive in North America where it has a core population in Michigan and surrounding states and provinces. Populations are more scattered outside the core area, and the edges of its known distribution range north to Ontario, south to northern Louisiana, west to Nebraska, and east to New Brunswick. Satellite populations exist in Colorado and in the Pacific Northwest in Oregon. In eastern Europe, a population was found in Moscow in 2003. From 2003 to 2016, this population has spread west towards the European Union at up to 40 km (25 mi) per year and is expected to reach central Europe between 2031 and 2036. Although not recorded from the European Union as of 2019, it has already spread to far eastern Ukraine from neighboring Russia.
== Host plants ==
In its native range, emerald ash borer is only a nuisance pest on native trees, as population densities typically do not reach levels lethal to healthy trees. In China, it infests native Fraxinus chinensis, F. mandshurica, and F. rhynchophylla; in Japan it also infests F. japonica and F. lanuginosa.
Emerald ash borer primarily infest and can cause significant damage to ash species including green ash (F. pennsylvanica), black ash (F. nigra), white ash (F. americana), and blue ash (F. quadrangulata) in North America. In Europe, F. excelsior is the main ash species colonized, which is moderately resistant to emerald ash borer infestation. Ash susceptibility can vary depending on the attractiveness of chemical volatiles to adults, or the ability of larvae to detoxify phenolic compounds. Emerald ash borer has been found infesting white fringe tree in North America, which is a non-ash host, but it is unclear whether the trees were healthy when first infested, or were already in decline because of drought. Another non-ash host has been discovered, Olea europaea, albeit in a lab setting.
Adults prefer to lay eggs on open grown or stressed ash but readily lay eggs on healthy trees amongst other tree species. Ashes that grow in pure stands, whether naturally occurring or in landscaping, are more prone to attack than isolated trees or those in mixed forest stands. Ashes used in landscaping tend to be subjected to higher amounts of environmental stresses including compacted soil, lack of moisture, heating effects from urban islands, road salt, and pollution, which may reduce their resistance to the borer. Furthermore, most ashes used in landscaping are produced from a handful of cultivars, resulting in low genetic diversity. Young trees with bark between 1.5 mm (0.059 in) to 5 mm (0.20 in) are preferred. Both males and females use leaf volatiles and sesquiterpenes in the bark to locate hosts. Damage occurs in infested trees by larval feeding. The serpentine feeding galleries of the larvae disrupt the flow of nutrients and water, effectively girdling, thus killing the tree, as it cannot transport water and nutrients to the leaves. Girdled ashes will often attempt to regenerate through stump sprouting, and there is evidence that stressed trees may generate higher than normal seed crops as an emergency measure.
== Invasiveness ==
Outside its native range, emerald ash borer is an invasive species that is highly destructive to ash trees in its introduced range. Before emerald ash borer was found in North America, very little was known about the insect in its native range aside from a short description of life-history traits and taxonomic descriptions, which resulted in focused research on its biology in North America. The insect was first identified in Canton, Michigan in 2002, but it may have been in the U.S. since the late 1980s. It is suspected that it was introduced from overseas in shipping materials such as packing crates.
Without factors that would normally suppress emerald ash borer populations in its native range (e.g., resistant trees, predators, and parasitoid wasps), populations can quickly rise to damaging levels. After initial infestation of an area and without control measures, all ash trees are expected to die within 10 years. Every North American ash species is susceptible to emerald ash borer, but some Asian ash species are resistant, including F. baroniana, F. chinensis, F. floribunda, F. mandshurica, and F. platypoda.
Green ash and black ash trees are preferred by emerald ash borer. White ash is also killed rapidly but usually only after all green and black ash trees are eliminated. Blue ash exhibits a higher degree of resistance to emerald ash borer, believed to be caused by the leaves' high tannin content making the foliage unpalatable to the insect. While most Asian ashes have evolved this defense, it is absent from American species other than blue ash. Researchers have examined populations of so-called "lingering ash", trees that have survived ash borer attack with little or no damage, for the grafting or breeding of new, resistant stock. Many lingering ashes have unusual phenotypes that may increase resistance. Aside from their higher tannin content, Asian ashes employ natural defenses to repel, trap, and kill emerald ash borer larvae. Although studies of American ashes have suggested that they are capable of mustering similar defensive mechanisms, the trees do not appear to recognize when they are under attack. Many of the specialized predators and parasitoids that suppress emerald ash borer in Asia are not present in North America. Predators and parasitoids native to North America do not sufficiently suppress emerald ash borer, so populations continue to grow. Birds such as woodpeckers feed on emerald ash borer larva, although the adult beetles have not been used by any American fauna as food. Emerald ash borer populations can spread between 2.5 to 20 km (1.6 to 12.4 mi) per year. It primarily spreads through flight or by transportation of ash bark contained in products such as firewood or nursery stock, which allows it to reach new areas and create satellite populations outside of the main infestation.
Other factors can limit spread. Winter temperatures of approximately −38 °C (−36 °F) limit range expansion, and overwintering emerald ash borer survive down to average temperatures of −30 °C (−22 °F) because of antifreeze chemicals in the body and insulation provided by tree bark. Larvae can survive high heat up to 53 °C (127 °F). Conversely, much like ashes grown in the nursery trade, the population of emerald ash borer in North America is believed to have originated from a single group of insects from central China and exhibits low genetic diversity.
North American predators and parasitoids can occasionally cause high emerald ash borer mortality, but generally offer only limited control. Mortality from native woodpeckers is variable. Parasitism by parasitoids such as Atanycolus cappaerti can be high, but overall such control is generally low.
The United States Department of Agriculture's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service published a rule on 14 December 2020, ending all EAB quarantine activities in the United States due to ineffectiveness so far. Other means will be used instead, especially biological controls (see §Biological control below).
Emerald ash borer have eliminated the majority of the 300,000 ash trees in the National Capital Region in nine years, leaving fewer than 80,000. These forests had 17-18 ash trees per hectare prior to infestation, and 5-6 per hectare subsequently, with an impact on ecosystems. Ash-dominated swamplands have become shrublands, impacting wildlife.
=== Environmental and economic impacts ===
Emerald ash borer threatens the entire North American genus Fraxinus. It has killed tens of millions of ash trees so far and threatens to kill most of the 8.7 billion ash trees throughout North America. Emerald ash borer kills young trees several years before reaching their seeding age of 10 years. In both North America and Europe, the loss of ash from an ecosystem can result in increased numbers of invasive plants, changes in soil nutrients, and effects on species that feed on ash.
Damage and efforts to control the spread of emerald ash borer have affected businesses that sell ash trees or wood products, property owners, and local or state governments. Quarantines can limit the transport of ash trees and products, but economic impacts are especially high for urban and residential areas because of treatment or removal costs and decreased land value from dying trees. Costs for managing these trees can fall upon homeowners or local municipalities. For municipalities, removing large numbers of dead or infested trees at once is costly, so slowing down the rate at which trees die through removing known infested trees and treating trees with insecticides can allow local governments more time to plan, remove, and replace trees that would eventually die. This strategy saves money as it would cost $10.7 billion in urban areas of 25 states over 10 years, while removing and replacing all ash trees in these same areas at once would cost $25 billion (with another estimate putting the removal alone at $20–60 billion). Some urban areas such as Minneapolis have large amounts of ash with slightly more than 20% of their urban forest as ash.
=== Monitoring ===
In areas where emerald ash borer has not yet been detected, surveys are used to monitor for new infestations. Visual surveys are used to find ash trees displaying emerald ash borer damage, and traps with colors attractive to emerald ash borer, such as purple or green, are hung in trees as part of a monitoring program. These traps can also have volatile pheromones applied to them that attract primarily males.
Sometimes trees are girdled to act as trap trees to monitor for emerald ash borer. The stressed tree attracts egg-laying females in the spring, and trees can be debarked in the fall to search for larvae. If detected, an area is often placed under a quarantine to prevent infested wood material from causing new infestations. Further control measures are then taken within the area to slow population growth by reducing beetle numbers, preventing them from reaching reproductive maturity and dispersing, and reducing the abundance of ash trees.
Government agencies in both the U.S. and Canada have utilized a native species of parasitoid wasp, Cerceris fumipennis, as a means of detecting areas to which emerald ash borer has spread. The females of these wasps hunt other jewel beetles and emerald ash borer if it is present. The wasps stun the beetles and carry them back to their burrows in the ground where they are stored until the wasps' eggs hatch and the wasp larvae feed on the beetles. Volunteers catch the wasps as they return to their burrows carrying the beetles to determine whether emerald ash borer is present. This methodology is known as biological surveillance, as opposed to biological control, because it does not appear that the wasps have a significant negative impact on emerald ash borer populations.
=== Management ===
In areas where emerald ash borer is non-native and invasive, quarantines, infested tree removal, insecticides, and biological control are used to reduce damage to ash trees.
==== Quarantine and tree removal ====
Once an infestation is detected, quarantines are typically imposed by state, or previously, national government agencies disallowing transport of ash firewood or live plants outside of these areas without permits indicating the material has been inspected or treated (i.e., heat treatment or wood chipping) to ensure no live emerald ash borer are present in the bark and phloem. In urban areas, trees are often removed once an infestation is found to reduce emerald ash borer population densities and the likelihood of further spread. Urban ash are typically replaced with non-ash species such as maple, oak, or linden to limit food sources. In rural areas, trees can be harvested for lumber or firewood to reduce ash stand density, but quarantines may apply for this material, especially in areas where the material could be infested.
Kentucky Extension specialists suggest selecting uncommon species to replace removed ashes in the landscape. Previous generations created monocultures by planting ash trees in an overabundance, a factor in the extent of the devastation caused by the emerald ash borer. Favoring instead a diversity in species helps keep urban forests healthy. University of Kentucky scientists suggest choosing monotypic species such as the pawpaw, yellowwood, Franklin tree, Kentucky coffeetree, Osage orange, sourwood, and bald cypress.
==== Insecticides ====
Insecticides with active ingredients such as azadirachtin, imidacloprid, emamectin benzoate, and dinotefuran are currently used. Dinotefuran and imidacloprid are systemic (i.e., incorporated into the tree) and remain effective for one to three years depending on the product. Insecticides are typically only considered a viable option in urban areas with high value trees near an infestation. Ash trees are primarily treated by direct injection into the tree or soil drench. Some insecticides cannot be applied by homeowners and must be applied by licensed applicators. Damage from emerald ash borer can continue to increase over time even with insecticide applications. Insecticide treatments are not feasible for large forested areas outside of urban areas.
==== Biological control ====
The native range of emerald ash borer in Asia was surveyed for parasitoid species that parasitize emerald ash borer and do not attack other insect species in the hope they would suppress populations when released in North America. Three species imported from China were approved for release by the USDA in 2007 and in Canada in 2013: Spathius agrili, Tetrastichus planipennisi, and Oobius agrili, while Spathius galinae was approved for release in 2015. Excluding Spathius galinae, which has only recently been released, the other three species have been documented parasitizing emerald ash borer larvae one year after release, indicating that they survived the winter, but establishment varied among species and locations. Tetrastichus planipennisi and Oobius agrili established and have had increasing populations in Michigan since 2008; Spathius agrili has had lower establishment success in North America, which could be caused by a lack of available emerald ash borer larvae at the time of adult emergence in spring, limited cold tolerance, and better suitability to regions of North America below the 40th parallel.
The USDA is also assessing the application of Beauveria bassiana, an insect fungal pathogen, for controlling emerald ash borer in conjunction with parasitoid wasps.
== See also ==
Forest integrated pest management
Forest pathology
Chestnut blight
Dutch elm disease
Invasive species
== References ==
== External links ==
Species Profile, Canadian Food Inspection Agency
Species Profile – Emerald Ash Borer (Agrilus planipennis), National Invasive Species Information Center, United States National Agricultural Library. Lists general information and resources for emerald ash borer.
The short film Emerald Ash Borer: The Green Menace is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Nirajan_of_Nepal | Prince Nirajan of Nepal | Prince Nirajan Bir Bikram Shah Dev (Nepali: निराजन बीर विक्रम शाह; 6 November 1978 – 1 June 2001) was a prince of Nepal, the younger son of King Birendra and Queen Aishwarya of Nepal. He and his parents were killed during the 1 June 2001 Nepalese royal massacre.
== Education and interests ==
He was educated at Budhanilkantha School, Kathmandu and Eton College and had a degree of B.B.A. from Kathmandu College of Management. He was interested in sports, especially swimming.
The name Nirajan means "One without fault; perfect in all forms".
== Death ==
Nirajan was among the victims of the Nepalese royal massacre on 1 June 2001 along with his father, mother, sister, brother and other close royal relatives.
== Honours ==
National Honours
Commemorative Silver Jubilee Medal of King Birendra (31/01/1997).
== Ancestry ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Stanhope,_1st_Baron_Stanhope#:~:text=He%20later%20sat%20for%20Northamptonshire,as%20Baron%20Stanhope%2C%20of%20Harrington. | John Stanhope, 1st Baron Stanhope | John Stanhope, 1st Baron Stanhope (1545 – 9 March 1621) was an English courtier, politician and peer.
== Life ==
He was the third son of Sir Michael Stanhope, born in Yorkshire, but brought up in Nottinghamshire after his father's attainder for treason in 1552. His father's end did not apparently hinder his own career, and he is probably the John Stanhope who was Member of Parliament (MP) for Marlborough in the Parliament of 1572–1581, for Truro in 1586 and for Rochester in 1588.
At court, Stanhope was a Gentleman of the Queen's Privy Chamber. On 22 December 1589 he wrote from Richmond Palace to Lord Talbot, describing Queen Elizabeth's good health; "the Queen is so well as I assure you 6 or 7 galliards in a morning, besides music & singing, is her ordinary exercise."
At some point during his early career, Stanhope attached himself to the coat-tails of Sir Robert Cecil and subsequently proved a reliable ally, receiving in return a series of appointments. He was Custos Rotulorum of the North Riding and Vice-Admiral of Yorkshire for many years and a member of the Council of the North. In 1590, he was appointed Master of the King's Posts; and in 1596, he was knighted and appointed as Treasurer of the Chamber.
In 1597, Stanhope stood for election to Parliament as Member for Yorkshire, presumably assuming that with his own standing and Cecil's backing he would be certain of success, but they had not reckoned with the independence of the large electorate - Stanhope spent most of his time at court and no longer lived in Yorkshire, and despite his local roots, they may have considered him an outsider. According to Stanhope's supporters, his principal opponent, Sir John Savile, was backed by only "eight other gentlemen of any reckoning, but with a great number of clothiers and artificers"; but he was local and strongly connected with the clothing industry that provided many of the voters with their livelihood. Stanhope was defeated in a tumultuous election. After the Archbishop of York and other members of the Council of the North reported to the Privy Council that Savile had shown contempt for their authority, the council had him arrested, but they could not overturn the election result and were forced to release him in time to take his seat.
Meanwhile, Stanhope was hastily found a seat instead for Preston, a borough Cecil had in his gift as Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. He later sat for Northamptonshire in the Parliament of 1601 and for Newtown from 1604 until, on 2 May 1605, he was raised to the peerage as Baron Stanhope, of Harrington.
As one of Cecil's leading followers, it was rumoured in 1600 that Stanhope would soon become Lord Chancellor. Instead, he was provided for by being appointed Vice-Chamberlain of the Household. In 1603 he was appointed one of the "Commissioners to treat of a Union between England and Scotland", to settle the arrangements for the inheritance of the English throne by the king of Scotland, James VI; and in 1609, he became a member of the council of the Virginia Company.
He resigned the Treasurership of the Chamber and retired from his other posts in 1616 and died in 1621. He was succeeded in his peerage (and as Master of the King's Posts) by his son, Charles Stanhope.
== Family ==
Stanhope was twice married: first to Joan, daughter of William Knollys, by whom he had no issue; and second, on 6 May 1589, to Margaret, daughter of Henry Macwilliam, one of the queen's gentlemen pensioners. By her he had issue:
Charles, born in 1593, who succeeded as second baron but died without issue in 1675, when the title became extinct;
Elizabeth, who married Sir Lionel Tollemache, 2nd Baronet; and
Catherine, who married Robert, Viscount Cholmondeley.
Margaret died in 1640 and was buried alongside her husband at St. Martin's-in-the-Fields.
The later peers of the Stanhope family descend from the first baron's brother, Thomas.
== References ==
J. E. Neale, The Elizabethan House of Commons (London: Jonathan Cape, 1949)
Leigh Rayment's Peerage Pages
== Notes ==
Attribution
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: "Stanhope, John". Dictionary of National Biography. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1885–1900. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Kentridge#Sculpture | William Kentridge | William Kentridge (born 28 April 1955) is a South African artist best known for his prints, drawings, and animated films. He is especially noted for a sequence of hand-drawn animated films he produced during the 1990s, constructed by filming a drawing, making erasures and changes, and filming it again. He continues this process meticulously, giving each change to the drawing a quarter of a second's to two seconds' screen time. A single drawing will be altered and filmed this way until the end of a scene. These palimpsest-like drawings are later displayed along with the films as finished pieces of art.
Kentridge has created artwork as part of design of theatrical productions, both plays and operas. He has served as art director and overall director of numerous productions, collaborating with other artists, puppeteers and others in creating productions that combine drawings and multi-media combinations.
== Early life and career ==
Kentridge was born in Johannesburg in 1955 to Sydney Kentridge and Felicia Geffen, a Jewish family. Both were advocates (lawyers) who represented people marginalized by the apartheid system. He was educated at King Edward VII School in Houghton, Johannesburg. He showed great artistic promise from an early age, and began taking classes with charcoal at age eight. In 2016, he became perhaps the first artist to have a catalogue raisonné devoted exclusively to his juvenilia.
He earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in Politics and African Studies at the University of the Witwatersrand and then a diploma in Fine Arts from the Johannesburg Art Foundation. In the early 1980s, he studied mime and theatre at the L'École Internationale de Théâtre Jacques Lecoq in Paris. He originally hoped to become an actor, but said later: "I was fortunate to discover at a theatre school that I was so bad at being an actor [... that] I was reduced to an artist, and I made my peace with it." Between 1975 and 1991, he was acting and directing with Johannesburg's Junction Avenue Theatre Company. In the 1980s, he worked on television films and series as an art director.
== Work ==
Kentridge believed that being ethnically Jewish gave him a unique position as a third-party observer in South Africa. His parents were lawyers, well-known for their defence of victims of apartheid. The basics of South Africa's socio-political condition and history must be known to grasp his work fully, much the same as in the cases of such artists as Francisco Goya and Käthe Kollwitz.
Kentridge has practiced expressionist art, where form often alludes to content and vice versa. The feeling that is manipulated by the use of palette, composition and media, among others, often plays an equally vital role in the overall meaning as the subject and narrative of a given work. One must use one's gut reactions as well as one's interpretive skills to find meaning in Kentridge's work, much of which reveals very little content. Due to the sparse, rough and expressive qualities of Kentridge's handwriting, the viewer sees a sombre picture upon first glance, an impression that is perpetuated as the image illustrates a vulnerable and uncomfortable situation.
Aspects of social injustice that have transpired over the years in South Africa have often become fodder for Kentridge's pieces. Casspirs Full of Love, viewable at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, appears to be nothing more than heads in boxes to the average American viewer, but South Africans know that a casspir is a vehicle used to put down riots, a kind of a crowd-control tank.
The title, Casspirs Full of Love, written along the side of the print, is suggestive of the narrative and is oxymoronic. A casspir full of love is much like a bomb that bursts with happiness – it is an intangible improbability. The purpose of a machine such as this is to instil "peace" by force, but Kentridge noted that it was used as a tool to keep lower-class natives from taking colonial power and money.
=== Prints and drawings ===
By the mid-1970s, Kentridge was making prints and drawings. In 1979, he created 20 to 30 monotypes, which soon became known as the "Pit" series. In 1980, he executed about 50 small-format etchings which he called the "Domestic Scenes". These two extraordinary groups of prints served to establish Kentridge's artistic identity, an identity he has continued to develop in various media. Despite his ongoing exploration of non-traditional media, the foundation of his art has always been drawing and printmaking.
In 1986, he began a group of charcoal and pastel drawings based, very tenuously, on Watteau's The Embarkation for Cythera. These extremely important works, the best of which reflect a blasted, dystopic urban landscape, demonstrate the artist's growing consciousness of the flexibility of space and movement.
In 1996–1997, he produced a portfolio of eight prints titled Ubu Tells the Truth, based on Alfred Jarry's 1896 play Ubu Roi. These prints also relate to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission conducted in South Africa after the end of apartheid. One of the stark and somber prints from this portfolio, in the collection of the Honolulu Museum of Art, is illustrated.
The Six Drawing Lessons, delivered as part of The Norton Lectures series at Harvard University in 2012, consider the work in the studio and the studio as a place of making meaning developed. A series of large drawings of trees in Indian ink on found encyclopedia pages, torn up and reassembled, analyzes the form of different trees indigenous to southern Africa. Drawn across multiple pages from books, each drawing is put together as a puzzle – the single pages first painted, then the whole pieced together.
"My drawings don't start with a 'beautiful mark'," writes Kentridge, thinking about the activity of printmaking as being about getting the hand to lead the brain, rather than letting the brain lead the hand. "It has to be a mark of something out there in the world. It doesn't have to be an accurate drawing, but it has to stand for an observation, not something that is abstract, like an emotion."
=== Animated films ===
Between 1989 and 2003, Kentridge made a series of nine short films, which he eventually gathered under the title 9 Drawings for Projection. In 1989, he began the first of those animated movies, Johannesburg, 2nd Greatest City After Paris. The series runs through Monument (1990), Mine (1991), Sobriety, Obesity & Growing Old (1991), Felix in Exile (1994), History of the Main Complaint (1996), Weighing and Wanting (1997), and Stereoscope (1999), and Tide Table (2003).
In 2011, Kentridge released a tenth film in the series, Other Faces (2011).
For the series, he used a technique that would become a feature of his work – successive charcoal drawings, always on the same sheet of paper, contrary to the traditional animation technique in which each movement is drawn on a separate sheet. In this way, Kentridge's videos and films came to keep the traces of the previous drawings. His animations deal with political and social themes from a personal and, at times, autobiographical point of view, since the author includes his self-portrait in many of his works.
The political content and unique techniques of Kentridge's work have propelled him into the realm of South Africa's top artists. Working with what is in essence a very restrictive media, using only charcoal and a touch of blue or red pastel, he has created animations of astounding depth. A theme running through all of his work is his peculiar way of representing his birthplace. While he does not portray it as the militant or oppressive place that it was for black people, he does not emphasise the picturesque state of living that white people enjoyed during apartheid either; he presents instead a city in which the duality of man is exposed. In a series of ten short films, he introduces two characters – Soho Eckstein and Felix Teitlebaum. These characters depict an emotional and political struggle that ultimately reflects the lives of many South Africans in the pre-democracy era.
In an introductory note to Felix In Exile, Kentridge writes,
"In the same way that there is a human act of dismembering the past there is a natural process in the terrain through erosion, growth, dilapidation that also seeks to blot out events. In South Africa this process has other dimensions. The very term 'new South Africa' has within it the idea of a painting over the old, the natural process of dismembering, the naturalization of things new."
Not only in Felix In Exile but in all his animated works, the concepts of time and change comprise a major theme. He conveys it through his erasure technique, which contrasts with conventional cel-shaded animation, whose seamlessness de-emphasizes the fact that it is actually a succession of hand-drawn images. This he implements by drawing a key frame, erasing certain areas of it, re-drawing them and thus creating the next frame. He is able in this way to create as many frames as he wants based on the original key frame simply by erasing small sections. Traces of what has been erased are still visible to the viewer; as the films unfold, a sense of fading memory or the passing of time and the traces it leaves behind are portrayed. Kentridge's technique grapples with what is not said, what remains suppressed or forgotten but can easily be felt.
In the ten films that follow Soho Eckstein's life, an increasing vehemence is placed on the health of the individual and contemporary South African society. Conflicts between anarchic and bourgeois individualistic beliefs, again a reference to the duality of man, indicate the idea of social revolution by poetically disfiguring surrounding buildings and landscapes. Kentridge states that, although his work does not focus on apartheid in a direct and overt manner, but on the contemporary state of Johannesburg, his drawings and films are certainly influenced by the brutalised society that resulted from the regime.
As for more direct political issues, Kentridge says his art presents ambiguity, contradiction, uncompleted movements and uncertain endings, all of which seem like insignificant subtleties but can be attributed to most of the calamity presented in his work. In a mixed-media triptych entitled The Boating Party (1985), based on Renoir's painting of a similar name, the havoc caused by a seemingly-uninterested aristocracy is perhaps his most severe comment on the state of South Africa during apartheid. The languid diners sit at ease while the surrounding area is ravaged, torn and burned, a contrast that is reflected in his style and choice of colours.
In 1988, Kentridge co-founded Free Film-makers Co-Operative in Johannesburg. In 1999, he was appointed a film-maker by Stereoscope.
"Purely in the context of my own work," he wrote in a published playscript of his celebrated Ubu and the Truth Commission, "I would repeat my trust in the contingent, the inauthentic, the whim, the practical, as strategies for finding meaning. I would repeat my mistrust in the worth of Good Ideas. And state a belief that somewhere between relying on pure chance on the one hand, and the execution of a programme on the other, lies the most uncertain but the most fertile ground for the work we do [...]. I think I have shown that it is not the clear light of reason or even aesthetic sensibility which determines how one works, but a constellation of factors only some of which we can change at will."In 2001, Creative Time aired his film Shadow Procession on the NBC Astrovision Panasonic screen in Times Square.
=== Opera ===
Kentridge has been commissioned to create stage design and act as a theatre director in opera. His political perspective is expressed in his opera directions, which involves different layers: stage direction, animation movies, and influences of the puppet world. He has staged Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria (Monteverdi), Die Zauberflöte (Mozart) and The Nose (Shostakovich). Following the last work, he collaborated with the French composer François Sarhan on a short show called Telegrams from the Nose, for which he made the stage and set design for the performance.
In November 2015 his "provocative and visually stunning new staging" of Berg's Lulu, premiered at the Metropolitan Opera in New York, a co-production with the English National Opera and the Dutch National Opera. On 8 August 2017, William Kentridge's Wozzeck (Alban Berg) premiered at the Salzburg Festival and received enthusiastic reactions.
In 2023, Kentridge received the Laurence Olivier Award for Outstanding Achievement in Opera for the production of 'Sybil' at the Barbican Theatre, London.
=== Tapestries ===
Kentridge's protean artistic investigation continues in his series of tapestries begun in 2001. The tapestries stem from a series of drawings in which he conjured shadowy figures from ripped construction paper; he made a collage of these with the web-like background of nineteenth-century atlas maps. To adapt these figures as tapestry, Kentridge worked in close collaboration with the Johannesburg-based Stephens Tapestry Studio, mapping cartoons from enlarged photographs of the drawings and hand-picking dyes to colour the locally spun mohair (goat hair).
=== Sculpture ===
In 2009, Kentridge, in partnership with Gerhard Marx, created a 10m-tall sculpture for his home city of Johannesburg entitled Fire Walker. In 2012 his sculpture, Il cavaliere di Toledo, was unveiled in Naples. Rebus (2013), referring in title to the allusional device using pictures to represent words or parts of words, is a series of bronze sculptures that form two distinct images when turned to a certain angle; when paired in correspondence, for example, a final image – a nude – is created from two original forms – a stamp and a telephone.
=== Murals ===
In 2016, the anniversary of Rome's legendary founding in 753BC, Kentridge unveiled Triumphs and Laments, a monumental mural along the right bank of the river Tiber. The 550m-long frieze depicting a procession of more than 80 figures from Roman mythology to the present is Kentridge’s largest public work to date. To celebrate its launch, he and his long-time collaborator, the composer Philip Miller, devised a series of performances featuring live shadow play and more than 40 musicians.
== Family ==
Kentridge is married to Anne Stanwix, a rheumatologist, and they have three children. A third-generation South African of Lithuanian-Jewish heritage, he is the son of the South African lawyer Sydney Kentridge and the lawyer and activist Felicia Kentridge.
== Films ==
Kentridge's films were shown at the 2004 Cannes Film Festival.
== Exhibitions ==
2024 Sharjah Art Foundation
2025 Art Gallery of Alberta
2025 Hauser & Wirth, New York William Kentridge: A Natural History of the Studio
2025/6 Yorkshire Sculpture Park
== Collections ==
Kentridge's works are included in the following permanent collections: Honolulu Museum of Art, the Kalamazoo Institute of Arts, the Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago, the Museum of Modern Art (New York), and the Tate Modern (London). An edition of the five-channel video installation The Refusal of Time (2012), which debuted at documenta 13, was jointly acquired by the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York and the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art. In 2015, Kentridge gave the definitive collection of his archive and art – films, videos and digital works – to the George Eastman Museum, one of the world's largest and oldest photography and film collections.
== Awards ==
Kentridge's Five Themes exhibit was included in the 2009 Time 100, an annual list of the one hundred top people and events in the world. That same year, the exhibition was awarded First Place in the 2009 AICA (International Association of Art Critics Awards) Best Monographic Museum Show Nationally category.
In 2012, Kentridge was in residence at Harvard University invited to deliver the distinguished Charles Eliot Norton lectures in early 2012.
That same year, he was elected to the American Philosophical Society.
== Art market ==
Kentridge's artworks are among the most sought-after and expensive works in South Africa: "a major charcoal drawing by world-renowned South African artist William Kentridge could set you back some £250,000". Kentridge is represented by Goodman Gallery, Lia Rumma Gallery and Hauser & Wirth (since 2024). From 1999 to 2024, he worked with Marian Goodman Gallery.
The South African record for Kentridge is R6.6 million ($320,000), set at Aspire Art Auctions in Johannesburg in 2018. One of his bronze pieces reached $1.5 million at Sotheby's New York in 2013.
== Notes ==
== References ==
Cameron, Dan; Christov-Bakargiev, Carolyn; Coetzee, JM. William Kentridge. New York: Phaidon Press, 1999.
Christov-Bakargiev, Carolyn. William Kentridge. Societé des Expositions du Palais de Beaux-Arts de Bruxelles, 1998.
Cole, William. "On Some Early Prints by William Kentridge", Print Quarterly vol. XXVI no. 3 (2009), 268–273.
Cole, William. "Privileged Access, Judiciously Shared. Matthew Kentridge, The Soho Chronicles: 10 Films by William Kentridge." Art Journal vol. 74, no. 4 (winter 2015).
Cole, William. The Juvenilia of William Kentridge: An Unauthorized Catalogue Raisonné. Sitges: Cole & Contreras, 2016.
Coumans, Sandra. "Geschichte und Identität. Black Box / Chambre noire von William Kentridge", Regiospectra Verlag Berlin, 2012.
Edmunds, Paul. "William Kentridge's SANG Retrospective", Artthrob: Contemporary Art in South Africa 65 (2003).
Greg Kucera Gallery. "William Kentridge". 2007.
Kasfir, Sidney Littlefield (2000). Contemporary African Art. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-20328-6.
Kentridge, William. "Director's Note". In Ubu and the Truth Commission, by Jane Taylor, viii-xv. Cape Town: University of Cape Town Press, 2007.
McCulloch, Samantha; Williams-Wynn, Christopher (2015). "Conflicts between context and content in William Kentridge: Five Themes: a case study of the Melbourne exhibition". Museum Management and Curatorship. 30 (4): 283–295. doi:10.1080/09647775.2015.1060866. ISSN 0964-7775. S2CID 142528621 – via Taylor & Francis.
Taylor, Jane. Ubu and the Truth Commission. Cape Town: University of Cape Town Press, 2007.
== External links ==
Kentridge Studio – Official site for William Kentridge
William Kentridge at Goodman Gallery
William Kentridge: The Refusal of Time at The Metropolitan Museum of Art
In Praise of Shadows: William Kentridge in the Collection 2014 exhibition at the Metropolitan Museum of Art
Artworks by William Kentridge
Interview with William Kentridge, by Lilian Tone
William Kentridge believes South Africa let Nelson Mandela down Archived 21 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Interview with William Kentridge, by Flavia Foradini, The Art Newspaper, online edition, 13 Dec 2013
How We Make Sense of the World. An interview with William Kentridge Video by Louisiana Channel
culturebase: William Kentridge |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariane_5#:~:text=The%20first%20successful%20launch%20of%20the%20Ariane%205ECA%20took%20place%20on%2012%20February%202005. | Ariane 5 | Ariane 5 is a retired European heavy-lift space launch vehicle operated by Arianespace for the European Space Agency (ESA). It was launched from the Guiana Space Centre (CSG) in French Guiana. It was used to deliver payloads into geostationary transfer orbit (GTO), low Earth orbit (LEO) or further into space. The launch vehicle had a streak of 82 consecutive successful launches between 9 April 2003 and 12 December 2017. In development since 2014, Ariane 6, a direct successor system was first launched in 2024.
The system was designed as an expendable launch vehicle by the Centre national d'études spatiales (CNES), the French government's space agency, in cooperation with various European partners. Despite not being a direct derivative of its predecessor launch vehicle program, it was classified as part of the Ariane rocket family. Aérospatiale, and later ArianeGroup, was the prime contractor for the manufacturing of the vehicles, leading a multi-country consortium of other European contractors. Ariane 5 was originally intended to launch the Hermes spacecraft, and thus it was rated for human space launches.
Since its first launch, Ariane 5 was refined in successive versions: "G", "G+", "GS", "ECA", and finally, "ES". The system had a commonly used dual-launch capability, where up to two large geostationary belt communication satellites can be mounted using a SYLDA (Système de Lancement Double Ariane, meaning "Ariane Double-Launch System") carrier system. Up to three, somewhat smaller, main satellites are possible depending on size using a SPELTRA (Structure Porteuse Externe Lancement Triple Ariane, which translates to "Ariane Triple-Launch External Carrier Structure"). Up to eight secondary payloads, usually small experiment packages or minisatellites, could be carried with an ASAP (Ariane Structure for Auxiliary Payloads) platform.
Following the launch of 15 August 2020, Arianespace signed the contracts for the last eight Ariane 5 launches, before it was succeeded by the new Ariane 6 launcher, according to Daniel Neuenschwander, director of space transportation at the ESA. Ariane 5 flew its final mission on 5 July 2023.
== Vehicle description ==
=== Cryogenic main stage ===
Ariane 5's cryogenic H173 main stage (H158 for Ariane 5G, G+, and GS) was called the EPC (Étage Principal Cryotechnique — Cryotechnic Main Stage). It consisted of a 5.4 m (18 ft) diameter by 30.5 m (100 ft) high tank with two compartments, one for liquid oxygen and one for liquid hydrogen, and a Vulcain 2 engine at the base with a vacuum thrust of 1,390 kN (310,000 lbf). The H173 EPC weighed about 189 t (417,000 lb), including 175 t (386,000 lb) of propellant. After the main cryogenic stage runs out of fuel, it re-entered the atmosphere for an ocean splashdown.
=== Solid boosters ===
Attached to the sides were two P241 (P238 for Ariane 5G and G+) solid rocket boosters (SRBs or EAPs from the French Étages d'Accélération à Poudre — lit. 'Powder Acceleration Stages'), each weighing about 277 t (611,000 lb) full and delivering a thrust of about 7,080 kN (1,590,000 lbf). They were fueled by a mix of ammonium perchlorate (68%) and aluminium fuel (18%) and HTPB (14%). They each burned for 130 seconds before being dropped into the ocean. The SRBs were usually allowed to sink to the bottom of the ocean, but, like the Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters, they could be recovered with parachutes, and this was occasionally done for post-flight analysis. Unlike Space Shuttle SRBs, Ariane 5 boosters were not reused. The most recent attempt was for the first Ariane 5 ECA mission in 2009. One of the two boosters was successfully recovered and returned to the Guiana Space Center for analysis. Prior to that mission, the last such recovery and testing was done in 2003.
The French M51 submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBM) shared a substantial amount of technology with these boosters.
In February 2000, the suspected nose cone of an Ariane 5 booster washed ashore on the South Texas coast, and was recovered by beachcombers before the government could get to it.
=== Second stage ===
The second stage was on top of the main stage and below the payload. The original Ariane — Ariane 5G — used the EPS (Étage à Propergols Stockables — Storable Propellant Stage), which was fueled by monomethylhydrazine (MMH) and nitrogen tetroxide, containing 10,000 kg (22,000 lb) of storable propellant. The EPS was subsequently improved for use on the Ariane 5G+, GS, and ES.
The EPS upper stage was capable of repeated ignition, first demonstrated during flight V26 which was launched on 5 October 2007. This was purely to test the engine, and occurred after the payloads had been deployed. The first operational use of restart capability as part of a mission came on 9 March 2008, when two burns were made to deploy the first Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) into a circular parking orbit, followed by a third burn after ATV deployment to de-orbit the stage. This procedure was repeated for all subsequent ATV flights.
Ariane 5ECA used the ESC (Étage Supérieur Cryotechnique — Cryogenic Upper Stage), which was fueled by liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen. The ESC used the HM7B engine previously used in the Ariane 4 third stage. The propellent load of 14.7 tonne allowed the engine to burn for 945 seconds while providing 6.5 tonne of thrust. The ESC provided roll control during powered flight and full attitude control during payload separation using hydrogen gas thrusters. Oxygen gas thrusters allowed longitudinal acceleration after engine cutoff. The flight assembly included the Vehicle Equipment Bay, with flight electronics for the entire rocket, and the payload interface and structural support.
=== Fairing ===
The payload and all upper stages were covered at launch by a fairing for aerodynamic stability and protection from heating during supersonic flight and acoustic loads. It was jettisoned once sufficient altitude has been reached, typically above 100 km (62 mi; 54 nmi). It was made by Ruag Space and since flight VA-238 it was composed of 4 panels.
=== Launch preparations ===
With the exception of the solid rocket boosters (for safety and cost reasons), the components were assembled in Europe, and then shipped to French Guyana by boat. Once at Kourou, the components were assembled in the Launcher Integration Building (BIL), then transfered into the Final Assembly Building (BAF) for mating the payload and fairing, before the completed rocket was transfered to the Launch Zone (ZL) for fueling and launch.
== Variants ==
== Launch pricing and market competition ==
As of November 2014, the Ariane 5 commercial launch price for launching a "midsize satellite in the lower position" was approximately €50 million, competing for commercial launches in an increasingly competitive market.
The heavier satellite was launched in the upper position on a typical dual-satellite Ariane 5 launch and was priced higher than the lower satellite, on the order of €90 million as of 2013.
Total launch price of an Ariane 5 – which could transport up to two satellites to space, one in the "upper" and one in the "lower" positions – was around €150 million as of January 2015.
== Cancelled plans for future developments ==
=== Ariane 5 ME ===
The Ariane 5 ME (Mid-life Evolution) was in development into early 2015, and was seen as a stopgap between Ariane 5ECA/Ariane 5ES and the new Ariane 6. With first flight planned for 2018, it would have become ESA's principal launcher until the arrival of the new Ariane 6 version. ESA halted funding for the development of Ariane 5ME in late 2014 to prioritize development of Ariane 6.
The Ariane 5ME was to use a new upper stage, with increased propellant volume, powered by the new Vinci engine. Unlike the HM-7B engine, it was to be able to restart several times, allowing for complex orbital maneuvers such as insertion of two satellites into different orbits, direct insertion into geosynchronous orbit, planetary exploration missions, and guaranteed upper stage deorbiting or insertion into graveyard orbit. The launcher was also to include a lengthened fairing up to 20 m (66 ft) and a new dual launch system to accommodate larger satellites. Compared to an Ariane 5ECA model, the payload to GTO was to increase by 15% to 11,500 kg (25,400 lb) and the cost-per-kilogram of each launch was projected to decline by 20%.
==== Development ====
Originally known as the Ariane 5ECB, Ariane 5ME was to have its first flight in 2006. However, the failure of the first ECA flight in 2002, combined with a deteriorating satellite industry, caused ESA to cancel development in 2003. Development of the Vinci engine continued, though at a lower pace. The ESA Council of Ministers agreed to fund development of the new upper stage in November 2008.
In 2009, EADS Astrium was awarded a €200 million contract, and on 10 April 2012 received another €112 million contract to continue development of the Ariane 5ME with total development effort expected to cost €1 billion.
On 21 November 2012, ESA agreed to continue with the Ariane 5ME to meet the challenge of lower priced competitors. It was agreed the Vinci upper stage would also be used as the second stage of a new Ariane 6, and further commonality would be sought. Ariane 5ME qualification flight was scheduled for mid-2018, followed by gradual introduction into service.
On 2 December 2014, ESA decided to stop funding the development of Ariane 5ME and instead focus on Ariane 6, which was expected to have a lower cost per launch and allow more flexibility in the payloads (using two or four P120C solid boosters depending on total payload mass).
=== Solid propellant stage ===
Work on the Ariane 5 EAP motors was continued in the Vega programme. The Vega 1st stage engine – the P80 engine – was a shorter derivation of the EAP. The P80 booster casing was made of filament wound graphite epoxy, much lighter than the current stainless steel casing. A new composite steerable nozzle was developed while new thermal insulation material and a narrower throat improved the expansion ratio and subsequently the overall performance. Additionally, the nozzle had electromechanical actuators which replaced the heavier hydraulic ones used for thrust vector control.
These developments could maybe have made their way back into the Ariane programme, but this was most likely an inference based on early blueprints of the Ariane 6 having a central P80 booster and 2-4 around the main one. The incorporation of the ESC-B with the improvements to the solid motor casing and an uprated Vulcain engine would have delivered 27,000 kg (60,000 lb) to LEO. This would have been developed for any lunar missions but the performance of such a design might not have been possible if the higher Max-Q for the launch of this launch vehicle would have posed a constraint on the mass delivered to orbit.
== Ariane 6 ==
The design brief of the next generation launch vehicle Ariane 6 called for a lower-cost and smaller launch vehicle capable of launching a single satellite of up to 6,500 kg (14,300 lb) to GTO. However, after several permutations the finalized design was nearly identical in performance to the Ariane 5, focusing instead on lowering fabrication costs and launch prices. As of March 2014, Ariane 6 was projected to be launched for about €70 million per flight, about half of the Ariane 5 price.
Initially development of Ariane 6 was projected to cost €3.6 billion. In 2017, the ESA set 16 July 2020 as the deadline for the first flight. The Ariane 6 successfully completed its maiden flight on 9 July 2024.
== Notable launches ==
Ariane 5's first test flight (Ariane 5 Flight 501) on 4 June 1996 failed, with the rocket self-destructing 37 seconds after launch because of a malfunction in the control software. A data conversion from 64-bit floating-point value to 16-bit signed integer value to be stored in a variable representing horizontal bias caused a processor trap (operand error) because the floating-point value was too large to be represented by a 16-bit signed integer. The software had been written for the Ariane 4 where efficiency considerations (the computer running the software had an 80% maximum workload requirement) led to four variables being protected with a handler while three others, including the horizontal bias variable, were left unprotected because it was thought that they were "physically limited or that there was a large margin of safety". The software, written in Ada, was included in the Ariane 5 through the reuse of an entire Ariane 4 subsystem despite the fact that the particular software containing the bug, which was just a part of the subsystem, was not required by the Ariane 5 because it has a different preparation sequence than the Ariane 4.
The second test flight (L502, on 30 October 1997) was a partial failure. The Vulcain nozzle caused a roll problem, leading to premature shutdown of the core stage. The upper stage operated successfully, but it could not reach the intended orbit. A subsequent test flight (L503, on 21 October 1998) proved successful and the first commercial launch (L504) occurred on 10 December 1999 with the launch of the XMM-Newton X-ray observatory satellite.
Another partial failure occurred on 12 July 2001, with the delivery of two satellites into an incorrect orbit, at only half the height of the intended GTO. The ESA Artemis telecommunications satellite was able to reach its intended orbit on 31 January 2003, through the use of its experimental ion propulsion system.
The next launch did not occur until 1 March 2002, when the Envisat environmental satellite successfully reached an orbit of 800 km (500 mi) above the Earth in the 11th launch. At 8,111 kg (17,882 lb), it was the heaviest single payload until the launch of the first ATV on 9 March 2008, at 19,360 kg (42,680 lb).
The first launch of the ECA variant on 11 December 2002 ended in failure when a main booster problem caused the rocket to veer off-course, forcing its self-destruction three minutes into the flight. Its payload of two communications satellites (STENTOR and Hot Bird 7), valued at about €630 million, was lost in the Atlantic Ocean. The fault was determined to have been caused by a leak in coolant pipes allowing the nozzle to overheat. After this failure, Arianespace SA delayed the expected January 2003 launch for the Rosetta mission to 26 February 2004, but this was again delayed to early March 2004 due to a minor fault in the foam that protects the cryogenic tanks on the Ariane 5. The failure of the first ECA launch was the last failure of an Ariane 5 until flight 241 in January 2018.
On 27 September 2003, the last Ariane 5G boosted three satellites (including the first European lunar probe, SMART-1), in Flight 162. On 18 July 2004, an Ariane 5G+ boosted what was at the time the heaviest telecommunication satellite ever, Anik F2, weighing almost 6,000 kg (13,000 lb).
The first successful launch of the Ariane 5ECA took place on 12 February 2005. The payload consisted of the XTAR-EUR military communications satellite, a 'SLOSHSAT' small scientific satellite and a MaqSat B2 payload simulator. The launch had been scheduled for October 2004, but additional testing and a military launch (of a Helios 2A observation satellite) delayed the attempt.
On 11 August 2005, the first Ariane 5GS (featuring the Ariane 5ECA's improved solid motors) boosted Thaicom 4, the heaviest telecommunications satellite to date at 6,505 kg (14,341 lb), into orbit.
On 16 November 2005, the third Ariane 5ECA launch (the second successful ECA launch) took place. It carried a dual payload consisting of Spaceway F2 for DirecTV and Telkom-2 for PT Telekomunikasi of Indonesia. This was the launch vehicle's heaviest dual payload to date, at more than 8,000 kg (18,000 lb).
On 27 May 2006, an Ariane 5ECA launch vehicle set a new commercial payload lifting record of 8,200 kg (18,100 lb). The dual-payload consisted of the Thaicom 5 and Satmex 6 satellites.
On 4 May 2007, the Ariane 5ECA set another new commercial record, lifting into transfer orbit the Astra 1L and Galaxy 17 communication satellites with a combined weight of 8,600 kg (19,000 lb), and a total payload weight of 9,400 kg (20,700 lb). This record was again broken by another Ariane 5ECA, launching the Skynet 5B and Star One C1 satellites, on 11 November 2007. The total payload weight for this launch was of 9,535 kg (21,021 lb).
On 9 March 2008, the first Ariane 5ES-ATV was launched to deliver the first ATV called Jules Verne to the International Space Station (ISS). The ATV was the heaviest payload ever launched by a European launch vehicle, providing supplies to the space station with necessary propellant, water, air and dry cargo. This was the first operational Ariane mission which involved an engine restart in the upper stage. The ES-ATV Aestus EPS upper stage was restartable while the ECA HM7-B engine was not.
On 1 July 2009, an Ariane 5ECA launched TerreStar-1 (now EchoStar T1), which was then, at 6,910 kg (15,230 lb), the largest and most massive commercial telecommunication satellite ever built at that time until being overtaken by Telstar 19 Vantage, at 7,080 kg (15,610 lb), launched aboard Falcon 9. The satellite was launched into a lower-energy orbit than a usual GTO, with its initial apogee at roughly 17,900 km (11,100 mi).
On 28 October 2010, an Ariane 5ECA launched Eutelsat's W3B (part of its W Series of satellites) and Broadcasting Satellite System Corporation (B-SAT)'s BSAT-3b satellites into orbit. But the W3B satellite failed to operate shortly after the successful launch and was written off as a total loss due to an oxidizer leak in the satellite's main propulsion system. The BSAT-3b satellite, however, is operating normally.
The VA253 launch on 15 August 2020 introduced two small changes that increased lift capacity by about 85 kg (187 lb); these were a lighter avionics and guidance-equipment bay, and modified pressure vents on the payload fairing, which were required for the subsequent launch of the James Webb Space Telescope. It also debuted a location system using Galileo navigation satellites.
On 25 December 2021, VA256 launched the James Webb Space Telescope towards a Sun–Earth L2 halo orbit. The precision of trajectory following launch led to fuel savings credited with potentially doubling the lifetime of the telescope by leaving more hydrazine propellant on board for station-keeping than was expected. According to Rudiger Albat, the program manager for Ariane 5, efforts had been made to select components for this flight that had performed especially well during pre-flight testing, including "one of the best Vulcain engines that we've ever built."
=== GTO payload weight records ===
On 22 April 2011, the Ariane 5ECA flight VA-201 broke a commercial record, lifting Yahsat 1A and Intelsat New Dawn with a total payload weight of 10,064 kg (22,187 lb) to transfer orbit. This record was later broken again during the launch of Ariane 5ECA flight VA-208 on 2 August 2012, lifting a total of 10,182 kg (22,447 lb) into the planned geosynchronous transfer orbit, which was broken again 6 months later on flight VA-212 with 10,317 kg (22,745 lb) sent towards geosynchronous transfer orbit. In June 2016, the GTO record was raised to 10,730 kg (23,660 lb), on the first rocket in history that carried a satellite dedicated to financial institutions. The payload record was pushed a further 5 kg (11 lb), up to 10,735 kg (23,667 lb) on 24 August 2016 with the launch of Intelsat 33e and Intelsat 36. On 1 June 2017, the payload record was broken again to 10,865 kg (23,953 lb) carrying ViaSat-2 and Eutelsat-172B. In 2021 VA-255 put 11,210 kg into GTO.
=== VA241 anomaly ===
On 25 January 2018, an Ariane 5ECA launched SES-14 and Al Yah 3 satellites. About 9 minutes and 28 seconds after launch, a telemetry loss occurred between the launch vehicle and the ground controllers. It was later confirmed, about 1 hour and 20 minutes after launch, that both satellites were successfully separated from the upper stage and were in contact with their respective ground controllers, but that their orbital inclinations were incorrect as the guidance systems might have been compromised. Therefore, both satellites conducted orbital procedures, extending commissioning time. SES-14 needed about 8 weeks longer than planned commissioning time, meaning that entry into service was reported early September instead of July. Nevertheless, SES-14 is still expected to be able to meet the designed lifetime. This satellite was originally to be launched with more propellant reserve on a Falcon 9 launch vehicle since the Falcon 9, in this specific case, was intended to deploy this satellite into a high inclination orbit that would require more work from the satellite to reach its final geostationary orbit. The Al Yah 3 was also confirmed healthy after more than 12 hours without further statement, and like SES-14, Al Yah 3's maneuvering plan was also revised to still fulfill the original mission. As of 16 February 2018, Al Yah 3 was approaching the intended geostationary orbit, after series of recovery maneuvers had been performed. The investigation showed that invalid inertial units' azimuth value had sent the vehicle 17° off course but to the intended altitude, they had been programmed for the standard geostationary transfer orbit of 90° when the payloads were intended to be 70° for this supersynchronous transfer orbit mission, 20° off norme. This mission anomaly ended the 82 consecutive launch success streak from 2003.
== Launch history ==
=== Launch statistics ===
Ariane 5 launch vehicles had accumulated 117 launches, 112 of which were successful, yielding a 95.7% success rate. Between April 2003 and December 2017, Ariane 5 flew 83 consecutive missions without failure, but the launch vehicle suffered a partial failure in January 2018.
=== List of launches ===
All launches are from Guiana Space Centre, ELA-3.
== See also ==
List of Ariane launches
Ariane 6, two initial variants
Heavy-lift launch vehicle
Comparison of orbital launchers families
Comparison of orbital launch systems
Future Launchers Preparatory Programme (ESA, beyond Ariane 5)
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Ariane 5 Overview at Arianespace
Ariane 5 Programme Information at Astrium |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priority_Enforcement_Program | Priority Enforcement Program | The Priority Enforcement Program (PEP, sometimes also called PEP-COMM, PEP-Comm, or Pep-Comm) is a program by U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE), the agency responsible for immigration enforcement in the interior of the United States, under the U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS). PEP was an ICE program that worked with state and local law enforcement to identify undocumented immigrants (people who are not United States citizens or permanent residents) who come in contact with state or local law enforcement, and remove those who are removable (either because their presence is unauthorized, or because they committed an aggravated felony). PEP was announced by DHS Secretary Jeh Johnson in a November 20, 2014 memo as a replacement for Secure Communities (S-COMM). It builds on an updated list of immigration enforcement priorities released in another memo by Johnson issued on the same day.
The official rollout of the program started on July 2, 2015.
The enforcement priorities referenced in PEP were also relevant to other work by ICE as well as by U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP) related to immigration enforcement, apprehension, detention, and removal. However, PEP does not encompass these; PEP refers only to the ICE program that works with state and local law enforcement to identify and remove undocumented immigrants who come in contact with local law enforcement.
After the issuing of Executive Order 13768 by newly elected United States President Donald Trump on January 25, 2017, that revived the Secure Communities program, ICE discontinued the Priority Enforcement Program.
== Components ==
=== Enforcement priorities referenced in PEP ===
The Priority Enforcement Program relies on updated enforcement priorities released in a November 20, 2014 memo by DHS Secretary Jeh Johnson (note that these enforcement priorities apply DHS-wide and are not limited to PEP).
Priority 1 (prioritized for removal) includes noncitizens who meet one or more of these criteria:
1(a): national security threat
1(b): apprehended immediately at the border
1(c): gang member
1(d): convicted of an offense classified as a felony in the state or local jurisdiction, other than one related to immigration status
1(e): convicted of a felony or aggravated felony as defined by immigration law.
Priority 2 (subject to removal) includes noncitizens who meet one or more of these criteria:
2(a): convicted of three or more misdemeanors
2(b): convicted of a serious misdemeanor. Serious misdemeanors are defined as offenses involving domestic violence, sexual abuse or exploitation, burglary, unlawful possession or use of a firearm, drug distribution or trafficking, driving under the influence, and other crimes in which a defendant was sentenced to actual custody of 90 days or more.
2(c): entered the United States unlawfully after July 1, 2014
2(d): significantly abused visas or visa waiver programs
Priority 3 (generally subject to removal) includes noncitizens subject to a final order of removal issued on or after January 1, 2014.
An exception can be made to removing an undocumented immigrant who fits these priority categories if in the judgment of an ICE Field Office Director, CBP Sector Chief, or CBP Director of Field Operations, there are compelling and exceptional factors that clearly indicate the undocumented immigrant is not a threat to national security, border security, or public safety and should not therefore be an enforcement priority.
The memo does not forbid DHS agencies (ICE and CBP) from apprehending, detaining, and removing undocumented immigrant who are not in any of the three priority categories. However, resources should be dedicated to undocumented immigrants in the priority categories, and the removal of any undocumented immigrant not identified as a priority should only be carried out if, in the judgment of an ICE Field Office director, the removal serves an important federal interest. In addition, detention should not be used for people suffering from physical and mental illness, the disabled, elderly, pregnant, nursing, or primary caretakers of children and infirm people without approval from an ICE Field Office director.
=== Enforcement priorities within the scope of PEP ===
Unlike its predecessor S-COMM, PEP is more limited in focus. In particular, it does not seek to take custody of individuals charged only with civil immigration offenses, or those charged, but not convicted, of criminal offenses. Rather, it is focused on priority subcategories 1(a), 1(c), 1(d), 1(e), 2(a), and 2(b) in the November 2014 immigration enforcement priority list. With the exception of 1(a) (national security threat), all the other subcategories under the aegis of PEP are directly related to criminal convictions.
=== Immigration detainers ===
One key component of S-COMM, the predecessor of PEP, was the use of ICE detainers, where ICE sent Form I-247 detainers to state and local law enforcement agencies (LEAs) asking them to keep undocumented immigrants for up to 48 hours in law enforcement custody to give ICE time to take the individual in ICE custody. These detainers came under criticism both for leading to unconstitutional detention and for the added costs borne by law enforcement agencies. PEP replaced the I-247 detainers with three new forms:
Form I-247N, Request for Voluntary Notification of Release of Suspected Priority Alien: The Form requests the local law enforcement agency to notify the ICE of the pending release from custody of a suspected priority removable individual at least 48 hours prior to release, if possible. The Form I-247N does not request or authorize the LEA to hold an individual beyond the point at which he or she would otherwise be released. Additionally, on the Form I-247N, ICE must identify the enforcement priority under which the individual falls.
Form I-247D, Immigration Detainer - Request for Voluntary Action: The Form I-247D requests the receiving LEA maintain custody of the priority individual for a period not to exceed 48 hours beyond the time when he or she would have otherwise been released from custody. On this form, ICE must identify the enforcement priority under which the individual falls, as well as the basis for its determination of probable cause. The LEA must also serve a copy of the request on the individual in order for it to take effect. While similar to the original Form I-247, the need to state probable cause, as well as the requirement that the individual be served a copy, were an attempt to address some of the constitutional concerns surrounding detainers.
Form I-247X, Request for Voluntary Transfer: This form is for enforcement priorities that do not fall under PEP. The Form I-247X requests the receiving LEA maintain custody of the priority individual for a period not to exceed 48 hours beyond the time when he or she would have otherwise been released from custody. The priority subcategories not covered by PEP, but for which ICE may otherwise seek transfer from cooperative jurisdictions are 1(b), 2(c), 2(d), and 3.
Below are some key differences between the old and new detainer policies:
The 48-hour limit on requests to maintain custody now includes Saturdays, Sundays, and holidays.
The detainer form requires that the LEA give a copy to the individual detained in order to be effective.
Detainers are used much more rarely, and must be accompanied by probable cause in addition to a priority subcategory. The following are permissible probable causes:
A final order of removal
Pendency of removal proceedings
Biometric match indicating no lawful status or otherwise removable
Statements by the subject to an immigration officer and/or other reliable evidence
Detainers are no longer issued simply for not having a biometric match in ICE databases. Additional evidence is needed to constitute probable cause for detention.
=== Biometric database ===
Another component of PEP is the biometric database. Secure Communities was designed to enhance interoperability of state and federal biometric databases by automating a check against ICE and U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) records when state identification bureaus (SIB) submitted fingerprints to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), and thus became known as IDENT-IAFIS Interoperability, referring to the databases used by United States immigration authorities and federal law enforcement agencies, respectively.
Under PEP, IDENT-IAFIS Interoperability remained unchanged from Secure Communities. Also unchanged was the rollout to state and local law enforcement entities, wherein fingerprints or other biometrics collected by state agencies would automatically be checked against IDENT and IAFIS biometric databases, even over the objection of states and localities that sought not to participate in the immigration enforcement program. Through the rollout to state and local agencies, ICE could automatically be notified if a fingerprint in their database gave a positive hit for anyone run through a state or local jail or booking facility, enabling ICE to issue detainers and hold requests for persons who may have been stopped for nothing more than a minor traffic violation.
== History ==
=== Dissatisfaction with the Secure Communities program ===
Secure Communities, often written as S-COMM, was an effort pioneered in 2008 under George W. Bush and launched in 2009 under Barack Obama. The effort involved seeking cooperation from state and local law enforcement authorities in the enforcement of federal immigration laws. Two key ways that cooperation was sought were:
Biometric database: The ICE and FBI had been working together to merge their fingerprint databases. Local law enforcement agencies participating in S-COMM would be asked to send any fingerprints they took of arrestees to ICE. In practice, this would mean running an automated check against ICE's database, and notifying ICE's Law Enforcement Support Center in case of a match.
Detainer: If ICE is notified that a non-citizen has been arrested for a crime, ICE may place a detainer for the person. The detainer requests the jail to hold the person for 48 hours beyond the scheduled release date, so that ICE can take custody and initiate deportation proceedings.
The detainers in particular were the subject of criticism as well as legal challenge. Some courts ruled that holding people using the detainers (under some circumstances) was unconstitutional. For instance:
In Miranda-Olivares v. Clackamas County, a federal magistrate judge in Oregon ruled that, when Clackamas County officials detained a woman solely on the basis of an immigration detainer, they violated her Fourth Amendment rights.
In Galarza v. Szalczyk, the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit ruled that Lehigh County officials had violated the Tenth Amendment by detaining Ernesto Galarza based on an ICE detainer after he had been granted bail after being arrested for a drug offense. Galarza was detained for more than 48 hours without notice of the basis of his detention or the ability to contest it. Three days later, immigration officials learned that he was a U.S. citizen, and he was released. The court agreed with Galarza that immigration detainers do not and cannot compel a state or local law enforcement agency to detain suspected non-citizens subject to removal.
Other cases that would later be cited as reasons for discontinuing S-COMM include Morales v. Chadbourne, Moreno v. Napolitano, Gonzalez v. ICE, Villars v. Kubiatoski, and Uroza v. Salt Lake City.
Another direction of criticism was that cooperating with the detainers imposed significant additional expenditures on state and local authorities, for which ICE did not reimburse them. This was the main stated motivation for Cook County's decision to stop complying with ICE detainers. Overall, S-COMM was criticized for creating mistrust between law enforcement and local communities, by adding the enforcement of immigration laws to their job. The design of PEP-COMM would in part be motivated by efforts to address these criticisms.
=== 2011 Morton memo ===
On June 17, 2011, John T. Morton, director of ICE, issued a memo on prosecutorial discretion that would subsequently be widely referred to as the "Morton memo," "2011 Morton memo," and "prosecutorial discretion memo." A second memo pertaining to prosecutorial discretion for witnesses and victims of crime was also issued on the same day.
The Morton memos built on earlier guidelines on the exercise of prosecutorial discretion, but went further by providing more explicit enforcement priorities, and explicitly telling ICE agents not to pursue some classes of removable non-citizens in order to focus on other ones. The memos were complemented by executive action by President Barack Obama in June 2012 on Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA), which allowed people who had arrived in the United States as young children to defer their removal and made it possible for them to apply for employment authorization documents. Note that whereas the Morton memos were addressed to ICE asking it not to prosecute some classes of removable non-citizens, the June 2012 executive action involved creating an affirmative program, managed by United States Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS), to which some undocumented immigrants could apply.
=== November 2014 memos by Jeh Johnson (that led to the creation of the PEP) ===
In November 2014, a number of announcements were made by the administration of then United States president Barack Obama surrounding changes to immigration enforcement. The most famous of these announcements was Deferred Action for Parents of Americans (DAPA). Like DACA, the goal of DAPA was to create an affirmative program (under USCIS) that some removable non-citizens could apply to in order to have their removal deferred.
While Obama's main announcements were focused on affirmative programs (and therefore under the purview of USCIS), there were also updates on the immigration enforcement side, relevant to ICE as well as to CBP. These updates were announced in the form of two memos by DHS Secretary Jeh Johnson on November 20, 2014:
The first memo, titled Policies for the Apprehension, Detention, and Removal of Undocumented Immigrants, was addressed to the heads of USCIS, ICE, and CBP. It listed a new set of enforcement priority categories and subcategories, along with some guidance on how to apply these new categories in determining whether to apprehend, detain, or remove individuals. The memo modified some of the enforcement priorities from the 2011 Morton memo. It would lead to updates to existing programs, field practice, and instruction manuals by ICE and CBP in subsequent months, leading to some controversy when some of the details of the new instructions leaked in January 2015.
The second memo, titled Secure Communities, was addressed to ICE and the Office of Civil Rights and Civil Liberties. It announced the discontinuation of S-COMM and the creation of PEP as a replacement for it. The memo announced an immediate end to the I-247 detainers used as part of S-COMM and asked the ICE to come up with updated forms that would function as requests for notification rather than detention. The Office of Civil Rights and Civil Liberties was asked to develop a plan to monitor the implementation of the program by state and local LEAs to guard against the violation of people's civil rights and civil liberties. Based on this memo, the ICE would come up with the new detainer forms (I-247N, I-247D, and I-247X).
=== Attempted challenge in the United States House of Representatives (January 2015) ===
In January 2015, the United States House of Representatives passed a bill revoking the November 2014 executive action by President Barack Obama. One of the provisions of the bill reinstated the Secure Communities program and increased its funding. However, the bill was blocked in the Senate.
=== Official rollout starting July 2015 ===
On June 12, 2015, ICE released details on the new forms (I-247N, I-247D, and I-247X) as well as a brochure providing more information on PEP. The information is available on the page about PEP on ICE's website.
The official rollout of the Priority Enforcement Program began on July 2, 2015, although the ICE had begun the process of implementing the program as far back as November 2014.
As of August 2015, a month after the rollout began, many law enforcement agencies that had previously withdrawn from S-COMM were in talks with ICE and undecided about PEP. Philadelphia Mayor Michael E. Nutter, who had previously scaled back cooperation with DHS in April 2014, praised DHS Secretary Jeh Johnson for taking concerns into account when designing PEP, but was still not convinced that it made sense to participate. Cook County Board of Commissions Toni Preckwinkle issued a statement with a similar sentiment.
In October 2015, San Francisco's city government chose not to participate in PEP, and to restrict cooperation with federal law enforcement only for people convicted of serious crimes. This continued a tradition of San Francisco as a sanctuary city since 1989.
In contrast, the Los Angeles County Sheriff Department, that had withdrawn from the 287(g) program and was generally averse to local law enforcement cooperating with ICE, is participating in PEP. In May 2015, the Board ruled to look into participating in PEP. In September 2015, an official decision to participate in PEP was reached.
=== Discontinuation in 2017 ===
In January 2017, Donald Trump took office as President of the United States, after a campaign where he promised stricter immigration enforcement policies. On January 25, Trump issued Executive Order 13768 titled Enhancing Public Safety in the Interior of the United States. Among other things, the Executive Order revived the Secure Communities program. In a Q&A published on February 21, 2017, the United States Department of Homeland Security clarified that it was discontinuing the PEP and reinstating Secure Communities due to the executive order.
== Reception ==
=== Reception by state and local governments and law enforcement agencies ===
In the wake of the killing of Kathryn Steinle by an undocumented immigrant, police chiefs and sheriffs from jurisdictions throughout the United States signed a letter to Chuck Grassley and Patrick Leahy arguing that PEP was a good way forward for local law enforcement and DHS to cooperate without overburdening local law enforcement, and that there was no need to pass additional legislation requiring state and local cooperation with federal immigration agencies.
Local law enforcement agencies that had participated in S-COMM are continuing to participate in PEP, whereas those that had withdrawn from S-COMM have been evaluating PEP but not made a decision either way regarding participation.
=== Reception by civil rights, immigrant rights, and legal advocacy groups ===
The American Civil Liberties Union responded to the original Johnson memo by releasing a backgrounder. The backgrounder noted that whereas PEP was a step in the right direction, the "probable cause" definition was still too loose, and insufficient to address the Fourth Amendment-based challenge to S-COMM. In June 2015, the ACLU penned an open letter to Jeh Johnson with recommendations for improving PEP. Among the recommendations in the letter was the requirement that the probable cause notices be approved by a judge (i.e., judicially determined). ACLU's criticism of PEP was covered by the Washington Post in an article on the program's rollout.
The National Day Laborer Organizing Network (NDLON), that had previously been critical of S-COMM, was critical of PEP, with its key concern being that the changes to the program were too cosmetic. NDLON also filed a Freedom of Information Act request to learn more about the program.
The National Immigration Law Center was also critical of PEP, citing both constitutional concerns and its effect of causing the separation of families.
Angela Chan, policy director of the Asian Law Caucus, said that there were alarming similarities between S-COMM and PEP, and also said that Obama's slogan of "felons, not families" should be considered in the context of many communities being overpoliced and overcriminalized.
The Immigration Policy Center has taken a more cautious approach, noting that PEP is an improvement over S-COMM in principle, but awaiting further details on the implementation.
=== Reception by groups interested in restricting immigration, particularly illegal immigration ===
Groups interested in limiting immigration and combating illegal immigration see PEP as a step backward from S-COMM, and have been critical of it. In remarks at a press conference hosted by the Texas Sheriffs Association, Jessica Vaughan of the Center for Immigration Studies (a think tank that advocates low immigration levels), said that "PEP will result in the release of even more criminal aliens back to the streets, with local communities — and especially law enforcement agencies — left to deal with the consequences." She said that ICE arrests in Texas were already down 28% from the previous year, and criminal non-citizen arrests down 25%.
In June 2015, the United States House Judiciary Subcommittee on Immigration and Border Security released a report on PEP. Based on the report, Committee Chairman Bob Goodlatte argued that the implementation of PEP endangered communities (relative to S-COMM). The report was cited in the Washington Times and by NumbersUSA, an advocacy group favoring low immigration numbers. Quoting from the report, NumbersUSA noted that PEP even ignored the implementation of some of the priority subcategories identified in the November 2014 memo (specifically, 1(b), 2(c), 2(d), and 3).
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Neveu | Jacques Neveu | Jacques Jean-Pierre Neveu (14 November 1932 – 17 May 2016) was a Belgian (and then French) mathematician, specializing in probability theory. He is one of the founders of the French school (post WW II) of probability and statistics.
== Education and career ==
Jacques Neveu received in 1955 from the Sorbonne his doctorate in mathematics under Robert Fortet with dissertation Étude des semi-groupes de Markov.
In 1960, Neveu was, with Robert Fortet, one of the first two members of the Laboratoire de Probabilités et Modèles Aléatoires (LPMA). He was the LPMA's director from 1980 until 1989 when Jean Jacod became the director.
In 1962, Neveu was a chargé de cours (university lecturer) at the Collège de France. He taught at the Sorbonne and, after the reorganization of the University of Paris, at the University of Paris VI at the Laboratory for Probability of the Institut de mathématiques de Jussieu. He was a professor at the École Polytechnique. In 1976, he gave a course at l'école d'été de Saint-Flour (a summer school in probability theory sponsored by the University of Clermont Auvergne). He was a visiting professor in Brussels, São Paulo, and Leuven.
From 1969 to 1987, Neveu was the thesis advisor for 19 doctoral students. In 1977 he was the president of the Société mathématique de France. In 1991, he founded the group Modélisation Aléatoire et Statistique (MAS) of the Société de Mathématiques Appliquées et Industrielles (SMAI). In 2012 he was elected a Fellow of the American Mathematical Society.
== Research ==
Neveu is one of the founders of the modern theory of probability. His research deals with Markov processes, Markov chains, Gaussian processes, martingales, ergodic theory, random trees (especially Galton-Watson processes and Galton-Watson trees), and Dirac measures, as well as applications of probability theory to statistics, computer science, combinatorics, and statistical physics. In 1986 he introduced the concept of arbre de Galton-Watson (Galton-Watson tree) within the framework of discrete random trees; within the mathematical formalism of Galton-Watson trees, the notation de Neveu is named in his honor.
== Commemoration ==
Several mathematicians have paid tribute to Neveu for his influence on the modern theory of probability.
He was outstanding in teaching as well as research. In honor of Neveu, a prize is awarded by the MAS group of the SMAI to the year's best of the new French holders of doctorates in mathematicians or statistics on the basis of the judged quality of the dissertation.
=== Prix Jacques Neveu ===
The laureates are:
2008: Pierre Nolin;
2009: Amandine Véber;
2010: Sébastien Bubeck & Kilian Raschel;
2011: Nicolas Curien;
2012: Pierre Jacob et Quentin Berger;
2013: Adrien Kassel;
2014: Emilie Kaufmann & Julien Reygner;
2015: Erwin Scornet;
2016: Anna Ben-Hamou;
2017: Aran Raoufi;
2018: Elsa Cazelles.
== Selected publications ==
=== Articles ===
"Lattice methods and submarkovian processes." In Fourth Berkeley Symposium on Mathematical Statistics and Probability, pp. 347–391. 1961.
"Existence of bounded invariant measures in ergodic theory." In Proc. Fifth Berkeley Sympos. Math. Statist. and Probability (Berkeley, Calif., 1965/66), vol. 2, no. Part 2, pp. 461–472. 1967.
"Temps d'arrêt d'un système dynamique." Zeitschrift für Wahrscheinlichkeitstheorie und Verwandte Gebiete, vol. 13, no. 2, 1969, pp. 81–94. doi:10.1007/BF00537013
"Potentiel Markovien récurrent des chaînes de Harris." Ann. Inst. Fourier, vol. 22, no. 2, 1972, pp. 85–130.
"Sur l’espérance conditionelle par rapport à un mouvement brownien." Ann. Inst. H. Poincaré, section B, vol. 12, no. 2, 1976, pp. 105–109.
"Processus ponctuels." In École d’Eté de Probabilités de Saint-Flour VI-1976, pp. 249–445. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 1977. doi:10.1007/BFb0097494
Arbres et processus de Galton-Watson, Annales de l'IHP, section B, vol. 22, 1986, pp. 199–207.
"Multiplicative martingales for spatial branching processes." In Seminar on Stochastic Processes, 1987, pp. 223–242. Birkhäuser Boston, 1988. doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-0550-7_10
with Francis Comets: The Sherrington-Kirkpatrick model of spin glasses and stochastic calculus: the high temperature case. Communications in Mathematical Physics, vol. 166, no. 3, 1995, pp. 549–564. doi:10.1007/BF02099887
=== Books ===
Théorie des semi-groups de Markov, University of California Press 1958 (and Gauthier-Villars 1958)
Bases mathématiques du calcul des probabilités, Masson, 1964, 1970
English translation: Mathematical foundations of the calculus of probability, Holden-Day 1965
Processus aléatoires gaulliens, Montréal: Presses de l'Université de Montréal, 1968
Cours de probabilités, École Polytechnique, 1970, 1978
Martingales à temps discret, Masson, 1972
English translation: Discrete-parameter martingales, Elsevier, 1975
Théorie de la mesure et intégration, cours de l'École polytechnique, 1983
Introduction aux processus aléatoires, École Polytechnique 1985
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_(musician) | Prince (musician) | Prince Rogers Nelson (June 7, 1958 – April 21, 2016) was an American singer, songwriter, musician, dancer, and actor. Often credited as an influence on music and one of the greatest musicians of his era, he pioneered the Minneapolis sound and was influential in the evolution of various other genres of music.
Born and raised in Minneapolis, Minnesota, Prince signed a record deal with Warner Bros. Records at the age of 18, releasing his first album, For You, two years later. He went on to achieve critical success with his albums Dirty Mind (1980), Controversy (1981), and 1999 (1982). In 1984, Prince became the first singer to simultaneously have a number-one film, album and single in the US, with the film Purple Rain, its soundtrack, and "When Doves Cry", which was the biggest hit single of the year. The album, recorded with his new backing band the Revolution, spent six consecutive months atop the United States Billboard 200 chart and won the Academy Award for Best Original Song Score. After disbanding the Revolution, Prince released his first double LP in 1987, titled Sign o' the Times, widely lauded by critics as the greatest work of his career and one of the greatest records in music history.
In 1993, in the midst of a contractual dispute with Warner Bros., Prince changed his stage name to the unpronounceable symbol , known to fans as the "Love Symbol". After signing a contract with Arista Records in 1998, Prince reverted to his original name in 2000 and continued releasing albums, including the double Grammy Award winning Musicology (2004). He was a prolific musician who released 39 albums during his life, with a vast array of unreleased material. On April 21, 2016, at the age of 57, Prince died after accidentally overdosing on counterfeit hydrocodone/paracetamol pills laced with fentanyl at his Paisley Park home and recording studio in Chanhassen, Minnesota.
Prince has sold more than 100 million records worldwide, making him one of the best-selling music artists of all time. His awards include the Grammy President's Merit Award, the American Music Awards for Achievement and of Merit, the Billboard Icon Award, an Academy Award, and a Golden Globe Award. He was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2004, the Rhythm and Blues Music Hall of Fame in 2016, the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 2024, and twice into the Black Music & Entertainment Walk of Fame in 2022.
== Early life ==
Prince Rogers Nelson was born at Mount Sinai Hospital in Minneapolis, Minnesota on June 7, 1958, to jazz singer Mattie Della (née Shaw) and pianist and songwriter John Lewis Nelson. All four of his grandparents were from Louisiana. The jazz drummer Louis Hayes was his paternal cousin.
Prince was named after his father's most popular stage name, Prince Rogers, which was used while performing with Della in a jazz group named the Prince Rogers Trio. In 1991, Prince's father told A Current Affair that he named his son "Prince" because he wanted Prince "to do everything I wanted to do". During his childhood, Prince was not fond of his name and used "Skipper" instead. Prince said he was "born epileptic" and had seizures when he was young. He stated, "My mother told me one day I walked in to her and said, 'Mom, I'm not going to be sick anymore,' and she said, 'Why?' and I said, 'Because an angel told me so.'" Prince's younger sister, Tyka, was born on May 18, 1960. Both siblings developed a keen interest in music, which was encouraged by their father. His parents were both members of the Seventh-day Adventist Church, a Protestant denomination.
In 2022, during a Minneapolis teachers' strike, Minneapolis–Saint Paul news station WCCO-TV was researching a previous teacher's strike in April 1970 and accidentally uncovered an interview they had done with Prince about that strike. Prince, who was 11 years old at the time, said about the strike, "I think they should get a better education too cause, um, and I think they should get some more money cause they work, they be working extra hours for us and all that stuff." While he never identifies himself in the interview, it was confirmed to be him through interviews with a historian in Minneapolis, as well as by a former classmate who was a member of Prince's first band. The video is one of few videos from his childhood.
Prince wrote his first song, titled "Funk Machine", on his father's piano when he was seven years old. When he was ten, his parents divorced. His mother remarried Hayward Baker, with whom she had a son named Omarr. Prince had a fraught relationship with Omarr, to the extent that it caused him to repeatedly switch homes, sometimes living with his father and sometimes with his mother and stepfather. Baker took Prince to see James Brown in concert, with Prince crediting Baker with improving the family's finances. After a brief period of living with his father, who bought him his first guitar, Prince moved into the basement of the Anderson family, who were his neighbors, after his father threw him out. He befriended the Andersons' son, André Cymone, who later collaborated with Prince.
Prince briefly attended Minneapolis's Bryant Junior High, after which he moved to Central High School where he played football, basketball, and baseball. He played on Central's junior varsity basketball team, and continued to recreationally play basketball as an adult. He was trained in classical ballet at the Minnesota Dance Theatre through the Urban Arts Program of Minneapolis Public Schools. Prince became an advocate for dancers, and used his wealth to save the failing Joffrey Ballet in Chicago during the 1990s. He met songwriter and producer Jimmy Jam in 1973 and impressed Jam with his musical talent, early mastery of a wide range of instruments, and work ethic.
== Career ==
=== 1975–1980: Beginnings and breakthrough ===
In 1975, Pepe Willie, the husband of one of Prince's cousins, formed the band 94 East with Marcy Ingvoldstad and Kristie Lazenberry, hiring André Cymone and Prince to record tracks. Willie wrote the songs, with Prince contributing guitar tracks, both of them co-writing the 94 East song, "Just Another Sucker". The band recorded tracks which later appeared in the album Minneapolis Genius – The Historic 1977 Recordings. In 1976, shortly after graduating from Central High School, Prince created a demo tape with producer Chris Moon, in Moon's Minneapolis studio. Unable to secure a recording contract, Moon brought the tape to Owen Husney, a Minneapolis businessman. Husney signed Prince, then aged 19, to a management contract, and helped him create a demo at Sound 80 Studios in Minneapolis, with producer/engineer David Z. The demo recording, along with a press kit produced at Husney's ad agency, resulted in interest from several record companies, including Warner Bros. Records, A&M Records, and Columbia Records.
With the help of Husney, Prince signed a recording contract with Warner Bros. Records in 1977. The record company agreed to give Prince creative control for three albums and retain his publishing rights. Husney and Prince then left Minneapolis and moved to Sausalito, California, where Prince's first album, For You, was recorded at Record Plant Studios. The album was mixed in Los Angeles and released on April 7, 1978. According to the For You album notes, Prince wrote, produced, arranged, composed, and played all 27 instruments on the recording, except for the song "Soft and Wet", whose lyrics were co-written by Moon. The cost of recording the album was twice Prince's initial advance. Prince used the Prince's Music Co. to publish his songs. In the United States, "Soft and Wet" reached No. 12 on the Hot Soul Singles chart and No. 92 on the Billboard Hot 100. The song "Just as Long as We’re Together" reached No. 91 on the Hot Soul Singles chart.
Around this time, a side enterprise that Prince began to pursue involved a then-teenage singer Sue Ann Carwell, whose career as a solo artist he hoped to mold after hearing her talented performance on the Minneapolis R&B scene. However, Carwell resisted his suggestion that she use the name "Susie Stone". Recordings he had been working on with her for a projected 1978 album, including "I'm Saving It Up", "Make It Through the Storm", "Since We've Been Together" and "Wouldn't You Love To Love Me?", went unreleased. Carwell was subsequently signed by Warner Bros. Records.
In 1979, Prince created a band with André Cymone on bass, Dez Dickerson on guitar, Gayle Chapman and Doctor Fink on keyboards, and Bobby Z. on drums. Their first show was at the Capri Theater on January 5, 1979. Warner Bros. executives attended the show but decided that Prince and the band needed more time to develop his music. In October 1979, Prince released the album Prince, which reached No. 4 on the Billboard Top R&B/Black Albums charts and No. 22 on the Billboard 200, and went platinum. It contained two R&B hits: "Why You Wanna Treat Me So Bad?" and "I Wanna Be Your Lover", which sold more than a million copies, and reached No. 11 on the Billboard Hot 100 and stayed at No. 1 for two weeks on the Hot Soul Singles chart. Prince performed both songs on January 26, 1980, on American Bandstand.
=== 1980–1983: Dirty Mind, Controversy and 1999 ===
In 1980, Prince released the album Dirty Mind, which contained sexually explicit material, including the title song "Head", and the song "Sister", and was described by Stephen Thomas Erlewine as a "stunning, audacious amalgam of funk, new wave, R&B, and pop, fueled by grinningly salacious sex and the desire to shock". Recorded in Prince's studio, this album was certified gold, with the single "Uptown" reaching No. 5 on the Billboard Dance chart and No. 5 on the Hot Soul Singles chart. Prince was also the opening act for Rick James' 1980 Fire It Up tour.
In February 1981, Prince made his first appearance on Saturday Night Live, performing "Partyup". In October 1981, Prince released the album Controversy. He played several dates in support of it, as the first of three opening acts for the Rolling Stones, on their United States tour. In Los Angeles, Prince, who appeared in a trench coat and black bikini briefs, was forced off the stage after just three songs by audience members throwing trash at him. The songs on Controversy were published by Controversy Music – ASCAP, a practice he continued until the Emancipation album in 1996. Controversy also marked the introduction of Prince's use of abbreviated spelling, such as writing the words "you" as "U", "to" as "2", and "for" as "4"; by 2002, MTV News noted that "now all of his titles, liner notes, and Web postings are written in his own shorthand spelling, as seen on 1999's Rave Un2 the Joy Fantastic, which featured 'Hot Wit U.'"
In 1981, Prince formed a side project band called The Time. The band released four albums between 1981 and 1990, with Prince writing and performing most of the instrumentation and backing vocals—sometimes being credited under the pseudonyms "Jamie Starr" or "The Starr Company"—with lead vocals by Morris Day.
In late 1982, Prince released a double album, 1999, which sold more than four million copies. The title track was a protest against nuclear proliferation and became Prince's first top 10 hit in countries outside the United States. Prince's "Little Red Corvette" was one of the first two videos by black artists—along with Michael Jackson's "Billie Jean"—played in heavy rotation on MTV, which had been perceived as against "black music" until CBS President Walter Yetnikoff threatened to pull all CBS videos. Prince and Jackson had a competitive rivalry which lasted for many years. The song "Delirious" also placed in the top ten on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. "International Lover" earned Prince his first Grammy Award nomination at the 26th Annual Grammy Awards.
=== 1984–1987: Purple Rain, Around the World in a Day and Parade ===
Starting with the release of 1999, the backing band for Prince would be referred to as the Revolution. The band's name was printed in reverse on the cover of 1999 inside the letter "I" of the word "Prince". The band consisted of Lisa Coleman and Doctor Fink on keyboards, Bobby Z. on drums, Brown Mark on bass, and Dez Dickerson on guitar. Jill Jones, a backing singer, was also part of the lineup for the 1999 album and tour. Following the tour, Dickerson left the group for religious reasons. In the book Possessed: The Rise and Fall of Prince (2003), author Alex Hahn says that Dickerson was reluctant to sign a three-year contract and wanted to pursue other musical ventures. Dickerson was replaced by Coleman's friend Wendy Melvoin. At first, the band was used sparsely in the studio, but this gradually changed during 1983.
According to his former manager Bob Cavallo, in the early 1980s, Prince required his management to obtain a deal for him to star in a major motion picture, even though his exposure at that point was limited to several pop and R&B hits, music videos and occasional TV performances. In 1984, this resulted in the hit film Purple Rain—which starred Prince and was loosely autobiographical—and the eponymous studio album, which was also the soundtrack to the film. The Purple Rain album sold more than 13 million copies in the United States and spent 24 consecutive weeks at No. 1 on the Billboard 200 chart. The film won Prince an Academy Award for Best Original Song Score and grossed more than $68 million in the US, or $206 million in 2024 dollars. It is regarded as one of the greatest musical films. Songs from the film were hits on pop charts around the world; "When Doves Cry" and "Let's Go Crazy" reached No. 1 on the Billboard Hot 100, with the title track reaching No. 2. At one point in 1984, Prince simultaneously had the No. 1 album, single, and film in the United States, being the first singer to achieve this feat. The Purple Rain album is ranked 8th in Rolling Stone's "500 Greatest Albums of All Time", and is also included on the list of Time's All-Time 100 Albums. The album also produced two of Prince's first three Grammy Awards earned at the 27th Annual Grammy Awards: Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal, and Best Score Soundtrack for Visual Media.
In 1984, pop artist Andy Warhol created the painting Orange Prince. Warhol was fascinated by Prince and ultimately created a total of twelve unique paintings of him in different colorways, all of which were kept in Warhol's personal collection. Four of these paintings are now in the collection of The Andy Warhol Museum in Pittsburgh. In November 1984, Vanity Fair published Warhol's portrait to accompany the article Purple Fame by Tristan Fox, and claimed that Warhol's silkscreen image of Prince with its pop colors captured the recording artist "at the height of his powers".
After Tipper Gore heard her 11-year-old daughter Karenna listening to Prince's song "Darling Nikki", which gained wide notoriety for its sexual lyrics and a reference to masturbation, she founded the Parents Music Resource Center. The center advocated the mandatory use of a warning label, now known as Parental Advisory, on the covers of records that have been judged to contain language or lyrical content unsuitable for minors. The recording industry later voluntarily complied with this request.
In 1985, Prince released Around the World in a Day, which held the No. 1 spot on the Billboard 200 for three weeks. From that album, the single "Raspberry Beret" reached No. 2 on the Billboard Hot 100, and "Pop Life" reached No. 7.
In 1986, his album Parade, the soundtrack for the movie Under the Cherry Moon released in the same year, reached No. 3 on the Billboard 200 and No. 2 on the R&B charts. The first single, "Kiss", with its video choreographed by Louis Falco, reached No. 1 on the Billboard Hot 100. In the same year, the song "Manic Monday", written by Prince and recorded by the Bangles, reached No. 2 on the Hot 100 chart.
Although the Parade album went platinum and sold two million copies, the film received a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Picture, tied with Howard the Duck, and Prince received Golden Raspberry Awards for Worst Director, Worst Actor, and Worst Original Song for the song "Love or Money". Some critics later re-evaluated Under the Cherry Moon after Prince's death and declared it a cult classic, comparing it to films such as 8½, Casablanca and It Happened One Night.
In 1986, Prince began a series of live performances called the Parade Tour. After the tour, Prince disbanded the Revolution and fired Wendy Melvoin and Lisa Coleman. Brown Mark also quit the band, with only keyboardist Doctor Fink remaining. Following this, Miko Weaver, Atlanta Bliss, and Eric Leeds joined the band.
=== 1987–1989: Sign o' the Times and Lovesexy ===
Before disbanding the Revolution, Prince was working on two separate projects, an album with The Revolution titled Dream Factory, and a solo album named Camille. Unlike the three previous band albums, Dream Factory included input from the band members and featured songs with lead vocals by Wendy & Lisa. The Camille project saw Prince create a new androgynous persona primarily singing in a sped-up, female-sounding voice. With the dismissal of the Revolution, Prince consolidated material from both shelved albums, along with other songs, into a three-LP album to be titled Crystal Ball. Warner Bros. forced Prince to trim the triple album to a double album, releasing Sign o' the Times on March 31, 1987.
The album peaked at No. 6 on the Billboard 200 albums chart. The first single, "Sign o' the Times", charted at No. 3 on the Hot 100. The follow-up single, "If I Was Your Girlfriend", charted at No. 67 on the Hot 100 but reached No. 12 on R&B chart. The third single, a duet with Sheena Easton, "U Got the Look", charted at No. 2 on the Hot 100 and No. 11 on the R&B chart, and the final single, "I Could Never Take the Place of Your Man", charted at No. 10 on Hot 100 and No. 14 on the R&B chart. It was named the top album of the year by the Pazz & Jop critics' poll and sold 3.2 million copies. In Europe, it performed well, with Prince promoting the album with a lengthy tour. Putting together a new backing band from the remnants of the Revolution, Prince added bassist Levi Seacer Jr., keyboardist Boni Boyer, and dancer/choreographer Cat Glover with drummer Sheila E. and holdovers Miko Weaver, Doctor Fink, Eric Leeds, Atlanta Bliss, and the Bodyguards Wally Safford and Greg Brooks for the Sign o' the Times Tour.
The Sign o' the Times tour was a success overseas, with Warner Bros. and Prince's managers wanting to bring it to the United States to promote sales of the album. Prince did not approve of a full United States tour, as he was ready to produce a new album. As a compromise, the last two nights of the tour were filmed for release in movie theaters. The film quality was deemed subpar, and reshoots were performed at Prince's Paisley Park studios. The film Sign o' the Times was released on November 20, 1987. The film got better reviews than Under the Cherry Moon, but its box-office receipts were minimal, and it quickly left theaters.
The next album intended for release was The Black Album. More instrumental and funk- and R&B-themed than recent releases, The Black Album also saw Prince experiment with hip hop on the songs "Bob George" and "Dead on It". Prince was set to release the album with a monochromatic black cover with only the catalog number printed, but after 500,000 copies had been pressed, Prince had a spiritual epiphany that the album was "evil" and had it recalled. Surviving vinyl copies of the album have sold for upwards of $10 thousand. The Black Album was re-released in 1994.
Prince went back in the studio for eight weeks and recorded Lovesexy. Released on May 10, 1988, Lovesexy serves as a spiritual opposite to the dark The Black Album. Every song is a solo effort by Prince, except "Eye No", which was recorded with his backing band at the time. Lovesexy reached No. 11 on the Billboard 200 and No. 5 on the R&B albums chart. The lead single, "Alphabet St.", peaked at No. 8 on the Hot 100 and No. 3 on the R&B chart, selling 750,000 copies. Prince again took his post-Revolution backing band, excluding the Bodyguards, on a three-leg, 84-show Lovesexy World Tour; although the shows were well-received by huge crowds, they failed to make a net profit due to the expensive sets and props.
=== 1989–1991: Batman and Graffiti Bridge ===
In 1989, Prince appeared on Madonna's studio album Like a Prayer, co-writing and singing the duet "Love Song" and playing electric guitar without being credited on the songs "Like a Prayer", "Keep It Together", and "Act of Contrition". He also began work on several musical projects, including Rave Unto the Joy Fantastic and early drafts of his Graffiti Bridge film, but both were put on hold when he was asked by Batman director Tim Burton to record several songs for the upcoming live-action adaptation. Prince went into the studio and produced an entire nine-track album that Warner Bros. released on June 20, 1989.
Batman's soundtrack peaked at No. 1 on the Billboard 200, selling 4.3 million copies. The single "Batdance" topped the Billboard Hot 100 and R&B charts. The single "The Arms of Orion", with Sheena Easton, charted at No. 36, and "Partyman" charted at No. 18 on the Hot 100 and at No. 5 on the R&B chart, while the love ballad "Scandalous!" went to No. 5 on the R&B chart. Prince had to sign away all publishing rights to the songs on the album to Warner Bros. as part of the deal to do the soundtrack.
In 1990, Prince went back on tour with a revamped band for his back-to-basics Nude Tour. With the departures of Boni Boyer, Sheila E., the Horns, and Cat, Prince brought in keyboardist Rosie Gaines, drummer Michael Bland, and dancing trio the Game Boyz (Tony M., Kirky J., and Damon Dickson). The European and Japanese tour was a financial success with a short, greatest hits setlist. In 1990, Prince finished production on his fourth film, Graffiti Bridge, and its soundtrack. Initially, Warner Bros. was reluctant to fund the film, but with Prince's assurances it would be a sequel to Purple Rain, as well as the involvement of the original members of the Time, the studio greenlit the project.
Released on August 20, 1990, the album reached No. 6 on the Billboard 200 and R&B albums chart. The single "Thieves in the Temple" reached No. 6 on the Hot 100 and No. 1 on the R&B chart, with "Round and Round" placing at No. 12 on the United States charts and No. 2 on the R&B charts. The song featured the teenage Tevin Campbell, who also had a role in the film, on lead vocals. The film, released on November 20, 1990, was a box-office flop, grossing $4.2 million. Miko Weaver and Doctor Fink, the last remaining members of the Revolution, would leave Prince's band shortly after.
=== 1991–1996: Name change, Diamonds and Pearls and The Gold Experience ===
1991 began with a performance in Rock in Rio II, marking the debut of Prince's new band, the New Power Generation. With guitarist Miko Weaver and long-time keyboardist Doctor Fink leaving, Prince added bass player Sonny T., keyboard player Tommy Barbarella, and a brass section known as the Hornheads to go along with Levi Seacer, who would be taking over on guitar, Rosie Gaines, Michael Bland, and the Game Boyz. With significant input from his band members, Diamonds and Pearls was released on October 1, 1991. Reaching No. 3 on the Billboard 200 album chart, Diamonds and Pearls saw four hit singles released in the United States. "Gett Off" peaked at No. 21 on the Hot 100 and No. 6 on the R&B charts, followed by "Cream", which gave Prince his fifth United States No. 1 single. The title track "Diamonds and Pearls" became the album's third single, reaching No. 3 on the Hot 100 and the top spot on the R&B charts. "Money Don't Matter 2 Night" peaked at No. 23 and No. 14 on the Hot 100 and R&B charts respectively. Diamonds and Pearls would sell more than 2 million copies in the United States alone.
In 1992, following the success of Diamonds and Pearls, Prince renewed his contract with Warner Bros., agreeing to what was reportedly a $100 million deal to release six more albums with the label. In October, Prince released his 14th studio album, named , being the second to feature the New Power Generation. It bore only an unpronounceable symbol on the cover, which would later be copyrighted as "Love Symbol #2", as its title; the symbol was explained as being a combination of the symbols for male (♂) and female (♀). It was preceded by the releases of the singles "Sexy MF" and "My Name Is Prince", which reached No. 66 and No. 36 respectively on the Billboard Hot 100. The third single, "7" would peak at No. 7 on the Billboard Hot 100. The album, later referred to as Love Symbol, peaked at No. 5 on the Billboard 200 and went on to sell 2.8 million copies worldwide, falling short of expectations.
In 1993, in rebellion against Warner Bros., which refused to release Prince's enormous backlog of music at a steady pace, Prince formally adopted as his stage name. To use the symbol in print media, Warner Bros. organized a mass mailing of floppy disks with a custom font. At this time, Prince was often referred to as "the Artist Formerly Known as Prince" or "the Artist". That same year, Warner Bros. released a greatest hits compilation with the three-disc The Hits/The B-Sides in 1993. The first two discs were also sold separately as The Hits 1 and The Hits 2. The collection features the majority of Prince's hit singles, and several previously hard-to-find recordings, including B-sides from across Prince's career and previously unreleased tracks such as the Revolution-recorded "Power Fantastic" and a live recording of "Nothing Compares 2 U" with Rosie Gaines. Two new songs, "Pink Cashmere" and "Peach", were chosen as promotional singles.
In 1994, Warner Bros. allowed the single "The Most Beautiful Girl in the World" to be released via independent distributor Bellmark Records in February. The release reached No. 3 on the United States Billboard Hot 100 and No. 1 in many other countries. Prince began to release albums in quick succession as a means of releasing himself from his contractual obligations to Warner Bros. This led to the previously aborted Black Album being given a limited official release seven years after its initial recording. Prince pushed to have his next two albums, Come and The Gold Experience, released simultaneously. Warner Bros. accepted both albums, but delayed the release of The Gold Experience, fearing market saturation. In retaliation, Prince began making public appearances with "slave" written on his face. The Gold Experience would not be released until September 1995. The album was not in print for a long period due to a plagiarism case relating to "The Most Beautiful Girl in the World", but the album was released on streaming platforms with Prince’s catalog in 2018, and reissued on CD and vinyl in 2022.
In 1996, the album Chaos and Disorder was released. Prince submitted another album titled The Vault: Old Friends 4 Sale to Warner Bros. that same year, completing his contract with the label. Although the album was not released until 1999, Warner Bros. agreed to release Prince from his contract now that he had delivered the promised number of albums to them.
=== 1996–2000: Emancipation, Crystal Ball and Rave Un2 the Joy Fantastic ===
Free of any further contractual obligations to Warner Bros., Prince attempted a major comeback later that year with the release of Emancipation, a 36-song, three-CD set, with each disc being exactly 60 minutes long. The album was released via his own label, named NPG Records, with distribution through EMI. Emancipation was certified Platinum by the RIAA. It is the first Prince record featuring covers of other artists' songs. Prince covered Joan Osborne's top ten hit song of 1995 "One of Us", Thom Bell and Linda Creed's "Betcha by Golly Wow!", James Allen Shamblin II and Michael Barry Reid's "I Can't Make You Love Me", and Thom Bell and William Hart's "La-La (Means I Love You)".
Prince released Crystal Ball, a five-CD collection of unreleased material, in 1998. The distribution of this album was disorderly, with some fans pre-ordering the album on his website up to a year before it was shipped; these pre-orders were delivered months after the record had gone on sale in retail stores. The retail edition has only four discs, as it is missing the Kamasutra disc. There are also two different packaging editions for retail; one is a four-disc sized jewel case with a white cover and the Love Symbol in a colored circle, while the other contains all four discs in a round translucent snap jewel case. The discs are the same, as is the CD jacket. The Newpower Soul album was released three months later. His collaborations on Chaka Khan's Come 2 My House and Larry Graham's GCS2000, both released on the NPG label around the same time as Newpower Soul, were promoted by live appearances on Vibe with Sinbad and the NBC Today show's Summer Concert Series.
In 1999, Prince once again signed with a major label, Arista Records, to release a new record, Rave Un2 the Joy Fantastic. The pay-per-view concert, Rave Un2 the Year 2000, was broadcast on December 31, 1999, and consisted of footage from the December 17 and 18 concerts of his 1999 tour. The concert featured appearances by guest musicians, including Lenny Kravitz, George Clinton, Jimmy Russell, and the Time. It was released to home video the following year.
=== 2000–2004: Internet releases and Musicology ===
On May 16, 2000, Prince stopped using the Love Symbol as his name, since his publishing contract with Warner/Chappell had expired. In a press conference, he stated that after being freed from undesirable relationships associated with the name "Prince", he would revert to using his real name. Nevertheless, Prince continued to use the symbol as a logo and on album artwork and to play a Love Symbol–shaped guitar. For several years following the release of Rave Un2 the Joy Fantastic, Prince primarily released new music through his Internet subscription service, NPGOnlineLtd.com, which later became NPGMusicClub.com. The albums released during this period include remix album Rave In2 the Joy Fantastic and The Rainbow Children in 2001, One Nite Alone... in 2002, and Xpectation in 2003.
In 2001, Warner Bros. released a second compilation album, The Very Best of Prince, containing most of his commercially successful singles from the 1980s. In 2002, Prince released his first live album, One Nite Alone... Live!, which features performances from the One Nite Alone...Tour. The three-CD box set also includes a disc of "aftershow" music entitled It Ain't Over!. During this time, Prince sought to engage more effectively with his fan base via the NPG Music Club, pre-concert sound checks, and at yearly "celebrations" at Paisley Park. Fans were invited into the studio for tours, interviews, discussions and music-listening sessions. Some of these fan discussions were filmed for an unreleased documentary, directed by Kevin Smith.
On February 8, 2004, Prince appeared at the 46th Annual Grammy Awards with Beyoncé. In a performance that opened the show, they performed a medley of "Purple Rain", "Let's Go Crazy", "Baby I'm a Star", and Beyoncé's "Crazy in Love". The following month, Prince was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. The award was presented to him by Alicia Keys along with Big Boi and André 3000 of OutKast. As well as performing a trio of his own hits during the ceremony, Prince also participated in a tribute to fellow inductee George Harrison in a rendering of Harrison's "While My Guitar Gently Weeps", playing a two-minute guitar solo that ended the song. He also performed the song "Red House" as "Purple House" on the album Power of Soul: A Tribute to Jimi Hendrix.
In April 2004, Prince released Musicology through a one-album agreement with Columbia. The album rose as high as the top five on some international charts (including the US, UK, Germany, and Australia). The United States chart success was assisted by the CDs being included as part of the concert ticket purchase, thereby qualifying each CD (as chart rules then stood) to count toward United States chart placement. Three months later, Spin named him the greatest frontman of all time. That same year, Rolling Stone magazine named Prince as the highest-earning musician in the world, with an annual income of $56.5 million, largely due to his Musicology Tour, which Pollstar named as the top concert draw among musicians in the US. He played 96 concerts; the average ticket price for a show was US$61 (equivalent to $102 in 2024). Musicology went on to receive two Grammy wins, for Best Male R&B Vocal Performance for "Call My Name" and Best Traditional R&B Vocal Performance for the title track. Musicology was also nominated for Best R&B Song and Best R&B Album, and "Cinnamon Girl" was nominated for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance. Rolling Stone ranked Prince No. 27 on their list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time.
=== 2005–2007: Musicology ===
In April 2005, Prince played guitar (along with En Vogue singing backing vocals) on Stevie Wonder's single "So What the Fuss", Wonder's first since 1999. In late 2005, Prince signed with Universal Music to release his album, 3121, on March 21, 2006. The first single was "Te Amo Corazón", the video for which was directed by actress Salma Hayek and filmed in Marrakesh, Morocco, featuring Argentine actress and singer Mía Maestro. The video for the second single, "Black Sweat", was nominated at the MTV VMAs for Best Cinematography. The immediate success of 3121 gave Prince his first No. 1 debut on the Billboard 200 with the album.
To promote the new album, Prince was the musical guest on Saturday Night Live on February 4, 2006, 17 years after his last SNL appearance on the 15th-anniversary special, and nearly 25 years since his first appearance on a regular episode in 1981. At the 2006 Webby Awards on June 12, Prince received a Webby Lifetime Achievement Award in recognition of his "visionary use of the Internet to distribute music and connect with audiences", exemplified by his decision to release his album Crystal Ball (1998) exclusively online.
In July 2006, weeks after winning a Webby Award, Prince shut down his NPG Music Club website, after more than five years of operation. On the day of the music club's shutdown, a lawsuit was filed against Prince by the British company HM Publishing (owners of the Nature Publishing Group, also NPG). Despite these events occurring on the same day, Prince's attorney stated that the site did not close due to the trademark dispute. Prince appeared at multiple award ceremonies in 2006: on February 15, he performed at the 2006 Brit Awards, along with Wendy & Lisa and Sheila E., and on June 27, Prince appeared at the 2006 BET Awards, where he was awarded Best Male R&B Artist. Prince performed a medley of Chaka Khan songs for Khan's BET Lifetime Achievement Award.
In November 2006, Prince was inducted into the UK Music Hall of Fame; he appeared to collect his award but did not perform. Also in November 2006, Prince opened a nightclub called 3121, in Las Vegas at the Rio All Suite Hotel and Casino. He performed weekly on Friday and Saturday nights until April 2007, when his contract with the Rio ended. On August 22, 2006, Prince released Ultimate Prince. The double-disc set contains one CD of previous hits, and another of extended versions and mixes of material that had largely only previously been available on vinyl record B-sides. That same year, Prince wrote and performed a song for the hit animated film Happy Feet (2006). The song – "The Song of the Heart" – appears on the film's soundtrack, which also features a cover of Prince's earlier hit "Kiss", sung by Nicole Kidman and Hugh Jackman. In January 2007, "The Song of the Heart" won a Golden Globe for Best Original Song.
=== 2007–2010: Super Bowl XLI show, Planet Earth and Lotusflower ===
On February 4, 2007, Prince played at the Super Bowl XLI halftime show in Miami, on a large stage shaped like his symbol. The event was carried to 140 million television viewers, his biggest-ever audience. His 12-minute performance in the rain began with an intro of the Queen song "We Will Rock You" and concluded with "Purple Rain". In 2015, Billboard ranked it the greatest Super Bowl performance ever.
Prince played 21 concerts at the O2 Arena in London during the Earth Tour in mid-2007. Tickets for the 20,000-capacity venue were capped by Prince at £31.21 ($48.66). Featuring Maceo Parker in his band, Prince's residency at the O2 Arena was increased to 15 nights after all 140,000 tickets for the original seven sold out in 20 minutes, before it was then further extended to 21 nights.
Prince performed with Sheila E. at the 2007 ALMA Awards. On June 28, 2007, the Mail on Sunday stated that it had made a deal to give Prince's new album, Planet Earth, away for free with the paper, making it the first place in the world to get the album. This move sparked controversy among music distributors and also led the UK arm of Prince's distributor, Sony BMG, to withdraw from distributing the album in UK stores. The UK's largest high street music retailer, HMV, stocked the paper on release day due to the giveaway. On July 7, 2007, Prince returned to Minneapolis to perform three shows. He performed concerts at the Macy's Auditorium (to promote his new perfume "3121") on Nicollet Mall, the Target Center arena, and First Avenue. It was the first time he had played at First Avenue (the club appeared in the film Purple Rain) since 1987.
From 2008, Prince was managed by UK-based Kiran Sharma. On April 25, 2008, Prince performed on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, where he debuted a new song, "Turn Me Loose". Days after, he headlined the 2008 Coachella Festival. Prince was paid more than $5 million for his performance at Coachella, according to Reuters. Prince canceled a concert, planned at Dublin's Croke Park on June 16, 2008, at 10 days' notice. In October 2009 promoters MCD Productions went to court to sue him for €1.6 million to refund 55,126 tickets. Prince settled the case out of court in February 2010 for $2.95 million. During the trial, it was said that Prince had been offered $22 million for seven concerts as part of a proposed 2008 European tour. In October 2008, Prince released a live album entitled Indigo Nights, a collection of songs performed live at aftershows in the IndigO2.
Prince premiered four songs from his new album on LA's Indie rock radio station Indie 103.1 on December 18, 2008. The radio station's programmers Max Tolkoff and Mark Sovel had been invited to Prince's home to hear the new rock-oriented music. Prince gave them a CD with four songs to premiere on their radio station. The music debuted the next day on Jonesy's Jukebox, hosted by former Sex Pistol Steve Jones.
On January 3, 2009, the new website LotusFlow3r.com was launched; streaming and selling some of the recently aired material and concert tickets. On January 31, Prince released two more songs on LotusFlow3r.com: "Disco Jellyfish", and "Another Boy". "Chocolate Box", "Colonized Mind", and "All This Love" were later released on the website. Prince released a triple album set containing Lotusflower, MPLSoUND, and an album credited to Bria Valente, called Elixer, on March 24, 2009, followed by a physical release on March 29.
On July 18, 2009, Prince performed two shows at the Montreux Jazz Festival, backed by the New Power Generation, including Rhonda Smith, Renato Neto and John Blackwell. On October 11, 2009, he gave two surprise concerts at the Grand Palais in Paris. On October 12, he gave another surprise performance at La Cigale. On October 24, Prince played a concert at Paisley Park.
=== 2010–2016: Final albums ===
In January 2010, Prince wrote a new song, "Purple and Gold", inspired by his visit to a Minnesota Vikings football game against the Dallas Cowboys. The following month, he let Minneapolis-St. Paul public radio station 89.3 The Current premiere his new song "Cause and Effect" as a gesture in support of independent radio.
In 2010, Prince was listed in Time's annual ranking of the "100 Most Influential People in the World". He released a new single on Minneapolis-St. Paul radio station 89.3 The Current called "Hot Summer" on June 7, his 52nd birthday. The same month, Prince appeared on the cover of the July 2010 issue of Ebony magazine, and he received the Lifetime Achievement Award at the 2010 BET Awards.
Prince released his album 20Ten in July 2010 as a free covermount with publications in the UK, Belgium, Germany, and France. He refused album access to digital download services and closed LotusFlow3r.com. On July 4, 2010, Prince began his 20Ten Tour, a concert tour in two legs, with shows in Europe. The second leg began on October 15 and ended with a concert following the Abu Dhabi Grand Prix on November 14. The second half of the tour had a new band, John Blackwell, Ida Kristine Nielsen, and Sheila E. Prince let radio station Europe 1 debut the snippet of his new song "Rich Friends" from the new album 20Ten Deluxe on October 8, 2010. He embarked on the Welcome 2 Tour on December 15, 2010. Prince was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame on December 7, 2010.
Prince presented Barbra Streisand with an award and donated $1.5 million to charities on February 12, 2011. On the same day, it was reported that he had not authorized the television show Glee to cover his hit "Kiss", in an episode that had already been filmed. Prince headlined the Hop Farm Festival on July 3, 2011, marking his first UK show since 2007 and his first-ever UK festival appearance. Despite having previously rejected the Internet for music distribution, on November 24, 2011, he released a reworked version of the previously unreleased song "Extraloveable" through both iTunes and Spotify. Purple Music, a Switzerland-based record label, released a CD single titled "Dance 4 Me" on December 12, 2011, as part of a club remixes package including the Bria Valente CD single "2 Nite" released on February 23, 2012. The CD features club remixes by Jamie Lewis and David Alexander, produced by Prince.
In January 2013, Prince released a lyric video for a new song called "Screwdriver". In April 2013, Prince announced a West Coast tour titled Live Out Loud Tour with 3rdeyegirl as his backing band. The final two dates of the first leg of the tour were in Minneapolis-St. Paul, where former Revolution drummer Bobby Z. sat in as guest drummer on both shows. In May, Prince announced a deal with Kobalt Music to market and distribute his music. On August 14, 2013, Prince released a new solo single for download through the 3rdeyegirl.com website. The single "Breakfast Can Wait" had cover art featuring comedian Dave Chappelle's impersonation of him, from a 2004 second-season Chappelle's Show comedy sketch on Comedy Central.
In February 2014, he performed concerts with 3rdeyegirl in London titled the Hit and Run Tour. Beginning with intimate shows, the first was held at the London home of singer Lianne La Havas, followed by two performances of what Prince described as a "sound check" at the Electric Ballroom in Camden, and another at Shepherd's Bush Empire. On April 18, 2014, Prince released a new single entitled "The Breakdown". He re-signed with his former label, Warner Bros. Records after an 18-year split. Warner announced that Prince would release a remastered deluxe edition of Purple Rain in 2014 to celebrate the 30th anniversary of the album. In return, Warner gave Prince ownership of the master recordings of his recordings with the company.
In February 2014, Prince began what was billed as his "Hit N Run Part One" tour. This involved Prince's Twitter followers keeping an avid eye on second-by-second information as to the whereabouts of his shows. Many of these shows would only be announced on the day of the concert, and many of these concerts involved two performances: a matinee and an evening show. These shows began at Camden's Electric Ballroom, billed as "Soundchecks", and spread throughout the UK capital to KoKo Club, in Camden, Shepherd's Bush Empire and various other small venues. After his London dates, he moved on to other European cities. In May 2014, Prince began his "Hit N Run Part Two" shows, which followed a more normal style of purchasing tickets online and being held in music arenas. In Spring 2014, he launched NPG Publishing, a music company to administer his own music and that of other artists without the restrictions of mainstream record companies.
In May 2015, following the killing of Freddie Gray in police custody and the subsequent riots, Prince released a song, "Baltimore", in tribute to Gray and in support of the protesters in that city. He also held a tribute concert for Gray at his Paisley Park estate called "Dance Rally 4 Peace" in which he encouraged fans to wear the color gray in honor of Freddie Gray. On May 10, he performed a special concert at the Royal Farms Arena in Baltimore called "Rally 4 Peace", which featured a special appearance by Baltimore State's Attorney Marilyn Mosby, and one set performed by Prince alone at a keyboard.
Prince's penultimate album, Hit n Run Phase One, was first made available on September 7, 2015, on the music streaming service Tidal before being released on CD and for download on September 14. His final album, Hit n Run Phase Two, was meant as a continuation of this, and was released on Tidal for streaming and download on December 12, 2015. In February 2016, Prince embarked on the Piano & A Microphone Tour, a tour that saw his show stripped back to only him and a custom piano on stage. He performed a series of warm-up shows at Paisley Park in late January 2016 and the tour commenced in Melbourne, Australia, on February 16, 2016, to critical acclaim. The Australian and New Zealand legs of the tour were played in small-capacity venues, including the Sydney Opera House. Hit n Run Phase Two CDs were distributed to every attendee after each performance. The tour continued to the United States but was abruptly cut short by illness in April 2016.
== Illness and death ==
Prince saw Doctor Michael T. Schulenberg, a local specialist in family medicine, in Excelsior on April 7, 2016, and again on April 20. On April 7, he postponed two performances at the Fox Theatre in Atlanta from his Piano & a Microphone Tour; the venue released a statement saying he had influenza. He rescheduled and performed what was to be his final show on April 14, despite still not feeling well. While flying back to the Twin Cities early the next morning, he became unresponsive, and his private jet made an emergency landing at Quad Cities International Airport in Moline, Illinois, where he was hospitalized and received naloxone, a medication used to block the effects of opioids, especially following an overdose. Once he became conscious, he left against medical advice. Representatives said he was dehydrated and had had influenza for several weeks. Prince was seen cycling the next day in his hometown of Chanhassen. He shopped that evening at the Electric Fetus in Minneapolis for Record Store Day and made a brief appearance at an impromptu dance party at his Paisley Park recording studio complex, stating that he was feeling fine. On April 19, he attended a performance by singer Lizz Wright at the Dakota Jazz Club.
On April 20, 2016, Prince's representatives called Howard Kornfeld, a California specialist in addiction medicine and pain management, seeking medical help for the star. Kornfeld scheduled to meet with him on April 22, and he contacted a local physician who cleared his schedule for an exam on April 21. On April 21, at 9:43 am, the Carver County Sheriff's Office received a 911 call requesting an ambulance be sent to Prince's home at Paisley Park. The caller initially told the dispatcher that an unidentified person at the home was unconscious, then moments later said he was dead, and finally identified the person as Prince. The caller was Kornfeld's son, who had flown in with buprenorphine that morning to devise a treatment plan for opioid addiction. Emergency responders found Prince unresponsive in an elevator and performed CPR, but a paramedic said he had already been dead for at least six hours, and they were unable to revive him. They pronounced him dead at 10:07 am, 19 minutes after their arrival. There were no signs of suicide or foul play. A press release from the Midwest Medical Examiner's Office in Anoka County on June 2 stated that Prince had died of an accidental overdose of fentanyl, at the age of 57.
The fentanyl that led to his overdose was laced in counterfeit hydrocodone/paracetamol pills. The question of how and from what source Prince obtained the drug was the subject of investigations by several law enforcement agencies. A sealed search warrant was issued for his estate, and another unsealed search warrant was issued for the local Walgreens pharmacy. On April 19, 2018, the Carver County Attorney announced that the multi-agency investigation had ended with no criminal charges filed. The investigation did reveal that Prince was addicted to opioids.
Following an autopsy performed by A. Quinn Strobl, Prince's remains were cremated. On April 26, 2016, Prince's sister Tyka Nelson filed court documents in Carver County, to open a probate case, stating that no will had been found. As of his death, the twice-divorced Prince was neither married nor known to have fathered any surviving children. Under Minnesota law, the absence of a will meant that, in addition to his full sister, Prince's five half-siblings also had a claim to an estate totaling millions of dollars in cash as well as real estate, stocks, and cars. Within three weeks of his death, 700 people claimed to be half-siblings or descendants. Bremer Trust was given temporary control of his estate, had his vault drilled open, and was authorized to obtain a blood sample for DNA profiling from the coroner who had performed the autopsy.
Prince's ashes were placed into a custom 3D-printed urn shaped like the Paisley Park estate. The urn, which was co-designed by his sister Tyka and her son President, was placed on display in the atrium of the Paisley Park complex in October 2016. As of April 2019, no additional estate claimants were recognized by the courts besides Prince's full sister and five half-siblings. It was reported in August 2022 that the Prince estate had settled. Filings in the Minnesota First Judicial District ordered that the cash in Prince's estate be split evenly between Prince Legacy LLC and Prince OAT Holdings LLC.
=== Remembrances and reactions ===
Numerous musicians and cultural figures reacted to Prince's death. President Obama mourned him, and the United States Senate passed a resolution praising his achievements "as a musician, composer, innovator, and cultural icon". Cities across the U.S. held tributes and vigils, and lit buildings, bridges, and other structures in purple. In the first five hours after the media reported his death, "Prince" was the top trending (most-used) term on Twitter, and Facebook had 61 million Prince-related interactions. AMC Theatres and Carmike Cinemas screened Purple Rain in select theaters over the following week. Saturday Night Live aired an episode in his honor, titled "Goodnight, Sweet Prince", featuring his performances from the show.
Nielsen Music reported that sales of his material spiked 42,000 percent. The artist's catalog sold 4.41 million albums and songs from April 21 to 28, with five albums simultaneously in the top ten of the Billboard 200, a first in the chart's history. At the 59th Grammy Awards, Morris Day with the Time and Bruno Mars performed a tribute.
The May 2, 2016, cover of The New Yorker featured an illustration of purple rain. In June 2016 Vanity Fair/Condé Nast, released a special edition commemorative magazine, The Genius of Prince. It celebrated the star's life and achievements, with new photography and archive articles, including the original Vanity Fair article from November 1984, written in the wake of the singer-songwriter's breakout success, with other content from the magazine, The New Yorker, Wired, and Pitchfork. The cover of The Genius of Prince featured a portrait by Andy Warhol, Orange Prince (1984). Casts of the musicals The Color Purple and Hamilton paid tribute to the star during their curtain calls with "Purple Rain" and "Let's Go Crazy", respectively.
In 2016, Minnesota representative Joe Atkins introduced a bill in the state legislature to memorialize Prince with a statue in the National Statuary Hall in the United States Capitol, in recognition of his contributions to music and the state of Minnesota. As of 2020, however, the bill has not had a second reading.
On August 21, 2016, Prince was posthumously inducted into the Rhythm and Blues Music Hall of Fame.
== Posthumous projects ==
=== 2016–2019 ===
The first posthumous release from the Estate was 4Ever on November 22, 2016. It was a compilation of Prince's hits plus one previously unreleased song, "Moonbeam Levels", originally recorded for the 1999 sessions in 1982.
On February 9, 2017, Prince's estate signed a distribution deal with Universal Music Group, which includes the post-1995 recordings on his NPG Records label and unreleased tracks from his vault. On June 27, Comerica (acting on behalf of the estate) requested that Carver County District Judge Kevin Eide cancel the estate's deal with Universal, as UMG's contract would interfere with a contract with Warner Music Group that Prince signed in 2014. After Universal's attorneys were granted access to the Warner contract, the attorneys also offered to cancel the deal. On July 13, the court voided Universal's deal with Prince's estate, though Universal will continue to administer Prince's songwriting credits and create merchandise.
On April 19, an EP featuring six unreleased Prince recordings, Deliverance, was announced with an expected release date for later that week. The next day, Prince's estate was granted a temporary restraining order against George Ian Boxill, an engineer who co-produced the tracks and was in possession of the master tapes, and halted the release of the EP.
On June 23, a deluxe reissue of Purple Rain was released. The most expansive edition contained the first being a remaster of the original album made in 2015 and overseen by Prince himself, a bonus disc of previously unheard material called From the Vault & Previously Unreleased plus single and maxi-single edits, B-sides and the first DVD issue of Prince and the Revolution: Live recorded in Syracuse on the Purple Rain Tour. The album debuted at No. 4 on the Billboard 200 and at No. 1 on both the Billboard R&B Albums and Vinyl Albums charts.
In April 2018, the previously unreleased original recording of "Nothing Compares 2 U" from 1984 was released as a single. A music video was also released consisting of edited rehearsal footage shot in the summer of 1984. Troy Carter, adviser for Prince's estate, later announced in an interview with Variety that a full-length album was planned for release on September 28.
In June of that year, the Prince estate signed a distribution deal with Sony Music Entertainment including the rights to all of Prince's studio albums, plus unreleased music, remixes, live recordings, music videos and B-sides. From 2021 onwards, Prince's Warner Bros. albums from 1978–1996 are distributed by Sony/Legacy Recordings in the United States, with Warner Music Group still controlling the international rights.
On August 17, all 23 post-Warner Bros. albums by Prince were released digitally on streaming platforms, together with a new compilation album entitled Anthology: 1995–2010. Only one song remained unavailable to stream, "The Most Beautiful Girl in the World", due to a plagiarism lawsuit in Italy that was not resolved until 2022. On September 21, Piano and a Microphone 1983 was released, an intimate recording of Prince privately rehearsing with a piano.
The Sony/Legacy reissues began in 2019. Throughout that year, Musicology, 3121, Planet Earth, Rave Un2 the Joy Fantastic, Rave In2 the Joy Fantastic, Chaos and Disorder and Emancipation were reissued on CD and vinyl. Ultimate Rave was also released, a 2 CD and 1 DVD set which included the concert film of Rave Un2 the Year 2000. The Versace Experience - Prelude 2 Gold was also reissued for Record Store Day.
In June, a compilation of Prince's original recordings of songs given to other artists, entitled Originals, was released - initially exclusively through TIDAL, then later on CD and vinyl. In October, a single of Prince's previously unheard original acoustic demo of "I Feel for You" was released digitally and as a limited 7" single.
In October 2019, Prince's incomplete memoir The Beautiful Ones was published by Random House. Prince had worked on the memoir project with Dan Piepenbring during the Piano and a Microphone Tour in 2016 and had managed to complete around 50 pages before his death. The book includes those pages plus a lengthy account by Piepenbring of how the project came to be, a scrapbook of rare personal photos and miscellanea from the vault, and Prince's original handwritten concept for the film Purple Rain.
In November, a Deluxe reissue of 1999 was released. This reissue had several configurations, the most expansive including 35 previously unreleased songs and two live concerts.
=== Since 2020 ===
In 2020, a Super Deluxe reissue of Sign o' the Times was released. This reissue had various configurations, with the most expansive containing the original album, the single and maxi-single mixes, related B-sides, plus 45 previously unissued studio tracks, a live show from the Sign o' the Times Tour in Utrecht plus a DVD featuring the New Year's Eve 1987 show at Paisley Park. Pitchfork rated the Super Deluxe version 10 out of 10 and named it Best New Reissue.
In June 2021, The Truth was reissued on vinyl for Record Store Day. The following month saw the release of Welcome 2 America, a completely unheard album originally recorded and shelved in 2010.
In 2022, Prince and the Revolution: Live was reissued on Blu-Ray, along with the soundtrack which was also released on CD and vinyl for the first time. This year also saw the release of "The Most Beautiful Girl in the World" on streaming services. It had previously been unavailable due to a plagiarism lawsuit in Italy which the estate has now resolved; Bruno Bergonzi and Michele Vicino are now legally recognized as co-writers in Italy.
In 2023, a Super Deluxe reissue of Diamonds and Pearls was released, containing the original album plus remixes and B-sides from this era, 33 previously unheard tracks and a Blu-ray of a live concert recorded at Glam Slam in Minneapolis as a rehearsal for the 1992 Diamonds and Pearls Tour.
As of 2024, a nine-hour documentary on Prince was produced by Ezra Edelman for release on Netflix. The estate were reportedly unhappy with the project, considering it a "sensationalized" depiction of his life. A few people saw a rough cut of the film; one of them, Sasha Weiss, wrote in The New York Times Magazine that it contained at least one instance of a former girlfriend accusing him of abuse. She said "We're asked to sit with Prince's multiplying paradoxes for many hours, allowing them to unsettle one another". In February 2025, the project was officially cancelled and it was announced that "a new documentary featuring exclusive content from Prince's archive" would be produced by the estate instead; this has been described as "a watered-down take, to placate the powers that be". The Prince estate's social media accounts then posted a video of a vault door being opened with the caption "The vault is free."
== Artistry and legacy ==
=== Music and image ===
Prince is often credited as a major influence on modern popular music, and in the view of Billboard he is "the greatest musician of his generation". Simon Reynolds called him a "pop polymath, flitting between funkadelia, acid rock, deep soul, schmaltz—often within the same song". The Los Angeles Times called Prince "our first post-everything pop star, defying easy categories of race, genre and commercial appeal". Jon Pareles of The New York Times described him as "a master architect of funk, rock, R&B and pop", and highlighted his ability to defy labels.
Geoffrey Himes described him as a leading artist in "a tradition of left-wing black music", or "progressive soul", although even he conceded the term may be "too narrow". Los Angeles Times writer Randall Roberts called Prince "among the most versatile and restlessly experimental pop artists of our time," writing that his "early work connected disco and synthetic funk [while his] fruitful mid-period merged rock, soul, R&B and synth-pop." AllMusic wrote that, "With each album he released, Prince showed remarkable stylistic growth and musical diversity, constantly experimenting with different sounds, textures, and genres [...] no other contemporary artist blended so many diverse styles into a cohesive whole." Jon Pareles has named Prince among the "pantheon" of artists in the album era, in which the album format was the dominant form of recorded music expression and consumption.
As a performer, he was known for his flamboyant style and showmanship. He came to be regarded as a sex symbol for his androgynous, amorphous sexuality, play with signifiers of gender, and defiance of racial stereotypes. His "audacious, idiosyncratic" fashion sense made use of "ubiquitous purple, alluring makeup and frilled garments". His androgynous look has been compared to those of Little Richard, Marc Bolan, and David Bowie. In 2016, Reynolds described it as "Prince's '80s evasion of conventional gender definitions speaks to us now in this trans-aware moment. But it also harks backwards in time to the origins of rock 'n' roll in racial mixture and sexual blurring". Prince was known for the strong female presence in his bands and his support for women in the music industry throughout his career. Slate said he worked with an "astounding range of female stars" and "promised a world where men and women looked and acted like each other". Prince also wore high-heeled shoes and boots both on and off-stage.
Rolling Stone ranked Prince at No. 27 on its list of 100 Greatest Artists, "the most influential artists of the rock & roll era". In 2023, the same magazine ranked him at No. 16 on their list of the 200 Greatest Singers of All Time. In 2010, Prince was ranked number 7 on VH1's "100 Greatest Artists of All Time". In 2003, Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time list included Purple Rain at number 72, Sign o' the Times at number 93, 1999 at number 163, and Dirty Mind at number 204. In 2004, on their 500 Greatest Songs of All Time list, Rolling Stone included "When Doves Cry" at number 52, "Little Red Corvette" at number 108, "Purple Rain" at number 143, "1999" at number 212, "Sign o' the Times" at number 299, and "Kiss" at number 461.
Many artists have cited Prince as an influence and inspiration, including Beyoncé, Justin Timberlake, Bruno Mars, Rihanna, Alicia Keys, Usher, Janelle Monáe, the Weeknd, Lady Gaga, Lorde, Marilyn Manson, Lenny Kravitz, André 3000, Mark Speer, Jamie Lidell, Dua Lipa, Frank Ocean, Miguel, Mya, Robyn, D'Angelo, H.E.R., Ciara, The-Dream, St. Vincent, Ween, and Beck. Bono of U2 regarded Prince as one of his "favorite composers of the twentieth century". Beyoncé expressed her admiration for Prince in the book Prince: A Private View, calling him "my mentor" and also praising his independence: "He dared to fight for what was rightfully his: his freedom, wrapped up in words and music he created."
In August 2017, Pantone Inc. introduced a new shade of purple ( ) in their color system in honor of Prince. The shade is called Love Symbol #2.
Season 34 of Dancing with the Stars featured 'Prince Night' during week 10's semi-finals. The episode garnered 7.22 million views while the hash tag #DWTS was number one trending in entertainment on the X platform with over 40 thousand posts. The shows official TikTok account averaged 7 million likes from the night's two "behind the scenes" live streams.
=== Influences and musicianship ===
Prince's music synthesized a wide variety of influences, and drew inspiration from a range of musicians, including Ike Turner, James Brown, George Clinton, Joni Mitchell, Duke Ellington, Jimi Hendrix, the Beatles, Chuck Berry, David Bowie, Earth, Wind & Fire, Mick Jagger, Rick James, Jerry Lee Lewis, Little Richard, Curtis Mayfield, Elvis Presley, Todd Rundgren, Carlos Santana, Sly Stone, Jackie Wilson, and Stevie Wonder.
Prince has been compared with jazz artist Miles Davis in regard to the artistic changes throughout his career. Davis said he regarded Prince as an otherworldly blend of James Brown, Jimi Hendrix, Marvin Gaye, Sly Stone, Little Richard, Duke Ellington, and Charlie Chaplin. Prince and Miles Davis performed together in December 1987 for a Charity Event at Paisley Park. This performance was viewed as the pinnacle of their on-again, off-again partnership.
Journalist Nik Cohn described him as "rock's greatest ever natural talent". Prince had a wide vocal range from falsetto to baritone, and performed rapid, seemingly effortless shifts of register. Prince was also renowned as a multi-instrumentalist. He is considered a guitar virtuoso and a master of drums, percussion, bass, keyboards, and synthesizer. On his first five albums, he played nearly all the instruments, including 27 instruments on his debut album, among them various types of bass, keyboards and synthesizers. Prince was also quick to embrace technology in his music, making pioneering use of drum machines like the Linn LM-1 on his early '80s albums and employing a wide range of studio effects. The LA Times also noted his "harnessing [of] new-generation synthesizer sounds in service of the groove", laying the foundations for post-'70s funk music. Prince was also known for his prolific and virtuosic tendencies, which resulted in him recording large amounts of unreleased material.
Prince also wrote songs for other artists, and some songs of his were covered by musicians, such as the hit songs "Manic Monday" (performed by the Bangles), "I Feel for You", originally on Prince's self-titled second album from 1979, covered by Chaka Khan, and "Nothing Compares 2 U", written for Prince's side project the Family, and covered very successfully by Sinéad O'Connor. Prince co-wrote "Love... Thy Will Be Done" with singer Martika, for her second album, Martika's Kitchen, and also gifted Celine Dion a song for her second album, Celine Dion, titled "With This Tear"; it was a song Prince had written specifically for her. Prince also wrote "U" for Paula Abdul, appearing on her 1991 release Spellbound.
=== Equipment ===
A guitar virtuoso, Prince was also known to have a stylish and flamboyant custom guitar collection, which consisted of 121 guitars. One notable series is his Cloud Guitars, which were commissioned and released in colored versions of white, yellow and purple. The white version is prominently shown in the Purple Rain film and the "Raspberry Beret" video. Other notable guitars are The Love Symbol guitars, which were designed in the separate colors of gold and purple. The guitar that was used for the majority of Prince's music career was the H.S. Anderson Madcat guitar – a Telecaster copy created by Hohner. Several versions of the guitar were used throughout his career – due to one being donated for charitable reasons, while one or more were stolen. Another guitar primarily used in his later years was the Vox HDC-77, which was introduced to him by 3rdeyegirl member Ida Kristine Nielsen, both a Blackburst version, and a White Ivory version. Two other noteworthy guitars are the G1 Purple Special, and the black-and-gold Gus G3 Prince bass, which would become the last two guitars to ever be made for him.
== Legal issues ==
=== Pseudonyms ===
In 1993, during negotiations regarding the release of The Gold Experience, a legal battle ensued between Warner Bros. and Prince over the artistic and financial control of his musical output. During the lawsuit, Prince appeared in public with the word "slave" written on his cheek. He explained that he had changed his name to an unpronounceable symbol to emancipate himself from his contract with Warner Bros., and that he had done it out of frustration because he felt his own name now belonged to the company.
Prince sometimes used pseudonyms to separate himself from the music he had written, produced or recorded, and at one point stated that his ownership and achievement were strengthened by the act of giving away ideas. Pseudonyms he adopted, at various times, include: Jamie Starr and The Starr Company (for the songs he wrote for the Time and many other artists from 1981 to 1984), Joey Coco (for many unreleased Prince songs in the late 1980s, as well as songs written for Sheena Easton and Kenny Rogers), Alexander Nevermind (for writing the song "Sugar Walls" [1984] by Sheena Easton), and Christopher (used for his songwriting credit of "Manic Monday" [1986] for the Bangles).
=== Copyright issues ===
On September 14, 2007, Prince announced that he was going to sue YouTube and eBay, because they hosted his copyrighted material, and he hired the international Internet-policing company Web Sheriff. In October, Stephanie Lenz filed a lawsuit against Universal Music Publishing Group claiming that they were abusing copyright law after the music publisher had YouTube take down Lenz's home movie in which the Prince song "Let's Go Crazy" played faintly in the background. On November 5, several Prince fan sites formed "Prince Fans United" to fight back against legal requests which, they claim, Prince made to prevent all use of photographs, images, lyrics, album covers, and anything linked to his likeness. Prince's lawyers claimed that this constituted copyright infringement; Prince Fans United said that the legal actions were "attempts to stifle all critical commentary about Prince". Prince's promoter AEG stated that the only offending items on the three fansites were live shots from Prince's 21 nights in London at the O2 Arena earlier in the year.
On November 8, Prince Fans United received a song named "PFUnk", providing a kind of "unofficial answer" to their movement. The song originally debuted on the PFU main site, was retitled "F.U.N.K.", but this is not one of the selected songs available on the iTunes Store. On November 14, the satirical website b3ta.com pulled their "image challenge of the week" devoted to Prince after legal threats from the star under the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA).
At the 2008 Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival, Prince performed a cover of Radiohead's "Creep"; however, immediately afterward, he forced YouTube and other sites to remove footage that fans had taken of the performance despite Radiohead's request to leave it on the website. Days later, YouTube reinstated the videos, as Radiohead had said: "It's our song, let people hear it." In 2009, Prince put the video of the Coachella performance on his official website.
In 2010, Prince declared: "the internet is completely over", elaborating five years later that "the internet was over for anyone who wants to get paid ... tell me a musician who's got rich off digital sales".
In 2013, the Electronic Frontier Foundation granted Prince the inaugural "Raspberry Beret Lifetime Aggrievement Award" for what they said was abuse of the DMCA takedown process.
In January 2014, Prince filed a lawsuit titled Prince v. Chodera against 22 online users for direct copyright infringement, unauthorized fixation, contributory copyright infringement, and bootlegging. Several of the users were fans who had shared links to bootlegged versions of Prince concerts through social media websites like Facebook. In the same month, he dismissed the entire action without prejudice.
Prince was one of a small handful of musicians to deny "Weird Al" Yankovic requests to parody his music. (Yankovic does not always need legal permission to parody songs, but he requests artists' permission as a professional courtesy.) By Yankovic's account, he'd done so "about a half-dozen times" and has been the sole artist not to give any explanation for his rejection beyond a flat "no".
== Personal life ==
Prince had seven siblings, six of whom were half-siblings. As Prince had no will, the six siblings who survived him at the time of his death could inherit his estate. As of November 2024, only three of them, half sisters Sharon and Norraine Nelson and half brother Omar Baker, are still living. However, only the two surviving half sisters still have shares in Prince's estate.
His half sister Lorna died in 2006. Another half brother Alfred Jackson died in August 2019. On September 3, 2021, John R. Nelson, Prince's eldest half brother, died. On November 4, 2024, musician Tyka Nelson, who was Prince's only full sibling, died. In July 2021, Omar Bakker and late half brother Alfred Jackson's interest would sell all of the shares they owned of Prince's estate to Primary Wave Music, while Tyka Nelson would sell 90%.
=== Relationships ===
Prince was romantically linked with many women over the years, including Kim Basinger, Madonna, Vanity, Jill Jones, Sheila E., Carmen Electra, Susannah Melvoin, Ophélie Winter and Sherilyn Fenn. Susannah Melvoin recalled how, around the time of Sign o' the Times, "Wendy [Melvoin, her twin sister] and Lisa [Coleman] and I lived together and we would have [Prince] stay at our place. We became really close. He got to be in a family of three women, and we got to have our Prince. Not many people had that kind of relationship with him."
In 1990, he saw 16-year-old dancer Mayte García standing outside his tour bus and referred to her as his "future wife" when pointing her out to bandmate Rosie Gaines. García began working as one of his backup singers and dancers after graduating from high school. They were married on February 14, 1996, when he was 37 and she was 22. According to García, she and Prince had a son named Amiir (born October 16, 1996), who died a week after being born due to Pfeiffer syndrome. Attempts by publications to independently verify the child's name, birth, and cause of death proved difficult due to Prince's focus on privacy. The distress of losing a child and García's subsequent miscarriage took a toll on the marriage, and the couple divorced in 2000.
Prince married Manuela Testolini, a Canadian businesswoman of Italian and Egyptian descent, in a private ceremony in 2001; she hails from Toronto, which led the couple to live there part-time. They separated in 2005 and filed for divorce in May 2006, which was finalized in October 2007.
=== Religious beliefs ===
Prince was an observant religious person from childhood and throughout his life. An abiding love of God and Jesus were recurring themes in his work, often closely intertwined with romance, sexuality and sensuality on songs such as "I Would Die 4 U" and albums such as Lovesexy. In March 2016, while discussing his childhood during a show in Oakland, he told the audience:
I wanted to be like my father and I loved everything he loved — my mother, the Bible, and music.
A complete recitation of The Lord's Prayer featured in the full-length album version of his 1981 hit "Controversy." His 1984 track "Darling Nikki", while dealing with explicit subject matter involving an encounter with a sex worker, contained the following backward message: "Hello, how are you?/Fine, fine, ’cause I know that the Lord is coming soon/Coming, coming soon." That same year, he released a B-side simply entitled "God."
Prince became a Jehovah's Witness in 2001 as a result of his friendship with bassist Larry Graham. He did not consider it a conversion but a "realization", comparing his connection with Graham to Morpheus and Neo in the film The Matrix. He attended meetings at a local Kingdom Hall and occasionally knocked on people's doors to discuss his faith. His newfound faith would also heavily influence his 2001 album The Rainbow Children. The CD edition of his 2003 instrumental album N.E.W.S contained an Adobe Flash file that slowly displayed the words "He Causes 2 Become" when the disc was inserted into a computer, being a reference to the name of Jehovah in Witness theology.
Shortly after he became a Witness, former bandmates Wendy Melvoin and Lisa Coleman reached out to him for a potential reunion of The Revolution. Melvoin claims he declined due to her lesbian and Jewish identities, then asked her to hold a press conference in which she would disavow homosexuality and become a Jehovah's Witness herself. She resigned herself to never hearing from him again. However, Prince later reunited with Melvoin in 2004 to perform a stripped-back acoustic version of the song "Reflection" on the Tavis Smiley Tonight Show and subsequently performed "Purple Rain" with her and Coleman at the Brit Awards 2006. Anti-gay marriage comments were attributed to him in 2008 but later denied by his management and walked back by him personally, as he later stated, "I have friends who are gay, and we study the Bible together." Despite his ambiguous, contradictory and evolving personal convictions throughout his lifetime, Prince is often considered a queer icon by his fans for his influence on music, fashion and culture in a manner infused with religious themes.
García said of Prince's religious beliefs: "He was always a spiritual seeker ... fascinated in all possibilities to integrate the signs of the zodiac and third eye and reincarnation into the Christian beliefs his Baptist mother and Seventh-day Adventist father had exposed him to." At the time of his death, Prince's display picture on Twitter was an illustration of him with both eyes closed and a third eye on his forehead open.
=== Political beliefs and activism ===
Prince rarely expressed partisan political beliefs directly for the majority of his career. However, he did not shy away from political themes and commentary in early songs such as "Partyup", "Ronnie Talk to Russia" (which directly addressed then-President Ronald Reagan), "America", "Sign O' the Times" and later "Money Don't Matter 2 Night", in part a protest against the Gulf War. His 2002 song "Avalanche" contained the lyric "Abraham Lincoln was a racist" and discussed the Thirteenth Amendment. In 2004, the music video for his single "Cinnamon Girl" depicted a young Muslim woman facing Islamophobia and racial abuse and then detonating a suicide bomb in a crowded airport, before revealing it had all been a dream.
In a 2009 interview with Tavis Smiley, when asked for his opinion on the recent election of Barack Obama, Prince replied that he did not vote for him and has in fact never voted at all. He also expressed a belief in the chemtrail conspiracy theory during the same interview.
Towards the end of his life, Prince was a supporter of Black Lives Matter. According to Al Sharpton, he donated to the family of Trayvon Martin in 2012 and later arranged for Eric Garner's family to attend one of his concerts. Before handing out the Grammy for Best Album in 2015, he told the audience, "Albums — remember those? Albums still matter. Albums, like books and black lives, still matter.” He organized a "Rally 4 Peace" concert in the city of Baltimore in the aftermath of the killing of Freddie Gray. The following day, he released a single entitled "Baltimore" with lyrics that mentioned Gray and Michael Brown. The music video for "Baltimore" featured footage of Black Lives Matter protests in the city, and closed with a message from Prince:
The system is broken. It’s going to take the young people to fix it this time. We need new ideas, new life.
=== Animal rights ===
Prince was an animal rights activist who followed a vegan diet for part of his life but later described himself as vegetarian. He previously adhered to a pescetarian diet in the 2000s, and, according to an interview with the Vegetarian Times, Prince first expressed curiosity in removing meat from his diet around 1987 when he ceased eating all red meat. Prince required Paisley Park guests and staff to maintain a vegetarian diet or pescetarian diet while present in order to keep the environment meatless. In honor of Prince's personal ethos, Paisley Park continues to require that individuals leave the premises if they would like to eat meat. The liner notes for his album Rave Un2 the Joy Fantastic featured a message about the cruelty involved in wool production.
=== Charitable endeavors ===
Prince did not speak publicly about his charitable endeavors. The extent of his activism, philanthropy, and charity was only publicized after his death, and much of it remains undocumented.
In 2001, he anonymously donated $12,000 to the Louisville Free Public Library system to keep the historic Western Branch Library (the country's first full-service library for African-Americans) from closure. That same year, he anonymously paid off the medical bills of drummer Clyde Stubblefield, who was undergoing cancer treatment.
In 2015, he conceived and launched YesWeCode, paying for many hackathons outright and performing musical acts at some of them. He also helped fund the Green for All initiative.
According to Australian musician Ed Le Brocq's autobiography Danger Music, written about Le Brocq's time as a music teacher in Afghanistan, Prince had "quietly donated to PARSA (Physiotherapy and Rehabilitation Services for Afghanistan) for years", which had funded the revival of the Afghanistan Scout Association.
== Achievements ==
Prince sold at least 100 million records worldwide, ranking him among the best-selling music artists of all time. He was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2004, the UK Music Hall of Fame in 2006, the National Rhythm & Blues Hall of Fame in 2016, and Songwriters Hall of Fame in 2024. In 2016, he was posthumously honored with a Doctor of Humane Letters by the University of Minnesota. He was inducted into the Black Music & Entertainment Walk of Fame in 2022. Prince was named the 14th greatest guitarist of all time by Rolling Stone in 2023.
He has won seven Grammy Awards, seven Brit Awards, six American Music Awards, four MTV Video Music Awards, an Academy Award (for Best Original Song Score for the film Purple Rain), and a Golden Globe Award. Two of his albums, Purple Rain and Sign o' the Times, received the Grammy Award for Album of the Year nominations. 1999, Purple Rain and Sign o' the Times have all been inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame. At the 28th Grammy Awards, Prince was awarded the President's Merit Award. Prince was also honored with the American Music Award for Achievement and American Music Award of Merit at the American Music Awards of 1990 and American Music Awards of 1995 respectively. At the 2013 Billboard Music Awards, he was honored with the Billboard Icon Award. In 2019, the 1984 film Purple Rain was added by the Library of Congress for preservation in the National Film Registry for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".
Prince has been honored with a star on the outside mural of the Minneapolis nightclub First Avenue, recognizing performers that have played sold-out shows or have otherwise demonstrated a major contribution to the culture at the iconic venue. Receiving a star "might be the most prestigious public honor an artist can receive in Minneapolis", according to journalist Steve Marsh. The Revolution also has a star on the mural, to the immediate right of Prince's. Originally painted silver like the other stars on the mural, Prince's star was repainted in gold leaf during the night of May 4, 2016, about two weeks after Prince's death. Originally anonymous, the artist was revealed a few months later to be graphic designer and graffiti artist Peyton Russell, who had worked for Prince at his club Glam Slam in the 1990s and wanted to pay tribute.
== Discography ==
Collaborative albums
8 (1987) (with Madhouse)
16 (1987) (with Madhouse)
Gold Nigga (1993) (with the New Power Generation)
Exodus (1995) (with the New Power Generation)
Newpower Soul (1998) (with the New Power Generation)
Kamasutra (1997) (with NPG Orchestra)
Demo albums
Piano and a Microphone 1983 (2018)
Originals (2019)
== Filmography ==
== Tours ==
== Books ==
Prince; Gydesen, Terry (1994). Prince Presents: The Sacrifice of Victor. Minnesota: Paisley Park Enterprises. ISBN 9780967850115. OCLC 34307402.
Prince; Piepenbring, Dan (2019). The Beautiful Ones. New York: Spiegel & Grau. ISBN 9780399589652. OCLC 1117550641.
== See also ==
List of artists who reached number one in the United States
List of bestselling music artists
List of dancers
List of highest-certified music artists in the United States – List of top 100 RIAA-certified album artists and top 50 RIAA-certified digital single artists
Unreleased Prince projects
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Sources ==
== Further reading ==
Browne, David (May 5, 2016). "Prince in the Nineties: An Oral History". Rolling Stone. Retrieved October 1, 2023.
Jones, Liz (1998). Purple Reign: The Artist Formerly Known as Prince. Secaucus, N.J.: Birch Lane Press. ISBN 978-1-55972-448-7. OCLC 632309219.
Ro, Ronin (2016). Prince: Inside the Music and the Masks. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-1-250-12754-9. OCLC 1054996845.
Wall, Mick (2016). Prince: Purple Reign. London: Trapeze. ISBN 9781409169208. OCLC 1064253410.
Weiss, Sasha (September 8, 2024). "The Prince We Never Knew". The New York Times Magazine.
== External links ==
Official website
Prince at IMDb
Prince at AllMusic
Prince at Billboard.com
Performance at Rock and Roll Hall of Fame at his induction in 2004 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_layer | Ozone layer | The ozone layer or ozone shield is a region of Earth's stratosphere that absorbs most of the Sun's ultraviolet radiation. It contains a high concentration of ozone (O3) in relation to other parts of the atmosphere, although still small in relation to other gases in the stratosphere. The ozone layer peaks at 8 to 15 parts per million of ozone, while the average ozone concentration in Earth's atmosphere as a whole is about 0.3 parts per million. The ozone layer is mainly found in the lower portion of the stratosphere, from approximately 15 to 35 kilometers (9 to 22 mi) above Earth, although its thickness varies seasonally and geographically.
The ozone layer was discovered in 1913 by French physicists Charles Fabry and Henri Buisson. Measurements of the sun showed that the radiation sent out from its surface and reaching the ground on Earth is usually consistent with the spectrum of a black body with a temperature in the range of 5,500–6,000 K (5,230–5,730 °C), except that there was no radiation below a wavelength of about 310 nm at the ultraviolet end of the spectrum. It was deduced that the missing radiation was being absorbed by something in the atmosphere. Eventually the spectrum of the missing radiation was matched to only one known chemical, ozone. Its properties were explored in detail by the British meteorologist G. M. B. Dobson, who developed a simple spectrophotometer (the Dobsonmeter) that could be used to measure stratospheric ozone from the ground. Between 1928 and 1958, Dobson established a worldwide network of ozone monitoring stations, which continue to operate to this day. The "Dobson unit" (DU), a convenient measure of the amount of ozone overhead, is named in his honor.
The ozone layer absorbs 97 to 99 percent of the Sun's medium-frequency ultraviolet light (from about 200 nm to 315 nm wavelength), which otherwise would potentially damage exposed life forms near the surface.
In 1985, atmospheric research revealed that the ozone layer was being depleted by chemicals released by industry, mainly chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Concerns that increased UV radiation due to ozone depletion threatened life on Earth, including increased skin cancer in humans and other ecological problems, led to bans on the chemicals, and the latest evidence is that ozone depletion has slowed or stopped. The United Nations General Assembly has designated September 16 as the International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer.
Venus also has a thin ozone layer at an altitude of 100 kilometers above the planet's surface.
== Sources ==
The Earth's ozone layer formed about 500 million years ago, when the neoproterozoic oxygenation event brought the fraction of oxygen in the atmosphere to about 20%.
The photochemical mechanisms that give rise to the ozone layer were discovered by the British physicist Sydney Chapman in 1930. Ozone in the Earth's stratosphere is created by ultraviolet light striking ordinary oxygen molecules containing two oxygen atoms (O2), splitting them into individual oxygen atoms (atomic oxygen); the atomic oxygen then combines with unbroken O2 to create ozone, O3. The ozone molecule is unstable (although, in the stratosphere, long-lived) and when ultraviolet light hits ozone it splits into a molecule of O2 and an individual atom of oxygen, a continuing process called the ozone–oxygen cycle. Chemically, this can be described as:
O
2
+
h
ν
⟶
uv
2
O
{\displaystyle {\ce {O2{}+{\mathit {h}}\nu _{uv}->2O}}}
O
+
O
2
⟷
O
3
{\displaystyle {\ce {O + O2 <-> O3}}}
About 90% of the ozone in the atmosphere is contained in the stratosphere. Ozone concentrations are greatest between about 20 and 40 kilometres (66,000 and 131,000 ft), where they range from about 2 to 8 parts per million. If all of the ozone were compressed to the pressure of the air at sea level, it would be only 3 millimetres (1⁄8 inch) thick.
== Ultraviolet light ==
Although the concentration of the ozone in the ozone layer is very small, it is vitally important to life because it absorbs biologically harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation coming from the Sun. Extremely short or vacuum UV (10–100 nm) is screened out by nitrogen. UV radiation capable of penetrating nitrogen is divided into three categories, based on its wavelength; these are referred to as UV-A (400–315 nm), UV-B (315–280 nm), and UV-C (280–100 nm).
UV-C, which is very harmful to all living things, is entirely screened out by a combination of dioxygen (< 200 nm) and ozone (> about 200 nm) by around 35 kilometres (115,000 ft) altitude. UV-B radiation can be harmful to the skin and is the main cause of sunburn; excessive exposure can also cause cataracts, immune system suppression, and genetic damage, resulting in problems such as skin cancer. The ozone layer (which absorbs from about 200 nm to 310 nm with a maximal absorption at about 250 nm) is very effective at screening out UV-B; for radiation with a wavelength of 290 nm, the intensity at the top of the atmosphere is 350 million times stronger than at the Earth's surface. Nevertheless, some UV-B, particularly at its longest wavelengths, reaches the surface, and is important for the skin's production of vitamin D in mammals.
Ozone is transparent to most UV-A, so most of this longer-wavelength UV radiation reaches the surface, and it constitutes most of the UV reaching the Earth. This type of UV radiation is significantly less harmful to DNA, although it may still potentially cause physical damage, premature aging of the skin, indirect genetic damage, and skin cancer.
== Distribution in the stratosphere ==
The thickness of the ozone layer varies worldwide and is generally thinner near the equator and thicker near the poles. Thickness refers to how much ozone is in a column over a given area and varies from season to season. The reasons for these variations are due to atmospheric circulation patterns and solar intensity.
The ozone layer ends gradually, but in general its upper limit is where air becomes too thin for UV light to generate much ozone, and its lower limit is where generated ozone blocks enough UV light to stop most ozone production.
In the homosphere, wind-driven movement is more important than relative gas weight. The majority of ozone is produced over the tropics and is transported toward the poles by stratospheric wind patterns. In the northern hemisphere these patterns, known as the Brewer–Dobson circulation, make the ozone layer thickest in the spring and thinnest in the fall. When ozone is produced by solar UV radiation in the tropics, it is done so by circulation lifting ozone-poor air out of the troposphere and into the stratosphere where the sun photolyzes oxygen molecules and turns them into ozone. Then, the ozone-rich air is carried to higher latitudes and drops into lower layers of the atmosphere.
Research has found that the ozone levels in the United States are highest in the spring months of April and May and lowest in October. While the total amount of ozone increases moving from the tropics to higher latitudes, the concentrations are greater in high northern latitudes than in high southern latitudes, with spring ozone columns in high northern latitudes occasionally exceeding 600 DU and averaging 450 DU whereas 400 DU constituted a usual maximum in the Antarctic before anthropogenic ozone depletion. This difference occurred naturally because of the weaker polar vortex and stronger Brewer–Dobson circulation in the northern hemisphere owing to that hemisphere's large mountain ranges and greater contrasts between land and ocean temperatures. The difference between high northern and southern latitudes has increased since the 1970s due to the ozone hole phenomenon. The highest amounts of ozone are found over the Arctic during the spring months of March and April, but the Antarctic has the lowest amounts of ozone during the summer months of September and October,
== Depletion ==
The ozone layer can be depleted by free radical catalysts, including nitric oxide (NO), nitrous oxide (N2O), hydroxyl (OH), atomic chlorine (Cl), and atomic bromine (Br). While there are natural sources for all of these species, the concentrations of chlorine and bromine increased markedly in recent decades because of the release of large quantities of man-made organohalogen compounds, especially chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and bromofluorocarbons. Atmospheric components are not sorted out by weight in the homosphere because of wind-driven mixing that extends to an altitude of about 90 km, well above the ozone layer. So despite being heavier than diatomic nitrogen and oxygen, these highly stable compounds rise into the stratosphere, where Cl and Br radicals are liberated by the action of ultraviolet light. Each radical is then free to initiate and catalyze a chain reaction capable of breaking down over 100,000 ozone molecules. By 2009, nitrous oxide was the largest ozone-depleting substance (ODS) emitted through human activities.
The breakdown of ozone in the stratosphere results in reduced absorption of ultraviolet radiation. Consequently, unabsorbed and dangerous ultraviolet radiation reaches the Earth's surface at a higher intensity. Ozone levels have dropped by a worldwide average of about 4 percent since the late 1970s. For approximately 5 percent of the Earth's surface, around the north and south poles, much larger seasonal declines have been seen, and are described as "ozone holes". "Ozone holes" are actually patches in the ozone layer in which the ozone is thinner. The thinnest parts of the ozone are at the polar points of Earth's axis. The discovery of the annual depletion of ozone above the Antarctic was first announced by Joe Farman, Brian Gardiner, and Jonathan Shanklin, in a paper which appeared in Nature on May 16, 1985.
Regulation attempts have included but not have been limited to the Clean Air Act implemented by the United States Environmental Protection Agency. The Clean Air Act introduced the requirement of National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) with ozone pollutions being one of six criteria pollutants. This regulation has proven to be effective since counties, cities, and tribal regions must abide by these standards and the EPA also provides assistance for each region to regulate contaminants. Effective presentation of information has also proven to be important in order to educate the general population of the existence and regulation of ozone depletion and contaminants. A scientific paper was written by Sheldon Ungar in which the author explores and studies how information about the depletion of the ozone, climate change, and various related topics. The ozone case was communicated to lay persons "with easy-to-understand bridging metaphors derived from the popular culture" and related to "immediate risks with everyday relevance". The specific metaphors used in the discussion (ozone shield, ozone hole) proved quite useful and, compared to global climate change, the ozone case was much more seen as a "hot issue" and imminent risk. Lay people were cautious about a depletion of the ozone layer and the risks of skin cancer.
Satellites burning up upon re-entry into Earth's atmosphere produce aluminum oxide (Al2O3) nanoparticles that endure in the atmosphere for decades. Estimates for 2022 alone were ~17 metric tons (~30 kg of nanoparticles per ~250 kg satellite). Increasing populations of satellite constellations can eventually lead to significant ozone depletion.
"Bad" ozone can cause adverse health risks respiratory effects (difficulty breathing) and is proven to be an aggravator of respiratory illnesses such as asthma, COPD, and emphysema. That is why many countries have set in place regulations to improve "good" ozone and prevent the increase of "bad" ozone in urban or residential areas. In terms of ozone protection (the preservation of "good" ozone) the European Union has strict guidelines on what products are allowed to be bought, distributed, or used in specific areas. With effective regulation, the ozone is expected to heal over time.
In 1978, the United States, Canada, and Norway enacted bans on CFC-containing aerosol sprays that damage the ozone layer but the European Community rejected a similar proposal. In the U.S., chlorofluorocarbons continued to be used in other applications, such as refrigeration and industrial cleaning, until after the discovery of the Antarctic ozone hole in 1985. After negotiation of an international treaty (the Montreal Protocol), CFC production was capped at 1986 levels with commitments to long-term reductions. This allowed for a ten-year phase-in for developing countries (identified in Article 5 of the protocol). Since then, the treaty was amended to ban CFC production after 1995 in developed countries, and later in developing countries. All of the world's 197 countries have signed the treaty. Beginning January 1, 1996, only recycled or stockpiled CFCs were available for use in developed countries like the US. The production phaseout was possible because of efforts to ensure that there would be substitute chemicals and technologies for all ODS uses.
On August 2, 2003, scientists announced that the global depletion of the ozone layer might be slowing because of the international regulation of ozone-depleting substances. In a study organized by the American Geophysical Union, three satellites and three ground stations confirmed that the upper-atmosphere ozone-depletion rate slowed significantly over the previous decade. Some breakdown was expected to continue because of ODSs used by nations which have not banned them, and because of gases already in the stratosphere. Some ODSs, including CFCs, have very long atmospheric lifetimes ranging from 50 to over 100 years. It has been estimated that the ozone layer will recover to 1980 levels near the middle of the 21st century. A gradual trend toward "healing" was reported in 2016.
Compounds containing C–H bonds (such as hydrochlorofluorocarbons, or HCFCs) have been designed to replace CFCs in certain applications. These replacement compounds are more reactive and less likely to survive long enough in the atmosphere to reach the stratosphere where they could affect the ozone layer. While being less damaging than CFCs, HCFCs can have a negative impact on the ozone layer, so they are also being phased out. These in turn are being replaced by hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and other compounds that do not destroy stratospheric ozone at all.
The residual effects of CFCs accumulating within the atmosphere lead to a concentration gradient between the atmosphere and the ocean. This organohalogen compound dissolves into the ocean's surface waters and acts as a time-dependent tracer. This tracer helps scientists study ocean circulation by tracing biological, physical, and chemical pathways.
== Implications for astronomy ==
As ozone in the atmosphere prevents most energetic ultraviolet radiation reaching the surface of the Earth, astronomical data in these wavelengths have to be gathered from satellites orbiting above the atmosphere and ozone layer. Most of the light from young hot stars is in the ultraviolet and so study of these wavelengths is important for studying the origins of galaxies. The Galaxy Evolution Explorer, GALEX, is an orbiting ultraviolet space telescope launched on April 28, 2003, which operated until early 2012.
== See also ==
Cambrian explosion
Nuclear winter
Oxygen
Short-lived climate pollutants
United Nations Environment Programme
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Science
Andersen, S. O. (2015). "Lessons from the stratospheric ozone layer protection for climate". Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences. 5 (2): 143–162. Bibcode:2015JEnSS...5..143A. doi:10.1007/s13412-014-0213-9. S2CID 129725437.
Andersen, S.O.; Sarma, K.M.; Sinclair, L. (2012). Protecting the Ozone Layer: The United Nations History. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-84977-226-6.
Ritchie, Hannah, "What We Learned from Acid Rain: By working together, the nations of the world can solve climate change", Scientific American, vol. 330, no. 1 (January 2024), pp. 75–76. "[C]ountries will act only if they know others are willing to do the same. With acid rain, they did act collectively.... We did something similar to restore Earth's protective ozone layer.... [T]he cost of technology really matters.... In the past decade the price of solar energy has fallen by more than 90 percent and that of wind energy by more than 70 percent. Battery costs have tumbled by 98 percent since 1990, bringing the price of electric cars down with them....[T]he stance of elected officials matters more than their party affiliation.... Change can happen – but not on its own. We need to drive it." (p. 76.)
United Nations Environment Programme (2010). Environmental Effects of Ozone Depletion and its Interactions with Climate Change: 2010 Assessment. Nairobi: UNEP.
Velders, G. J. M.; Fahey, D. W.; Daniel, J. S.; McFarland, M.; Andersen, S. O. (2009). "The large contribution of projected HFC emissions to future climate forcing". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 106 (27): 10949–10954. Bibcode:2009PNAS..10610949V. doi:10.1073/pnas.0902817106. PMC 2700150. PMID 19549868. S2CID 3743609.
Velders, Guus J.M.; Andersen, Stephen O.; Daniel, John S.; Fahey, David W.; McFarland, Mack (2007). "The Importance of the Montreal Protocol in Protecting Climate". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 104 (12): 4814–4819. Bibcode:2007PNAS..104.4814V. doi:10.1073/pnas.0610328104. PMC 1817831. PMID 17360370.
Policy
Zaelke, Durwood; Borgford-Parnell, Nathan (2015). "The importance of phasing down hydrofluorocarbons and other short-lived climate pollutants". Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences. 5 (2): 169–175. Bibcode:2015JEnSS...5..169Z. doi:10.1007/s13412-014-0215-7. S2CID 128974741.
Xu, Y.; Zaelke, D.; Velders, G. J. M.; Ramanathan, V. (2013). "The role of HFCS in mitigating 21st century climate change". Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. 13 (12): 6083–6089. Bibcode:2013ACP....13.6083X. doi:10.5194/acp-13-6083-2013.
Molina, M.; Zaelke, D.; Sarma, K. M.; Andersen, S. O.; Ramanathan, V.; Kaniaru, D. (2009). "Reducing abrupt climate change risk using the Montreal Protocol and other regulatory actions to complement cuts in CO2 emissions". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 106 (49): 20616–20621. doi:10.1073/pnas.0902568106. PMC 2791591. PMID 19822751. S2CID 13240115.
Anderson, S. O.; Sarma, M. K.; Taddonio, K. (2007). Technology Transfer for the Ozone Layer: Lessons for Climate Change. London: Earthscan. ISBN 9781849772846.
Benedick, Richard Elliot; World Wildlife Fund (U.S.); Institute for the Study of Diplomacy. Georgetown University. (1998). Ozone Diplomacy: New Directions in Safeguarding the Planet (2nd ed.). Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-65003-9. (Ambassador Benedick was the Chief U.S. Negotiator at the meetings that resulted in the Montreal Protocol.)
Chasek, P. S.; Downie, David L.; Brown, J. W. (2013). Global Environmental Politics (6th ed.). Boulder: Westview Press. ISBN 9780813348971.
Grundmann, Reiner (2001). Transnational Environmental Policy: Reconstructing Ozone. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-22423-9.
Parson, E. (2003). Protecting the Ozone Layer: Science and Strategy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190288716.
== External links ==
Stratospheric ozone: an electronic textbook
Ozone Layer Info (archived July 2, 2004)
The CAMS stratospheric ozone service delivers maps, datasets, and validation reports about the past and current state of the ozone layer. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_B_(Buenos_Aires_Underground)#:~:text=The%20first%20section%20between%20Federico,extended%20to%20Carlos%20Pellegrini%20station. | Line B (Buenos Aires Underground) | Line B of the Buenos Aires Underground runs 11.75 kilometres (7.30 mi) from Leandro N. Alem to Juan Manuel de Rosas in Villa Urquiza. Line B opened to the public on 17 October 1930.
In recent years, it has held the title of being the most used line of the Buenos Aires Underground, and its patronage has increased even more after the opening of a section of tunnel between Los Incas station in the neighbourhood of Parque Chas and a shopping centre in Villa Urquiza. It was the first line in Buenos Aires whose stations had turnstiles and moving stairways.
It is the only line that uses third rail current collection, while the rest of the Underground lines collect electric current from overhead lines, although there has been ongoing conversion to overhead lines to incorporate new rolling stock. Its gauge of 4 ft 8+1⁄2 in (1,435 mm) is the same as the rest of the Buenos Aires underground system.
The rolling stock currently used on the B line are former Tokyo Metro (formerly Eidan Subway) 300/500/900 stock, which was used on Marunouchi Line, and CAF 6000 stock. The Japanese units were acquired in the early 1990s, and offer less sitting room than the previous rolling stock, increasing the line's capacity during peak hours. The Japanese trains have been partially supplanted by CAF 6000 rolling stock, acquired in 2013 from the Madrid Metro.
== History ==
In 1912 the Congress of Argentina enacted Law 8,870 to construct a line that would unite the Correo Central (Central Post Office) and the intersection of Triunvirato and Elcano streets, and meet with the tracks of the Buenos Aires Central Railroad (Ferrocarril Central de Buenos Aires or FCCBA), which belonged to the same business group, through an 8.7 km (5.4 mi) tunnel. The Act provided that the works "would help reduce traffic in the central area of the city".
On 17 December 1927 in New York City the financial agreement to build the line was signed between Teófilo Lacroze, the president of Banco de la Nación Dr. Tomás de Estrada, Dr. Louis J. Rocca directory owner of Ferrocarril Terminal de Buenos Aires and bankers Harris and Forbes. This agreement granted the concession of the line for passengers, parcels and freight to Lacroze Brothers Company.
The construction was carried out by the Argentine builder Dwight P. Robinson & Cía, and the line was called Ferrocarril Terminal Central de Buenos Aires (Buenos Aires Central Terminal Railroad). The first section between Federico Lacroze and Callao opened on 17 October 1930 and was 7.021 km (4.363 mi) in length. The Argentine President, José Félix Uriburu, travelled on the maiden journey.
On 22 June 1931, Line B was extended to Carlos Pellegrini station. The line was finally completed on 1 December 1931 when the subway reached the Leandro N. Alem station. These three sections were located below Corrientes Avenue, including 19 curves and 13 stations.
Depending to the depth of the line, some sections were constructed using an open trench (cut-and-cover method) or gallery or tunnel. The open trench approach was used in constructing the Federico Lacroze, Dorrego, Canning (now Malabia), Río de Janeiro (now Ángel Gallardo) and Medrano stations. The tunnel at Maipu Street reached a maximum depth of 17 metres (56 ft). Underneath the Rancagua (today Los Andes) park in Chacarita, a workshop and a 10 track garage (with capacity for 110 cars) were built.
Lione B had escalators and turnstiles for the payment of coin-operated service, initially manufactured in the United States, formerly controlled by guards. Line B is deeper underground than Line A, and like it, each station was decorated with friezes of characteristic colours.
An underground link with the Mercado Central de Abasto (a wholesale fruit and vegetable market) was opened on 12 July 1933, through which goods wagons with freight from the Ferrocarril Central de Buenos Aires (Buenos Aires Central Railroad) would arrive, driven by electric locomotives. This service ceased after a fire occurred on the link on 27 November 1952.
The line always had an automatic light signalling system. In 1980 the mechanical stop-gear devices were replaced by magnetic induction devices, and in 1998 they were finally replaced by an electronic system with Automatic Train Protection (ATP). The original tracks were replaced, and a new automatic signal system with automatic train protection was installed and the transformers were changed to ones that did not contain PCBs, a carcinogenic chemical.
The modernisation carried out from 1996 by the private concessionaire Metrovías brought about a radical change in the appearance of the stations, covering the walls of both the platforms and the halls with asphalt-type material painted black and ochre in most cases, except for Callao and Carlos Gardel which were decorated with white tiles with black veins. As a result, the previous coloured friezes that embellished the stations and gave them their characteristic touch were covered.
On 9 August 9, 2003, two new stations, Tronador - Villa Ortúzar and De los Incas - Parque Chas, were inaugurated, allowing the line to transport more than 300,000 passengers per business day.
== Recent expansion and refurbishment ==
In 2013 Line B was extended underground further west (2 km (1.2 mi)) from Los Incas/Parque Chas to Echeverría and Juan Manuel de Rosas (previously named Villa Urquiza) where transfer to the Ferrocarril Mitre line was provided. The new stations opened on 26 July 2013.
Further plans include: installation of a new signal system, acquisition of new cars, construction of a new central workshop for the repair of machinery, widening of platforms, hallways and all areas of pedestrian traffic at stations and at transfer nodes, improvements in transfer centres with other means of transport.
Some refurbishment on the line has come under criticism, mostly due to the overwhelming colour of the new murals, but also due to alleged cases where the historic artwork of the line has been destroyed during the line's modernisation.
== Rolling stock ==
Initially, the Line B had 56 English Metropolitan Cammell cars, with metal bodywork and two bogies, painted cream and red and with a capacity of 47 seated people. Each car had 3 double-leaf sliding doors on each side, at platform height, whose opening and closing was controlled by the guard, and had two 105 HP motors. Then 20 North American Osgood-Bradley cars were added. Between 1965 and 1967, 14 similar cars were purchased from Fabricaciones Militares, and between 1977 and 1979, 20 units with 195 HP Siemens engines.
In 1995, the replacement of the existing fleet began and in 1996 128 second-hand Japanese Tokyo Metro (formerly Eidan Subway) 300/400/500/900 rail cars were purchased that were in excellent condition.
In 2009, it was announced that the Madrid Metro has sold its oldest wide-profile trains to Buenos Aires. The CAF 5000 series trains, which were in operation in Madrid since 1974, entered service in 2013 to replace some of the Eidan 300/400/500/900 sets that were utilized on line B starting in 1996. In operation, the 5000 series sets proved problematic, particularly with electrical issues, and were temporarily removed from service in late 2016 in response to brake-related safety concerns. Although slowly reinstated starting in 2017, the 5000 series sets were permanently withdrawn less than a year later, following the discovery of asbestos in some cars' electrical components.
In July 2013, Madrid Metro sold 73 of its 6000 series cars (which entered service in Madrid in 1998) to Buenos Aires for €32.6 million in exchange for the retirement of the rest of the Japanese-built trains. The purchase of the CAF 6000 rolling stock was met with major criticism due to the need for large and expensive alterations to accommodate the new rolling stock that was poorly adapted for Line B.
Due to the 6000 series cars using overhead lines for power collection, in contrast to the existing and functional third rail electrification system of Line B, a new solid overhead catenary system had to be installed. The new overhead power collection system turned out be insufficient in powering the 6000 series cars resulting in the cars operating at reduced performance leading to lower acceleration. The trains were significantly narrower than the Line B's original loading gauge necessitating the need for modifications to the trains to reduce the large platform gap. These alterations made the second-hand units not any cheaper than simply purchasing new rolling stock, as was done with the 200 Series on Line A. The rolling stock suburban interior design was a poor fit for the urban Line B. The seating was arranged as transverse seating, designed for long distance comfort with limited standing room which is a poor fit to Line B's typically short passenger trips with high passenger turnover at each station. The trains also were not completely walk through train sets as they were organised into married pairs. These factors and the narrow width of the train cars themselves led to very poor internal passenger circulation. The shorter cars meant that a 6000 series six car train made poor use of the existing platform length compared to older six car trains. These factors led to the new 6000 series rolling stock having a much smaller passenger capacity compared to the existing rolling stock.
As of 2020, the remaining Eidan 300/400/500/900 sets are the oldest rapid transit cars that remain in operation in the world; the remaining cars are expected to be retired in the mid-2020s.
== Events and highlights ==
When excavation was carried out for construction of the Leandro Alem station, the remains of a Mammoth of the Quaternary period where found, which were sent to the Museum of Natural Sciences of La Plata.
Line B connects through a ramp at Federico Lacroze into the electrified track of the Urquiza Line, where the underground rolling stock heads to the Urquiza Railway workshops in Ruben Darío (Hurlingham) for wheel, gear and axle maintenance.
Florida and Carlos Pellegrini stations are the two busiest stations on the line, as most commuters alight there in the morning to work in the downtown financial district. They also provide easy access to the entertainment district in the evening (see also Florida Street).
Carlos Pellegrini station can be reached from an underground commercial gallery located right below the Obelisco landmark, used by pedestrians to avoid crossing 9 de Julio Avenue at street level.
Since the 1940s, the line used to end in Federico Lacroze Station, near Chacarita Cemetery, where commuters could board the suburban bound Urquiza Line. In the 1990s, work began to expand the line to Villa Ortúzar and Villa Urquiza.
== Gallery ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Subterráneos de Buenos Aires (Official Page)
Metrovías S.A. Subte Operator (Official Page)
Subterráneos de Buenos Aires, B Line
System map
La ruina de la línea B (in Spanish) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azad_Kashmir_Plebiscite_Front | Azad Kashmir Plebiscite Front | The Plebiscite Front in Azad Kashmir, also called Mahaz-i-Raishumari, was founded by Amanullah Khan in collaboration with Abdul Khaliq Ansari
and Maqbool Bhat in 1965. The organisation had an unofficial armed wing called National Liberation Front, which carried out sabotage activities in Jammu and Kashmir as well as the hijacking of Ganga. Amanullah Khan later moved to England, where he revived the National Liberation Front under the new name Jammu Kashmir Liberation Front (JKLF).
== History ==
The Plebiscite Front was the initiative of Gilgit-born Amanullah Khan, who after graduating with a law degree in Karachi, set up a Kashmir Independence Committee advocating the ideology of independence for the entire princely state of Jammu and Kashmir.
In April 1965, the Kashmir Independence Committee merged into the newly launched Plebiscite Front in Muzaffarabad. Abdul Khaliq Ansari was its president, Amanullah Khan the general secretary and Maqbool Bhat the publicity secretary. Journalist Arif Jamal states that, the participants drove to an unguarded location of the Kashmir Line of Control near Suchetgarh, brought back soil from the Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir, took an oath that they would work exclusively for the liberation of the former princely state.
== National Liberation Front ==
Amanullah Khan and Maqbool Bhat also wanted to set up an armed wing for the Plebiscite Front, but the proposal did not get the majority support in the Plebiscite Front. Undeterred, they established an underground group called National Liberation Front (NLF), obtaining some support for it in August 1965. The group was fashioned after the Algerian Front de Libération Nationale. Major Amanullah, a former soldier in the Azad Kashmir forces, was in charge of the armed wing while Amanullah Khan and Mir Abdul Qayoom took charge of the political and financial wings. Maqbool Bhat was made responsible for the overall coordination. All the members swore in blood that they would be ready to sacrifice their lives for the objective of the NLF, viz., to create conditions in Jammu and Kashmir that enable its people to demand self-determination. The organisation was successful in recruiting members from Azad Kashmir, and obtained backing from the bureaucracy of the state.
The NLF recruited and trained a cadre of militants in the use of explosives and small arms. Crossing into Indian-controlled Kashmir on 10 June 1966, they trained local workers in sabotage activities in the forests of Kupwara and set up secret cells. However, in September 1966, Bhat's group was compromised, possibly via Ghulam Muhammad Dar, who acted as a double agent. The group kidnapped a police inspector and, when he tried to escape, shot and killed him. The Indian army zeroed in on them, leading to an exchange of fire in the Kunial village near Handwara. A member of Bhat's group, Kala Khan, was killed in the action. Bhat and a colleague named Mir Ahmad were captured and tried for sabotage and murder, receiving death sentences from a Srinagar court in September 1968. Major Amanullah's wing waiting to receive the volunteers at the Line of Control retreated, but it was arrested by the Pakistan Army.
Maqbool Bhat's arrest brought the group's activities into the open, and sharply divided the Plebiscite Front. Nevertheless, they declared it an unconstitutional body and "banned" it. Meanwhile, Maqbool Bhat and Mir Ahmad escaped from the Indian prison in December 1968, along with another inmate Ghulam Yasin, tunneling their way out of the prison complex. They returned to Azad Kashmir in January 1969, creating a sensation in the militant circles. Their standing increased within the community, forcing the Plebiscite Front to abandon its opposition. However, the NLF's failed operations in Jammu and Kashmir put at risk all its sympathisers in the state, many of whom were arrested.
The militants' escape from an Indian prison was viewed with suspicion by Pakistan. Bhat and his colleagues were detained and brutally interrogated for several months. Long after their release, Bhat was still suspected of being a double agent. Pakistan extended little support to the other Indian youth that crossed over into Azad Kashmir for arms and training. Praveen Swami suggests that, as Pakistan was waging a covert war through its own network in Jammu and Kashmir, it did not want those official operations jeopardised by the amateur operators of the NLF.
The NLF continued its activities, sponsoring bomb explosions in the Jammu province. It targeted public places, such as railway stations and bus stations, and military installations in and around the cities of Jammu and Poonch. However, the international attention it was hoping to galvanise through the bombing campaign did not materialise.
== Ganga hijacking ==
Hashim Qureshi, a Srinagar resident who went to Peshawar on family business in 1969, met Maqbool Bhat and got inducted into the NLF. He was given an ideological education and lessons in guerrilla tactics in Rawalpindi. In order to draw the world's attention to the Kashmiri independence movement, the group planned an airline hijacking fashioned after the Dawson's Field hijackings by the Palestinian militants. Hashim Qureshi, along with his cousin Ashraf Qureshi, was ordered to execute one. A former Pakistani air force pilot Jamshed Manto trained him for the task. However, Qureshi was arrested by the Indian Border Security Force when he tried to reenter Indian-held Kashmir with arms and equipment. He negotiated his way out by claiming to help find other conspirators that were allegedly in the Indian territory, sought an appointment in the Border Security Force to provide such help. Maqbool Bhat sent Qureshi replacement equipment for the hijacking, but it fell into the hands of a double agent, who then turned it over to the Indian authorities. Undeterred, the Qureshis made look-alike explosives out of wood and hijacked an Indian Airlines plane called Ganga on 30 January 1971.
The hijackers landed the plane at Lahore and demanded the release of 36 NLF prisoners lodged in Indian jails. However, they succumbed to pressure from the airport authorities and ended up releasing all the passengers and the crew. Years later, Ashraf Qureshi admitted that they were naive and didn't realise that "the passengers were more important than the actual plane." Pakistan's Prime Minister Zulfikar Bhutto showed up at the airport and paid a handsome tribute to the hijackers. Indian Government then refused to carry out the demands. The plane lay on the tarmac for eighty hours, during which the Pakistani security personnel thoroughly searched the air plane and removed papers and postal bags they found in it. Eventually, upon the advice of the authorities, Hashim Qureshi burnt the plane down.
For some time, the Qureshis were lauded as heroes. After India reacted by banning overflight of Pakistani planes over India, the Pakistani authorities claimed that the hijack was staged by India, and arrested the hijackers and all their collaborators. A one-man investigation committee headed by Justice Noorul Arifeen declared the hijacking to be an Indian conspiracy, citing Qureshi's appointment in the Border Security Force. In addition to the hijackers, Maqbool Bhat and 150 other NLF fighters were arrested. Seven people were eventually brought to trial (the rest being held without charges). The High Court acquitted them of treason charges. Hashim Qureshi alone was sentenced to seven years in prison. Ironically, Ashraf Qureshi was released even though he was an equal participant in the hijacking. This is said to have been a deal made by Zulikar Bhutto, by now the President of Pakistan, who declared that he would convict one hijacker but release the other.
Amanullah Khan was also imprisoned for 15 months in a Gilgit prison during 1970–72, accused of being an Indian agent. He was released after protests broke out in Gilgit. Thirteen of his colleagues were sentenced to 14 years in prison, but released after a year. According to Hashim Qureshi, 400 activists of the Plebiscite Front and NLF were arrested in Pakistan after the Ganga hijacking. Abdul Khaliq Ansari, who was arrested and tortured, testified in the High Court that the Ganga hijacking had emboldened the people to question the corrupt practices of the Azad Kashmir leaders and, in reaction, the government arrested them and forced them to confess to being Indian agents.
== Post-hijack operations ==
Further attempts by the NLF to infiltrate into Indian-controlled Kashmir also met with failure. Praveen Swami states that the organisation did not have enough funds and infrastructure, or support from other sources, to make an impact inside India. Paul Staniland adds that "State repression" in the Indian-controlled Kashmir also played a key role.
In May 1976, Maqbool Bhat reentered the Indian-controlled Kashmir again. He was encouraged by the student protests against the 1974 Indira-Sheikh accord, by which Sheikh Abdullah agreed to return to constitutional politics. Bhat attempted to rob a bank in Kupwara. A bank employee was killed in the course of the robbery. Bhat was rearrested and received a second death sentence.
Bhat's arrest effectively broke the back of the NLF in Azad Kashmir. Amanullah Khan moved to England, where he received the enthusiastic support of the British Mirpuri community. The UK chapter of the Plebiscite Front was converted into the Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front (JKLF) in May 1977 and formed an armed wing called the `National Liberation Army'. Amanullah Khan took charge as the General Secretary of JKLF the following February.
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Jamal, Arif (2009), Shadow War: The Untold Story of Jihad in Kashmir, Melville House, ISBN 978-1-933633-59-6
Schofield, Victoria (2003) [First published in 2000], Kashmir in Conflict, London and New York: I. B. Taurus & Co, ISBN 1860648983
Snedden, Christopher (2013) [first published as The Untold Story of the People of Azad Kashmir, 2012], Kashmir: The Unwritten History, HarperCollins India, ISBN 978-9350298985
Staniland, Paul (2014), Networks of Rebellion: Explaining Insurgent Cohesion and Collapse, Cornell University Press, pp. 68–, ISBN 978-0-8014-7102-5
Swami, Praveen (2007), India, Pakistan and the Secret Jihad: The covert war in Kashmir, 1947-2004, Asian Security Studies, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-40459-4 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Vernon_the_Younger | James Vernon the Younger | James Vernon the Younger (15 June 1677 – 17 April 1756) was a British government official, courtier, diplomat and Whig politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1708 to 1710. He was an envoy to Denmark from 1702 to 1707.
== Early life ==
Vernon was the eldest son of James Vernon and his wife Mary Buck, daughter of Sir John Buck, 1st Baronet, of Hamby Grange, Lincolnshire. His father was Secretary of State under William III. He was educated at Utrecht in 1690, at Rotterdam from 1690 to 1692 and a Utrecht again from 1696 to 1697.
== Career ==
In 1691, Vernon was appointed serjeant of the chandlery. He was appointed an extra clerk of Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council in 1697. His first parliamentary attempt was in a by-election in 1698 at Penryn when he was unsuccessful. He was groom of bedchamber to Duke of Gloucester from 1698 to 1700. From his close attendance on the Duke he contracted the illness from which the Duke died, and took several months to recover. At the second general election of 1701, he and his father contested St Mawes, but were unable to overcome the established interest. From 1701 to 1702 he was a Commissioner of the privy seal. In May 1702, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. He served as British envoy to Denmark from 1702 to 1707 and was groom of bedchamber to the Prince of Denmark from 1702 to 1708.
At the 1708 British general election Vernon was returned as Whig Member of Parliament for Cricklade. In early 1709 he supported the naturalization of the Palatines, and in 1710 voted for the impeachment of Dr Sacheverell, later airing his dismay that Whig leaders had made such a fuss about ‘a factious preacher much below their notice’. He became a Commissioner for excise in 1710, in compensation for his father's dismissal as teller of the Exchequer. The post, worth £800 a year, made him ineligible to stand at the 1710 British general election.
== Later life ==
Vernon disentangled himself from politics and chose to serve the Tory administration as an official. In 1713, he married Arethusa Boyle daughter of Charles Boyle, Lord Clifford of Lanesborough. When King George I came to the throne in 1714 and the Whigs were in power his Whig background served him and he not only kept his post but was also appointed a Clerk of the Privy Council in 1715, which he held for the rest of his life. In 1716 he was again Commissioner of the Privy Seal. He lost his post at the Excise in 1726 after a disagreement with Walpole, but it was restored in 1728. In 1727 he succeeded his father.
In 1713, Vernon married Arethusa Boyle d. 1728, daughter of Charles Boyle, 3rd Viscount Dungarvan and Arethusa Berkeley, with whom he had issue including Francis Vernon d. 1783 who was created 1st Earl of Shipbrook (I).
Vernon devoted his efforts to religious and charitable works. He was a sponsor of the foundation of the colony of Georgia and a trustee for Bray's charity. His government duties kept him in London, but by 1733 he had purchased an estate at Great Thurlow, Suffolk, for £15,000. Later he built workhouses for several Suffolk parishes. He died on 15 or 17 April 1756, and was buried at Great Thurlow.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Bennett_Cup_(auto_racing) | Gordon Bennett Cup (auto racing) | In automobile racing, the Gordon Bennett Cup was an annual competition which ran from 1900 to 1905. It was one of three Gordon Bennett Cups established by James Gordon Bennett, Jr., millionaire owner of the New York Herald.
In 1899, Gordon Bennett offered the Automobile Club de France (ACF) a trophy to be raced for annually by the automobile clubs of the various countries. The competition was held until 1905, after which the ACF held the first Grand Prix motor racing event at a road course near Le Mans.
The 1903 event in Athy, Co. Kildare, Ireland gave rise to the birth of British Racing Green.
== The Cup ==
The trophy given to the winner was a sculpture of a Panhard racing car driven by the Genius of Progress with the Goddess of Victory as passenger.
== Rules ==
Competition was intended to be between national automobile clubs, or nations, and not individuals. The first contestants were France, Great Britain, the United States, Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Belgium, and Italy. Each club was required to pay a Fr3000 entry fee. Each could send up to three cars; drivers had to be members of the entrant club.
A race, once scheduled, had to be held between 15 May and 15 August, with a total distance of between 550 and 650 km (340 and 400 mi). Participating clubs shared the cost of running the event.
The cars themselves had to have two seats, side by side, with driver and riding mechanic (who were to weigh no less than 60 kg (132 lb) each). Cars were to weigh at least 400 kg (882 lb) empty, and had to be built entirely in the country under whose colours they ran.
== Gordon Bennett races ==
The Gordon Bennett Cup auto races drew entrants from across Europe, including future aviator Henry Farman, and competitors from the United States such as Alexander Winton driving his Winton automobile. Under the rules, the races were hosted in the country of the previous year's winner. As the races were between national teams, it led to the reorganisation and standardisation of national racing colours. Count Eliot Zborowski, father of inter-war racing legend Louis Zborowski, suggested that each national entrant be allotted a different colour. Britain had to choose a different colour from its usual national colours of red, white and blue, as these had already been taken by USA, Germany, and France respectively.
Reputedly as a concession to Ireland where the 1903 Gordon Bennett Cup race was run (racing was illegal on British public roads), the British adopted shamrock green which became known as British racing green, although the winning Napier of 1902 had already been painted olive green, and green was well-established as an appropriate colour for locomotives and machinery, in which Britain had led the world during the previous century.
=== 1900 Gordon Bennett Cup ===
The international motor car race from Paris to Lyons for the Gordon Bennett Cup took place on 14 June 1900. The start from Paris was made at 3 o'clock in the morning and Charron was the first to reach Lyons, arriving at 12:23 p.m. M. Girardot finished second at 2 o'clock.
=== 1901 Gordon Bennett Cup ===
In 1901 the Gordon Bennett Cup race was run in conjunction with the Paris-Bordeaux race on 29 May over a distance of 527.1 km. The race was won by Henri Fournier driving a Mors with a time of 6h 10m 44s. The first of the Gordon Bennett Cup contestants was Leonce Girardot, driving a Panhard with a time of 8h 50m 59s.
=== 1902 Gordon Bennett Cup ===
The 1902 Gordon Bennett Cup was run over a distance of 565 km from Paris to Innsbruck in conjunction with the Paris-Vienna motor car race. The race started in Paris on 26 June. Competing were 30 heavy cars, 48 light cars, six voiturettes, three motorcycles, and three motorcyclettes. Each nation was allowed to nominate up to three cars to compete for the Gordon Bennett Cup, but only six entries were received, three French and three British. The Automobile Club of Great Britain announced that car No. 160 driven by Mr White, and car No. 45, made by Napier & Son of London with Dunlop tyres, driven by Mr Edge would represent the club. The Times announced on June 30 that Edge had won the Gordon Bennett Cup. It was announced in Vienna on 1 July that M. Marcel Renault had won the Paris-Vienna race, with M. Henri Farman second.
=== 1903 Gordon Bennett Cup ===
On Thursday, 2 July 1903 the Gordon Bennett Cup was the first international motor race to be held in Ireland, an honorific to Selwyn Edge who had won the 1902 event in the Paris-Vienna race driving a Napier. The Automobile Club of Great Britain and Ireland wanted the race to be hosted in the British Isles, and their secretary, Claude Johnson, suggested Ireland as the venue because racing was illegal on British public roads. The editor of the Dublin Motor News, Richard J. Mecredy, suggested an area in County Kildare, and letters were sent to 102 Irish MPs, 90 Irish peers, 300 newspapers, 34 chairmen of county and local councils, 34 County secretaries, 26 mayors, 41 railway companies, 460 hoteliers, 13 PPs, plus the Bishop of Kildare and Leighlin, Patrick Foley, who pronounced himself in favour. Local laws had to be adjusted, ergo the 'Light Locomotives (Ireland) Bill' was passed on 27 March 1903. Kildare and other local councils drew attention to their areas, whilst Queen's County declared That every facility will be given and the roads placed at the disposal of motorists during the proposed race. Eventually Kildare was chosen, partly on the grounds that the straightness of the roads would be a safety benefit. As a compliment to Ireland the British team chose to race in Shamrock green[a] which thus became known as British racing green although the winning Napier of 1902 had been painted Olive green.
There was considerable public concern about safety after the 1901 Paris-Bordeaux Rally, in which at least eight people had been killed, and severe crashes during the 24 May 1903 Paris-Madrid race where more than 200 cars competed over a distance of 800 miles (1,287 km) but which had to be halted at Bordeaux because there had been so many fatalities. To allay these fears, the 1903 race was held over a closed course which had been carefully prepared for the event, and was marshalled by 7,000 police officers assisted by troops and club stewards, with strict instructions to keep spectators off the roads and away from corners. The route consisted of two loops that comprised a figure of eight, the first was a 52-mile loop that included Kilcullen, The Curragh, Kildare, Monasterevin, Ballydavis (Portlaoise), Stradbally, Athy, followed by a 40-mile loop through Castledermot, Carlow, and Athy again. The race started at the Ballyshannon cross-roads (53.0853°N 6.82°W / 53.0853; -6.82) near Calverstown on the contemporary N78 heading north, then followed the N9 north; the N7 west; the N80 south; the N78 north again; the N9 south; the N80 north; the N78 north again.
The official timekeeper of the race was Mr. T. H. Woolen of the Automobile Club of Great Britain and Ireland. Ninety one Chronographs for timing the race were supplied by the Anglo-Swiss firm Stauffer Son & Co. of La Chaux-de-Fonds and London. Competitors were started at seven-minute intervals and had to follow bicycles through the 'control zones' in each town.
The 328 miles (528 km) race was won by the famous Belgian Camille Jenatzy, driving a Mercedes in German colours.
=== 1904 Gordon Bennett Cup ===
The Times reported the 1904 Gordon Bennett motor race took place in Germany on 17 June over 342 miles (550 km), consisting of four laps of a course in the neighbourhood of Homburg. From Saalburg the course ran north to Usingen, where there was a control point (an inhabited or built up area where the cars had to travel slowly under the supervision of course officials) then through Graefenwiesbach to Weilburg, where there was a second control point, then past Allendorf and Obertiefenbach to Limburg. This section was reported to be the best part of the course for high speed and in practice some cars travelled at 150 km/h (93 mph). At Limburgh there was another control, then the course ran through Kirberg to Neuhof, where there was a very bad turn, and then to Idstein where there was another control. It then ran through Glashuetten to Koenigstein (control), then via Friedrichshof and Oberursel (control) to Homburg (control) and back to Saalburg.
Officiating were Baron von Molitor of the German Automobile Club, the official starter, and M. Tampier of the French Automobile Club who was timekeeper. The chronographs for timing the event were supplied by the Anglo-Swiss firm of Stauffer Son & Co. Officials from the other competing countries were also present.
There were 18 starters including three British entrants. The first car started from Saalburg at 7 a.m. The winner was Théry of France, who accomplished the four laps in 5 h 50 min 3 s, an average speed of 58.62 mph (94.34 km/h). Jenatzy was second, driving a Mercedes. The only British competitor placed was Sidney Girling driving a Wolseley. Australia's S. F. Edge, the 1902 winner who again drove a Napier, was reported to have held a good position during the first two laps, but was disqualified on lap three after receiving outside assistance due to tyre problems.
=== 1905 Gordon Bennett Cup ===
In 1905, The Times reported on the last of the six Gordon-Bennett Cup Races, which took place in France on 5 July over a 137 km mountainous circuit in the Auvergne near to Clermont-Ferrand. After four circuits of the course, a total of 548 km, which he completed in 7hr 2min 42sec, an average speed of 77.78 km/h, the Frenchman Léon Théry on a 96 hp Richard-Brasier won for the second year in a row. Lancia on a FIAT for Italy was fastest over the first two laps, but broke down with radiator problems during his third lap. Théry eventually came in first ahead of Nazzaro, also on a FIAT, who finished in 7hr 19min 9sec.
Chronographs for timing for the event were again supplied by Stauffer Son & Co.
The race took place on the doorstep of the Clermont-Ferrand headquarters of Michelin, and cars fitted with Michelin tyres took the first four places.
== Gordon Bennett Cup winners ==
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Gordon Bennett Motor Race 1903 - kildare
The day the country stopped to watch the Great Race, Leinster Express
1903 route map and descriptive brochure
1903 illustrated article – The Gordon Bennet Race
Circle Genealogic and Historic Champanellois – all about the french edition in 1905 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bure_Nangal#:~:text=As%20of%202011%2C%20The%20village,by%20Census%20India%20in%202011. | Bure Nangal | Bure Nangal is a village in Batala in Gurdaspur district of Punjab State, India. The village is administrated by Sarpanch an elected representative of the village.
== Demography ==
As of 2011, the village has a total number of 211 houses and a population of 1171 of which 610 are males while 561 are females according to the report published by Census India in 2011. The literacy rate of the village is 78.80%, highest than the state average of 75.84%. The population of children under the age of 6 years is 124 which is 10.59% of total population of the village, and child sex ratio is approximately 968 higher than the state average of 846.
== See also ==
List of villages in India
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Javier_Zanetti | Javier Zanetti | Javier Adelmar Zanetti (Spanish: [xaˈβjeɾ aðelˈmaɾ saˈneti], Italian: [dzaˈnetti]; born 10 August 1973) is an Argentine former professional footballer. He spent almost his entire career at Inter Milan, having a key role in the treble-winning 2009–10 season. Zanetti was known for his versatility as well as his adeptness on both the left and right wing, having played mostly as a full-back or wing-back on both flanks, but also spending considerable time as a midfielder. He is currently the vice-president of Inter Milan.
Zanetti started his career in Argentina, first with Talleres, and then Banfield. From 1995 to 2014 he played for Italian club Inter Milan and was captain from 2001 until his retirement in 2014. Having participated in 1,115 official games, he is on the list of men's footballers with the most official appearances. He is also the foreign player with the most appearances in Serie A (615), and holds the fourth-most appearances in the league, behind only Gianluigi Buffon, Paolo Maldini and Francesco Totti. He holds the record for the most appearances in the history of Inter (858), as well as the record for the most trophies won with the club, with 16; five Scudetti, four Coppa Italia, four Supercoppa Italiana, one UEFA Cup, one Champions League and the FIFA Club World Cup. He also has the most appearances as captain in the Champions League (82).
With the Argentina national team, Zanetti played in 145 games, a figure that makes him the player with the joint-third most appearances in the history of La Albiceleste, having formerly held the record from 2007 to 2018. With Argentina he reached the final of the Copa América in 2004 and 2007, and the FIFA Confederations Cup in 1995 and 2005.
On retiring, Inter Milan retired Zanetti's number 4 jersey and named him as its vice president. He has been named an ambassador for the SOS Children's Villages project in Argentina by FIFA, and in 2005 he received the Ambrogino d'Oro award from the city of Milan for his social initiatives. Zanetti is also a Global Ambassador for the Special Olympics.
== Early life ==
Javier Adelmar Zanetti was born in Buenos Aires to working-class parents of Italian ancestry and grew up in the harbour area in the Dock Sud district, one of the city's most notorious areas. His father Rodolfo was a bricklayer and his mother Violeta Bonnazola was a cleaner. Reportedly, some of Zanetti's ancestors were Italian settlers brought to southern Chile by Giorgio Ricci in the aftermath of the Occupation of Araucanía (1861–1883). He began playing football on a field in the city suburbs, maintaining the pitch in his spare time. When he was a teenager, he tried out for local club Independiente's youth academy, but was ultimately rejected and told that he lacked the physique to succeed in the game. Instead, he concentrated on school and worked as an assistant to his father with masonry as well as odd jobs such as delivering milk and helping out at a relative's grocery store.
== Club career ==
=== Talleres ===
After his rejection from Independiente, Zanetti signed for Talleres, then a second division team. With them, he played 33 matches and scored one goal in his only season, before moving in 1993 to the First Division club Banfield.
=== Banfield ===
A 20-year-old Zanetti debuted for Banfield on 12 September 1993 in a home match against River Plate. He scored his first goal 17 days later against Newell's Old Boys in a match that ended 1–1. His outstanding performances for Banfield gained popularity from El Taladro fans and also earned him a call-up from the national team. First division giants River Plate and Boca Juniors displayed interest, but Zanetti decided to stay on for another year at the club. In 1995, along with fellow Argentine Sebastián Rambert, he transferred to Italy's Inter Milan, becoming team owner Massimo Moratti's first-ever purchase.
=== Inter Milan ===
As a part of the squad for 19 seasons and with 858 appearances across all competitions, he is currently the team's longest-tenured player, and the first overall – surpassing Giuseppe Bergomi (758) – in the all-time list of Inter players by most games played.
Throughout his stay with the club, he won 16 trophies, 15 of which came under his captaincy: the UEFA Cup in 1998, the 2005, 2006, 2010 and 2011 Coppa Italia, the 2005, 2006, 2008 and 2010 Supercoppa Italiana, the 2005–06, 2006–07, 2007–08, 2008–09 and 2009–10 Scudetti and the 2009–10 UEFA Champions League.
Zanetti went 12 years without being sent off in a match. The first time he was sent off in his career was on 17 February 1999 in a Coppa Italia match against Parma, but he broke his streak when he was sent off in a Serie A match against Udinese on 3 December 2011. These were the only two times he was sent off during his entire career at Inter.
At Inter, Zanetti played under 19 different coaches, making him the only player to have played under this many coaches. He has pledged his future to the Nerazzurri, hoping to have a future behind the desk at the club in his retirement from playing. "Inter means a lot to me", Zanetti said.
It was the first team to open the doors of European football. I was very young when I came here and I think not many teams could have had so much faith and patience with a boy in his early 20s from the very first day like Inter did with me. I will always be grateful for that. For some reason I have always felt at home here at Inter and this is why I have never thought of leaving.
==== Early career ====
Zanetti made his debut for Inter on 27 August 1995 against Vicenza in Milan. He scored Inter's second goal in their 3–0 win over compatriots Lazio in the 1998 UEFA Cup final at the Parc des Princes in Paris, his first silverware at the club, after losing in the final in the previous season.
After two years, in which he consistently wore the captain band in place of the injured Ronaldo, Zanetti was rewarded with the club captaincy in late 2001.
In August 2003, Zanetti signed a new contract with the club until June 2007.
==== Move to midfield ====
After the arrival of Maicon at the beginning of the 2006–07 season, Zanetti was moved from the right-back position into midfield. He ended a four-year goal drought when he scored on 5 November 2006 at a home match against Ascoli, having previously scored on 6 November 2002 at an away match against Empoli. On 27 September 2006, against Bayern Munich, Zanetti played his 500th professional match for Inter and on 22 November 2006, he appeared in his 100th UEFA match, against Sporting CP.
Zanetti played an important role in the 2008 Supercoppa Italiana match over Roma, scoring his team's last penalty in a subsequent shootout win after the regular and extra time ended in a 2–2 draw; this was his first ever career penalty and the third Supercoppa Italiana title. Zanetti then celebrated his 600th match for Inter on 24 September 2008 with a 1–0 win over newly promoted Lecce. Minutes before the match, he was presented with a commemorative plate by former vice-captain Iván Córdoba to mark the occasion.
Though Zanetti is more often classified as a defender, he played mostly in midfield during the first half of the 2008–09 season. For the last several weeks of October 2008, with Inter coach José Mourinho facing a midfield crisis due to injuries to key midfielders Esteban Cambiasso and Sulley Muntari, he was moved again to the midfield for the matches against Genoa and Fiorentina. During that period, Mourinho played him in the midfield due to the presence of Maicon, Lúcio, Walter Samuel and Cristian Chivu in the back four.
The 2009–10 season began well for Zanetti and Inter, especially after a 4–0 thrashing of crosstown rivals Milan in the Derby della Madonnina. In the match against Genoa on 17 October, he started off the counter-attack that led to Inter's second goal after dispossessing a Genoa player. Inter became the first team of the season to win by a five-goal margin. On 24 October, he reached Giacinto Facchetti's record of 476 Serie A appearances when he turned out for the match against Catania, which ended in a 2–1 win for the Nerazzurri.
Inter won the 2010 Champions League final 2–0 against Bayern Munich on 22 May 2010. This was Zanetti's 700th appearance for Inter, and it made him the first player to captain an Italian club to a treble of the Scudetto, Coppa Italia and Champions League.
==== Later career ====
On 20 October 2010, at 37 years and 71 days, Zanetti became the oldest player to score in the Champions League when he netted in the opening minute of Inter's 4–3 group stage win over Tottenham Hotspur at the San Siro. This was only his second ever Champions League goal; his first came in December 1998 in a match in a 2–0 win against Sturm Graz. He scored one of Inter's goals in their 3–0 win against Seongnam Ilhwa Chunma at the 2010 FIFA Club World Cup, which they eventually won, although Inter missed out on the UEFA Super Cup that season.
On 19 January 2011, Zanetti overtook Inter legend Giuseppe Bergomi in Serie A appearances, his 520th match in Serie A, all for Inter. On 11 May 2011, Zanetti made his 1,000th appearance as a professional footballer playing for Inter against Roma in the second leg of the Coppa Italia semi-final. On 20 September 2011, Zanetti made the all-time appearance record in a Serie A clash against Novara, surpassing Giuseppe Bergomi.
On 10 March 2013, Zanetti played in his 600th Serie A match for Inter, a 1–0 loss to Bologna at the San Siro. On 21 April 2014, in the 1–0 home win against Parma, Zanetti played his 1,100th official match, and became the player with the fourth-most appearances of all time.
On 29 April 2014, Inter chairman Erick Thohir announced that Zanetti would retire at the end of the 2013–14 season and become a club director. Zanetti's last competitive match at the San Siro was a 4–1 victory over Lazio on 10 May 2014. He came on as a substitute for Jonathan Moreira in the 52nd minute and wore a special armband featuring the names of every player he had played with during his career at Inter. He retired after the last game of the season, which he started as centre-back in a 2–1 away defeat to Chievo on 18 May.
== Post-playing career ==
In June 2014, Inter chairman Erick Thohir appointed Zanetti vice-president for a two-year term. Zanetti kept the role upon the change of ownership to the Suning Holdings Group.
On 4 May 2015, during a charitable match at the San Siro, with former and current football stars, organised by Zanetti himself for the opening celebrations for the Expo 2015 in Milan, Inter officially retired Zanetti's number 4 jersey.
== International career ==
=== Debuts and 100th appearance ===
Zanetti debuted for Argentina on 16 November 1994 against Chile under coach Daniel Passarella. He was called up for the 1998 FIFA World Cup in France, making his competitive debut in team's opening group match against Japan which finished in a 1–0 victory. During the 1998 World Cup run, he neatly finished off a Juan Sebastián Verón free kick in the round of 16 match against England making the score 2–2.
Zanetti celebrated his 100th cap by helping Argentina win their 2005 FIFA Confederations Cup semi-final over Mexico on 26 June 2005, in which he won the Man of the Match award. Despite having been part of the team during the qualification rounds, Zanetti was not called up for the 2006 FIFA World Cup by coach José Pékerman in a controversial decision.
=== 2000s ===
With new coach Alfio Basile, Zanetti played a friendly match against France on 7 February 2007, helping Javier Saviola to score the only goal of the game that gave Argentina the first victory under Basile's second management.
In April 2007, Zanetti was presented with the National Giuseppe Prisco Award. After the retirement of Roberto Ayala, Zanetti was given the captain's armband. In a World Cup qualification match against Bolivia on 17 November 2007, he became the highest capped player for Argentina.
Zanetti remained a regular footballer under new coach Diego Maradona, although defensive midfielder Javier Mascherano took over as captain at Maradona's request. Zanetti's place in the starting line up was taken by Jonás Gutiérrez, who had spent the previous season playing on the wing for Newcastle United in England's second-tier Football League Championship.
=== Return to the Argentine senior squad ===
On 20 August 2010, Argentina coach Sergio Batista recalled Zanetti to the squad for a friendly match against Spain played on 7 September 2010 at the River Plate Monumental Stadium, where he and fellow legend Gabriel Batistuta were honored by the Argentine Football Association for their outstanding careers with more than 48,000 people giving them a standing ovation. He was called again for the friendly against Japan at the Saitama in October 2010, but withdrew at the last minute due to injury.
Zanetti was a member of Argentina's squad for the 2011 Copa América on home soil, starting in all four of the team's matches as they were eliminated by Uruguay in the quarter-finals.
== Style of play ==
Zanetti earned the nickname El Tractor for his stamina and tireless energetic runs up and down the wings to aid both attack and defence. He was known amongst his teammates for consistency and fitness regime, which he has credited with prolonging his career. During his last few seasons, he started in over 30 games despite being in his late 30s. As a captain for both his club and international sides, he was well-respected by both fans and the opposition for his leadership, calm demeanor and conduct both on and off the pitch; in his entire 22-year career, he only received two red cards.
Zanetti was a quick, strong and physically fit player in his prime, with outstanding physical attributes, excellent ball control, dribbling, technical ability and acceleration. Defensively, he excelled at reading the game, and he was a good ball-winner and man-marker, although he was also effective at distributing the ball to teammates, due to his passing range and vision. A two-way and two-footed player, he excelled at playing on either flank, where he was capable of advancing into more offensive positions to cross balls for teammates. He also possessed an accurate shot from distance. During his later years at Inter, he was known to have developed a formidable partnership with fellow full-back Maicon, leading the club to win several titles.
Zanetti began his career as a right offensive winger, but was later moved back into midfield, where he became a tactically intelligent and versatile player, who was capable of playing anywhere in midfield or in defence. He was primarily used as a wide midfielder or as a full-back or wing-back on either flank throughout his career, although he has also been deployed as a central defender, sweeper, or as a central or defensive midfielder. He was even deployed in more offensive roles on occasion. Zanetti has been praised for his determination, consistency, and work-rate, as well as his discipline and longevity, which he has attributed to his diligence in training sessions.
== Personal life ==
On 23 December 1999, Zanetti married his long-time girlfriend Paula de la Fuente, the daughter of a university lecturer. They met when he was 19 and she was 14 and dated for seven years prior to their marriage. They live near Lake Como, and they also own a restaurant called El Gaucho in Milan in the Navigli district, a popular tourist area. Paula currently works as a photographer. The couple have a daughter, Sol (born 11 June 2005), and two sons, Ignacio (born 27 July 2008) and Tomás (born 9 May 2012).
Zanetti's mother, Violeta Bonazzola, died from a heart attack hours after Inter's triumph in 2011 Coppa Italia final. He has published two autobiographies: Capitano e gentiluomo in 2010 and Giocare da uomo in 2013.
Zanetti is a devout Catholic. Upon the 2013 election of fellow Argentine Pope Francis, Zanetti was invited to the Vatican for an audience with him.
I must admit that [what] I feel at this moment is especially a thrill for all of us Argentines. [I] do not know him personally, but it is a Pope who has lived in Buenos Aires, very humble and always always close to our people. Faith is so important in the world and us we are all close. I had the good fortune to meet Pope Ratzinger and now I expect to have the 'opportunity to meet the new national pope, it would be a great thrill for me and my whole family. [I] wish him all the best and again, for all of us as people of Argentina [it] is a great feeling.
Zanetti is a close friend of Dutch footballer Wesley Sneijder, whom he inspired to convert to Catholicism.
Zanetti's elder brother Sergio is a former football defender. Javier Zanetti is not related to Cristiano Zanetti, an Italian who played alongside him for five seasons at Inter.
In 2007, Zanetti collaborated with Italian singer Mina in a Spanish cover of the song "Parole parole", found in the album Todavía.
=== Charity work ===
Zanetti is FIFA ambassador for the SOS Children's Villages project in Argentina, and has declared his support for the Mexican Zapatista rebels.
==== Fundación PUPI ====
Zanetti has also shown social conscience when in response to Argentina's economic crisis of 2001, which threw millions of people into poverty, Zanetti, with his wife Paula, created the Fundación PUPI in Argentina for the social integration of poor children. The aim of the organization is to help children who were left impoverished by the country's economic crisis by giving them educational opportunities, as well as taking care of their nutritional requirements. He explained:
When I look back to my childhood, many concrete scenes come to my mind, good ones and bad ones. I had a difficult childhood, and even though I don't live in my country at present, I'm well aware of what's going on there and the devastating effect it's having on our poorest children. I've always believed that our public actions need to take account of our social responsibility,
Zanetti, along with his compatriot Esteban Cambiasso, founded this charity association to help coach young children with social isolation problems and motor coordination difficulties. Zanetti said that "this spirit lies at the base of all of Inter's initiatives for youngsters:"
=== Media ===
In 2015 Zanetti was the subject of Zanetti Story, a documentary film by Simone Scafidi and Carlo A. Sigon.
Zanetti is featured in EA Sports' FIFA football video game series; he was included in the Ultimate Team Legends in FIFA 16.
In 2023, Zanetti wrote the foreword to the official Inter book Le maglie dell'Inter, authored by Francesco Ippolito. The volume, reissued in 2025, is an encyclopedic collection that documents all the kits worn throughout the history of Inter Milan since its founding in 1908.
=== 1998 World Cup goal and Marek Kopacz ===
At the 1998 World Cup, Zanetti scored the last goal of a 2–2 draw with England in the round of 16, sending the game to extra time and penalties. Marek Kopacz, who was married to future prime minister Ewa Kopacz, was a prosecutor in the Polish city of Szydłowiec; he had been stalked by a gang who knew that he usually got in his car at 10 p.m., but he changed his routine to watch the rest of the game, and avoided being killed by a car bomb. Marek Kopacz sent a letter of thanks to Zanetti and credited him with saving his life, and Zanetti responded that he would like to meet him.
== Career statistics ==
=== Club ===
=== International ===
Scores and results list Argentina's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Zanetti goal.
== Honours ==
Inter Milan
Serie A: 2005–06, 2006–07, 2007–08, 2008–09, 2009–10
Coppa Italia: 2004–05, 2005–06, 2009–10, 2010–11
Supercoppa Italiana: 2005, 2006, 2008, 2010
UEFA Champions League: 2009–10
UEFA Cup: 1997–98
FIFA Club World Cup: 2010
Argentina
Pan American Games Gold Medal: 1995
Olympic Games Silver Medal: 1996
Individual
FIFA 100
Pirata d'Oro (Inter Milan Player of the Year): 1996
The Guardian: The Serie A Team of the 1990s
Pallone d'Argento: 2002
Copa América Team of the Tournament: 2004, 2007
FIFA FIFPro World XI Nominee 2005, 2008, 2010
UEFA Team of the Year (Five-Time Nominee): 2003, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010
Premio Nazionale Carriera Esemplare "Gaetano Scirea": 2010
Konex Award Merit Diploma as One of the Five Best Football Players of the Last Decade in Argentina: 2010
Golden Foot: 2011, as Football Legend
Premio Internazionale Giacinto Facchetti: 2012
Gran Galà del Calcio AIC Loyalty Award: 2012
Number 4 Retired by Inter Milan as a Recognition to His Career at the Club
Premio Gentleman Platinum Career Award: 2014
AFA Team of All Time (Published 2015)
Globe Soccer Player Career Award: 2016
Inter Milan Hall of Fame: 2018
Italian Football Hall of Fame: 2018
IFFHS Argentina All Times Dream Team: 2021
== See also ==
List of men's footballers with 100 or more international caps
List of men's footballers with the most official appearances
== References ==
Notes
Citations
== External links ==
Official website
Javier Zanetti at National-Football-Teams.com
Javier Zanetti at WorldFootball.net
Profile at FutbolPunto with maps and graphs at the Wayback Machine (archived 11 July 2011)
Javier Zanetti at BDFA (in Spanish)
Player profile at Inter's official website – inter.it
Javier Zanetti's international profile – AFA at the Wayback Machine (archived 18 April 2004)
Official site of the PUPI Foundation – FundacionPUPI.org, founded by Javier and Paula Zanetti |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Charleson_Hedge#:~:text=Ian%20Charleson%20Hedge%20(18%20August,flora%20of%20south%2Dwest%20Asia. | Ian Charleson Hedge | Ian Charleson Hedge (18 August 1928 – 7 August 2022) was a Scottish botanist at the Royal Botanic Gardens in Edinburgh. Hedge made important contributions to the flora of Iran and Iraq, and was a recognised authority on the flora of south-west Asia. He named more than 300 new plant species.
== Biography ==
Hedge spent seven months collecting in Turkey in 1957 with Peter Davis. Together they gathered more than 6,000 specimens. Then he spent 3 months in Afghanistan with (a Norwegian botanist) Per Wendelbo, they made significant collections to the Garden Herbarium in 1962 in the north and north-east of the country and then he returned in 1969 with Wendelbo and Lars Ekberg. They were one of the first botanists to explore the area.
He described Salvia buchananii in the Botanical Magazine in 1963.
In 1982, he published a book about Salvia's, which recognised up to 86 species.
In 1986, Ian and Professor Karl Rechinger published Plant life of South-West Asia by the Royal Society of Edinburgh, it was dedicated to Karl Heinz Rechinger on his eightieth birthday.
By 1988, he was the curator of the Botanical Garden Herbarium.
He collected in Portugal in the 1990s. Then with Fatima Sales, he published 'Jasione L. taxonomy and phylogeny' in 2002. Also 'Three perplexing names of species of Campanula L.' and 'The taxonomy and conservation of Campanula primulifolia (Campanulaceae), a critically endangered species in the Iberian Peninsula' in 2010 (with Anna Trias-Blasi, Eddie, William M.M. and Michel Möller).
He contributed to 'The Davis Festschrift' (edited by Kit Tan) on Peter Hadland Davis's 70th birthday and his own 60th Birthday in 1989.
In 1999, he was honoured by the naming of Ianhedgea, a genus of flowering plants belonging to the family Brassicaceae from central Asia and Tibet.
He is mentioned in Mabberley's Plant-book of 2003 and his The Plant-book: A Portable Dictionary of the Vascular Plants (in 1990).
In 2010, with other members of the Royal Botanical Garden, he identified various plant specimens for Mark Price's book 'Animal Re-introductions: The Arabian Oryx in Oman'.
On 31 January 2012, he appealed (on behalf of the Royal Botanic Garden) via the BBC to the Pakistani government to release more than 4,000 copies of a botany text book destined for Afghanistan schools and environmental groups. The 10 tonnes of books had been held at customs in Karachi for the past year. It is the 'Field Guide Afghanistan Flora and Vegetation', written by Ian and Siegmar-Walter Breckle in 2010.
Hedge died on 7 August 2022, at the age of 93.
== Other sources ==
M. Alam, 2009, "Plant Collectors in Afghanistan", Bulletin de la Société vaudoise des Sciences naturelles, 91(3): 327-329
K. Tan (ed.), 1989, Plant taxonomy, phytogeography and related subjects. The Davis & Hedge Festschrift.
Kent, D.H. & Allen, D.E., Brit. Irish Herb. (1984)
== Bibliography ==
Studies in the Flora of Afghanistan by Ian Charleson Hedge and Per Wendelbo, 1963
Flora Iranica: Capparidaceae - Volume 68 (Ian Charleson Hedge - 1970)
Index of collectors in the Edinburgh Herbarium / edited by I. C. Hedge and J. M. Lamond, Edinburgh Herbarium, 1970
Plant life of South-West Asia. Edited by Peter Hadland Davis, Peter Charles Harper and Ian Charleson Hedge (1971),
Flora Europea (Ian Charleson Hedge - 1972)
A revision of Salvia in Africa and the Canary Islands. (Ian Hedge - 1974)
Aizoaceae (Ian Charleson Hedge, Jennifer M. Lamond - 1975)
Molluginaceae (Ian Charleson Hedge, Jennifer M. Lamond - 1975)
Iridaceae: Aizoaceae (Karl Heinz Rechinger, Per Wendelbo, Brian Mathew, Ian Charleson Hedge, Jennifer M. Lamond, Jindrich Chrtek, Bohdan Křísa, Henriëtte Dorothea Schotsman, Harald Riedl - 1975)
Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands, vol. 7, Labiatae. (Ian Hedge and P.H Davis) Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1982
Flora of Cyprus. Ian C Hedge (R.D. Meikle -editor), Kew Royal Botanic Gardens, 1985
Umbelliferae / I.C. Hedge editor, Karl Heinz Rechinger Hedge, Ian C. (Ian Charleson) 1987
Plant Taxonomy, Phytogeography and Related Subjects: Davis and Hedge Festschrift by P. H. Davis, Ian Charleson Hedge, Kit Tan and R.R. Mill (2 Nov 1989)
Chenopodiaceae (Ian Hedge) 1997
Labiatae (Ian Charleson Hedge, S. I. Ali, Yasin J. Nasir - 1990 )
Flora of Pakistan. No. 204, Chenopodiaceae (Heiko Freitag, Ian Charleson Hedge, S. M. H. Jafri) 2001
Cruciferae (Brassicaceae), Ian Hedge, The Forest Herbarium, Royal Forest Department, 1997.
Field Guide Afghanistan Flora and Vegetation (Ian Hedge and Siegmar-Walter Breckle, 2010
== References ==
== External links ==
Has photo of Ian Hedge |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajaz_Ahmed_Khan#:~:text=Aijaz%20Ahmad%20Khan%20popularly%20known,Assembly%20from%20Gool%20Arnas%20constituency. | Ajaz Ahmed Khan | Aijaz Ahmad Khan, popularly known as Sher-e-Gool Gulabgarh, is an Indian politician and was a member of the 10th, 11th and 12th Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly from Gool Arnas constituency. He served as Minister of various portfolios from 2002 to 2014 in Jammu and Kashmir Govt under the Chief Ministership of Mufti Mohammad Sayeed, Ghulam Nabi Azad and Omar Abdullah. He also served as Deputy Leader of Congress Legislative Party from 2014 to 2018. He left Congress and became founding member of Jammu and Kashmir Apni Party (JKAP) formed on 8 March 2020. He was also the Vice President of PAC (Political Affairs Committee) and member CWC of Jammu and Kashmir Apni Party. Prior to Assembly Elections in Jammu and Kashmir 2024, Khan left Apni Party and contested elections as Independent candidate from Gulabgarh Assembly constituency in which he got defeated and secured runner-up position.Currently, Ajaz Ahmed Khan is also patron of Gujjar Bakerwal Conference (GBC), a social and political platform, which was founded by his father and veteran leader Haji Buland Khan who established Gujjar Bakerwal Conference in 2000 which has played a crucial role in the upliftment of Gujjar Bakerwal Community.
== Personal life ==
Ajaz Ahmad Khan was born on 21 November 1968 in Thuroo, Dharmari to a renowned Gujjar leader Haji Buland Khan from Jammu & Kashmir who held various posts in the state government. Ajaz did his early schooling from Govt. High School, Thuroo located at Reasi. He did his B.A. from Jammu University Jammu. In 1996, he completed his LLB from Jammu University.
He married Farhat Un Nisa Khan in 2003. His younger brother Haji Mumtaz Ahmad Khan was also a member of 12th Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly from Gulabgarh constituency. His one sister is married to Chowdhary Zulfikar Ali.
== Political career ==
Ajaz joined politics in 1996 soon after completing LLB. In 1996, he contested elections on the ticket of NC from Gulabgarh assembly and got defeated by as margin of 956 votes only. Then he got appointed as District President of NC from Reasi District, i.e. Udhampur II. In 2002, he again contested as an independent candidate from two assembly segments; Gool Arnas and Gulabgarh and he got victory from Gool Arnas. And thus in 2002, he joined Indian National Congress. Then in 2008 and 2014, he got victory from Gool Arnas.
He remained minister since 2002 up to 2014 in the Govt of Mufti Mohammed Sayeed, Ghulam Nabi Azad and Omar Abdullah. He held various departments in the Mufti Mohammed Sayeed, Ghulam Nabi Azad and Omar Abdullah Government. He was such an efficient leader that once he had charge of 13 departments. In 2020, he along with Altaf Bukhari formed a new political party, Jammu and Kashmir Apni Party.
=== Positions held in J&K Government ===
MoS Finance, Planning and Development, Revenue, Forest, Agriculture, Higher and Technical Education and various other portfolios: 2002
MoS (Independent) Haj, Auqaf and Fisheries: 2009
MoS Law and Justice, Parliamentary Affairs, Rural Development and Panchayats, Social Welfare, Animal Husbandry and Hospitality and Protocol: 2009
MoS (Independent) Revenue, Relief and Rehabilitation: 2013
=== Legislative experience ===
2002 – 2008 Member, 10th Legislative Assembly (Gool-Arnas Constituency)
2008 – 2014 Member, 11th Legislative Assembly (Gool-Arnas Constituency)
2014 – 2018 Member, 12th Legislative Assembly (Gool-Arnas Constituency)
Chairman of Joint Commission Land Conservation of J&K Assembly
Chairman of Subordinate Legislation of J&K Assembly
Member of Ethics Committee of J&K Assembly
Member of Committee on Joint Heritage Preservation of J&K Assembly
Member of Public Accounts Committee for three times of J&K Assembly
=== Awards and honors ===
Rashtriya Gourav Award
Best citizen of India Award
== Social Work ==
Ajaz Ahmed Khan is also patron of Gujjar Bakerwal Conference (GBC), a social and political platform which was founded by his father and veteran leader Haji Buland Khan who established Gujjar Bakerwal Conference in 2000 which has played a crucial role in the upliftment of Gujjar Bakerwal Community.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shirin_Neshat | Shirin Neshat | Shirin Neshat (Persian: شیرین نشاط; born March 26, 1957) is an Iranian photographer and visual artist who lives in New York City, known primarily for her work in film, video and photography. Her artwork centers on the contrasts between Islam and the West, femininity and masculinity, public life and private life, antiquity and modernity, and bridging the spaces between these subjects.
Since the Islamic Revolution, she has said that she has "gravitated toward making art that is concerned with tyranny, dictatorship, oppression and political injustice. Although I don’t consider myself an activist, I believe my art – regardless of its nature – is an expression of protest, a cry for humanity.”
Neshat has been recognized for winning the International Award of the XLVIII Venice Biennale in 1999, and the Silver Lion as the best director at the 66th Venice Film Festival in 2009, to being named Artist of the Decade by HuffPost critic G. Roger Denson. Neshat was a visiting critic in the photography department at the Yale School of Art in 2020.
== Early life and education ==
Neshat is the fourth of five children of wealthy parents, brought up in the religious city of Qazvin in north-western Iran under a "very warm, supportive Muslim family environment", where she learned traditional religious values through her maternal grandparents. Neshat's father was a physician and her mother a homemaker. Neshat said that her father "fantasized about the west, romanticized the west, and slowly rejected all of his own values; both her parents did. What happened, I think, was that their identity slowly dissolved, they exchanged it for comfort. It served their class".
Neshat was enrolled in a Catholic boarding school in Tehran. According to Neshat, her father encouraged his daughters to "be an individual, to take risks, to learn, to see the world". He sent his daughters, as well as his sons to college to receive higher education.
In 1975, Neshat left Iran to study art at University of California, Berkeley and completed her BA, MA and MFA degrees. In college she studied art under Harold Paris and Sylvia Lark. Neshat graduated from UC Berkeley in 1983, and soon moved to New York City. She quickly realized that making art wasn't her profession then. After meeting her future husband, who ran the Storefront for Art and Architecture, an alternative space in Manhattan, she dedicated ten years to working with him there.
During this time, Neshat made a few attempts at creating art, which was subsequently destroyed. She was intimidated by the New York art scene and believed her art was not substantial. She states, "Those ten years I made practically no art, and the art I did make I was dissatisfied with and eventually destroyed."
In 1990, Neshat returned to Iran, one year after Ayatollah Khomeini's death. "It was probably one of the most shocking experiences that I have ever had. The difference between what I had remembered from the Iranian culture and what I was witnessing was enormous. The change was both frightening and exciting; I had never been in a country that was so ideologically based. Most noticeable, of course, was the change in people's physical appearance and public behavior."
Since the Storefront ran like a cultural laboratory, Neshat was exposed to creators — artists, architects, and philosophers; she asserts Storefront eventually helped reignite her interest in art. In 1993 Neshat began earnestly to make art again, starting with photography.
== Works ==
Neshat's earliest works were photographs, such as the Unveiling (1993) and Women of Allah (1993–97) series, which explore notions of femininity about Islamic fundamentalism and militancy in her home country. As a way of coping with the discrepancy between the culture that she was experiencing and that of the pre-revolution Iran in which she was raised, she began her first mature body of work, the Women of Allah series, portraits of women entirely overlaid by Persian calligraphy.
Her work refers to the social, cultural and religious codes of Muslim societies and the complexity of certain oppositions, such as man and woman. Neshat often emphasizes this theme by showing two or more coordinated films concurrently, creating stark visual contrasts through motifs such as light and dark, black and white, male and female. Neshat has also made more traditional narrative short films, such as Zarin.
The work of Neshat addresses the social, political and psychological dimensions of women's experience in contemporary Islamic societies. Although Neshat actively resists stereotypical representations of Islam, her artistic objectives are not explicitly polemical. Rather, her work recognizes the complex intellectual and religious forces shaping the identity of Muslim women throughout the world. Using Persian poetry and calligraphy, she examined concepts such as martyrdom, the space of exile, the issues of identity and femininity.
In 2001–02, Neshat collaborated with singer Sussan Deyhim and created Logic of the Birds, which was produced by curator and art historian RoseLee Goldberg. The full-length multimedia production premiered at the Lincoln Center Summer Festival in 2002 and toured to the Walker Art Institute in Minneapolis and Artangel in London. In this collaboration and her other projects that incorporate music, Neshat uses sound to help create an emotionally evocative and beautiful piece that will resonate with viewers of both Eastern and Western cultures. In an interview with Bomb magazine in 2000, Neshat revealed: "Music becomes the soul, the personal, the intuitive, and neutralizes the sociopolitical aspects of the work. This combination of image and music is meant to create an experience that moves the audience." In 2011, Neshat created her second live performance, OverRuled, for Performa 11.
When Neshat first came to use film, she was influenced by the work of Iranian director Abbas Kiarostami. She directed several videos, among them Anchorage (1996) and, projected on two opposing walls: Shadow under the Web (1997), Turbulent (1998), Rapture (1999) and Soliloquy (1999). Neshat's recognition became more international in 1999, when she won the International Award of the XLVIII Venice Biennale with Turbulent and Rapture, a project involving almost 250 extras and produced by the Galerie Jérôme de Noirmont which met with critical and public success after its worldwide avant-première at the Art Institute of Chicago in May 1999. With Rapture, Neshat tried for the first time to make pure photography with the intent of creating an aesthetic, poetic, and emotional shock. Games of Desire, a video and still-photography piece, was displayed between September 3 and October 3 at the Gladstone Gallery in Brussels before moving in November to the Galerie Jérôme de Noirmont in Paris. The film, which is based in Laos, centers on a small group of elderly people who sing folk songs with sexual lyrics - a practice which had been nearing obsolescence.
In 2009, she won the Silver Lion for best director at the 66th Venice Film Festival for her directorial debut Women Without Men, based on Shahrnush Parsipur's novel of the same name. She said about the movie: "This has been a labour of love for six years. ... This film speaks to the world and to my country." The film examines the 1953 British-American backed coup, which supplanted Iran's democratically elected government with a monarchy.
In July 2009, Neshat took part in a three-day hunger strike at the United Nations Headquarters in New York in protest of the 2009 Iranian presidential election.
In 2010, Neshat appeared in an episode of the German documentary television series Durch die Nacht mit ... with musician Henry Rollins.
In 2022, she joined protests about the Death of Mahsa Amini, by showing her work Woman Life Freedom, at Piccadilly Circus, and Pendry West Hollywood.
== Exhibitions ==
Neshat's first solo exhibition was at Franklin Furnace in New York in 1993. A major retrospective of Neshat's work, organized by the Detroit Institute of Arts, opened 2013. In 2014, she had an exhibition titled "Afterwards", at the Mathaf: Arab Museum of Modern Art. In 2019, The Broad Museum in Los Angeles presented a 30-year retrospective of Neshat's work: Shirin Neshat: I Will Greet the Sun Again; the show traveled to the Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth in 2021. In 2022, Neshat participated in the group exhibition "Eyes on Iran" at Franklin D. Roosevelt Four Freedoms State Park, Roosevelt Island, New York; in response to the Mahsa Amini protests. Shirin Neshat: I Will Greet the Sun Again at The Broad in Los Angeles, 2019–2020, was her largest exhibition to date.
== Recognition ==
Neshat was an artist in residence at the Wexner Center for the Arts in 2000 and at MASS MoCA in 2001. In 2004, she was awarded an honorary professorship at the Universität der Künste, Berlin. In 2006, she was awarded The Dorothy and Lillian Gish Prize, one of the richest prizes in the arts, given annually to "a man or woman who has made an outstanding contribution to the beauty of the world and mankind's enjoyment and understanding of life."
In 2010, Neshat was named Artist of the Decade by Huffington Post critic G. Roger Denson, for "the degree to which world events have more than met the artist in making her art chronically relevant to an increasingly global culture," for reflecting "the ideological war being waged between Islam and the secular world over matters of gender, religion, and democracy," and because "the impact of her work far transcends the realms of art in reflecting the most vital and far-reaching struggle to assert human rights."
In 2015, Neshat was selected and photographed by Annie Leibovitz as part of the 43rd Pirelli Calendar.
== Opera ==
At the 2017 Salzburg Festival, Neshat directed Giuseppe Verdi's opera Aida, with Riccardo Muti as conductor and Anna Netrebko singing the main character. Asked by the festival organizers about the particular challenge for an Iranian woman to stage a play that deals with the threats of political obedience and religion to private life and love, Neshat said, "Sometimes the boundaries between Aida and myself are blurred."
== Works ==
Turbulent, 1998. Two channel video/audio installation.
Rapture, 1999. Two channel video/audio installation.
Soliloquy, 1999. Color video/audio installation with artist as the protagonist.
Fervor, 2000. Two channel video/audio installation.
Passage, 2001. Single channel video/audio installation.
Logic of the Birds, 2002. Multi-media performance.
Tooba, 2002. Two channel video/audio installation based on Shahrnush Parsipur's novel Women Without Men.
The Last Word, 2003. Single channel video/audio installation.
Mahdokht, 2004. Three channel video/audio installation.
Zarin, 2005. Single channel video/audio installation.
Munis, 2008. Color video/audio installation based on Shahrnush Parsipur's novel Women Without Men.
Faezeh, 2008. Color video/audio installation based on Shahrnush Parsipur's novel Women Without Men.
Possessed, 2009. Black & white video/audio installation.
Women Without Men, 2009. Feature film based on Shahrnush Parsipur's novel Women Without Men.
OverRuled, 2011. Performance.
Before My Eyes, 2011. Two channel short film. Part of the Seasons series.
Illusions & Mirrors, 2013. Short film commissioned by Dior and featuring Natalie Portman.
Looking for Oum Kulthum, 2017.Feature film co-directed by Shoja Azari.
Land of Dreams, 2021. Feature film co-directed with Shoja Azari, written by Jean-Claude Carrière.
The Fury, 2022. Monochrome two channel video installation.
== Awards ==
First International Prize at the Venice Biennale (1999)
Grand Prix at the Kwangju Biennale (2000)
Visual Art Award from the Edinburgh International Film Festival (2000)
Infinity Award from the International Center of Photography, New York (2002)
ZeroOne Award from the Universität der Künste Berlin (2003)
Hiroshima Freedom Prize from the Hiroshima Museum of Art (2005)
The Dorothy and Lillian Gish Prize, New York (2006)
Rockefeller Foundation Media Arts Fellowship, New York (2008)
Cultural Achievement Award, Asia Society, New York (2008)
Silver Lion Award for Best Director, 66th Venice International Film Festival (2009)
Cinema for Peace Special Award, Hessischer Filmpreis, Germany (2009)
Crystal Award, World Economic Forum, Davos, Switzerland (2014)
Rockefeller Fellow, United States Artists, New York (2016)
Praemium Imperiale Award (2017)
Honorary Fellowship of the Royal Photographic Society, Bristol (2020)
== Bibliography ==
=== Exhibition catalogues ===
Women of Allah
Two Installations
Shirin Neshat: 2002-2005, Barbara Gladstone Gallery, New York
I Know Something About Love, multimedia group exhibition with Christodoulos Panayiotou, Yinka Shonibare and Yang Fudong at Parasol Unit, London.
=== Other literature and film ===
Expressing the Inexpressible: Shirin Neshat. Documentary by Jörg Neumeister-Jung and Ralf Raimo Jung, originally produced by Westdeutscher Rundfunk in 2000. Video, 42 minutes, color. DVD: Films for the Humanities & Sciences, Princeton, NJ, 2004. Online: Films Media Group, New York, N.Y., 2005.
Hirahara, Naomi. We Are Here, Hachette, 2022
== See also ==
Iranian cinema
Iranian modern and contemporary art
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Grosenick, Uta; Riemschneider, Burkhard, eds. (2005). Art Now (25th anniversary ed.). Köln: Taschen. pp. 212–215. ISBN 9783822840931. OCLC 191239335.
== External links ==
Shirin Neshat: Investigating Cultural Identity Through Powerful Imagery
Mohammed Afkhami, Sussan Babaie, Venetia Porter, Natasha Morris. "Honar: The Afkhami Collection of Modern and Contemporary Iranian Art." Phaidon Press, 2017. ISBN 978-0-7148-7352-7.
Shirin Neshat at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_Teng-hui#:~:text=Nicknamed%20%22Mr.,who%20completed%20Taiwan's%20democratic%20transition.&text=After%20leaving%20office%2C%20he%20remained,the%20party%20in%20the%20past. | Lee Teng-hui | Lee Teng-hui (Chinese: 李登輝; pinyin: Lǐ Dēnghuī; 15 January 1923 – 30 July 2020) was a Taiwanese statesman, economist, and agronomist who served as the president of the Republic of China and chairman of the Kuomintang from 1988 to 2000. He was the first president to be born in Taiwan, the last to be indirectly elected, and the first to be directly elected.
Born in Taihoku Prefecture, Lee was raised under Japanese rule. He was educated at Kyoto Imperial University and served in the Imperial Japanese Army during World War II before graduating from National Taiwan University. He then studied agricultural economics in the United States, where he earned his doctorate from Cornell University in 1968, beginning a career as an economics professor. As a member of the Kuomintang (KMT), he was appointed Mayor of Taipei in 1978 and became governor of Taiwan Province in 1981 under President Chiang Ching-kuo. Lee succeeded Chiang as president after Chiang's death in 1988.
During his presidency, Lee oversaw the end of martial law in Taiwan and led reforms to democratize the Republic of China. He was an advocate of the Taiwanese localization movement, sought to establish greater international recognition of the country, and has been credited as the president who completed Taiwan's democratic transition. After leaving office, he remained active in Taiwanese politics as a major influence on the pro-independence Taiwan Solidarity Union (TSU), and recruited for the party in the past. After Lee campaigned for TSU candidates in the 2001 Taiwanese legislative election, he was expelled by the KMT. His post-presidency was also marked by efforts to maintain greater relations between Taiwan and Japan.
== Early life ==
Lee was born on January 23, 1923, in the rural farming community of Sanshi Village near the fishing and trading town of Tamsui (now Tamsui District). He was of Hakka Chinese descent, with his ancestral home in Yongding, Tingzhou. His grandfather was a village leader in Sanshi, and his father, Li Chin-lung, was a policeman who graduated from a Japanese police academy, owned land, and oversaw an irrigation service while working for the colonial Japanese government. Lee's mother also came from a local landowning family. He had an older brother, Lee Teng-chin (李登欽), who joined the colony's police academy, volunteered for the Imperial Japanese Navy, and was killed in action in the Philippines; his body is interned at the controversial Yasukuni Shrine in Japan.
When he was three years old, Lee and his brother were sent by their grandfather, Li Tsai-sheng, to a school which taught Chinese and Japanese; they were required to memorize Confucian and Chinese classics, including the Three Character Classic. Because his father, working in Taihoku Prefecture, was often transferred to different police precincts, Lee became a pupil at four different elementary schools in Xizhi (Hsi-chih), Nangang, Sanshi, and Tamsui. In 1929, while attending the Hsi-chih Common School, where most teachers were Japanese, he was selected as the class leader (head boy) and was considered one of the most outstanding students out of 47 pupils. He learned Chinese calligraphy and Japanese history before being transferred eventually to the Tamsui Common School, where he graduated in March 1935, ranked second out of 104 students. He sat the entrance examinations and applied to Taipei's top middle schools, but was rejected twice as the schools prioritized Japanese enrollment. He continued studying for the examinations at a juku and, in 1937, enrolled in the private Kuo-min Middle School (now Datong High School) in Taipei in 1938. A classmate, Lin Kai-pi, recalled: "He was very diligent and rarely played with us. Though he was taciturn, he was congenial and honest. He seemed to be blessed with a retentive memory. Fifteen years after our graduation, I could no longer recognize him, but he still called me by my name".
As a child, Lee learned Zen Buddhism, developed an interest in Western classical music, and read Western philosophy—including transcendentalist works, Friedrich Nietzsche, and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe—in Japanese translations. In 1935, the Japanese colonial government reformed educational institutions in accordance with wartime demands of "Shintoism, state (kokutai), and indoctrination". As part of these reforms, Tamsui Middle School established a dojo for Japanese martial arts; Lee trained in calisthenics, judo, kendo, and attended weekly military drills. He performed exceptionally and was chosen to carry the school's hinomaru as the top student of his class. By 1940, the Kōminka movement and increasing pressure to Japanize led Lee's father to give the family Japanese names in place of their Chinese names. Teng-chin took the name Iwasato Takenori (岩里武則) and Teng-hui Iwasato Masao (岩里政男). Lee later recalled that, until he was 22 years old, he "always considered himself a Japanese".
Lee graduated from Tamsui in 1941, completing his courses in four years as opposed to the usual five. He was admitted to continue his studies at the prestigious Taihoku Higher School (now National Taiwan Normal University), a Japanese-dominated higher school established in 1925 to send students for specialized studies at a college or university. Most students were sons of high-ranking Japanese officials or professionals; Taiwanese students that were able to gain admission were considered the best in Taiwan. Lee, one of only four Taiwanese students in his class, decided to study agricultural economics with the intent to work at the Southern Manchuria Railway Company after graduation. It normally took three years for a student to complete all the required courses but accelerated curriculum changes during World War II meant that he completed examinations after only two.Lee was a versatile student who was "an intense, tireless and voracious reader, with wide-ranging interests". Although he wanted to pursue his favorite subject, history, as a history teacher, he chose economics for better career prospects. He studied Japanese culture extensively and read the Kojiki, revered emperor Hirohito, and idolized Japanese historian Motoori Norinaga, author of the Kojiki-den, and colonial apologist Nitobe Inazō, whose 1899 Bushido: The Soul of Japan deeply influenced him. He also read The Pillow Book, The Tale of Genji, and was especially influenced by The Tale of the Heike and shosetsu works by Japanese writer Jirō Abe (1883–1959) and Hyakuzō Kurata. His favorite autobiographical novelist was Natsume Sōseki. In addition, he read Japanese translations of T. E. Lawrence, The Evolution of Physics, and the treatises of Immanuel Kant (translated by Kitaro Nishida). By the time he arrived at Taihoku High School, Lee owned a collection of more than 700 volumes of books published by Iwanami Shoten. He graduated from Taihoku with honors.
=== Education in Japan and World War II ===
With the Pacific War escalating, Lee decided to leave Taiwan to attend college in Japan and took the highly competitive Japanese college entrance exam in the summer of 1943. Despite having to score significantly higher than Japanese students to be considered, Lee was admitted to Kyoto Imperial University and was awarded a scholarship, a great honor for a Taiwanese student. He sailed to Japan and enrolled in the university's Faculty of Agriculture, which was considered the leading department of its field in the country at the time. He was especially interested in Karl Marx, Marxian economics, and admired Marxist economist Hajime Kawakami, whose philosophy influenced much of the faculty at Kyoto, and Thomas Carlyle. He took multiple courses in German (his preferred foreign language) and English, but continued to rely on Japanese translations for reading Carlyle, Goethe, and Faustian literature. He was a student at Kyoto Imperial University for 14 months between 1943 and 1944 before the war and mass mobilization in Japan interrupted his studies.
Lee left Kyoto to volunteer for service in the Imperial Japanese Army as one of 36 Taiwanese volunteers from the Kansai region. In December 1944, he was sent back to Taiwan to be stationed at an anti-aircraft unit in Kaohsiung. He then was ordered to return to Japan in January 1945 to train at an anti-aircraft military academy in Chiba Prefecture. While sailing from Taiwan to Japan, he stayed briefly in Japanese-occupied Qingdao—his first time setting foot in mainland China. Once in Japan, he studied radar operation and trained alongside kamikaze pilots as a member of the academy's eleventh class, graduating in April 1945 with the rank of second lieutenant. He was stationed at Nagoya and witnessed the city's bombing. According to biographer Shih-shan Tsai: "instead of shooting down enemy aircraft, all he could and did do was to bring the wounded to the hospital, help children and the elderly evacuate to the country from Nagoya, drill civilian volunteers in fighting with bamboo spears, and dig pillboxes along Ise Bay to prepare for an American invasion".
When the Surrender of Japan was announced, Lee was discharged from Nagoya and traveled to Tokyo, where he met with other Taiwanese students. Beginning in October 1945, when prominent Japanese Communists Maruyama Masao, Hisao Ōtsuka, and Fukutake Tadashi were released from prison and reformed the Japanese Communist Party, Lee and other Taiwanese students began a renewed interest in Communist literature. Lee read multiple Japanese translations of Marx's Das Kapital and went to Tokyo Station to welcome Communist leader Sanzō Nosaka's return from China and Russia. He enrolled in Kyoto Imperial University again and graduated in 1946.
=== Return to Taiwan ===
In the spring of 1946, Lee left Japan, returning to Taiwan in March on an American liberty ship. With the Retrocession of Taiwan transferring governance of the island to the Republic of China, the mainland Ministry of Education allowed all Taiwanese students previously enrolled in the Imperial Universities to enroll at National Taiwan University (NTU; previously Taihoku Imperial University), which Lee did, joining the university's Department of Agricultural Economics as one of its only two students. He had two professors, one of whom was Hsu Ching-chung, who later served as vice premier. Also at this time, Lee began reading more deeply into Chinese literature, especially the works of Hu Shih, Guo Moruo, and Lu Xun. His worldview was also influenced by reading Fyodor Dostoevsky's The Idiot. He continued an interest in Marxism, joining a Marxist study club at NTU and writing his undergraduate thesis, "A Study of the Problems of Taiwan’s Agricultural Labor," by applying Marxist class struggle and surplus labour theories. He briefly joined the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) twice—once in September 1946 and again in either October or November 1947—but withdrew his membership both times.
Following the recommendation of communist youth leader Wu Ke-tai, Lee joined the New Democracy Association, a secret communist group, in October 1947, but withdrew six months later in June 1948. Members of both the New Democracy Association and the Marxist study club were later arrested in May 1950. Lee's close association with Taiwanese communist groups as a student became the subject of scrutiny later in life. In 1969, he was arrested by KMT secret police but released after a series of investigations and interrogations. Years later, in 2002, Lee recalled the reason for joining communist groups as being "out of a young man's naive vision for his country".
== Economist and professor (1949–1971) ==
When tensions between the government and Taiwanese natives escalated in the 1947 February 28 incident, Lee survived by rooming with friends and opening a bookstore on Zhongshan Road. He overcame an initially poor comprehension of Mandarin Chinese (Guoyu) to graduate from National Taiwan University in the summer of 1949 with a bachelor's degree in agricultural economics. After graduation, he applied for and won a one-year scholarship offered by the United States Department of State to study in the U.S. He chose to attend Iowa State University, completing seven courses there in accounting, economic statistics, and agricultural marketing. He received his Master of Arts in agricultural economics in 1953. Upon returning to Taiwan, he was appointed a lecturer at National Taiwan University and taught undergraduate courses in banking, marketing, finance, and plant pathology as a popular teacher among students. To supplement his salary, he first worked as a technician at the Ministry of Agriculture then, in 1954, as a research fellow at the Taiwan Cooperative Bank.
In 1957, Lee began a career as an economist, senior specialist, and consultant on the Joint Commission on Rural Reconstruction (JCRR), a U.S.-sponsored commission to modernize Taiwan's agricultural system. He was eventually appointed a project head of the JCRR's Division of Rural Economics under economist Hsieh Sam-chung, and began publishing in international academic agriculture journals under the name "T. H. Lee" while continuing to teach at NTU as a professor. He also taught at the Graduate School of East Asian Studies at National Chengchi University. In 1965, the Rockefeller Foundation awarded Lee a scholarship to pursue doctoral studies at Cornell University; he departed Taiwan for the U.S. in September, enrolling in Cornell's New York State College of Agriculture and Life Sciences.
Lee spent his first two years at Cornell studying agricultural finance, econometrics, quantitative analysis, developmental economics, production economics, food distribution, and public policy. He divided his time between the School of Applied Economics and Management, Olin Library, and the Albert R. Mann Library. Economics professor Kenneth L. Robinson described Lee as "very reserved, very able and very conscientious". Bernard F. Stanton, a professor of agricultural economics at Cornell, recalled: "Lee’s great strength was in his intellectual capacity and his ideas. He was very serious, and he came to Cornell with specific ideas on what he wanted to accomplish with his thesis". Another professor, Daniel G. Sisler, recalled: "He wouldn’t be out playing volleyball with other graduate students or down at a bar in Collegetown. He was very quiet, very studious and personally dedicated to his work and to Taiwan. I gave him an A in a course on research methods, and I don’t give out many A’s". John Williams Mellor, who supervised Lee's doctoral dissertation, remembered Lee as "a very mature, thoughtful student with an absolutely first-rate analytical mind".Among the Taiwanese classmates at Cornell Lee became acquainted with was Peter Huang, who attempted to assassinate Chiang Ching-kuo in 1970. Because of his connections to Taiwanese communists, Huang, and a friendship with independence activist Peng Ming-min, Lee was placed on a KMT blacklist. While studying in the U.S., he observed the Vietnam War protests and the civil rights movement, both of which influenced his views on democratizing Taiwan.
In June 1968, Lee graduated from Cornell and earned his Ph.D. in agricultural economics with honors. His dissertation, "Intersectoral Capital Flows in the Economic Development of Taiwan, 1895–1960," won the American Agricultural Economics Association's award for the most outstanding thesis of the year in 1969. With the backing of Professor Mellor and the Rockefeller Foundation, the dissertation was published by Cornell University Press as a 201-page monograph in 1971. The university later established an endowed professorship, the Lee Teng-hui Professorship of World Affairs, in Lee's honor in 1994.
== Rise to power ==
By 1970, Lee had developed a scholarly reputation for agricultural economics expertise among colleagues at the Joint Commission on Rural Reconstruction and National Taiwan University. One of his colleagues and close friends, the high-ranking KMT official Wang Tso-jung, introduced Lee to general Wang Sheng, who in turn arranged a meeting between Lee and Chiang Ching-kuo to address potential methods to improve agriculture in Taiwan. The meeting proved pivotal for Lee, who impressed Chiang; Wang urged him to join the KMT in the summer of 1970 and enter government service. Lee did so in July 1970, being sworn in as a member of the Kuomintang at the KMT Central Committee in Taipei with Wang and his wife as witnesses. When Chiang Ching-kuo succeeded Chiang Kai-shek as premier on June 1, 1972, he appointed Lee as a minister without portfolio in the Executive Yuan responsible for agricultural development on June 2. But, unaware of the appointment, Lee had been preparing to accept a postdoctoral research position at Cornell, which he eventually chose to withdraw. He was sworn in by Chiang as the cabinet's youngest minister at 49 years old.
As a new minor cabinet official, Lee was largely ignored by high-ranking officials but gradually began to exercise greater discretion over agricultural affairs since the country lacked a ministry of agriculture. Among the projects Chiang tasked Lee with was his "Ten Major Development Projects", which aimed to achieve economic success by developing transportation, industrialization, and agricultural productivity. During the 1970s, Lee was responsible for overseeing that agricultural development complimented Chiang's industrial growth projects. He advocated for greater funding for schools, rural running water systems, and published over 100 papers on agricultural development in Taiwan. Lee described his role as "a position to recommend policies designed to secure the livelihood of farmers, who constituted the overwhelming majority of the population, and at the same time ensure the smooth progress of industrialization. My basic approach was a combination of Sun Yat-sen’s idea about ‘distribution of the rights of landownership’ and T. W. Schultz’s warning not to isolate agriculture from the nonagricultural sectors".
The death of Chiang Kai-shek on April 5, 1975, initiated a power vacuum that saw Yen Chia-kan elected president and Ching-kuo made head of the powerful Central Standing Committee of the KMT. Three years later, Ching-kuo succeeded Yen as president and, following Chiang's recommendation, Premier Sun Yun-suan appointed Lee Mayor of Taipei on June 9, 1978. He solved water shortages and improved the city's irrigation problems. In 1981, he became governor of Taiwan Province and made further irrigation improvements.
As a skilled technocrat, Lee soon caught the eye of President Chiang Ching-kuo as a strong candidate to serve as vice president. Chiang sought to move more authority to the benshengren (residents of Taiwan before 1945 and their descendants) instead of continuing to promote waishengren (Chinese immigrants who arrived in Taiwan after 1945 and their descendants) as his father had. President Chiang nominated Lee to become his Vice President. Lee was formally elected by the National Assembly in 1984.
== Presidency (1988–2000) ==
Chiang Ching-kuo died in January 1988, and Lee Teng-hui succeeded him as president. Within the KMT, debates soon emerged over Lee’s succession to the party chairmanship. While Palace Faction figures, notably General Hau Pei-tsun, Premier Yu Kuo-hwa and former first lady Soong Mei-ling, expressed reservations toward Lee’s leadership, while KMT Secretary-General Lee Huan supported Lee's appointment as chairman, viewing it as a necessary move to counter Yu's growing influence. With the help of James Soong—himself a member of the Palace Faction—who quieted the hardliners with the famous plea "Each day of delay is a day of disrespect to Ching-kuo," Lee was allowed to ascend to the chairmanship unobstructed. At the 13th National Congress of Kuomintang in July 1988, Lee named 31 members of the Central Committee, 16 of whom were benshengren: for the first time, benshengren held a majority in what was then a powerful policy-making body. On 20 March, he ordered the release of political prisoner Gen. Sun Li-jen from 33 years of house arrest. In August, he listened to the aboriginal legislator Tsai Chung-han's advocacy in the General Assembly of Legislative Yuan and the journalism reportage of Independence Evening Post on the human rights' concern to release the remaining survivors of the civilian Tanker Tuapse free after 34 years in captivity. Lee Teng-hui also intervened in the selection of the vice president of the Legislative Yuan that year, replacing the hardliner Chao Tzu-chi, who was supported by Legislative Yuan presidential candidate Liu Kuo-tsai, with the more moderate Liang Su-yung. Two years later, Liang succeeded Liu as president of the Legislative Yuan.
While Lee Teng-hui is credited with advancing Taiwan's democratization, his tenure was also marked by controversies surrounding black gold politics and populism. The term "black gold politics" refers to the involvement of organized crime in local politics, leading to corruption and the entanglement of political figures with criminal elements. This phenomenon has been linked to populist policies that, while appealing to the masses, sometimes overlooked institutional integrity and governance standards. Critics argue that these issues not only compromised the political environment but also hindered effective governance during Lee's administration.
As he consolidated power during the early years of his presidency, Lee allowed his rivals within the KMT to occupy positions of influence: when Yu Guo-hwa retired as premier in 1989, he was replaced by Lee Huan, who was succeeded by Hau Pei-tsun in 1990. At the same time, Lee made a major reshuffle of the Executive Yuan, as he had done with the KMT Central Committee, replacing several elderly waishengren with younger benshengren, mostly of technical backgrounds. Fourteen of these new appointees, like Lee, had been educated in the United States. Prominent among the appointments were Lien Chan as foreign minister and Shirley Kuo as finance minister.
On 11 February 1990, the KMT convened an extraordinary Central Committee meeting that formally nominated Lee Teng-hui and Lee Yuan-tsu as the party's candidates for president and Vice President. During the session, Li Huan immediately raised his hand in opposition to the acclamation vote, arguing that the nomination should be decided by secret ballot rather than unanimous applause. Lin Yang-kang subsequently supported Li's proposal, requesting that the chairman suspend the meeting to print ballots and hold a vote in the afternoon to determine whether the decision would be made by standing acclamation or by secret ballot.
Their remarks were widely interpreted as a public break with Lee Teng-hui. However, meeting chairperson Hsieh Tung-min refused to adjourn and promptly proceeded with the acclamation vote. Because Li Huan, Lin Yang-kang, and Hau Pei-tsun had openly advocated a ballot vote, their actions were seen as revealing the intentions of the so-called “non-mainstream faction” to challenge Lee's leadership. The confrontation also led many Central Committee members to refrain from opposing Lee, reportedly out of fear of “unpredictable political consequences.” Of the 180 Central Committee members present, 99 voted in favor of proceeding by acclamation, while 70 supported a ballot vote. This power struggle is known as February Political Struggle
In early March 1990, a group of National Assembly delegates led by Teng Chie attempted to nominate former Judicial Yuan President Lin Yang-kang for the presidency, with General Chiang Wei-kuo, as his running mate. The proposed "Lin–Chiang ticket" represented conservative discontent within the Kuomintang against Lee's leadership. Although a mobilization meeting was held at the Tri-Service Officers’ Club, where anti-Lee pamphlets were circulated accusing him of being sympathetic to communism, both Lin and Chiang declined to actively campaign. Lin later announced his withdrawal on March 9, followed by Chiang's statement of “advancing and retreating together.” The challenge quickly collapsed, consolidating Lee's authority within the party and clearing the path for his election as president.
1990 saw the arrival of the Wild Lily student movement on behalf of full democracy for Taiwan. Thousands of Taiwanese students demonstrated for democratic reforms. The demonstrations culminated in a sit-in demonstration by over 300,000 students at Memorial Square in Taipei. Students called for direct elections of the national president and vice president and for a new election for all legislative seats. On 21 March, Lee welcomed some of the students to the Presidential Building. He expressed his support of their goals and pledged his commitment to full democracy in Taiwan.
In May 1991, Lee spearheaded a drive to eliminate the Temporary Provisions Effective During the Period of Communist Rebellion, laws put in place following the KMT arrival in 1949 that suspended the democratic functions of the government. In December 1991, the original members of the Legislative Yuan, elected to represent Chinese constituencies in 1948, were forced to resign and new elections were held to apportion more seats to the benshengren. The elections forced Hau Pei-tsun from the premiership, a position he was given in exchange for his tacit support of Lee. He was replaced by Lien Chan, then an ally of Lee.
The prospect of the first island-wide democratic election the next year, together with Lee's June 1995 visit to Cornell University, sparked the Third Taiwan Strait Crisis. The United States had not prepared the PRC for Lee receiving a United States visa. While in the United States, Lee stated, "Taiwan is a country with independent sovereignty."
The PRC conducted a series of missile tests in the waters surrounding Taiwan and other military maneuvers off the coast of Fujian in response to what Communist Party leaders described as moves by Lee to "split the motherland". The PRC government launched another set of tests just days before the election, sending missiles over the island to express its dissatisfaction should the Taiwanese people vote for Lee. In 1996, the United States sent two aircraft carrier groups to Taiwan's vicinity and the PRC then de-escalated. The military actions disrupted trade and shipping lines and caused a temporary dip in the Asian stock market.
Lee's overall stance on Taiwanese independence during the election cycle was characterized as "deliberately vague".
The previous eight presidents and vice presidents of the ROC had been elected by the members of the National Assembly. For the first time, the President of the ROC would be elected by majority vote of Taiwan's population. On 23 March 1996, Lee became the first popularly elected ROC president with 54% of the vote. Many people who worked or resided in other countries made special trips back to the island to vote. In addition to the president, the governor of Taiwan Province and the mayors of Taipei and Kaohsiung (as leaders of provincial level divisions they were formerly appointed by the president) became popularly elected.
Lee, in an interview that same year, expressed his view that a special state-to-state relationship existed between Taiwan and the People's Republic of China (PRC) that all negotiations between the two sides of the Strait needed to observe. PRC leadership interpreted this statement to mean that Taiwan would take efforts toward independence and consequently the remark increased Cross-Strait tensions.
As president, he attempted to further reform the government. Controversially, he attempted to remove the provincial level of government and proposed that lower level government officials be appointed, not elected.
Lee, observing constitutional term limits he had helped enact, stepped down from the presidency at the end of his term in 2000. That year, Democratic Progressive Party candidate Chen Shui-bian won the national election with 39% of the vote in a three-way race. Chen's victory marked an end to KMT rule and the first peaceful transfer of power in Taiwan's new democratic system.
Supporters of rival candidates Lien Chan and James Soong accused Lee of setting up the split in the KMT that had enabled Chen to win. Lee had promoted the uncharismatic Lien over the popular Soong as the KMT candidate. Soong had subsequently run as an independent and was expelled from the KMT. The number of votes garnered by both Soong and Lien would have accounted for approximately 60% of the vote while individually the candidates placed behind Chen. Protests were staged in front of the KMT party headquarters in Taipei. Fuelling this anger were the persistent suspicions following Lee throughout his presidency that he secretly supported Taiwan independence and that he was intentionally sabotaging the Kuomintang from above. Lee resigned his chairmanship on 24 March.
During his presidency, Lee supported the Taiwanese localization movement. The Taiwanization movement has its roots in Japanese rule founded during the Japanese era and sought to put emphasis on vernacular Taiwanese culture in Taiwan as the center of people's lives as opposed to Nationalist China. During the Chiang era, China was promoted as the center of an ideology that would build a Chinese national outlook in a people who had once considered themselves Japanese subjects. Taiwan was often relegated to a backwater province of China in the KMT-supported history books. People were discouraged from studying local Taiwanese customs, which were to be replaced by mainstream Chinese customs. Lee sought to turn Taiwan into a center rather than an appendage. In 1997, he presided over the adoption of the Taiwan-centric history textbook Knowing Taiwan.
== South China Sea dispute ==
Under Lee, it was stated that "legally, historically, geographically, or in reality", all of the South China Sea and Spratly islands were the territory of the Republic of China and under ROC sovereignty, and denounced actions undertaken there by Malaysia and the Philippines, in a statement on 13 July 1999 released by the foreign ministry of Taiwan. The claims made by both the PRC and the Republic of China "mirror" each other. During international talks involving the Spratly islands, the PRC and ROC have sometimes made efforts to coordinate their positions with each other since both have the same claims.
== Post-presidency ==
Since resigning the chairmanship of the KMT, Lee stated a number of political positions and ideas which he did not mention while he was president, but which he appeared to have privately maintained. After Lee endorsed the candidates of the newly formed Pan-Green Taiwan Solidarity Union, a party established by a number of his KMT allies, Lee was expelled from the KMT on 21 September 2001.
Lee publicly supported the Name Rectification Campaigns in Taiwan and proposed changing the name of the country from the Republic of China to the Republic of Taiwan. He generally opposed unlimited economic ties with the PRC, placing restrictions on Taiwanese wishing to invest in China.
After Chen Shui-bian succeeded Lee in the 2000 election, the two enjoyed a close relationship despite being from different political parties. Chen regularly asked Lee for advice during his first term in office. In Chen's 2001 book, he called Lee the "Father of Taiwanese Democracy" and also named himself the "Son of Taiwan" with respect to Lee. However, the two's relationship began to worsen when Lee questioned Chen's reform of the fisheries branch of the Council of Agriculture. Though Lee was present in the 228 Hand-in-Hand rally orchestrated by the Pan-Green Coalition before the 2004 election, the two's relationship broke apart after Chen asked James Soong to be the President of the Executive Yuan in 2005, which Lee disagreed with. Lee also publicly criticized Chen in 2006 by calling him incapable and corrupt.
In February 2007, Lee shocked the media when he revealed that he did not support Taiwanese independence, when he was widely seen as the spiritual leader of the pro-independence movement. Lee also said that he supported opening up trade and tourism with China, a position he had opposed before. Lee later explained that Taiwan already enjoys de facto independence and that political maneuvering over details of expressing it is counterproductive. He maintains that "Taiwan should seek 'normalization' by changing its name and amending its constitution."
=== Relations with Japan ===
Lee enjoyed a warm relationship with the people and culture of Japan. Lee spoke fondly of his upbringing and his teachers and was welcomed in visits to Japan since leaving office. Lee admired and enjoyed all things Japanese such as traditional Japanese values. This was the target of criticism from the Pan-Blue Coalition in Taiwan, as well as from China, due to the anti-Japanese sentiment formed during and after World War II. However, this animosity fell in later years, especially in Taiwan.
In 1989, he received the highest distinction of the Scout Association of Japan, the Golden Pheasant Award.
In August 2001, Lee said of Japanese Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi's controversial visit to Yasukuni Shrine, "It is natural for a premier of a country to commemorate the souls of people who lost their lives for their country." In a May 2007 trip to Japan, Lee visited the shrine himself to pay tribute to his elder brother. Controversy rose because the shrine also enshrines World War II Class A criminals among the other soldiers.
During the 2012 China anti-Japanese demonstrations, on 13 September 2012, Lee remarked, "The Senkaku Islands, no matter whether in the past, for now or in the future, certainly belong to Japan." Ten years previously, he had stated, "The Senkaku Islands are the territory of Japan." In September 2014, Lee expressed support for a Japanese equivalent to the United States' Taiwan Relations Act, which was discussed in the Japanese Diet in February, though the idea was first proposed by Chen Shui-bian in 2006.
In 2014, Lee said in the Japanese magazine SAPIO published by Shogakukan, "China spreads lies such as Nanjing Massacre to the world ... Korea and China use invented history as their activity of propaganda for their country. Comfort women is the most remarkable example." In 2015, Lee said "The issue of Taiwanese comfort women is already solved" in the Japanese magazine Voice (published by PHP Institute). He was strongly criticized by Chen I-hsin, spokesman of the Presidential Office as "not ignorant but cold-blooded". Chen added, "If Lee Teng-hui really thinks the issue of comfort women is solved, go to a theater and see Song of the Reed."
In July 2015, Lee visited Japan, and again stated that Japan has full sovereignty over the Senkaku Islands. This was the first time Lee made remarks of this nature while in Japan. Members of the pan-Blue New Party and Kuomintang accused him of treason. New Party leader Yok Mu-ming filed charges of treason against Lee, while the KMT's Lai Shyh-bao called a caucus meeting to seek revisions to the Act Governing Preferential Treatment for Retired Presidents and Vice Presidents, aimed at denying Lee privileges as a former president.
In 2015, at an interview in Japan, Lee remarked that during the Japanese colonial period, Taiwan and Japan constituted 'one country,' and that he and his brother enlisted because they once regarded Japan as their 'motherland.' These comments drew substantial criticism from both the Pan-Blue Coalition and from authorities in mainland China. Later Lee also remarked that he felt sorrowful that Taiwanese people were "slaves" of the Japanese. In response to media requests for comment, then presidential candidate Tsai Ing-wen said that “each generation and ethnic group in Taiwan has lived a different history,” and that people should approach these differing experiences and interpretations with an attitude of understanding that will allow for learning from history, rather than allowing it to be used a tool for manipulating divisions.
Lee published a book, Remaining Life: My Life Journey and the Road of Taiwan's Democracy, in February 2016. In it, he reasserted support for Japanese sovereignty claims over the Senkaku Islands, drawing complaints from the ROC Presidential Office, President-elect Tsai Ing-wen, and Yilan County fishermen.
On 22 June 2018, he visited Japan for the final time in his life.
=== Controversies and indictment ===
On 30 June 2011, Lee, along with former KMT financier Liu Tai-ying were indicted on graft and money-laundering charges and accused of embezzling US$7.79 million in public funds. He was acquitted by the Taipei District Court on 15 November 2013. Prosecutors appealed the ruling, but on 20 August 2014, Lee was cleared of the charges again.
== Controversy and Criticism ==
In 1997, Huang Kuang-kuo, a psychology professor at National Taiwan University, published A Theory of Populism Leading to Taiwan’s Demise (民粹亡臺論), in which he argued that the political climate under Lee Teng-hui was characterized by what he termed populist democracy. Huang described it as a hybrid formation resulting from the fusion of traditional East Asian political culture with Western-style democratic institutions—a political monstrosity, in his words, that operated in the name of democracy but in practice through the violence of majority rule.
Huang used the term “populism” in an unusually broad sense, encompassing what he identified as phenomena such as money politics, local “strongman” rule by criminal factions, and an entrenched bureaucratic patronage culture, which he argued had become deeply rooted in Taiwanese politics during Lee Teng-hui’s presidency. According to Huang, Lee’s brand of populism operated on the premise that “as long as the votes are secured, anything becomes legitimate”: national identity could be redefined, the constitutional structure dismantled, party loyalties traded away, and legal accountability denied. He described Taiwan as entering “a process of collective suicide under populism,” one in which past achievements were repudiated and future development obstructed, producing only “a dictator who manipulates public opinion.” Huang further contended that Taiwan had become vulnerable to waves of collective emotional pressure, leading to distorted outcomes in areas such as education reform, the planning of high-speed rail, and financial-sector restructuring, all of which he attributed to populist politics overriding rational governance.
Criticism of Lee Teng-hui was not limited to the KMT camp. Independence activist Chuang Fang-hua (莊芳華) , in her book Deconstructing Lee Teng-hui (1995), offered a sharp critique of Lee’s political conduct, arguing that he “lacked the courage to appoint principled and capable officials, instead continuing to rely on the servile bureaucrats of the Chiang family regime.” She accused Lee of “recklessly issuing political promises during local elections, misusing state resources to reward local power brokers, and aligning himself with wealthy factions to consolidate his personal influence.” Chuang further contended that Lee’s approach “encouraged the rise of underworld figures and uneducated local strongmen, resulting in a coarse and vulgar political culture within the national legislature.”
In October 2001, veteran journalists Lu Keng and Ma Xiping published Surely You Are Joking, Mr. Teng-hui, a collection of interviews with twelve political and public figures associated with Lee Teng-hui, including James Soong, Lien Chan, Lin Yang-kang, Hau Pei-tsun, Lee Yuan-tseh, and Tsai Ing-wen.
According to Lu, the project was conceived as a response to Lee's own earlier memoir-like volume The Confession of Lee Teng-hui’s Administration (李登輝執政告白實錄), published five months prior, in which Lee openly criticized several of his former political allies. Questioning the accuracy and tone of those accounts, Lu and Ma conducted follow-up interviews with the individuals mentioned to record their recollections and perspectives.
James Soong criticized Lee's policy of “streamlining the Taiwan Provincial Government” (commonly known as 精省), arguing that the measure “reduced administrative efficiency” and had been implemented “without prior consultation” with him, despite his position as the elected Governor of Taiwan Province. Nevertheless, Soong also emphasized, “Mr. Lee truly treated me like a son. The degree of trust and reliance he placed on me is beyond what outsiders can imagine.”
In his interview, former Premier and Chief of the General Staff Hau Pei-tsun challenged Lee Teng-hui's reputation as “Mr. Democracy,” accusing him of undermining institutional procedures and concentrating decision-making within his inner circle. Hau recounted that while he served as both Chief of the General Staff and later as Premier, Lee “often bypassed proper channels in joint decision-making, especially in national security matters, by directly consulting with his confidant, National Security Bureau Director Sung Hsin-lien.” Hau also alleged that Lee frequently made key political appointments — such as selecting Lien Chan as Governor of Taiwan Province and appointing Huang Ta-chou as Mayor of Taipei — without consulting him as Premier, instead simply notifying him after the decisions had been made.
Hau stated: “The resignation of a cabinet must be approved by the Central Standing Committee — that is self-evident. The appointment or removal of senior party officials has always required its consent, let alone something as significant as a cabinet’s resignation. Lee Teng-hui ignored even the Central Standing Committee; his personal dictatorship was beyond doubt.” Hau also remarked that Lee and James Soong's decision to replace secret balloting with applause-based approval during key party meetings represented “the worst example of democracy.”
In reflecting on his tenure, Hau remarked: “Lee Teng-hui said I was a black sheep? When I was Premier, law and order improved, the economy grew, the stock market soared, and black-gold virtually disappeared — these are facts. It was Lee Teng-hui who lost political power, encouraged corruption, and crashed the stock market. Who, then, was the real black sheep?” Hau expressed deep concern that Taiwan's democratization had fostered a culture of political cynicism, observing that “in the process of democratic reform, both ruling and opposition parties have come to see rumor, falsehood, defamation, and slander as normal tools of politics, eroding public trust and leaving society to believe that democracy is merely a struggle for power where moral values and social ethics no longer matter.”
Hau further accused Lee of deliberately shaping public opinion by portraying non-mainstream faction figures such as Lin Yang-kang, Hau Pei-tsun, and Lee Huan as members obstructing his administration. Hau rejected this characterization, stating that he had in fact cooperated closely with Lee, adding, “If we had truly wanted to bring Lee Teng-hui down, he would have been gone long ago.”
The interview with Lin Yang-kang focused on persistent rumors that in 1990, Lee had persuaded Lin and his running mate Chiang Wei-kuo to withdraw from the presidential race, allegedly promising not to seek re-election in 1996. Lin confirmed that Lee had indeed conveyed such an intention through intermediary Tsai Hung-wen but maintained that his withdrawal was primarily due to persuasion by senior party elders, including Huang Shao-ku, Hsieh Tung-min, Yuan Shou-chien, and Tsai Hung-wen, who wished to avoid internal division. Lin also stated that Lee's earlier memoir contained “numerous factual inaccuracies.”
A 2003 master’s thesis by De-Hui Yin of National Chengchi University analyzed Lee Teng-hui’s political discourse through the framework of populism. Yin argues that Lee framed “democracy” and “democratic reform” not only as universal political ideals but also as tools for reshaping public perception and consolidating personal authority. According to the study, Lee repeatedly invoked the discourse of democracy to: (1) justify constitutional changes that expanded presidential power, (2) construct a charismatic moral leadership image to neutralize criticism from both the Chinese Communist Party and domestic rivals, and (3) appeal to a Taiwan-centered collective identity by portraying the PRC as a hostile external threat. Yin concludes that although Lee’s administration did not rely on overt repression, his rhetorical strategies nevertheless facilitated a concentration of power in the presidency, displaying what the thesis characterizes as a “populist mode of governance.”
== Personal life ==
Lee and his wife were Presbyterian Christians. Lee encountered Christianity as a young man and in 1961 was baptised. For most of the rest of his political career, despite holding high office, Lee made a habit of giving sermons at churches around Taiwan, mostly on apolitical themes of service and humility. He was a member of the Presbyterian Church in Taiwan.
Lee's native language was Taiwanese Hokkien but his heritage language was Taiwanese Hakka, for he was fluent in the former but a basic speaker of the latter as he is of Yongding Hakka ancestral descent. He was proficient in both Mandarin and Japanese and was able to speak English well. It has been claimed that he was more proficient in Japanese than Mandarin.
=== Family ===
Lee married Tseng Wen-hui on 9 February 1949, with whom he had three children. Their firstborn son Lee Hsien-wen (c. 1950 – 21 March 1982) died of sinus cancer. Daughters Anna and Annie, were born c. 1952 and c. 1954, respectively.
=== Health ===
Shortly after stepping down from the presidency in 2000, Lee had coronary artery bypass surgery. In late 2011, he underwent surgery to remove stage II colon adenocarcinoma, the most common form of colon cancer. Two years later, he had a stent implanted in his vertebral artery following an occlusion. Lee was sent to Taipei Veterans General Hospital in November 2015 after experiencing numbness in his right hand, and later diagnosed with a minor stroke. On 29 November 2018, he was rushed to Taipei Veterans General Hospital after falling and hitting his head. He was discharged from hospital on 31 January 2019, and President Tsai Ing-wen later visited him at his home. On 8 February 2020, Lee was hospitalised at Taipei Veterans General Hospital after choking while drinking milk and retained in the hospital under observation due to lung infection concerns. Later, he was diagnosed with aspiration pneumonia caused by pulmonary infiltration, and was subsequently intubated.
=== Death ===
Lee died of multiple organ failure and septic shock at Taipei Veterans General Hospital on 7:24 pm, 30 July 2020, at the age of 97. He had suffered from infections and cardiac problems since he was admitted to hospital in February.
A state funeral was announced, while a memorial venue at the Taipei Guest House where people paid respects to Lee was opened to the public from 1 to 16 August 2020, after which Lee's body was cremated and his remains interred at Wuzhi Mountain Military Cemetery. All national flags at government institutions were placed at half-mast for three days.
== Legacy ==
For his efforts to democratise the Taiwanese government, Lee was given the nickname "Mr. Democracy" and referred to as Taiwan's "Father of Democracy".
A November 2020 phone survey of 1,076 Taiwan citizens aged 18 and above which asked the question: "Which president, after Taiwan's democratisation, do you think has the best leadership? Lee Teng-hui, Chen Shui-bian, Ma Ying-jeou, or Tsai Ing-wen?" revealed Lee topped the survey with 43 percent, with incumbent president Tsai on 32 percent, Ma on 18 percent and 6.6 percent for Chen.
The Democratic Progressive Party (DPP), a Taiwanese nationalist party, viewed Lee positively and regarded him as "a beacon of hope". The DPP had grown in strength under Lee's rule and he set a precedent by presiding over the first ever peaceful transition of power to an opposition party in 2000. Conversely, Kuomintang figures held Lee responsible for destroying the party-state system and causing the party's fragmentation, and highlight his past membership in the Chinese Communist Party.
Among Chinese nationalists in both mainland China and Taiwan, Lee is a despised figure. His comments glorifying Imperial Japan and denying the Nanjing Massacre were met with sharp criticism in both mainland China and Taiwan. The Taiwan Affairs Office of the People's Republic of China called Lee a hanjian (Chinese traitor), as well as a "sinner of the Chinese race". In 2015, Kuomintang legislators as well as then-incumbent President Ma Ying-jeou accused Lee of treason, branding him as a hanjian. In August 2015, chairwoman Hung Hsiu-chu of the Kuomintang called Lee a "lunatic" for his comments about Taiwan and Japan being one nation. Lin Yu-fang of the Kuomintang further called Lee "the person least qualified to be Taiwanese. He served as a president for 12 years and never said a word for the comfort women, his legacy is stained with blood and tears. You, a running dog of Japan, when have you ever said a word for the poor Taiwanese people?" Legislator Lu Xuechang of the Kuomintang said that "Taiwan does not need traitors who sell out their country". After Lee's death, spokesperson for the Chinese ultranationalist New Party Wang Bingzhong called Lee a "traitor to the Kuomintang and China".
Prime Minister of Singapore Lee Kuan Yew criticised Lee's Taiwan independence statements, commenting that he "underestimated China's desire for reunification".
Lee's comments were also criticised by the liberal opposition within the PRC, with dissident Wang Bingzhang having accused Lee of undermining liberal democracy movements within mainland China.
== Honours ==
Republic of China:
Grand Cordon of the Order of Brilliant Jade
=== Foreign ===
Burkina Faso:
Grand Cross of the Ordre de l'Étalon, formerly National Order of Burkina Faso (July 1994)
Central African Republic:
Grand Cross of the Order of Central African Merit (May 1992)
Chad:
Grand Cross of the National Order of Chad (October 1997)
Dominican Republic:
Grand Cross with Gold Breast Star of the Order of Christopher Columbus (September 1999)
Gambia:
Commander of the Order of the Republic of The Gambia (November 1996)
Guatemala:
Grand Cross of the Order of the Quetzal (September 1985)
Guinea Bissau:
National Order of Merit, Cooperation and Development (October 1990)
Haiti:
Grand Cross of the National Order of Honour and Merit (April 1998)
Honduras:
Grand Cross with Gold Star of the Order of Francisco Morazán
Liberia:
Grand Commander of the Humane Order of African Redemption (November 1997)
Nicaragua:
Grand Cross of the Order of Miguel Larreynaga
Niger:
Grand Cross of the National Order of Niger (June 1994)
Panama:
Collar of the Order of Manuel Amador Guerrero (October 1992)
Paraguay:
Grand Collar of the National Order of Merit (June 1990)
South Africa:
Grand Officer of the Order of Good Hope (November 1991)
Grand Cross of the Order of Good Hope (September 1984)
== Selected publications ==
=== Books ===
Lee, Teng-hui (1971). Intersectoral Capital Flows in the Economic Development of Taiwan, 1895–1960. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-0650-8. OCLC 1086842416.
=== Articles ===
Teng-Hui, Lee (1993). "The Taiwan Experience and China's Future". World Affairs. 155 (3): 132–134. ISSN 0043-8200. JSTOR 20672353.
Teng-Hui, Lee (1993). "Building a Democracy for Unification". World Affairs. 155 (3): 130–131. ISSN 0043-8200. JSTOR 20672352.
Teng-Hui, Lee (1999). "Confucian Democracy: Modernization, Culture, and the State in East Asia". Harvard International Review. 21 (4): 16–18. ISSN 0739-1854. JSTOR 43648967.
Teng-hui, Lee (1999). "Understanding Taiwan: Bridging the Perception Gap". Foreign Affairs. 78 (6): 9–14. doi:10.2307/20049528. ISSN 0015-7120. JSTOR 20049528.
== Footnotes ==
== References ==
=== Other references ===
Tsai, Shih-shan Henry (2005). Lee Teng-hui and Taiwan's Quest for Identity. Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1057/9781403977175. ISBN 978-1-349-53217-9.
Hickey, Dennis V. (2006). Foreign Policy Making in Taiwan. Routledge. p. 88. ISBN 9781134003051. Archived from the original on 12 April 2023. Retrieved 18 April 2016.
Kagan, Richard C. (2007). Taiwan's Statesman: Lee Teng-hui and Democracy in Asia. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-1-61251-755-1.
Copper, John F. (5 August 2024). Taiwan's Presidents: Profiles of the Majestic Six. Routledge (Taylor & Francis). ISBN 978-1-040-04292-2.
== Further reading ==
Dickson, Bruce; Chao, Chien-Min (16 September 2016). Assessing the Lee Teng-hui Legacy in Taiwan's Politics: Democratic Consolidation and External Relations. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-315-29039-3.
Falick, Michael (12 April 2004). "America and Taiwan, 1943–2004". Archived from the original on 20 November 2008. Retrieved 12 November 2008.
Matray, James I., ed. East Asia and the United States: an encyclopedia of relations since 1784. Vol. 1 ( Greenwood, 2002) 1:346–347.
== External links ==
Friends of Lee Teng-Hui Association
"Always in My Heart" Archived 5 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine—1995 lecture delivered at Cornell University Alumni Reunion
NSYSU Lee Teng-hui Center for Governmental Studies
Corpus of Political Speeches, publicly accessible with speeches from United States, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and China, provided by *Hong Kong Baptist University Library |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson#:~:text=He%20briefly%20taught%20at%20Pearsall,Houston%20High%20School%20in%20Houston. | Lyndon B. Johnson | Lyndon Baines Johnson (; August 27, 1908 – January 22, 1973), also known as LBJ, was the 36th president of the United States, serving from 1963 to 1969. He became president after the assassination of John F. Kennedy, under whom he had served as the 37th vice president from 1961 to 1963. A Southern Democrat, Johnson previously represented Texas in Congress for over 23 years, first as a U.S. representative from 1937 to 1949, and then as a U.S. senator from 1949 to 1961.
Born in Stonewall, Texas, Johnson worked as a teacher and a congressional aide before winning election to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1937. In 1948, he was controversially declared the winner in the Democratic primary for the U.S. Senate election in Texas before winning the general election. He became Senate majority whip in 1951, Senate Democratic leader in 1953 and majority leader in 1954. Senator Kennedy bested Johnson and his other rivals for the 1960 Democratic presidential nomination before surprising many by offering to make Johnson his vice presidential running mate. The Kennedy–Johnson ticket won the general election. Vice President Johnson assumed the presidency in 1963, after President Kennedy was assassinated. The following year, Johnson won reelection to the presidency in a landslide, winning the largest share of the popular vote for the Democratic Party in history, and the highest for any candidate since the advent of widespread popular elections in the 1820s.
Johnson's Great Society was aimed at expanding civil rights, public broadcasting, access to health care, aid to education and the arts, urban and rural development, consumer protection, environmentalism, and public services. He sought to create better living conditions for low-income Americans by spearheading the war on poverty. As part of these efforts, Johnson signed the Social Security Amendments of 1965, which resulted in the creation of Medicare and Medicaid. Johnson made the Apollo program a national priority; enacted the Higher Education Act of 1965 which established federally insured student loans; and signed the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 which laid the groundwork for U.S. immigration policy today. Johnson's civil rights legacy was shaped by the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Voting Rights Act of 1965, and the Civil Rights Act of 1968. Due to his domestic agenda, Johnson's presidency marked the peak of modern American liberalism in the 20th century. Johnson's foreign policy prioritized containment of communism, including in the ongoing Vietnam War.
Johnson began his presidency with near-universal support, but his approval declined throughout his presidency as the public became frustrated with both the Vietnam War and domestic unrest, including race riots, increasing public skepticism with his reports and policies (coined the credibility gap), and increasing crime. Johnson initially sought to run for re-election in 1968; however, following disappointing results in the New Hampshire primary, he withdrew his candidacy. Johnson retired to his Texas ranch and kept a low public profile until he died in 1973. Public opinion and academic assessments of Johnson's legacy have fluctuated greatly. Historians and scholars rank Johnson in the upper tier for his accomplishments regarding domestic policy. His administration passed many major laws that made substantial changes in civil rights, health care, welfare, and education. Conversely, Johnson is heavily criticized for his foreign policy, namely escalating American involvement in the Vietnam War.
== Early life ==
Lyndon Baines Johnson was born on August 27, 1908, near Stonewall, Texas, in a small farmhouse on the Pedernales River. He was the eldest of five children born to Samuel Ealy Johnson Jr. and Rebekah Baines. Johnson was not given a name until he was three months old, as his parents could not agree on a name that both liked. Finally, he was named after "criminal lawyer—a county lawyer" W. C. Linden, who his father liked; his mother agreed on the condition of spelling it as Lyndon. Johnson had one brother, Sam Houston Johnson, and three sisters, Rebekah, Josefa, and Lucia. Through his mother, he was a great-grandson of Baptist clergyman George Washington Baines.
Johnson's paternal grandfather, Samuel Ealy Johnson Sr., was raised Baptist and for a time was a member of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ). In his later years, Samuel Sr. became a Christadelphian; Samuel Jr. also joined the Christadelphian Church toward the end of his life. Johnson was influenced in his positive attitude toward Jews by the religious beliefs that his family, especially his grandfather, had shared with him.
Johnson grew up poor, with his father losing a great deal of money. Biographer Robert Caro described him as being raised "in a land without electricity, where the soil was so rocky that it was hard to earn a living from it."
In school, Johnson was a talkative youth who was elected president of his 11th-grade class. He graduated in 1924 from Johnson City High School, where he participated in public speaking, debate, and baseball. At 15, Johnson was the youngest in his class. Pressured by his parents to attend college, he enrolled at a "sub college" of Southwest Texas State Teachers College (SWTSTC) in the summer of 1924, where students from unaccredited high schools could take the 12th-grade courses needed for admission to college. He left the school just weeks after his arrival and decided to move to California. He worked at his cousin's legal practice and in odd jobs before returning to Texas, where he worked as a day laborer.
In 1926, Johnson enrolled at SWTSTC. He worked his way through school, participated in debate and campus politics, and edited the school newspaper, The College Star. The college years refined his skills of persuasion and political organization. For nine months, from 1928 to 1929, Johnson paused his studies to teach Mexican–American children at the segregated Welhausen School in Cotulla, Texas, 90 miles (140 km) south of San Antonio. The job helped him to save money to complete his education, and he graduated in 1930 with a Bachelor of Science in history and his certificate of qualification as a high school teacher. He briefly taught at Pearsall High School in Pearsall, Texas before taking a position teaching public speaking at Sam Houston High School in Houston.
When he returned to San Marcos in 1965, after signing the Higher Education Act of 1965, Johnson reminisced:
I shall never forget the faces of the boys and the girls in that little Welhausen Mexican School, and I remember even yet the pain of realizing and knowing then that college was closed to practically every one of those children because they were too poor. And I think it was then that I made up my mind that this nation could never rest while the door to knowledge remained closed to any American.
== Entry into politics ==
After Richard M. Kleberg won a 1931 special election to represent Texas in the United States House of Representatives, he appointed Johnson as his legislative secretary. This marked Johnson's formal introduction to politics. Johnson secured the position on the recommendation of his father and that of state senator Welly Hopkins, for whom Johnson had campaigned in 1930. Kleberg had little interest in the day-to-day duties of a Congressman, instead delegating them to Johnson. After Franklin D. Roosevelt won the 1932 U.S. presidential election, Johnson became a lifelong supporter of Roosevelt's New Deal. Johnson was elected speaker of the "Little Congress", a group of Congressional aides, where he cultivated Congressmen, newspapermen, and lobbyists. Johnson's friends soon included aides to President Roosevelt as well as fellow Texans such as vice president John Nance Garner and congressman Sam Rayburn.
In 1935, Johnson was hired as Texas state administrator of the National Youth Administration (NYA). The job allowed him to travel around Texas seeking financial sponsors for NYA construction projects. Within six months, 18,000 young Texans were working on roads, parks, schools, and other public buildings. He resigned two years later to run for Congress. A notoriously tough boss, Johnson often demanded long workdays and work on weekends. He was described by friends, fellow politicians, and historians as motivated by lust for power and control. As Caro observes, "Johnson's ambition was uncommon – in the degree to which it was unencumbered by even the slightest excess weight of ideology, of philosophy, of principles, of beliefs."
== U.S. House of Representatives (1937–1949) ==
In 1937, after the death of 13-term congressman James P. Buchanan, Johnson successfully campaigned in a special election for Texas's 10th congressional district, which included Austin and the surrounding Texas Hill Country. He ran on a New Deal platform and was effectively aided by his wife. He served as a U.S. Representative from April 10, 1937, to January 3, 1949. President Roosevelt found Johnson to be a political ally and conduit for information, particularly regarding the internal politics of Texas and the machinations of Vice President John Nance Garner and House Speaker Sam Rayburn. As a member of the House Naval Affairs Committee, Johnson helped plan a huge naval air training base at Corpus Christi, Texas. He also helped establish shipbuilding sites at Houston and Orange, Texas; and a Navy Reserve station in Dallas.
Johnson successfully sponsored many federal projects for his home district. One was a program that provided cheap electricity for farmers under the new Rural Electrification Administration (REA), and he secured approval to complete the hydroelectric Mansfield Dam on the Colorado River near Austin. He also sponsored projects that gave his Texas district soil conservation, public housing, lower railroad freight rates, and expanded credit for loans to farmers. He steered the projects towards contractors he knew, such as Herman and George Brown, who financed much of Johnson's future career.
During this time Johnson maintained a hostile position towards civil rights legislation like almost all other Southern Democrat legislators; voting against anti-lynching legislation, anti-poll tax legislation and the Fair Employment Practice Committee.
=== 1941 U.S. Senate election ===
In April 1941, U.S. Senator Morris Sheppard of Texas died, triggering a special election. Texas law allowed Johnson to run without giving up his House seat. The election had no primaries or runoff, forcing Johnson to compete against multiple Democrats, including Governor W. Lee "Pappy" O'Daniel.
Johnson campaigned aggressively, emphasizing his ties to President Roosevelt, and initially appeared to be leading. However, after late returns came in, O'Daniel narrowly won by 1,311 votes. In The Path to Power, Johnson biographer Robert Caro argues that the election results were manipulated in O'Daniel's favor by lobbyists from Texas' alcohol industry. O'Daniel was a staunch prohibitionist, and as Governor, he had proposed a bill preventing the sale of alcohol within ten miles of a military base; Caro notes how business interests feared the passing of this bill, as preparations for World War II had brought thousands of young soldiers into the region. To prevent the passing of this bill, lobbyists sought to elect O'Daniel to the Senate to place the "wet" lieutenant governor Coke Stevenson in the governorship, and hence rigged ballots in East Texas, swinging the election in O'Daniel's favor. Johnson ultimately lost by just 0.23% of the vote.
Though defeated, Johnson retained his House seat and political network, including support from South Texas political boss George Berham Parr. When O'Daniel declined to seek re-election in 1948, Johnson prepared for another Senate run, this time carefully managing vote tallies. He would go on to win the 1948 Democratic primary by just 87 votes.
=== Active military duty (1941–1942) ===
Johnson was a member of the U.S. Naval Reserve when Japan attacked Pearl Harbor in December 1941. Two days after the attack, he requested an indefinite leave of absence and applied for active duty, making him one of the first members of Congress to volunteer for an active military role.
Johnson was first ordered to the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations to assess the production and manpower problems that were slowing the manufacture of ships and planes. In May 1942, he was appointed President Roosevelt's personal representative to the Navy and was sent on a survey mission of the Pacific theater of combat. Stationed in Australia and New Zealand, it was his duty to find the underreported problems facing U.S. troops in the Pacific and report this firsthand information to Roosevelt.
On June 9, 1942, Johnson received the Silver Star from General Douglas MacArthur for gallantry in action during an aerial combat mission over hostile positions in New Guinea. Though accounts differ, Johnson's aircraft, a B-26 bomber, reportedly turned back before reaching the target due to mechanical trouble. Johnson's biographer Robert Caro was quoted as saying "I think that the weight of the evidence at this moment is that the plane was attacked by Zeroes and that he was cool under fire", but also "The fact is, LBJ never got within sight of Japanese forces. His combat experience was a myth."
Johnson served in the Pacific through July 1942. He was released from his military active duty after President Roosevelt recalled all active duty legislators back to Washington, D.C. In addition to the Silver Star, Johnson received the Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal, and the World War II Victory Medal.
== U.S. Senate (1949–1961) ==
=== 1948 U.S. Senate election ===
In 1948, Johnson again ran for the U.S. Senate and won the general election after being declared winner in a highly controversial Democratic Party primary election against the well-known former governor Coke Stevenson. Johnson drew crowds to fairgrounds with his rented Sikorsky S-51 helicopter, dubbed "The Johnson City Windmill". He raised money to flood the state with campaign circulars and won over conservatives by casting doubts on Stevenson's support for the Taft–Hartley Act (curbing union power). Stevenson came in first in the primary but lacked a majority, so a runoff election was held; Johnson campaigned harder, while Stevenson's efforts slumped due to a lack of funds.
The runoff vote count, handled by the Democratic State Central Committee, took a week. Johnson was announced the winner by 87 votes out of 988,295, an extremely narrow margin. However, Johnson's victory was based on 200 "patently fraudulent" ballots reported six days after the election from Box 13 in Jim Wells County, in an area dominated by political boss George Parr. The added names were in alphabetical order and written with the same pen and handwriting, at the end of the list of voters. Some on this part of the list insisted that they had not voted that day. Election judge Luis Salas said in 1977 that he had certified 202 fraudulent ballots, 200 for Johnson, and two for Stevenson. Robert Caro made the case in his 1990 book that Johnson had stolen the election in Jim Wells County, and that there were thousands of fraudulent votes in other counties as well, including 10,000 votes switched in San Antonio. The Democratic State Central Committee voted to certify Johnson's nomination by a majority of one (29–28). The state Democratic convention upheld Johnson. Stevenson went to court, eventually taking his case before the U.S. Supreme Court, but with timely help from his friend and future U.S. Supreme Court Justice Abe Fortas, Johnson prevailed on the basis that jurisdiction over naming a nominee rested with the party, not the federal government. Johnson soundly defeated Republican Jack Porter in the general election in November and went to Washington, permanently dubbed "Landslide Lyndon". Johnson, dismissive of his critics, happily adopted the nickname.
=== Freshman senator to majority whip ===
During his two terms in the Senate, Johnson drifted rightward. He felt he had to tread carefully lest he offend politically powerful conservative oil and gas interests in Texas, and in part to curry favor with the chamber's powerful southern chairmen, most notably Senator Richard Russell, Democrat from Georgia and leader of the Southern Caucus within the conservative coalition that dominated the Senate. With Russell's support, Johnson won election as Democratic whip in 1951, serving in this capacity until 1953. While serving as whip, Johnson increased his ability to persuade people to reach agreement.
As a member of the Senate Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce, Johnson was chairman of the Senate subcommittee that refused the re-nomination of Leland Olds—who was opposed by Texas oil and gas interests—as chairman of the Federal Power Commission (FPC) on the grounds that he had been sympathetic towards communism. As a member of the FPC, Olds had played a key role in the development of federal regulation of the natural gas industry.
President Truman favored federal control of tidelands oil deposits off the Texas coast. Privately, Johnson told friends that he favored federal control, but in public he staunchly defended states' rights. In 1951–52, Johnson helped pass bills granting 47 states control over 3 miles of offshore lands and Texas, 10.5 miles. Truman vetoed the bills, calling them "robbery in broad daylight".
Johnson was appointed to the Senate Armed Services Committee, and became increasingly concerned with the country's military preparedness in the Cold War with the Soviet Union. He became chairman of the Senate Preparedness Investigating Subcommittee, and conducted investigations of defense costs and efficiency. After the Korean War began in 1950, he called for more troops and for improved weapons. Biographer Caro wrote that Johnson was obsessed with having all subcommittee reports be unanimous, maneuvering frequently to gain the backing of all the Republicans. He used his political influence in the Senate to receive broadcast licenses from the Federal Communications Commission in his wife's name.
=== Senate Democratic leader ===
In the 1952 elections, Republicans won a majority in both the House and Senate. In January 1953, Johnson was chosen by his fellow Democrats as Senate Minority Leader; he became the most junior senator ever elected to this position. He reformed the seniority system so that Democratic senators, including freshmen, were more likely to receive a committee assignment that closely aligned with their expertise rather than an assignment based solely on their seniority.
==== Senate Majority Leader ====
In 1954, Johnson was re-elected to the Senate and, with Democrats winning the majority in the Senate, he became majority leader. President Dwight D. Eisenhower found Johnson more cooperative than the Senate Republican leader, William F. Knowland of California. Particularly on foreign policy, Johnson offered bipartisan support to the president.
Historians Caro and Dallek consider Johnson the most effective Senate majority leader ever. He was unusually proficient at gathering information. One biographer suggests he was "the greatest intelligence gatherer Washington has ever known", discovering exactly where every senator stood on issues, his philosophy and prejudices, his strengths and weaknesses, and what it took to get his vote. Bobby Baker claimed that Johnson would occasionally send senators on NATO trips so they were absent and unable to cast dissenting votes. Central to Johnson's control was "The Treatment", described by two journalists:
The Treatment could last ten minutes or four hours. It came, enveloping its target, at the Johnson Ranch swimming pool, in one of Johnson's offices, in the Senate cloakroom, on the floor of the Senate itself – wherever Johnson might find a fellow Senator within his reach.
Its tone could be supplication, accusation, cajolery, exuberance, scorn, tears, complaint, and the hint of threat. It was all of these together. It ran the gamut of human emotions. Its velocity was breathtaking and it was all in one direction. Interjections from the target were rare. Johnson anticipated them before they could be spoken. He moved in close, his face a scant millimeter from his target, his eyes widening and narrowing, his eyebrows rising and falling. From his pockets poured clippings, memos, statistics. Mimicry, humor, and the genius of analogy made The Treatment an almost hypnotic experience and rendered the target stunned and helpless.
In 1956, during the Suez Crisis, Johnson tried to prevent the U.S. government from criticizing Israel for its invasion of the Sinai Peninsula. Along with much of the rest of the nation, Johnson was appalled by the threat of possible Soviet domination of space exploration implied by the launch of Sputnik 1, the first artificial Earth satellite, and used his influence to ensure passage of the National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958, which established NASA. Johnson helped establish the Senate Aeronautical and Space Committee, and made himself its first chairman.
During his tenure as Majority Leader, Johnson did not sign the 1956 Southern Manifesto, and shepherded the Civil Rights Acts of 1957 and 1960 to passage—the first civil rights bills to pass Congress since the Enforcement Acts and the Civil Rights Act of 1875 during Reconstruction. Johnson negotiated a middle course between Northern liberal senators and the Southern bloc of senators who had opposed such legislation by removing key enforcement provisions, such as Title III, which authorized the attorney general to initiate civil action for preventive relief in a wide range of civil rights matters. Being a Southerner was seen as an impossible barrier for a presidential candidate and towards the end of his Senate career as well as not signing the Southern Manifesto, he distanced himself further from the Southern Caucus in 1959 by joining the Democrat's Western regional conference.
== Campaigns of 1960 ==
In 1960, Johnson's success in the Senate rendered him a potential Democratic presidential candidate. James H. Rowe repeatedly urged Johnson to launch a campaign in early 1959, but Johnson thought it was better to wait, thinking that Senator John F. Kennedy's candidacy would create a division in the ranks that could then be exploited. Johnson's strategy was to sit out the primaries and to rely on his legislative record as Senate Majority Leader, the support of Southern Democrats, and the favors owed by Democratic senators to him and by Democratic representatives to his close ally Sam Rayburn, the Speaker of the House.
In July 1960, Johnson finally entered the campaign. Johnson's late entry, coupled with his reluctance to leave Washington, D.C., allowed rival John F. Kennedy to secure a substantial early lead in securing support from Democratic state party officials. Johnson underestimated Kennedy's endearing charm and intelligence in comparison to his perceived crude and wheeling-dealing "Landslide Lyndon" style. Caro suggests that Johnson's hesitancy to enter the race resulted from his fear of losing.
Johnson attempted in vain to capitalize on Kennedy's youth, poor health, and failure to take a position regarding McCarthyism. He had formed a "Stop Kennedy" coalition with Adlai Stevenson, Stuart Symington, and Hubert Humphrey, but it proved a failure. Despite Johnson having the support of established Democrats and the party leadership, this did not translate into popular approval. Johnson received 409 votes on the only ballot at the Democratic convention to Kennedy's 806, and so the convention nominated Kennedy. Tip O'Neill was a representative from Kennedy's home state of Massachusetts at that time, and he recalled that Johnson approached him at the convention and said, "Tip, I know you have to support Kennedy at the start, but I'd like to have you with me on the second ballot." O'Neill replied, "Senator, there's not going to be any second ballot."
=== Vice presidential nomination ===
After much discussion with party leaders and others, Kennedy offered Johnson the vice presidential nomination at the Los Angeles Biltmore Hotel on July 14, the morning after Kennedy was nominated, and Johnson accepted. From that point to the actual nomination that evening, several facts are in dispute, including whether convention chairman LeRoy Collins' had the two-thirds majority required to begin the convention's proceedings. Kennedy's choice of Johnson as his running mate was intended to attract Southern votes. Kennedy was a liberal Bostonian and a Roman Catholic. Johnson was more conservative, a Southerner, and a member of the Disciples of Christ. Nevertheless, labor leaders were unanimous in their opposition to Johnson. AFL-CIO president George Meany called Johnson "the arch-foe of labor", and Illinois AFL-CIO president Reuben Soderstrom asserted Kennedy had "made chumps out of leaders of the American labor movement".
=== Re-election to U.S. Senate ===
At the same time as his vice presidential run, Johnson also sought a third term in the U.S. Senate. According to Robert Caro: Johnson won an election for both the vice presidency of the United States, on the Kennedy–Johnson ticket, and for a third term as senator (he had Texas law changed to allow him to run for both offices). When he won the vice presidency, he made arrangements to resign from the Senate, as he was required to do under federal law, as soon as it convened on January 3, 1961. Johnson was re-elected senator with 1,306,605 votes (58 percent) to Republican John Tower's 927,653 (41.1 percent). Fellow Democrat William A. Blakley was appointed to replace Johnson, but lost a special election in May 1961 to Tower.
== Vice presidency (1961–1963) ==
After the election, Johnson was concerned about the traditionally ineffective nature of his new office and sought authority not allotted to him as vice president. He initially sought a transfer of the authority of Senate majority leader to the vice presidency, since that office made him president of the Senate, but faced vehement opposition from the Democratic Caucus, including members whom he had counted as his supporters.
Johnson sought to increase his influence within the executive branch. He drafted an executive order for Kennedy's signature, granting Johnson "general supervision" over matters of national security, and requiring all government agencies to "cooperate fully with the vice president in the carrying out of these assignments". Kennedy's response was to sign a non-binding letter requesting Johnson to "review" national security policies instead. Kennedy similarly turned down early requests from Johnson to be given an office adjacent to the Oval Office and to employ a full-time staff within the White House. In 1961, Kennedy appointed Johnson's friend Sarah T. Hughes to a federal judgeship. Johnson tried but failed to have Hughes nominated at the beginning of his vice presidency. House Speaker Sam Rayburn wangled the appointment from Kennedy in exchange for support of an administration bill.
With the exception of Kennedy himself, other members of the Kennedy White House were openly contemptuous of Johnson, including the president's brother, Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, and they ridiculed his comparatively brusque and crude manner. Then Congressman Tip O'Neill recalled that the Kennedy staffers "had a disdain for Johnson that they didn't even try to hide.... They actually took pride in snubbing him."
Kennedy made efforts to keep Johnson busy and informed, telling aides, "I can't afford to have my vice president, who knows every reporter in Washington, going around saying we're all screwed up, so we're going to keep him happy." Kennedy appointed him to jobs such as the head of the President's Committee on Equal Employment Opportunities, where Johnson worked with African Americans and other minorities. Kennedy may have intended this to remain a nominal position, but Taylor Branch contends in his book Pillar of Fire that Johnson pushed the Kennedy administration's actions further and faster for civil rights than Kennedy originally intended.
Johnson went on multiple minor diplomatic missions, which gave him some insights into global issues and opportunities for self-promotion. During his visit to West Berlin on August 19–20, 1961, Johnson sought to calm Berliners who were outraged by the building of the Berlin Wall. He also attended Cabinet and National Security Council meetings. Kennedy gave Johnson control over all presidential appointments involving Texas, and appointed him chairman of the President's Ad Hoc Committee for Science.
Kennedy also appointed Johnson Chairman of the National Aeronautics and Space Council. The Soviets beat the United States with the first crewed spaceflight in April 1961, and Kennedy gave Johnson the task of evaluating the U.S. space program and recommending a project that would allow the United States to catch up or beat the Soviets. Johnson recommended that the United States gain the leadership role by committing to landing an American on the Moon in the 1960s. Kennedy assigned priority to the space program, but Johnson's appointment provided cover in case of a failure.
In August 1963, Johnson was touched by a Senate scandal when Bobby Baker, the Secretary to the Majority Leader of the Senate and a protégé of Johnson's, came under investigation by the Senate Rules Committee for alleged bribery and financial malfeasance. One witness alleged that Baker arranged for the witness to give kickbacks for the Vice President. Baker resigned in October, and the investigation did not expand to Johnson. The negative publicity, however, fed rumors in Washington circles that Kennedy was planning on dropping Johnson from the Democratic ticket in the 1964 presidential election. However, on October 31, 1963, a reporter asked if he intended and expected to retain Johnson on the ticket. Kennedy replied, "Yes to both those questions." There is little doubt that Robert Kennedy and Johnson hated each other, yet John and Robert Kennedy agreed that dropping Johnson from the ticket could produce heavy losses in the South.
== Presidency (1963–1969) ==
=== Succession ===
President Kennedy was assassinated on November 22, 1963, in Dallas, Texas. Later that day, Johnson took the presidential oath of office aboard Air Force One. Cecil Stoughton's iconic photograph of Johnson taking the oath of office as Mrs. Kennedy looks on is the most famous photo ever taken aboard a presidential aircraft. Johnson was sworn in by District Court judge Sarah T. Hughes and is to date the only president in U.S. history to be sworn in by a woman.
Johnson was convinced of the need to make an immediate show of transition of power after the assassination to provide stability to a grieving nation. He and the Secret Service, not knowing whether the assassin acted alone or as part of a broader conspiracy, felt compelled to return rapidly to Washington, D.C.; this was greeted by some with assertions that he was in too much haste to assume power. In response to the public demand for answers and the growing number of conspiracy theories, Johnson established a commission headed by Chief Justice Earl Warren, known as the Warren Commission, to investigate Kennedy's assassination. The commission conducted research and hearings and unanimously concluded that Lee Harvey Oswald acted alone in the assassination. Although Johnson publicly supported the findings of the Warren Commission, privately he expressed skepticism of its conclusions. In 1967 he told his advisor W. Marvin Watson that he was convinced the CIA was in some way involved in the assassination, and shortly before his death, he told his speechwriter Leo Janos "I never believed that Oswald acted alone, although I can accept that he pulled the trigger".
When Johnson assumed office, he asked the existing Cabinet to remain in place. Despite his notoriously poor relationship with Johnson, Robert F. Kennedy stayed on as Attorney General until September 1964, when he resigned to run for the U.S. Senate. Four of the Kennedy cabinet members Johnson inherited—Secretary of State Dean Rusk, Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall, Secretary of Agriculture Orville L. Freeman, and Secretary of Labor W. Willard Wirtz—served until the end of Johnson's presidency. Other Kennedy holdovers, including Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara, left office during Johnson's tenure. Although Johnson had no official chief of staff, Walter Jenkins presided over daily operations at the White House. George Reedy, who was Johnson's second-longest-serving aide, assumed the post of press secretary when John F. Kennedy's own Pierre Salinger left that post in March 1964. Horace Busby served primarily as a speechwriter and political analyst. Bill Moyers handled scheduling and speechwriting part-time.
=== Taxation and budget ===
The new president thought it advantageous to quickly pursue one of Kennedy's primary legislative goals—a tax cut. Johnson worked closely with Senator Harry F. Byrd of Virginia to negotiate a reduction in the budget below $100 billion in exchange for what became overwhelming Senate approval of the Revenue Act of 1964. The act cut individual income tax rates across the board by approximately 20 percent, cut the top marginal tax rate from 91 to 70 percent, and slightly reduced corporate tax rates. Passage of the long-stalled tax cut facilitated efforts to move ahead on civil rights legislation. Despite a period of strong economic growth, heavy spending on the Vietnam War and on domestic programs contributed to a rising budget deficit, as well as a period of inflation that would continue into the 1970s. To counter this, Johnson reluctantly signed a second tax bill, the Revenue and Expenditure Control Act of 1968, which included a mix of tax increases and spending cuts, producing a budget surplus.
=== Civil Rights Act of 1964 ===
On November 27, 1963, Johnson delivered his "Let Us Continue" speech to Congress, saying that "No memorial oration or eulogy could more eloquently honor President Kennedy's memory than the earliest possible passage of the Civil Rights Bill for which he fought so long." The wave of national grief following the assassination gave enormous momentum to Johnson's promise to carry out Kennedy's plans.
Johnson asked Robert Kennedy to spearhead the undertaking on Capitol Hill. This provided adequate political cover for Johnson should the effort fail, but if it were successful, Johnson would receive ample credit. Biographer Caro notes that the bill Kennedy had submitted was facing the same tactics that prevented the passage of civil rights bills in the past: Southern congressmen and senators used congressional procedure to prevent it from coming to a vote. In particular, they held up all of the major bills Kennedy had proposed and that were considered urgent, especially the tax reform bill, to force the bill's supporters to pull it. For Johnson's civil rights bill to reach the House floor for a vote, the president needed to find a way to circumvent Representative Howard W. Smith, the chairman of the House Rules Committee. Johnson used a discharge petition to force it onto the House floor. Facing a growing threat that they would be bypassed, the Rules Committee approved the bill and moved it to the floor of the full House, which soon passed it by a vote of 290–110. Johnson convinced Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield to put the House bill directly into consideration by the full Senate, bypassing the Senate Judiciary Committee and its segregationist chairman James Eastland. Since bottling up the civil rights bill in a committee was no longer an option, the anti-civil rights senators were left with the filibuster as their only remaining tool. Overcoming the filibuster required the support of at least 20 Republicans, who were growing less supportive because their party was about to nominate for president a candidate who opposed the bill. According to Caro, Johnson ultimately could convince Republican leader Everett Dirksen to support the bill that amassed the necessary Republican votes to overcome the filibuster in March 1964; the bill passed the Senate by a vote of 71–29.
Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 into law on July 2. The act outlawed discrimination based on race, color, national origin, religion, or sex. It prohibited racial segregation in public accommodations and employment discrimination, and strengthened the federal government's power to investigate racial and gender employment discrimination. The following evening, Johnson told aide Bill Moyers, "I think we may have lost the South for your lifetime – and mine", anticipating a backlash from Southern whites against Johnson's Democratic Party.
=== Great Society ===
By early 1964, Johnson had begun to use the name "Great Society" to describe his domestic program. Johnson's Great Society program encompassed movements of urban renewal, modern transportation, clean environment, anti-poverty, healthcare reform, crime control, and educational reform. To ensure the passage of his programs, Johnson placed an unprecedented emphasis on relations with Congress.
=== 1964 presidential election ===
In Spring 1964, Johnson was not optimistic about his prospects of being elected president. A pivotal change took place in April when he assumed personal management of negotiations between the railroad brotherhood and the railroad industry over the issue of featherbedding. Johnson emphasized to the parties the potential impact upon the economy of a strike. After considerable horse-trading, especially with the carriers who won promises from the president for greater freedom in setting rights and more liberal depreciation allowances from the Internal Revenue Service, Johnson obtained an agreement. This substantially boosted his self-confidence and image.
Robert F. Kennedy was widely considered an impeccable choice for Johnson's vice presidential running mate but Johnson and Kennedy had never liked each other, and Johnson, afraid that Kennedy would be credited with his election as president, consistently opposed the idea. Kennedy was undecided about accepting an offer as Johnson's running mate, knowing that the prospect rankled Johnson. Barry Goldwater's poor polling numbers was perceived as reducing the political significance of Johnson's selection of a running mate. Hubert Humphrey's selection as vice president then became a foregone conclusion and was thought to strengthen Johnson in the Midwest and industrial Northeast. Knowing the degree of frustration inherent in the office of vice president, Johnson put Humphrey through a gauntlet of interviews to guarantee his loyalty. Having made the decision, he kept the announcement from the press until the last moment to maximize media speculation and coverage.
In preparation for the Democratic convention in Atlantic City, Johnson requested the FBI send 30 agents to cover convention activities; the objective of the squad was to inform the White House staff of any disruptive activities. The squad's focus narrowed upon the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP) delegation, which sought to displace the white segregationist delegation regularly selected in the state. The squad's activities included wiretaps of Martin Luther King's room and the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) and the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE). From beginning to end, the squad's assignment was carefully couched in terms of the monitoring of disruptive activities that might endanger the president and other high-ranking officials.
Johnson was very concerned about potential political damage from media coverage of racial tensions exposed by a credentials fight between the MFDP and the segregationist delegation, and he assigned Humphrey to manage the problem. The convention's Credentials Committee declared that two MFDP delegates in the delegation be seated as observers and agreed to "bar future delegations from states where any citizens are deprived of the right to vote because of their race or color". The MFDP rejected the committee's ruling. The convention became the apparent personal triumph that Johnson craved, but a sense of betrayal caused by the marginalization of the MFDP would trigger disaffection with Johnson and the Democratic Party from the left; SNCC chairman John Lewis would call it a "turning point in the civil rights movement".
Early in the 1964 presidential campaign, Barry Goldwater appeared to be a strong contender, with strong support from the South, which threatened Johnson's position as he had predicted in reaction to the passage of the Civil Rights Act. However, Goldwater lost momentum as his campaign progressed. On September 7, 1964, Johnson's campaign managers broadcast the "Daisy ad": it portrayed a little girl picking petals from a daisy, followed by a countdown and explosion of a nuclear bomb. The message conveyed was that electing Goldwater risked a nuclear war. Goldwater's campaign message was best symbolized by the bumper sticker displayed by supporters claiming "In your heart, you know he's right". Opponents captured the spirit of Johnson's campaign with bumper stickers that said "In your heart, you know he might" and "In your guts, you know he's nuts". CIA Director William Colby asserted that Tracy Barnes instructed the CIA to spy on the Goldwater campaign and the Republican National Committee to provide information to Johnson's campaign. Johnson won the presidency by a landslide with 61.05 percent of the vote, making it the highest ever share of the popular vote. At the time, this was also the widest popular margin in the 20th century—more than 15.95 million votes—this was later surpassed by incumbent President Nixon's victory in 1972. In the Electoral College, Johnson defeated Goldwater by a margin of 486 to 52. Johnson won 44 states, compared to Goldwater's six. Voters also gave Johnson the largest majorities in Congress since FDR's election in 1936—a Senate with a 68–32 majority and a House with a 295–140 Democratic margin.
=== Voting Rights Act ===
Soon after the 1964 election, civil rights organizations such as the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) and the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) began a push for federal action to protect the voting rights of racial minorities. On March 7, 1965, these organizations began the Selma to Montgomery marches in which Selma residents proceeded to march to Alabama's capital, Montgomery, to highlight voting rights issues and present Governor George Wallace with their grievances. On the first march, demonstrators were stopped by state and county police, who shot tear gas into the crowd and trampled protesters. Televised footage of the scene, which became known as "Bloody Sunday", generated outrage across the country. In response to the rapidly increasing political pressure upon him, Johnson decided to immediately send voting rights legislation to Congress, and to address the American people in a speech before a Joint session of Congress. He began:
I speak tonight for the dignity of man and the destiny of democracy. I urge every member of both parties, Americans of all religions and of all colors, from every section of this country, to join me in that cause. ... Rarely in any time does an issue lay bare the secret heart of America itself. Rarely are we met with a challenge, not to our growth or abundance, or our welfare or our security, but rather to the values and the purposes and the meaning of our beloved nation. The issue of equal rights for American Negroes is such an issue. And should we defeat every enemy, and should we double our wealth and conquer the stars, and still be unequal to this issue, then we will have failed as a people and as a nation. For, with a country as with a person, 'what is a man profited if he shall gain the whole world, and lose his own soul?'
Johnson and Dirksen established a strong bipartisan alliance in favor of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, precluding the possibility of a Senate filibuster defeating the bill. In August 1965, the House approved the bill by a vote of 333 to 85, and Senate passed the bill by a vote of 79 to 18. The landmark legislation outlawed discrimination in voting, thus allowing millions of Southern blacks to vote for the first time. The results were significant; between the years of 1968 and 1980, the number of Southern black elected state and federal officeholders nearly doubled. In Mississippi, the voter registration rate of African Americans rose from 6.7 percent to 59.8 percent between 1964 and 1967, a reflection of a broader increase in African-American voter registration rates.
After the murder of civil rights worker Viola Liuzzo, Johnson went on television to announce the arrest of four Ku Klux Klans men implicated in her death. He angrily denounced the Klan as a "hooded society of bigots," and warned them to "return to a decent society before it's too late". Johnson was the first president to arrest and prosecute members of the Klan since Ulysses S. Grant. He turned to themes of Christian redemption to push for civil rights, mobilizing support from churches. At the Howard University commencement address on June 4, 1965, he said that both the government and the nation needed to help achieve these goals: "To shatter forever not only the barriers of law and public practice but the walls which bound the condition of many by the color of his skin. To dissolve, as best we can, the antique enmities of the heart which diminish the holder, divide the great democracy, and do wrong—great wrong — to the children of God ..."
=== Fair Housing Act ===
The Fair Housing Act, a component of the Civil Rights Act of 1968, outlawed several forms of housing discrimination and effectively allowed many African Americans to move to the suburbs. Johnson submitted a bill to Congress in April 1966 that barred house owners from refusing to enter into agreements on the basis of race; the bill immediately garnered opposition from many of the Northerners who had supported the last two major civil rights bills. Though a version of the bill passed the House, it failed to win Senate approval, marking Johnson's first major legislative defeat. The law gained new impetus after the April 4, 1968, assassination of Martin Luther King Jr., and the civil unrest across the country that followed. The bill passed Congress on April 10 and was quickly signed into law by Johnson.
=== War on poverty ===
In his 1964 State of the Union Address Johnson stated, "this administration today, here and now, declares an unconditional war on poverty in America. Our aim is not only to relieve the symptoms of poverty but to cure it–and above all, to prevent it." During the Johnson administration, national poverty declined significantly, with the percentage of Americans living below the poverty line dropping from 23 to 12 percent.
In August 1964, Johnson signed the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964, which would create the Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO) to oversee local Community Action Agencies (CAA) charged with dispensing aid to those in poverty. Each CAA was required to have "maximum feasible participation" from local residents, who would design and operate anti-poverty programs unique to their communities' needs. This was threatening to local political leaders who saw CAAs as alternative power structures in their own communities, funded and encouraged by the OEO. In 1967, the Green Amendment gave city governments the right to decide which entity would be the official CAA for their community. The net result was a halt to the citizen participation reform movement.
The Economic Opportunity Act created the Job Corps and Volunteers in Service to America (VISTA), a domestic version of the Peace Corps. Modeled after the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), Job Corps was a residential education and job-training program that provided academic and vocational skills to low-income at-risk young people. VISTA deployed volunteers on community projects across the nation to address issues such as illiteracy, inadequate housing, and poor health. By the end of 1965, 2,000 volunteers had signed on. Congress also agreed to Upward Bound, a program that trained low-income students in the skills they needed for college. The act reflected Johnson's belief that the government could best help the impoverished by providing them with economic opportunities. Johnson convinced Congress to approve the Food Stamp Act of 1964, which made permanent the food stamp pilot programs that had been initiated by President Kennedy.
To combat homelessness, Johnson signed the Housing and Urban Development Act of 1965, which provided rent subsidies for the elderly and disabled, construction of 240,000 housing units, and $3 billion for urban renewal. In September 1965, Johnson would go on to sign legislation that would establish the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), to oversee the newly funded housing programs. Providing an additional $1.1 billion for roads, health clinics, and other public works was the Appalachian Regional Development Act, a measure to improve living standards in Appalachia.
Johnson took an additional step in the war on poverty with an urban renewal effort, the "Demonstration Cities Program". To be eligible, a city was required to demonstrate its readiness to "arrest blight and decay and make a substantial impact on the development of its entire city". Johnson requested an investment of $400 million per year totaling $2.4 billion. In late 1966, Congress passed a substantially reduced program costing $900 million, which Johnson later called the Model Cities Program. The New York Times wrote 22 years later that the program was largely a failure.
=== Healthcare reform ===
Johnson's initial effort to improve healthcare was the creation of The Commission on Heart Disease, Cancer, and Strokes (HDCS). These diseases accounted for 71 percent of the nation's deaths in 1962.
In 1965, Johnson turned his focus to hospital insurance for the aged under Social Security. The key player in initiating this program, named Medicare, was Representative Wilbur Mills, Chairman of the House Ways and Means Committee. To reduce Republican opposition, Mills suggested that Medicare be fashioned as three layers: hospital insurance under Social Security; a voluntary insurance program for doctor visits; and an expanded medical welfare program for the poor administered through the states, known as Medicaid. The bill passed the House by a margin of 110 votes on April 8. The effort in the Senate was considerably more complicated, but the Medicare bill passed Congress on July 28. Medicare now covers tens of millions of Americans.
=== Immigration ===
The sweeping Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 reformed the country's immigration system and repealed the National Origins Formula, which had restricted emigration from countries outside of Western Europe and the Western Hemisphere. The annual rate of inflow doubled between 1965 and 1970, and doubled again by 1990, with dramatic increases from Asia and Latin America, including Mexico. Scholars give Johnson little credit for the law, which was not one of his priorities; he had supported the McCarren–Walter Act of 1952, which proved unpopular with reformers.
=== Federal funding for education ===
Johnson, whose own ticket out of poverty was a public education in Texas, believed that education was an essential component of the American dream, especially for minorities. He made education the top priority of the Great Society agenda, with an emphasis on helping poor children. Buoyed by his landslide victory in the 1964 election, in early 1965 Johnson proposed the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), which would double federal spending on education from $4 billion to $8 billion. The bill quickly passed both houses of Congress by wide margins. ESEA increased funding to all school districts, but directed more money going to districts that had large proportions of students from poor families.
Although ESEA solidified Johnson's support among K–12 teachers' unions, neither the Higher Education Act nor the new endowments mollified the college professors and students growing increasingly uneasy with the war in Vietnam. Johnson's second major education program was the Higher Education Act of 1965, which increased federal money given to universities, created scholarships, gave low-interest loans to students, and established a Teacher Corps. Johnson also established Head Start, an early education program to help prepare children from disadvantaged families for success in public schools. In 1967, Johnson signed the Public Broadcasting Act to create educational television programs to supplement broadcast networks.
In 1965, Johnson set up the National Endowment for the Humanities and the National Endowment for the Arts, to support the study of literature, history, and law, and arts such as music, painting, and sculpture.
=== Transportation ===
In March 1966, Johnson sent to Congress a transportation message which included the creation of a new Transportation Department, comprising the Commerce Department's Office of Transportation, the Bureau of Public Roads, the Federal Aviation Agency, the Coast Guard, the Maritime Administration, the Civil Aeronautics Board, and the Interstate Commerce Commission. The bill passed the Senate after some negotiation over navigation projects; in the House, passage required negotiation over maritime interests and the bill was signed October 15, 1965.
=== Environment ===
During his tenure as president, Johnson signed over 300 conservation measures into law, forming the legal basis of the modern environmental movement. He signed into law the Clean Air Act of 1963, which had been proposed by President Kennedy. The Clean Air Act set emission standards for stationary emitters of air pollutants and directed federal funding to air quality research. In 1965, the act was amended by the Motor Vehicle Air Pollution Control Act, which directed the federal government to establish and enforce national standards for controlling the emission of pollutants from new motor vehicles and engines. In September 1964, Johnson signed the Wilderness Act, which established the National Wilderness Preservation System (preserving 9.1 million acres of forestland from industrial development), and signed a law establishing the Land and Water Conservation Fund, which aids the purchase of land used for federal and state parks.
In 1965, First Lady Lady Bird Johnson took the lead in calling for passage of the Highway Beautification Act. The act called for control of outdoor advertising, including removal of certain types of signs, along the nation's growing Interstate Highway System and the existing federal-aid primary highway system. It also required certain junkyards along Interstate or primary highways to be removed or screened and encouraged scenic enhancement and roadside development.
=== Gun control ===
Though Johnson had already introduced a gun control bill on June 6, 1968, after the assassination of Robert Kennedy, Lady Bird Johnson's press secretary Liz Carpenter, in a memo to the president, worried that the country had been "brainwashed by high drama," and that Johnson "need[ed] some quick dramatic actions" that addressed "the issue of violence." In October, Johnson signed the Gun Control Act of 1968, but did not invoke the memory of Robert Kennedy as he had so often done with his brother—an omission historian Jeff Shesol has argued was motivated by Johnson's longstanding contempt for Robert. The measure prohibited convicted felons, drug users, and the mentally ill from purchasing handguns and raised record-keeping and licensing requirements. It also banned mail order sales of rifles and shotguns.
=== Urban riots ===
The nation experienced a series of "long hot summers" of civil unrest during the Johnson years. They started with the Harlem riots in 1964, and the Watts district of Los Angeles in 1965. The momentum for the advancement of civil rights came to a sudden halt following the riots in Watts. After 34 people were killed and $35 million (equivalent to $349.22 million in 2024) in property was damaged, the public feared an expansion of the violence to other cities, and so the appetite for additional programs in Johnson's agenda was lost.
In what is known as the "Long hot summer of 1967", more than 150 riots erupted across the United States. The Boston Globe called it "a revolution of black Americans against white Americans, a violent petition for the redress of long-standing grievances." The Newark riots left 26 dead and 1,500 injured. The Detroit riot resulted in 43 deaths, 2250 injuries, 4,000 arrests, and millions of dollars' worth of property damage. Governor George Romney sent in 7,400 national guard troops to quell fire bombings, looting, and attacks on businesses and police. Johnson finally sent in federal troops with tanks and machine guns. At an August 2, 1967, cabinet meeting, Attorney General Ramsey Clark warned that untrained and undisciplined local police forces and National Guardsmen might trigger a "guerrilla war in the streets," as evidenced by the climate of sniper fire in Newark and Detroit. Snipers created a dangerous situation for both law enforcement and civilians, with shooters often targeting from rooftops and other concealed locations.
Johnson's popularity plummeted as a massive white political backlash took shape, reinforcing the sense Johnson had lost control of the streets of major cities and his own party. The president created the 11-member Kerner Commission to study the causes behind the recurring outbreaks of urban civil disorder, headed by Illinois Governor Otto Kerner. The commission's 1968 report suggested legislative measures to promote racial integration and alleviate poverty and concluded that the nation was "moving toward two societies, one black, one white—separate and unequal." According to Press Secretary George Christian, Johnson was unsurprised by the riots, saying: "What did you expect? ... When you put your foot on a man's neck and hold him down for three hundred years, and then you let him up, what's he going to do? He's going to knock your block off."
=== Backlash against Johnson (1966–1967) ===
In 1966, the press sensed a credibility gap between what Johnson was saying in press conferences and what was happening in the Vietnam War, which led to less favorable coverage of Johnson and his administration.
By the end of 1966, Democratic Governor Warren E. Hearnes of Missouri warned that Johnson would lose the state by 100,000 votes, despite winning by a margin of 500,000 in 1964. "Frustration over Vietnam; too much federal spending and ... taxation; no great public support for your Great Society programs; and ... public disenchantment with the civil rights programs "had eroded the President's standing, the governor reported. There were bright spots; in January 1967, Johnson boasted that wages were the highest in history, unemployment was at a 13-year low, and corporate profits and farm incomes were greater than ever; a 4.5 percent jump in consumer prices was worrisome, as was the rise in interest rates. Johnson asked for a temporary 6 percent surcharge in income taxes to cover the mounting deficit caused by increased spending. Johnson's approval ratings stayed below 50 percent and, in December 1966, his disapproval rating surpassed his approval rating. In January 1967, the number of his strong supporters had plunged to 16 percent, from 25 percent four months before.
Asked to explain his diminished popularity, Johnson said, "I am a dominating personality, and when I get things done I don't always please all the people." Johnson also blamed the press, saying they showed "complete irresponsibility and lie and misstate facts and have no one to be answerable to", and "the preachers, liberals and professors" who had turned against him.
In the congressional elections of 1966, the Republicans gained three seats in the Senate and 47 in the House, reinvigorating the conservative coalition, which made it more difficult for Johnson to pass additional Great Society legislation. However, Congress ultimately passed almost 96 percent of the administration's Great Society programs.
=== Space program ===
During the Johnson administration, NASA conducted the Gemini crewed space program, developed the Saturn V rocket and its launch facility, and prepared to make the first crewed Apollo program flights. On January 27, 1967, the nation was stunned when the entire crew of Apollo 1 was killed in a cabin fire during a spacecraft test on the launch pad, stopping Apollo in its tracks. Rather than appointing another Warren-style commission, Johnson accepted Administrator James E. Webb's request for NASA to do its own investigation.
Johnson maintained his staunch support of Apollo through Congressional and press controversy, and the program recovered. The first two crewed missions, Apollo 7 and the first crewed flight to the Moon, Apollo 8, were completed by the end of Johnson's term. He congratulated the Apollo 8 crew, saying, "You've taken ... all of us, all over the world, into a new era." On July 16, 1969, Johnson attended the launch of the first Moon landing mission Apollo 11, becoming the first former or incumbent U.S. president to witness a rocket launch.
=== Vietnam War ===
The Vietnam War began in 1955 as Communist forces started operating in South Vietnam. By the time Johnson took office, there were 16,700 American military personnel in South Vietnam. Despite some misgivings, Johnson ultimately came to support escalation of the U.S. role in Vietnam. Like the vast majority of American leaders in the mid-1960s, he was determined to prevent the spread of Communism. Johnson's decision to escalate was also influenced heavily by reputation. Under pressure from pro-war politicians like Barry Goldwater, Johnson feared that if he made the decision to not stand firm in Vietnam he would lose domestic political credibility as well as contribute to a decline in the international reputation of the U.S.
On October 11, 1963, President Kennedy had signed NSAM 263 ordering the withdrawal of 1,000 military personnel by the end of the year following recommendations of the McNamara–Taylor mission report. On November 26, Johnson signed NSAM 273 which reaffirmed the Kennedy administration withdrawal approval and continued support for South Vietnam. In August 1964, ambiguous evidence suggested two U.S. destroyers had been attacked by North Vietnamese torpedo boats in international waters in the Gulf of Tonkin. Although Johnson very much wanted to keep discussions about Vietnam out of the 1964 election campaign, he felt forced to respond to the supposed Communist aggression. He obtained from Congress the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution on August 7, 1964, giving blanket congressional approval for use of military force to repel future attacks.
Johnson decided on a systematic bombing campaign, which became known as Operation Rolling Thunder, in February 1965 after an attack by Viet Cong guerrillas on Pleiku Air Base, killing eight Americans. The U.S. would continue to bomb North Vietnam until late 1968. In March 1965, McGeorge Bundy called for American ground operations; Johnson agreed and also quietly changed the mission from defensive to offensive operations. On March 8, 1965, 3,500 troops went ashore near Da Nang, the first time U.S. combat forces had been sent to mainland Asia since the Korean War. In June, South Vietnamese Ambassador Maxwell D. Taylor reported that the bombing offensive against North Vietnam had been ineffective and that the South Vietnamese army was outclassed and in danger of collapse. In late July, McNamara and Johnson's top advisors recommended an increase in U.S. soldiers from 75,000 to over 200,000. Johnson agreed but felt boxed in by unpalatable choices. If he sent additional troops he would be attacked as an interventionist, and if he did not, he thought he risked being impeached. By October 1965, there were over 200,000 troops deployed in Vietnam. Throughout 1965, few members of Congress or the administration openly criticized Johnson's handling of the war.
In early 1966, Senator Robert F. Kennedy harshly criticized Johnson's bombing campaign, stating that the U.S. may be headed "on a road from which there is no turning back, a road that leads to catastrophe for all mankind." Soon thereafter, the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, chaired by Senator James William Fulbright, held televised hearings examining the administration's Vietnam policy. In July, polling results indicated that Americans favored the bombing campaign by a five-to-one margin; however, in August a Defense Department study indicated that the bombing campaign was having minimal impact on North Vietnam. By late 1966, multiple sources began to report progress was being made against the North Vietnamese logistics and infrastructure; Johnson was urged to begin peace discussions. English philosopher Bertrand Russell initiated the International War Crimes Tribunal to condemn the American effort. The gap with Hanoi, however, was an unbridgeable demand on both sides for a unilateral end to bombing and withdrawal of forces. Johnson grew more and more anxious about justifying war casualties, and talked of the need for decisive victory, despite the unpopularity of the cause. By the end of 1966, it was clear that the air campaign and the pacification effort had both failed, and Johnson agreed to McNamara's new recommendation to add 70,000 troops in 1967 and the CIA's recommendations to increased bombings against North Vietnam. The bombing escalation ended secret talks being held with North Vietnam, but U.S. leaders did not consider North Vietnamese intentions in those talks to be genuine.
By the middle of 1967 nearly 70,000 Americans had been killed or wounded in the war, which was being commonly described in the news media and elsewhere as a "stalemate." In January and February, probes were made to assess North Vietnamese's willingness to discuss peace, but they fell on deaf ears. Ho Chi Minh declared that the only solution was a unilateral U.S. withdrawal. A Gallup, Inc. poll in July 1967 showed that 52 percent of Americans disapproved of the president's handling of the war, and only 34 percent thought progress was being made. Nonetheless, Johnson agreed to an increase of 55,000 troops, bringing the total to 525,000. In August, Johnson, with the Joint Chiefs' support, decided to expand the air campaign and exempted only Hanoi, Haiphong and a buffer zone with China from the target list. Later that month McNamara told a Senate subcommittee that an expanded air campaign would not bring Hanoi to the peace table. The Joint Chiefs were astounded, and threatened mass resignation; McNamara was summoned to the White House for a three-hour dressing down. Nevertheless, Johnson had received reports from the CIA confirming McNamara's analysis at least in part. In the meantime an election establishing a constitutional government in the South was concluded and provided hope for peace talks.
With the war arguably in a stalemate and in light of the widespread disapproval of the conflict, Johnson convened a group of veteran government foreign policy experts, informally known as "the Wise Men": Dean Acheson, General Omar Bradley, George Ball, McGeorge Bundy, Arthur Dean, C. Douglas Dillon, Abe Fortas, Averell Harriman, Henry Cabot Lodge, Robert Daniel Murphy, and Maxwell D. Taylor. They unanimously opposed leaving Vietnam, and encouraged Johnson to "stay the course." Afterward, on November 17, in a nationally televised address, the president assured the American public, "We are inflicting greater losses than we're taking...We are making progress." Less than two weeks later, Robert McNamara announced his resignation as Defense Secretary. Behind closed doors, he had begun regularly expressing doubts over Johnson's war strategy, angering the president. He joined a growing list of Johnson's top aides who resigned over the war, including Bill Moyers, McGeorge Bundy, and George Ball. In October, with ever-increasing public protests against the war, Johnson engaged the FBI and the CIA to investigate, monitor, and undermine anti-war activists. In mid-October, there was a demonstration of 100,000 at the Pentagon; Johnson and Dean Rusk were convinced that foreign communist sources were behind the demonstration, but that was refuted in the CIA's findings.
==== Tet Offensive ====
On January 30, 1968, the Viet Cong and the North Vietnamese Army began the Tet Offensive against South Vietnam's five largest cities, including Saigon. While the Tet Offensive failed militarily, it was a psychological victory, definitively turning American public opinion against the war effort. In February 1968, influential news anchor Walter Cronkite of CBS News expressed on the air that the conflict was deadlocked and that additional fighting would change nothing. Johnson reacted, saying "If I've lost Cronkite, I've lost middle America". Indeed, demoralization about the war was everywhere; 26 percent then approved of Johnson's handling of Vietnam, while 63 percent disapproved. College students and others protested, burned draft cards, and chanted, "Hey, hey, LBJ, how many kids did you kill today?"
The Tet Offensive convinced senior leaders of the Johnson administration, including the "Wise Men" and new Defense Secretary Clark Clifford, that further escalation of troop levels would not help bring an end to the war. Johnson was initially reluctant to follow this advice, but ultimately agreed to allow a partial bombing halt and to signal his willingness to engage in peace talks. On March 31, 1968, Johnson announced that he would halt the bombing in North Vietnam, while at the same time announcing that he would not seek re-election. He also escalated U.S. military operations in South Vietnam in order to consolidate control of as much of the countryside as possible before the onset of serious peace talks. Talks began in Paris in May, but failed to yield any results. Two of the major obstacles in negotiations were the unwillingness of the United States to allow the Viet Cong to take part in the South Vietnamese government, and the unwillingness of North Vietnam to recognize the legitimacy of South Vietnam. In October 1968, when the parties came close to an agreement on a bombing halt, Republican presidential nominee Richard Nixon intervened with the South Vietnamese, promising better terms so as to delay a settlement on the issue until after the election. Johnson sought a continuation of talks after the 1968 election, but the North Vietnamese argued about procedural matters until after Nixon took office.
=== Dominican Republic ===
Like President Kennedy, Johnson sought to isolate Cuba, which was under the rule of the Soviet-aligned Fidel Castro.
In 1965, the Dominican Civil War broke out between the government of President Donald Reid Cabral and supporters of former president Juan Bosch. On the advice of Abe Fortas, Johnson dispatched over 20,000 Marines to the Dominican Republic. Their role was not take sides but to evacuate American citizens and restore order. The U.S. also helped arrange an agreement providing for new elections. Johnson's use of force in ending the civil war alienated many in Latin America, and the region's importance to the administration receded as Johnson's foreign policy became increasingly dominated by the Vietnam War.
=== Soviet Union ===
Though actively engaged in containment in Southeast Asia, the Middle East and Latin America, Johnson made it a priority to seek arms control deals with Moscow. The Soviet Union also sought closer relations to the United States during the mid-to-late 1960s, partly due to the increasingly worse Sino-Soviet split. Johnson attempted to reduce tensions with China by easing restrictions on trade, but the beginning of China's Cultural Revolution ended hopes of a greater rapprochement. Johnson was concerned with averting the possibility of nuclear war, and he sought to reduce tensions in Europe. The Johnson administration pursued arms control agreements with the Soviet Union, signing the Outer Space Treaty and the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, and laid the foundation for the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks. Johnson held a largely amicable meeting with Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin at the Glassboro Summit Conference in 1967, and in July 1968 the United States, Britain, and the Soviet Union signed the Non-Proliferation Treaty, in which each signatory agreed not to help other countries develop or acquire nuclear weapons. A planned nuclear disarmament summit between the United States and the Soviet Union was scuttled after Soviet forces violently suppressed the Prague Spring, an attempted democratization of Czechoslovakia.
=== Surveillance of Martin Luther King ===
Johnson continued the FBI's wiretapping of Martin Luther King Jr. authorized by the Kennedy administration under Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy. Johnson also authorized the tapping of phone conversations of others, including the Vietnamese friends of a Nixon associate.
=== International trips ===
Johnson made eleven international trips to twenty countries during his presidency. He flew five hundred twenty-three thousand miles (841,690 km) aboard Air Force One while in office. His October 1966 visit to Australia sparked demonstrations from anti-war protesters. One of the most unusual international trips in presidential history occurred before Christmas 1967. The President began the trip by going to the memorial for Australian Prime Minister Harold Holt, who was presumed drowned in a swimming accident. The White House did not reveal in advance to the press that the President would make the first round-the-world presidential trip. The trip was twenty-six thousand nine hundred fifty-nine miles (43,386.3 km) completed in only 112.5 hours (4.7 days). Air Force One crossed the equator twice, stopped at Travis Air Force Base, in Honolulu, Pago Pago, Canberra, Melbourne, Vietnam, Karachi, and Rome.
=== 1968 presidential election ===
As he had served less than two years of President Kennedy's term, Johnson was constitutionally eligible for election to a second full term in the 1968 presidential election. Despite Johnson's growing unpopularity, conventional wisdom held that it would be impossible to deny re-nomination to a sitting president. In September 1967 Johnson openly admitted he was considering dropping out of the race for re-election. Johnson won a narrow victory in the New Hampshire presidential primary on March 12, but in a March 31 speech, Johnson shocked the nation when he announced he would not run for re-election by concluding with the line: "I shall not seek, and I will not accept, the nomination of my party for another term as your president". The next day, his approval ratings increased from 36 percent to 49 percent.
Historians have debated the factors that led to Johnson's surprise decision. Shesol says Johnson wanted out of the White House but also wanted vindication; when the indicators turned negative he decided to leave. Woods writes that Johnson realized he needed to leave in order for the nation to heal. Dallek says that Johnson had no further domestic goals, and realized that his personality had eroded his popularity. His health was not good, and he was preoccupied with the Kennedy campaign; his wife was pressing for his retirement and his base of support continued to shrink. Leaving the race would allow him to pose as a peacemaker. Bennett, however, says Johnson "had been forced out of a reelection race in 1968 by outrage over his policy in Southeast Asia." Johnson may also have hoped that the convention would ultimately choose to draft him back into the race.
Vice President Hubert Humphrey entered the race after Johnson's withdrawal, making the 1968 Democratic primaries a three-way contest between Humphrey, Kennedy, and McCarthy. Kennedy cut into McCarthy's liberal and anti-war base, while also winning the support of the poor and working class. He won a series of primary victories, but was assassinated in June by Sirhan Sirhan, an Arab nationalist. With Johnson's support, Humphrey won the presidential nomination at the tumultuous 1968 Democratic National Convention, held in Chicago in late August. Violent police attacks against anti-war protesters in Chicago marred the convention.
Humphrey's polling numbers improved after a September 30 speech in which he broke with Johnson's war policy, calling for an end to the bombing of North Vietnam. In what was termed the October surprise, Johnson announced to the nation on October 31, 1968, that he had ordered a complete cessation of "all air, naval and artillery bombardment of North Vietnam", effective November 1, should the North Vietnamese government be willing to negotiate and citing progress with the Paris peace talks.
Republican nominee Richard Nixon won the election.
=== Judicial appointments ===
Johnson appointed Justices Abe Fortas (1965) and Thurgood Marshall (1967) to the Supreme Court of the United States. Johnson anticipated court challenges to his legislative measures in 1965 and thought it advantageous to have a "mole" in the Supreme Court to provide him with inside information, as he was able to get from the legislative branch. Abe Fortas in particular Johnson thought could fill the bill. The opportunity arose when an opening occurred for ambassador to the UN, with Adlai Stevenson's death; Associate Justice Arthur Goldberg accepted Johnson's offer to transfer to the UN position. Johnson insisted on Fortas assuming Goldberg's seat, over Fortas's wife's objection that it was too early in his career. When Earl Warren announced his retirement in 1968, Johnson nominated Fortas to succeed him as Chief Justice of the United States, and nominated Homer Thornberry to succeed Fortas as associate justice. However, Fortas's nomination was filibustered by senators, and neither nominee was voted upon by the full Senate.
== Post-presidency (1969–1973) ==
On Inauguration Day (January 20, 1969), Johnson saw Nixon sworn in, then got on the plane to fly back to Texas. When the front door of the plane closed, Johnson pulled out a cigarette — his first cigarette he had smoked since his heart attack in 1955. One of his daughters pulled it out of his mouth and said, "Daddy, what are you doing? You're going to kill yourself." He took it back and said, "I've now raised you, girls. I've now been President. Now it's my time!" From that point on, he went into a very self-destructive spiral.
After leaving the presidency in January 1969, Johnson went home to his ranch in Stonewall, Texas, accompanied by former aide and speechwriter Harry J. Middleton, who would draft Johnson's first book, The Choices We Face, and work with him on his memoirs, The Vantage Point: Perspectives of the Presidency 1963–1969, published in 1971. That year, the Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museum opened on the campus of The University of Texas at Austin. He donated his Texas ranch in his will to the public to form the Lyndon B. Johnson National Historical Park, with the provision that it "remain a working ranch and not become a sterile relic of the past".
Johnson gave Nixon high grades in foreign policy, but worried that his successor was being pressured into removing U.S. forces from South Vietnam before the South Vietnamese were able to defend themselves. "If the South falls to the Communists, we can have a serious backlash here at home," he warned.
During the 1972 presidential election, Johnson only reluctantly endorsed Democratic nominee George McGovern, a senator from South Dakota; McGovern had long opposed Johnson's foreign and defense policies. Johnson wanted to attend the Democratic National Convention, but was advised not to attend as he would not be welcome. The McGovern nomination and platform dismayed him. Nixon could be defeated, Johnson insisted, "if only the Democrats don't go too far left". Johnson felt Edmund Muskie would be more likely to defeat Nixon; however, he declined to try to stop McGovern receiving the nomination as he felt his unpopularity within the Democratic Party was such that anything he said was more likely to help McGovern. Johnson's protégé John Connally had served as President Nixon's Secretary of the Treasury and then stepped down to head "Democrats for Nixon", a group funded by Republicans. It was the first time that Connally and Johnson were on opposite sides of a general election campaign.
== Personal life ==
=== Marriage and children ===
On November 17, 1934, Johnson married Claudia Alta "Lady Bird" Taylor from Karnack, Texas. The two first met after he attended Georgetown University Law Center in Washington, D.C. for one semester. During their first date, Johnson asked her to marry him; many dates later, she finally agreed. The wedding was officiated by Arthur R. McKinstry at St. Mark's Episcopal Church in San Antonio. They had two daughters: Lynda Bird in 1944 and Luci Baines in 1947. Johnson gave his children names with the LBJ initials; his dog was named Little Beagle Johnson, and his home was the LBJ Ranch in the Texas Hill Country. His initials were on his cufflinks, ashtrays, and clothes. During his marriage, Johnson had affairs with "numerous" women, including socialite Alice Marsh, who was considered, outside his marriage, his most important relationship.
=== Health ===
On July 2, 1955, at age 46, Johnson, a 60-cigarette-per-day smoker, suffered a near-fatal heart attack, which inspired him to discontinue smoking. Five months later, Johnson's doctors reported he had made "a most satisfactory recovery".
Johnson may have suffered a second heart attack following President Kennedy's assassination, but the diagnosis released to the public was that he had an angina attack.
On November 8, 1965, Johnson underwent surgery at Bethesda Naval Hospital to remove his gallbladder and a kidney stone. After the procedure, Johnson's doctors reported that the president had come through the surgery "beautifully as expected." He was able to resume his duties the following day, and he met with reporters a couple of days later to reassure the nation that he was recovering well. Although Johnson was incapacitated during surgery, there was no transfer of presidential power to Vice President Humphrey.
In March 1970, Johnson suffered an attack of angina and was taken to Brooke Army General Hospital in San Antonio. He had gained more than 25 pounds (11 kg) since leaving the White House; he now weighed around 235 pounds (107 kg) and was urged to lose considerable weight. By the summer of 1970, again gripped by chronic chest pains, Johnson lost 15 pounds (6.8 kg) in less than a month on a crash water diet. He had also resumed smoking shortly before Christmas 1971, having not smoked since his near-fatal heart attack in July 1955.
In April 1972, Johnson had another major heart attack while visiting his daughter, Lynda, in Virginia. "I'm hurting real bad", he confided to friends. The chest pains returned nearly every afternoon—jolting pains that left him frightened and breathless. A portable oxygen tank was kept by his bed, and he periodically interrupted what he was doing to lie down and don the mask. He continued to smoke heavily and, although nominally on a low-calorie, low-cholesterol diet, kept to it only intermittently. Meanwhile, he began to experience severe abdominal pains, diagnosed as diverticulosis. His heart condition rapidly worsened and surgery was recommended. Johnson flew to Houston to consult with heart specialist Michael DeBakey, where he learned his condition was terminal. DeBakey found that despite two of Johnson's coronary arteries being in urgent need of a coronary bypass, his heart was in such poor condition that he likely would have died during surgery.
== Death ==
Johnson recorded an hour-long television interview with newsman Walter Cronkite at his ranch on January 12, 1973, in which he discussed his legacy, particularly about the civil rights movement. He was still smoking heavily, and told Cronkite that it was better for his heart "to smoke than to be nervous".
At approximately 3:50 P.M. Central on January 22, 1973, Johnson suffered his final heart attack in his bedroom. He managed to telephone the Secret Service agents on the ranch, who found him still holding the telephone receiver, unconscious and "appear[ing] to be dead". They attempted resuscitation, and Johnson was airlifted in one of his planes to San Antonio International Airport, en route to Brooke Army Medical Center. However, cardiologist and Army colonel George McGranahan pronounced him dead on arrival at the airport at 4:33 P.M. Johnson was 64.
Shortly after the former president was pronounced dead, Johnson's press secretary Tom Johnson (no relation) telephoned Cronkite to tell him. Cronkite was anchoring CBS Evening News live at the moment Johnson reached him, which enabled him to report on President Johnson's death as he received direct information. Nixon mentioned Johnson's death in a speech he gave the day after Johnson died, announcing the peace agreement to end the Vietnam War.
=== Funeral ===
Johnson was honored with a state funeral. Initially, his body lay in repose at the LBJ Presidential Library in Austin. Afterwards, Johnson's body was flown to Washington. Texas Congressman J. J. Pickle and former Secretary of State Dean Rusk eulogized him when he lay in state at the Capitol.
The state funeral took place on January 25 at the National City Christian Church in Washington, D.C., where he had often worshiped as president. The service was presided over by President Nixon and attended by foreign dignitaries, led by Eisaku Satō, who had served as Japanese prime minister during Johnson's presidency. Eulogies were given by George Davis, the church's pastor, and W. Marvin Watson, Johnson's last Postmaster General and a longtime advisor.
Later that same day, Johnson was buried in his family's private cemetery in Gillespie County, Texas, near the house in which he was born. Billy Graham officiated the service. He and former Texas governor Connally gave eulogies. Several hundred people were in attendance.
The state funeral, the last for a president until Richard Nixon's in 1994, occurred the same week as Nixon's second inauguration. As Johnson died only two days after the inauguration, various activities surrounding the inauguration were canceled.
== Personality and public image ==
According to biographer Randall Woods, Johnson posed in many different roles:
"Johnson the Son of the Tenant Farmer, Johnson the Great Compromiser, Johnson the All-Knowing, Johnson the Humble, Johnson the Warrior, Johnson the Dove, Johnson the Romantic, Johnson the Hard-Headed Pragmatist, Johnson the Preserver of Traditions, Johnson the Crusader for Social Justice, Johnson the Magnanimous, Johnson the Vindictive or Johnson the Uncouth, LBJ the Hick, Lyndon the Satyr, and Johnson the Usurper".
Johnson had his particular brand of persuasion, known as "The Johnson Treatment". "There was no more powerful majority leader in American history," biographer Robert Dallek writes. Dallek stated that Johnson had biographies on all the senators, knew what their ambitions, hopes, and tastes were and used it to his advantage in securing votes. Another Johnson biographer noted, "He could get up every day and learn what their fears, their desires, their wishes, their wants were and he could then manipulate, dominate, persuade and cajole them." As president, Johnson vetoed 30 bills; no other president in history vetoed so many bills and never had a single one overridden by Congress. He was often seen as an ambitious, tireless, and imposing figure who was ruthlessly effective at getting legislation passed. He typically worked 18- to 20-hour days without a break and had no regular leisure activities. He stood 6 feet 3.5 inches (1.918 m) tall.
Johnson's cowboy hat and boots reflected his Texas roots and love of the rural hill country. From 250 acres (100 ha) of land that he was given by an aunt in 1951, he created a 2,700-acre (1,100 ha) working ranch with 400 cattle. The National Park Service keeps a herd descended from Johnson's and maintains the ranch property.
Biographer Randall Woods argues that Social Gospel themes Johnson learned from childhood allowed him to transform social problems into moral problems. This helps explain his longtime commitment to social justice, and explicitly inspired his foreign-policy approach to Christian internationalism and nation-building. For example, in a 1966 speech he quoted at length from the Social Creed of the Methodist Church, adding "It would be very hard for me to write a more perfect description of the American ideal."
== Legacy ==
Scholars have viewed Johnson through the lens of both his legislative achievements and his lack of success in the Vietnam War. His overall rating among historians has remained relatively steady, and his average ranking is higher than any of the eight presidents who followed him, although similar to Reagan and Clinton. In public polling of presidential favorability of Johnson and the presidents who succeeded him Johnson tends to appear more toward the bottom of lists, typically excepting Donald Trump, George W. Bush and Richard Nixon, and sometimes Gerald Ford.
Historian Kent Germany explains:The man who was elected to the White House by one of the widest margins in U.S. history and pushed through as much legislation as any other American politician now seems to be remembered best by the public for succeeding an assassinated hero, steering the country into a quagmire in Vietnam, cheating on his saintly wife, exposing his stitched-up belly, using profanity, picking up dogs by their ears, swimming naked with advisers in the White House pool, and emptying his bowels while conducting official business. Of all those issues, Johnson's reputation suffers the most from his management of the Vietnam War, something that has overshadowed his civil rights and domestic policy accomplishments and caused Johnson himself to regret his handling of "the woman I really loved — the Great Society."
=== Memorials ===
The Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston was renamed the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in 1973, and the United States Department of Education headquarters was named after Johnson in 2007. The Lyndon B. Johnson School of Public Affairs at the University of Texas at Austin was named in his honor, as is the Lyndon B. Johnson National Grassland. Also named for him are schools in Austin and Laredo, Texas; Melbourne, Florida; and Jackson, Kentucky. Interstate 635 in Dallas is named the Lyndon B. Johnson Freeway. The Lyndon Baines Johnson Memorial Grove on the Potomac was dedicated in 1976.
Johnson was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom posthumously in 1980. Texas created a state holiday on August 27 to mark Johnson's birthday, known as Lyndon Baines Johnson Day.
=== Major legislation signed ===
=== Significant regulatory changes ===
1968: FCC creates national emergency number 9-1-1
== Works ==
National Aeronautics and Space Act (1962)
Choices We Face (1969)
The Vantage Point (1971)
== See also ==
== Notes ==
== References ==
=== Works cited ===
== Further reading ==
== External links ==
Lyndon B. Johnson Presidential Library & Museum
Biography on WhiteHouse.gov (courtesy of the White House Historical Association)
United States Congress. "Lyndon B. Johnson (id: J000160)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress.
Appearances on C-SPAN
"Life Portrait of Lyndon B. Johnson", from C-SPAN's American Presidents: Life Portraits, November 12, 1999
Lyndon B. Johnson at IMDb
Works by or about Lyndon B. Johnson at the Internet Archive
Works by Lyndon B. Johnson at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
Lyndon B. Johnson collected news and commentary at The New York Times
Lyndon Baines Johnson: A Resource Guide (archived 2013) from the Library of Congress
Extensive essays on Lyndon Johnson and shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs
LBJ — A documentary from the American Experience series produced by PBS (Video no longer available online)
Lyndon B. Johnson: Original Letters & Historical Primary Sources from The Shapell Manuscript Foundation |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dollywood | Dollywood | Dollywood is a theme park that is jointly owned by Herschend and country singer-songwriter Dolly Parton through her entertainment company, Dolly Parton Productions. It is located in the Knoxville metropolitan area in Pigeon Forge, Tennessee, near the gateway to The Great Smoky Mountains. Hosting nearly 3 million guests in a typical season from mid-March to the Christmas holidays, Dollywood is the biggest ticketed tourist attraction in Tennessee. It has won several international awards.
In addition to standard amusement park thrill rides, Dollywood features traditional crafts, food, and music of the Smoky Mountain area. The park hosts a number of concerts and musical events each year, including appearances by Dolly Parton and her family as well as other national and local musical acts.
The theme park is the anchor of Parton's 150-acre (61 ha) Dollywood amusement destination, which also includes the 35-acre (14 ha) sister water park Dollywood's Splash Country, the 20-acre (8.1 ha) Dollywood's DreamMore Resort and Spa, and the 5-acre (2.0 ha) Dolly Parton's Stampede Dinner Attraction.
== History ==
=== Rebel Railroad (1961-1963) ===
The park opened on June 10, 1961 as a small tourist attraction owned by the Robbins brothers from Blowing Rock, North Carolina. Named "Rebel Railroad", it included a steam train, general store, blacksmith shop, and saloon. With a theme inspired by the centennial of the Civil War, the train ride let visitors experience "attacks" by Union soldiers, train robbers, and Native Americans. The train and its riders were protected by Confederates who fought off the attacks. The park was modeled after the Robbins brothers' first successful theme park, Tweetsie Railroad in Blowing Rock.
=== Goldrush Junction (1964-1974) ===
For the 1964 season, the park was renamed "Goldrush Junction". A special announcement was made in the May 24, 1964, edition of Knoxville News Sentinel. As part of the name change the park switched to a wild west theme similar to its sister park Tweetsie Railroad.
In 1970, Art Modell – who also owned the Cleveland Browns football team – bought Goldrush Junction. The park retained the railroad and added an outdoor theater and the Robert F. Thomas Chapel.
=== Goldrush (1975-1976) ===
For the 1975 season, the park name was changed to "Goldrush". In April of 1976, Jack and Pete Herschend, owners of Silver Dollar City, bought Goldrush. The park continued to operate as Goldrush for the 1976 season.
=== Silver Dollar City (1977-1985) ===
In 1977, the Herschends renamed Goldrush to "Silver Dollar City Tennessee", making it a sister park to their original Silver Dollar City in Branson, Missouri. The Herschends spent about $1 million upgrading the park upon purchase and added other improvements over the years. Also in 1977, the train ride added two new steam locomotives, the #70 and the #71, plus the remains of engine #72 for spare parts, from the White Pass & Yukon Route Railroad.
=== Dollywood (1986-present) ===
In 1986, Dolly Parton, who grew up in the area, bought an interest in Silver Dollar City. As part of the deal, the park reopened for the 1986 season as "Dollywood". In 2010, Parton said she became involved with the operation because she "always thought that if I made it big or got successful at what I had started out to do, that I wanted to come back to my part of the country and do something great, something that would bring a lot of jobs into this area."
Dollywood has approximately 4,000 people on its payroll, making it the largest employer in the community. From 1986 to 2010, the park doubled in size to 150 acres (61 ha). On November 16, 2010, Dollywood earned the Liseberg Applause Award, which Dolly Parton accepted during a ceremony at IAAPA Attractions Expo 2010 in Orlando.
==== 1980s developments ====
On May 3, 1986, Silver Dollar City Tennessee reopened as Dollywood. The new Rivertown Junction area included Smoky Mountain River Rampage, a whitewater rafting ride; Back Porch Theater; Aunt Granny's Dixie Fixins' Restaurant; and Dolly's Tennessee Mountain Home, a replica of the cabin that was Parton's childhood home. Also new was "Rags to Riches: The Dolly Parton Story", a museum displaying articles and mementos from Dolly's life and career. "The Butter Churn" (a Trabant ride) was removed at the end of the season. Park attendance doubled to more than a million guests during the first season as Dollywood.
In 1987, the Daydream Ridge area opened and included the Mountain Slidewinder water toboggan ride, Mountain Dan's Burger House, Sweet Dreams Candy Shop, The Rainbow Factory blown glass shop, and Critter Creek Playground. Engine #70 was restored to operation. In 1988, the 1,739-seat Celebrity Theater, featuring the "Showcase of Stars" celebrity concert series, was constructed adjacent to the entrance of the park. Five new children's rides were added to the Fun Country area, including a Zamperla Balloon Race. The Dollywood Foundation was established to provide books and schools supplies to the children of Sevier County. Thunder Express, a steel mine train coaster, was built adjacent to Blazing Fury in 1989. The ride was relocated to the park from Six Flags Over Mid-America. The 1989 season was the last for the National Mountain Music Festival, which was a carryover from the Silver Dollar City years.
==== 1990s developments ====
In 1990, a 1924 antique Dentzel Carousel, originally built for Rocky Springs Park in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, was relocated to the park. Situated near the train depot, it took over the space previously occupied by the Silver Dollar Saloon. The 600-seat Gaslight Theater opened near the carousel. The Smoky Mountain Christmas Festival premiered in November, extending the park's operating season into December. Eagle Mountain Sanctuary, an outdoor aviary, was added in 1991 along with the Wings of America Theater, site of the Birds of Prey show, and the 300-seat Valley Theater.
The Showstreet area was added in 1992 and included the Showstreet Palace Theater, The Butterfly Emporium, The Backstage Restaurant, The Spotlight Bakery, Friendship Gardens, and WDLY-FM, a working radio station. To accommodate the expansion, the park's main entrance moved from Rivertown Junction to Showstreet. The Barnwood Theater was converted into Imagination Station, an interactive children's play area. Dollywood's annual attendance topped 2 million for the first time during the 1992 season.
In 1993, the Fun Country area was renovated and became The Country Fair with three new rides: The Wonder Wheel, a 60 ft (18 m) tall Ferris wheel; Twist and Shout, a scrambler ride; and Tennessee Twister, a tilt-a-whirl. The Balloon Race ride was relocated to the Daydream Ridge area to make room for the new attractions. Also new at the park was "Sunset Musicfest", a summer music festival. A year later, in 1994, the Gaslight Theater became the Heartsong Theater, named for the multi-media musical presentation that told the story of Dolly Parton's life. In 1995, the Jukebox Junction 1950s "Main Street" themed area was added and included Rockin' Roadway miniature car ride, The Pines Theater, Red's Diner, and Cas Walker's Music Store. The Sunset Musicfest did not return for the 1995 season.
The Dollywood Boulevard area was added in 1996 and included Thunder Road, a turbo-simulator ride based on the 1958 movie of the same name. Silver Screen Café, a 1950s cinema-themed restaurant, and Centerstage gift shop were also in the area. In 1997, the "U Pick Nick" children's show focused on themes from the Nickelodeon television network and played in Celebrity Theater. The Flooded Mine dark-ride was closed and demolished in October, and Silver Screen Cafe became DJ Platters in the Dollywood Boulevard area. Daredevil Falls, a new shoot the chutes flume ride, opened in the area formerly occupied by the Flooded Mine a year later in 1998. At the time, it was billed as "The Highest and Fastest Waterfall Ride in America" with its 62 ft (19 m) drop. Thunder Express was closed in September and sold to Magic Springs Theme Park in Arkansas. The antique carousel was removed at the end of the season and replaced with a new Chance Rides carousel.
In 1999, the Tennessee Tornado, a steel looping coaster, opened in the area formerly occupied by Thunder Express. Also new was the Southern Gospel Museum and Hall of Fame, while the Balloon Race ride was removed.
==== 2000s developments ====
The Daydream Ridge area was renovated and became Dreamland Forest, a children's mountain-themed interactive play area in 2000. The Festival of Nations international music festival premiered a year later in April 2001. Dolly's Splash Country, a new 25-acre (100,000 m2) water park opened adjacent to Dollywood's parking lot.
Dollywood Boulevard was renovated and became a new area, Adventures in Imagination, in 2002. Smoky Mountain Wilderness Adventure, a new simulator film, replaced Thunder Road, and a new Dolly museum called Chasing Rainbows opened in the building formerly occupied by DJ Platters. In 2003, summer children's festival KidsFest premiered, and Imagination Station was converted into Celebration Hall, a special events facility. It was also the final season for the "Showcase of Stars" celebrity concert series.
A new area of the park, Thunderhead Gap, opened with the Thunderhead wooden roller coaster in 2004. The construction of the new area opened up a new valley for park expansion. The Country Fair Falls log flume was demolished in November, and most of the other Country Fair rides, including the Swingamajig, Tennessee Twister, The Convoy, and The Barnstormer, were removed at the end of the season to free up space for newer rides that were added for the 2005 season. The new rides included Dizzy Disk, Amazing Flying Elephants, Lemon Twist, Shooting Star, Sky Rider, VeggieTales Sideshow Spin (children's roller coaster), Waltzing Swinger, Piggy Parade, Busy Bees, and Lucky Ducky. The National Southern Gospel & Harvest Celebration was also new in 2005.
In 2006, the Timber Tower ride, along with Lil' Loggers Landing, Beaver Creek, Beaver Creek Boat Float, and Lumberjack Lifts, opened in a new area adjacent to Thunderhead. The Barbeque & Bluegrass festival also premiered. The 2007 season included the addition of Mystery Mine, a Gerstlauer Eurofighter coaster with two vertical lifts hills and dark ride elements. The ride's climax featured fire effects in front of the riders, a 95-degree 85-foot (26 m) drop, a heartline roll, and a dive loop. The $17 million ($25.8 million in 2024 dollars) ride used an abandoned mine shaft theme. In 2008, River Battle, an interactive water raft ride, was built in a new section of the park called Wilderness Pass that connected the Timber Canyon and Craftsman's Valley areas. "Thunder Road" returned to the motion theater (Imagination Cinema) and replaced Smoky Mountain Wilderness Adventure. Della's Lye Soap shop moved from Craftsman's Valley to the Wilderness Pass area. A new exhibit housing the Wings of America show birds moved to its former location. The Polar Express 4-D Experience was shown in Imagination Cinema during the park's Smoky Mountain Christmas.
In 2009, Dollywood presented two new shows, "Imaginé" by Le Grand Cirque and "Sha-Kon-O-Hey! Land of Blue Smoke", which featured music written by Dolly Parton and told the story of the last family living in the Smoky Mountains at the time it became a national park. "Imaginé" headlined the park's Festival of Nations. "Thunder Road" was renamed "White Lightning" and then changed to a new attraction, Journey to the Center of the Earth: 4-D Adventure, based on the 2008 film. In 2009, an upcharge zipline attraction called SkyZip (owned by Skyline Eco-Adventures of Maui, Hawaii) opened at Dollywood, becoming the first multi-line zip line tour inside a theme park.
==== 2010s developments ====
The Adventure Mountain attraction opened at a cost of $5 million in the Wilderness Pass area in 2010. It included three distinct adventure courses, Geyser Gorge, Black Bear Cliff, and Rocky Top, that ranged from easy to expert with 100 different rope features, swinging beams, suspension bridges, flying islands, and floating stairs. Adventure trails ranged from a few inches above the ground to more than 26 feet (7.9 m) in the air. The area also included a scaled-down play area called Camp Teachittoomee for younger children. Also for the 2010 season, Dollywood brought back "Sha-Kon-O-Hey! Land of Blue Smoke" and changed its logo for the 25th anniversary.
In 2011, a new area called Owens Farm with a $5.5 million giant swing called Barnstormer replaced Dreamland Forest. The barnyard-themed area included a play area for younger guests. Christmas on Ice, a new ice skating Christmas show, premiered in DP's Celebrity Theater and headlined Smoky Mountain Christmas. Wild Eagle opened March 24, 2012, and was the first Bolliger & Mabillard Wing Coaster in the United States. It was also the biggest investment in Dollywood history. In 2012, the operator of SkyZip sued Dollywood, blaming the park for damaging the zip line network during its construction of Wild Eagle, but Dollywood blamed the damage on storms. Settling out of court, Dollywood took over SkyZip operations from Skyline Eco-Adventures, and closed the attraction in 2019. Timber Tower was dismantled before opening in 2012 due to a lawsuit with the ride manufacturer. Also in 2012, Dollywood dropped the VeggieTales name from Sideshow Spin, removing any mentions of the franchise from the ride altogether. In December of the very same year, the park announced that Adventure Mountain would be closed permanently following the 2012 season.
Dollywood dedicated 2013 to encouraging families to spend time together. New shows for the season included Cirque Shanghai, Mystic India, and One World Party as part of Festival of Nations along with more than 50 new international food items. The park also introduced "Great American Summer", a new summer festival that replaced KidsFest. It included the Great American Country Show, Gazillion Bubbles, The Little Engine Playhouse, and Salute to America. Dollywood extended its hours and added a nightly fireworks show. Smoky Mountain Christmas added a new show that was Dolly Parton's version of Charles Dickens' A Christmas Carol. Dollywood's slogan for the year was "Make Time for Happy!" Imagination Cinema became Dreamsong Theater and played Dolly's My People, a show about Dolly's family.
In 2014, FireChaser Express, a dual-launch family coaster, replaced Adventure Mountain in the Wilderness Pass area of the park. Dollywood's slogan was changed to "Love Every Moment", and Smoky Mountain Christmas added a Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer meet-and-greet called Holly Jolly Junction. Dollywood's DreamMore Resort and Spa opened adjacent to Dollywood's Splash Country in 2015. For the 30th anniversary of the park, the park redesigned the entrance for resort guests and added two new shows to Festival of Nations called "Rhythm of the Dance" and "Timber". Cas Walker's was demolished to make room for a new attraction, and six new shows were added to "Great American Summer" along with the revival of the Showcase of Stars concert series. Also new was Rock the Smokies, a Christian music festival, and Rudolph and friends returned to the Smoky Mountain Christmas festival.
In 2010, Parton said that she would like to open more Dollywood parks in the future. "We definitely want to expand with new things every year, eventually with a resort," she said. "We may eventually have Dollywoods in other parts of the country, where we can kind of be true to whatever's going on in that part of the world." On August 21, 2013, Parton announced Dollywood's DreamMore Resort and Spa, which opened on July 27, 2015.
Lightning Rod, a Rocky Mountain Construction wooden coaster, opened on June 13, 2016. It opened as the world's first launched wooden coaster as well as the fastest wooden coaster in the world. A year later, in 2017, a 200-foot (61 m) freefall ride called Drop Line, which replaced Timber Tower, opened along with a junior roller coaster called Whistle Punk Chaser. Two new seasonal events debuted, and Dollywood's Splash Country added the TailSpin Racer mat racer slide complex. Sideshow Spin and River Battle were removed.
In 2018, the former River Battle site was transformed into the Plaza at Wilderness Pass, a new open space with covered seating for relaxing and enjoying seasonal events. With the debut of the Spring Mix three-week music series, the 2018 "Season of Showstoppers" also marked the park's largest investment in entertainment in Dollywood's history. The 2018 Festival of Nations includes three headliners that are new to Dollywood: Flamenco Kings starring Los Vivancos (Pines Theater), National Dance Company of Siberia (Celebrity Theater), and Ladysmith Black Mambazo (Showstreet Palace Theater). The first Summer Celebration event includes various performances and attractions, including DRUMLine Live! in Celebrity Theater, a show that focuses on the musical styles of marching bands from Historically Black Colleges and Universities. It uses technology, including video screens and special effects, to enhance soul, R&B, country, and other types of music. Renovations included upgrades to Aunt Granny's and re-branding and renaming of two shops.
Work began in October 2017 on "Wildwood Grove", adding eleven new experiences to the park. Attractions include a suspended family coaster (Dragonflier), a restaurant (Till & Harvest), an indoor play area (Hidden Hollow), an outdoor splash pad (Wildwood Creek), a swinging boat ride (The Great Tree Swing), and a 50 ft tall tree with a canopy covered in butterflies (The Wildwood Tree). The $37 million 5-acre development, described as "a land built from Dolly Parton's dreams", opened May 10, 2019. It was part of a $300 million 6-year expansion project.
==== 2020s developments ====
In October 2019, it was announced that the park would add its first new festival in 14 years. Dollywood's Flower & Food Festival will feature 10 to 15 feet tall topiaries based on Dolly's songs like "Coat of Many Colors", photo opportunities, a rainbow sky over Showstreet, and food. The festival was to have commemorated the park's 35th season and run from May 8 to June 14, 2020, but was deferred to May 7 to June 13, 2021.
Dollywood filed plans in October 2019 for a new resort adjacent to Splash Country and DreamMore Resort. It is planned to feature a 310-room hotel, a 325-seat restaurant, and a conference space. The plans indicate the resort will create 100 jobs. In June 2021, Dollywood announced plans for a $500 million expansion of the complex, including more details about the planned hotel complex announced in 2019. The new resort, with the name revealed to be the HeartSong Lodge & Resort, will have 302 rooms, five floors of suites, a four-story atrium with a large central fireplace, and multiple shopping and culinary experiences. HeartSong Lodge is scheduled to open in 2023, along with campgrounds, three additional resorts, and a "record-breaking" attraction for the theme park.
During the 2022 off-season, a few changes were made to better the park and provide more space and improve efficiency. The Silver Dollar Mine tunnel, connecting the lower section of Craftsman's Valley and The Village, was removed. The area now provides a more open space for guests to walk through and also allow a chance to relax and enjoy the views of the passing Dollywood Express. Also, the parking complex was renovated to better utilize the lots at both Dollywood and Dollywood's Splash Country to provide a more efficient experience for guests as they enter the property. The principal change being the swapping of the guest traffic lanes with the tram lanes, which removes previous points of intersection between the two. The multi-property parking complex now employs a one-way circuit which eliminates the two-way traffic pattern of the old parking lot layout. Also, the addition of two extra parking toll booths (four attendants), as well as more staging lanes for the toll booths, will result in a reduction of time spent waiting to enter the property. Other projects throughout the Dollywood theme park property include the renovation of Iron Horse Pizza (formerly known as Victoria's Pizza) to include greater production capacity and more seating space for guests. The Emporium also received a complete makeover, providing a modern shopping experience as guests look to find unique Dollywood keepsakes. Also, as guests have continued to ask for more room to provide spacing in the park, two buildings were removed to allow for wider walkways — the former Eagle Shop (part of the second phase of the Craftsman's Valley widening project) and the former Christmas Cottage in Rivertown Junction.
On August 5, 2022, it was announced that a new roller coaster named Big Bear Mountain was under construction and opened on May 12, 2023. It is also the longest in the park's history.
== Areas ==
Dollywood is organized into 11 themed areas: Showstreet, Rivertown Junction, Craftsman's Valley, The Village, Country Fair, Timber Canyon, Wilderness Pass, Jukebox Junction, Owens Farm, Adventures in Imagination and Wildwood Grove reflect the historical eras and culture of East Tennessee, while Owens Farm and Adventures in Imagination explore Dolly Parton's life and imagination. Many attractions focus on the history and culture of the Southern Appalachian region.
=== Showstreet ===
Attractions include Showstreet Palace Theater and the Celebrity Theater.
=== Rivertown Junction ===
Attractions include Dolly's Tennessee Mountain Home, Back Porch Theater, and Smoky Mountain River Rampage whitewater rafting ride.
=== Craftsman's Valley ===
Attractions include Dollywood Grist Mill, Valley Theater, Eagle Mountain Sanctuary, Wings of America Theater, Robert F. Thomas Chapel, Calico Falls Schoolhouse, Tennessee Tornado coaster, Blazing Fury coaster, Daredevil Falls flume ride, and craft exhibits.
=== The Village ===
Attractions include the 3 ft (914 mm) narrow gauge Dollywood Express steam train, Imagination Playhouse, Village Carousel.
=== Country Fair ===
Rides include The Amazing Flying Elephants, Lemon Twist, Shooting Star, Sky Rider, The Waltzing Swinger, Piggy Parade, Busy Bees, Lucky Ducky, Dolly's Demolition Derby, and The Scrambler.
=== Timber Canyon ===
Attractions include the Mystery Mine coaster, the Thunderhead coaster, Drop Line, Whistle Punk Chaser, and Lumberjack Lifts.
=== Jukebox Junction ===
Attractions include the Rockin' Roadway car ride and Pines Theater. Also featured is Lightning Rod a high-speed lift wooden roller coaster.
=== Owens Farm ===
Attractions include Barnstormer, a barn and plane styled giant swing attraction. It also includes soft play areas and a splash pad.
=== The Dolly Parton Experience ===
Attractions include Behind the Seams and Song-teller Museums
=== Wilderness Pass ===
Attractions include The Plaza at Wilderness Pass, Wild Eagle – America's first winged coaster – and FireChaser Express, a dual-launch coaster that launches forward and backward.
=== Wildwood Grove ===
Opened in 2019; attractions include Dragonflier, a suspended family coaster; Big Bear Mountain, a family launched coaster; The Mad Mockingbird, a flying scooter ride; The Wildwood Tree, a 50-foot-tall (15 m) lighted tree; and Till & Harvest Food Hall, a Smoky Mountains-inspired restaurant. In 2023, Big Bear Mountain, a launching steel family roller coaster, was added.
== Festivals and annual events ==
Dollywood hosts six of the South's largest festivals between the months of March and December:
Running normally from mid-March to mid-April, Festival of Nations offers cultural events by performers from around the world. This festival has been retired since the COVID-19 pandemic and was replaced with The I Will Always Love You Festival, which started in 2023.
From late April until mid-May, the Barbeque & Bluegrass presented by Bush Brothers and Company is a bluegrass music and barbecue festival.
Starting in 2021 (originally 2020), and scheduled to run from mid-May and running until early June, is the Flower and Food Festival.
Summer Celebration (formerly Great American Summer) includes Night of Many Colors, a nightly fireworks display set to music; 3D Light and Drone Show, Night Experience, night performances and rides in the dark; and new shows, such as DRUMLine Live! and iLuminate.
Harvest Festival presented by Humana features Southern Gospel music, professional craftsmen, and Great Pumpkin LumiNights.
Smoky Mountain Christmas presented by Humana is a 13 time award winner of Golden Ticket's Best Christmas Event and features seven holiday performances, 5 million Christmas lights, Glacier Ridge (in which part of the park has frozen over), and a nightly parade.
== Rankings and awards ==
In 2010, Dollywood received the Applause Award, an honor presented biennially by the Liseberg amusement park in Gothenburg, Sweden. The award recognizes a theme park "whose management, operations, and creative accomplishments have inspired the industry with their foresight, originality, and sound business development."
In 2017, Dollywood won Golden Ticket awards from Amusement Today for Friendliest Park, Best Christmas Event, Best Food and Best Show.
In 2018, Dollywood received a Golden Ticket award from Amusement Today in the Best Food category, marking the park's fourth win in seven years. In addition to three dinner show options, more than 25 vendors serve meals and snacks, ranging from barbecue ribs, pizza, corn dogs, and pork rinds to cinnamon bread, funnel cakes, cotton candy, and banana pudding made using Dolly's recipe. The park also received Golden Tickets for Best Shows, Friendliest Park, and Best Christmas Event and was ranked the third best park in the world.
In the 2018 USA Today 10Best Readers' Choice Awards – awards voted on by the general public – Dollywood was ranked as the sixth Best Amusement Park in the U.S. Additionally, Dollywood's DreamMore Resort and Spa was ranked first in the Best Amusement Park Hotel category, and Aunt Granny's Restaurant was ranked first in the Best Amusement Park Restaurant category. Dollywood's DreamMore Resort and Spa, which opened in 2015, includes family-oriented amenities and provides direct access to the theme park. Aunt Granny's opened the first year the park operated as Dollywood. It uses an all-you-can-eat buffet format with comfort foods like chicken and dumplings, tacos, and steaks along with a salad bar and health-conscious choices.
Dreamland Drive-In was ranked third in the Best Amusement Park Entertainment category, and Dollywood's Splash Country was ranked sixth in the Best Outdoor Water Park category.
In 2019, Dollywood won Golden Ticket awards for Best Kids' Area, Best Guest Experience, and Best Christmas Event of 2018.
In 2019, Coaster101.com named Lightning Rod "Wooden Roller Coaster of the Decade".
In 2021, Dollywood's Smoky Mountain Christmas won the Golden Ticket Award for Best Christmas Event for the 13th straight year. In June of 2022, Tripadvisor named Dollywood the number one theme park in the U.S.
== See also ==
List of Dollywood attractions
List of Dollywood entertainment
List of amusement parks
List of amusement parks in the Americas
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Herschend
Dollywood at the Roller Coaster DataBase
Themepark Timelines
Dollywood Archived April 2, 2013, at the Wayback Machine at Pigeon Forge Department of Tourism |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolly_(sheep) | Dolly (sheep) | Dolly (5 July 1996 – 14 February 2003) was a female Finn-Dorset sheep and the first mammal that was cloned from an adult somatic cell. She was cloned by associates of the Roslin Institute in Scotland, using the process of nuclear transfer from a cell taken from a mammary gland. Her cloning proved that a cloned organism could be produced from a mature cell from a specific body part. Contrary to popular belief, she was not the first animal to be cloned.
The employment of adult somatic cells in lieu of embryonic stem cells for cloning emerged from the foundational work of John Gurdon, who cloned African clawed frogs in 1958 with this approach. The successful cloning of Dolly led to widespread advancements within stem cell research, including the discovery of induced pluripotent stem cells.
Dolly lived at the Roslin Institute throughout her life and produced several lambs. She was euthanized at the age of six years due to a progressive lung disease. No cause which linked the disease to her cloning was found.
Dolly's body was preserved and donated by the Roslin Institute in Scotland to the National Museum of Scotland, where it has been regularly exhibited since 2003.
== Genesis ==
Dolly was cloned by Keith Campbell, Ian Wilmut and colleagues at the Roslin Institute, part of the University of Edinburgh, Scotland, and the biotechnology company PPL Therapeutics, based near Edinburgh. The funding for Dolly's cloning was provided by PPL Therapeutics and the Ministry of Agriculture. She was born on 5 July 1996. She has been called "the world's most famous sheep" by sources including BBC News and Scientific American.
The cell used as the donor for the cloning of Dolly was taken from a mammary gland, and the production of a healthy clone, therefore, proved that a cell taken from a specific part of the body could recreate a whole individual. On Dolly's name, Wilmut stated "Dolly is derived from a mammary gland cell and we couldn't think of a more impressive pair of glands than Dolly Parton's."
== Birth ==
Dolly was born on 5 July 1996 and had three mothers: one provided the egg, another the DNA, and a third carried the cloned embryo to term. She was created using the technique of somatic cell nuclear transfer, where the cell nucleus from an adult cell is transferred into an unfertilized oocyte (developing egg cell) that has had its cell nucleus removed. The hybrid cell is then stimulated to divide by an electric shock, and when it develops into a blastocyst it is implanted in a surrogate mother. Dolly was the first clone produced from a cell taken from an adult mammal. The production of Dolly showed that genes in the nucleus of such a mature differentiated somatic cell are still capable of reverting to an embryonic totipotent state, creating a cell that can then go on to develop into any part of an animal.
Dolly's existence was announced to the public on 22 February 1997. It gained much attention in the media. A commercial with Scottish scientists playing with sheep was aired on TV, and a special report in Time magazine featured Dolly. Science featured Dolly as the breakthrough of the year. Even though Dolly was not the first animal cloned, she received media attention because she was the first cloned from an adult cell.
== Life ==
Dolly lived her entire life at the Roslin Institute in Midlothian. There she was bred with a Welsh Mountain ram and produced six lambs in total. Her first lamb, named Bonnie, was born in April 1998. The next year, Dolly produced twin lambs Sally and Rosie; further, she gave birth to triplets Lucy, Darcy and Cotton in 2000. In late 2001, at the age of four, Dolly developed arthritis and started to have difficulty walking. This was treated with anti-inflammatory drugs.
== Death ==
On 14 February 2003, Dolly was euthanised because she had a progressive lung disease and severe arthritis. A Finn Dorset such as Dolly has a life expectancy of around 11 to 12 years, but Dolly lived 6.5 years. A post-mortem examination showed she had a form of lung cancer called ovine pulmonary adenocarcinoma, also known as Jaagsiekte, which is a fairly common disease of sheep and is caused by the retrovirus JSRV. Roslin scientists stated that they did not think there was a connection with Dolly being a clone, and that other sheep in the same flock had died of the same disease. Such lung diseases are a particular danger for sheep kept indoors, and Dolly had to sleep inside for security reasons.
Some in the press speculated that a contributing factor to Dolly's death was that she could have been born with a genetic age of six years, the same age as the sheep from which she was cloned. One basis for this idea was the finding that Dolly's telomeres were short, which is typically a result of the aging process. The Roslin Institute stated that intensive health screening did not reveal any abnormalities in Dolly that could have come from advanced aging.
In 2016, scientists reported no defects in thirteen cloned sheep, including four from the same cell line as Dolly. The first study to review the long-term health outcomes of cloning, the authors found no evidence of late-onset, non-communicable diseases other than some minor examples of osteoarthritis and concluded "We could find no evidence, therefore, of a detrimental long-term effect of cloning by SCNT on the health of aged offspring among our cohort."
After her death Dolly's body was preserved via taxidermy and is currently on display at the National Museum of Scotland in Edinburgh.
== Legacy ==
After cloning was successfully demonstrated through the production of Dolly, many other large mammals were cloned, including pigs, deer, horses and bulls. The attempt to clone argali (mountain sheep) did not produce viable embryos. The attempt to clone a banteng bull was more successful, as were the attempts to clone mouflon (a form of wild sheep), both resulting in viable offspring. The reprogramming process that cells need to go through during cloning is not perfect and embryos produced by nuclear transfer often show abnormal development. Making cloned mammals was highly inefficient back then – in 1996, Dolly was the only lamb that survived to adulthood from 277 attempts. Wilmut, who led the team that created Dolly, announced in 2007 that the nuclear transfer technique may never be sufficiently efficient for use in humans. But by 2014, Chinese scientists were reported to have 70–80% success rates cloning pigs, and in 2016, Sooam Biotech was producing 500 cloned embryos a day. Another Korean commercial pet cloning company, Viagen, the firm charges $50,000 (£38,000) to clone a dog, $30,000 for a cat, and $85,000 for a horse, showing cloning economy is getting more popular despite the cost.
Cloning may have uses in preserving endangered species, and may become a viable tool for reviving extinct species. In January 2009, scientists from the Centre of Food Technology and Research of Aragon in northern Spain announced the cloning of the Pyrenean ibex, a form of wild mountain goat, which was officially declared extinct in 2000. Although the newborn ibex died shortly after birth due to physical defects in its lungs, it is the first time an extinct animal has been cloned, and may open doors for saving endangered and newly extinct species by resurrecting them from frozen tissue.
In July 2016, four identical clones of Dolly (Daisy, Debbie, Dianna, and Denise) were alive and healthy at nine years old. The Nottingham Dollies, were humanely euthanised following research published in 2017, natural life expectancy of sheep rarely extends beyond nine to 10 years, after re-examine Dolly's case, showing they were all aging normally.
Scientific American concluded in 2016 that the main legacy of Dolly has not been cloning of animals but in advances into stem cell research. Gene targeting was added in 2000, when researchers cloned female lamb Diana from sheep DNA altered to contain the human gene for alpha 1-antitrypsin. The human gene was specifically activated in the ewe’s mammary gland, so Diana produced milk containing human alpha 1-antitrypsin. After Dolly, researchers realised that ordinary cells could be reprogrammed to induced pluripotent stem cells, which can be grown into any tissue.
The first successful cloning of a primate species was reported in January 2018, using the same method which produced Dolly. Two identical clones of a macaque monkey, Zhong Zhong and Hua Hua, were created by researchers in China and were born in late 2017.
In January 2019, scientists in China reported the creation of five identical cloned gene-edited monkeys, again using this method, and the gene-editing CRISPR-Cas9 technique allegedly used by He Jiankui in creating the first ever gene-modified human babies Lulu and Nana. The monkey clones were made in order to study several medical diseases.
== In popular culture ==
In 2003, Belgian artist Dominique Goblet published a short comic strip about Dolly the cloned sheep with the title: “2004 Apparition de Dolly dans la campagne anglaise”
== See also ==
In re Roslin Institute (Edinburgh) – US court decision that determined that Dolly could not be patented
List of cloned animals
== References ==
== External links ==
Dolly the Sheep at the National Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh
Cloning Dolly the Sheep Dolly the Sheep and the importance of animal research
Animal cloning and Dolly
Antiques Roadshow, Series 45, Brodie Castle 3, Dolly the Sheep. BBC (3' video clip). 6 April 2023. Episode where several items appertaining to Dolly, including wool from a shearing and scientific instruments, were appraised. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glipa_angustilineata | Glipa angustilineata | Glipa angustilineata is a species of beetle in the genus Glipa. It was described in 1993.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asim_Ahmed_Khan | Asim Ahmed Khan | Asim Ahmed Khan is an Indian politician (Delhi State), and former minister of Food and Civil Supply, Environment and Forest, Minority Affairs and Election in the Delhi government. He was a member of the Aam Aadmi Party (AAP) and represented Matia Mahal (Assembly constituency) in the 6th Delhi Assembly.
He left the AAP on 23 December 2024 and joined the Indian National Congress.
== Early life and education ==
Asim Ahmed Khan was born in Delhi. He attended the Chaudhary Charan Singh University and earned a Bachelor of Arts degree.
== Politics ==
Asim Ahmed Khan is a member of the AAP minority wing. He contested the Municipal Corporation of Delhi (MCD) elections in 2012 and received 6,300 votes. The AAP party website states that he has worked for 12 years in Old Delhi area and participated in numerous social activities.
Khan contested Matia Mahal (Assembly constituency) in the 2015 Delhi Legislative Assembly elections as an AAP candidate. He raised issues of education and health in his campaign. Khan won the seat with 47,584 votes. He defeated five-time MLA Shoaib Iqbal (who contested on an Indian National Congress – INC – ticket) by a margin of 26,096 votes. Khan was "the less acknowledged 'giant killers'". Khan – who had a "poor experience in politics" – was expected to lose Iqbal, who won five times despite switching political parties four times. Iqbal had won the 2013 elections on a Janata Dal (United) (JD(U)) ticket. The AAP won 67 of the total 70 seats in the Delhi assembly.
Khan was one of four Muslim MLAs of the AAP in the Sixth Legislative Assembly of Delhi. The Economic Times described Khan as "key" to AAP, which won 80% of the Muslim vote. Khan and the AAP's minority wing were responsible for deflecting the Muslim votes – who traditionally voted for the Congress – to the AAP, which led to the AAP's decisive victory.
Khan was sworn in as a cabinet minister under the chief minister Arvind Kejriwal on 14 February 2015. He was put in charge of the Food and Civil Supply, Environment and Forest, Minority Affairs and Election ministries. On 9 October 2015, Delhi's Chief Minister Arvind Kejriwal sacked the cabinet minister Asim Ahmed Khan on charges of corruption. He was accused of 'cutting a deal worth Rs. 6 lakh' with a local builder'. He was later given a clean chit by CBI due to lack of evidence.
== See also ==
Matia Mahal
Sixteenth Legislative Assembly of Uttar Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Insecticide,_Fungicide,_and_Rodenticide_Act | Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act | The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) is a United States federal law that set up the basic U.S. system of pesticide regulation to protect applicators, consumers, and the environment. It is administered and regulated by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the appropriate environmental agencies of the respective states. FIFRA has undergone several important amendments since its inception. A significant revision in 1972 by the Federal Environmental Pesticide Control Act (FEPCA) and several others have expanded EPA's present authority to oversee the sales and use of pesticides with emphasis on the preservation of human health and protection of the environment by "(1) strengthening the registration process by shifting the burden of proof to the chemical manufacturer, (2) enforcing compliance against banned and unregistered products, and (3) promulgating the regulatory framework missing from the original law".
== History ==
The Federal Insecticide Act (FIA) of 1910 was the first pesticide legislation enacted. This legislation ensured quality pesticides by protecting farmers and consumers from fraudulent and/or adulterated products by manufacturers and distributors. During World War II there was a marked increase in the pesticide market, as wartime research and development produced many chemicals with newly discovered insecticidal properties. Widespread usage of pesticides garnered much public and political support due to the resulting post war food surplus made possible by higher crop yield from significantly lower pest damage. Synthetic organic insecticide usage increased from 100 million pounds in 1945 to over 300 million pounds by 1950. The Federal Insecticide Act of 1910 set standards for chemical quality and provided consumers protection but did not address the growing issue of potential environmental damage and biological health risks associated with such widespread use of insecticides. Congress passed the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act in 1947 to address some of the shortcomings of the Federal Insecticide Act.
Congress enacted major revisions to FIFRA in 1972 with the Federal Environmental Pesticide Control Act (FEPCA). The 1947 law assigned the United States Department of Agriculture responsibility for regulating pesticides. The 1972 amendment transferred this responsibility to the Environmental Protection Agency and shifted emphasis to protection of the environment and public health. The amendments required the EPA to assess potential risks the pesticides posed to humans, the environment, and wildlife and weigh these against their benefits, taking action against those for which the risks outweighed the benefits. In 1988, Congress amended the pesticide registration provisions requiring re-registration of many pesticides that had been registered before 1984. The act was amended again in 1996 by the Food Quality Protection Act. More recently the act was amended in 2012 by the Pesticide Registration Improvement Extension Act of 2012.
As of May 2007, there are 28 listed restricted pesticides of different formulas and mixtures. Any area these pesticides are used or applied is considered a restricted area.
== Major code sections ==
Table 2. Major U.S. Code Sections of the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (codified generally as 7 U.S.C. 136-136y)
Note: This table shows only the major code sections. For more detail and to determine when a section was
added, the reader should consult the official printed version of the U.S. Code.
== Regulations ==
In order to be considered for use, pesticides had to undergo 120 tests with regards to safety and its actual effectiveness. Because of these rigorous test, only 1 in 139,000 actually make it through to be used in agriculture. This act directly forbids certain substances and certain uses of those substances, as distinguished from other legislation regulating pesticides, which impose costs on certain practices but do not outlaw any.
FIFRA established a set of pesticide regulations:
FIFRA established registration for all pesticides, which is only done after a period of data collection to determine the effectiveness for its intended use, appropriate dosage, and hazards of the particular material. When registered, a label is created to instruct the final user the proper usage of the material. If instructions are ignored, users are liable for any negative consequences. Label directions are designed to maximize the effectiveness of the product, while protecting the applicator, consumers, and the environment.
Only a few pesticides are made available to the general public. Most pesticides are considered too hazardous for general use, and are restricted to certified applicators. FIFRA established a system of examination and certification both at the private level and at the commercial level for applicators who wish to purchase and use restricted use pesticides. The distribution of restricted pesticides is also monitored.
The EPA has different review processes for three categories of pesticides: antimicrobials, biopesticides, and conventional pesticides. The three categories have a similar application process, but have different data requirements and review policies. Depending on the category of pesticide, the review process can take several years. After a pesticide is registered with the EPA, there may be state registration requirements to consider.
In addition to the rules and regulations given by the EPA, the states may also offer an additional set of rules and registration requirements for a registered pesticide. They can also request annual usage reports from the pesticide users.
In addition to the FIFRA, the Pesticide Registration Improvement Act of 2003 amended the authorized fees for certain products, assessed the process of collecting maintenance fees, and decided on a review process for approving the pesticides. The Pesticide Registration Improvement Act of 2007 renewed these changes to stay in place until 2012. The purpose of the PRIA is to ensure a smooth implementation of pesticide rules and regulations to its users.
=== Import and export ===
Pesticides intended for import into the U.S. require a complete Notice of Arrival (NOA) through U.S. Customs and Border Protection. If this NOA is not complete the product would not make it through customs. The NOA lists the identity of the product, the amount within the package, the date of arrival, and where it can be inspected. There are also other rules listed below:
It must comply with standards set with the U.S. pesticide law
The pesticide has to be registered with the EPA, except if it's on the exemption list
It cannot be adulterated or violative
There must be proper labeling
The product must have been produced in an EPA registered establishment that files annually
Pesticides intended for export to other parts of the world do not have a registration requirement under certain conditions. The conditions are as follows:
The foreign purchaser has to submit a statement to the EPA stating it knows the product is not registered and can't be sold on U.S. soil.
The pesticide must contain a label that "Not Registered for Use in the United States"
The label requirements must be met and the label must contain the English language and the language of the receiving country(ies).
The pesticide must comply with all FIFRA establishment registration and reporting requirements
It must comply with FIFRA record keeping requirements
Note: An EPA registered establishment is one that produces pesticides, the active ingredients in pesticides, and devices for pesticide use and reports initial and annual production.
On April 22, 2016, the Office of Inspector General issued a memorandum announcing its intent to begin preliminary research to assess the EPA's inspections of, and enforcement against, illegal pesticide imports. The objective of this project is to "determine whether the EPA's Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) import inspection program is effectively deterring, identifying and confiscating illegal pesticide imports, to protect human health and the environment."
== Registration of pesticide products ==
Before a company can register its pesticide products with the EPA, it must know what the EPA considers a pesticide under the law. According to section 2(u) of FIFRA, 7 U.S.C. section 136(u), the term "pesticide" is defined as the following:
any substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying, repelling, or mitigating any pest,
any substance or mixture of substances intended for use as a plant regulator, defoliant, or desiccant, and
any nitrogen stabilizer, except that the term "pesticide" shall not include any article that is a "new animal drug" within the meaning of section 321(w)[1] of title 21, that has been determined by the Secretary of Health and Human Services not to be a new animal drug by a regulation establishing conditions of use for the article, or that is an animal feed within the meaning of section 321(x)[1] of title 21 bearing or containing a new animal drug. The term "pesticide" does not include liquid chemical sterilant products (including any sterilant or subordinate disinfectant claims on such products) for use on a critical or semi-critical device, as defined in section 321 of title 21. For purposes of the preceding sentence, the term "critical device" includes any device which is introduced directly into the human body, either into or in contact with the bloodstream or normally sterile areas of the body and the term "semi-critical device" includes any device which contacts intact mucous membranes but which does not ordinarily penetrate the blood barrier or otherwise enter normally sterile areas of the body.
An applicant will have to prove that the pesticide active ingredient, pesticide product, or proposed new use of a registered pesticide will not cause unreasonable adverse effects on human health and environment. An unreasonable adverse effect is "(1) any risk that is unreasonable to man or the environment that takes social, economic, and environmental costs as well as benefits into consideration and (2) any dietary risk that could be the result of a pesticide used with any food lacking consistency with the standards listed under Section 408 of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act"(FDCA). The applicant must provide scientific data from any combinations of over 100 different tests conducted under EPA guidelines to assess these potential adverse short-term and long-term effects. There is considerable public interest in the contents of pesticide registration studies, which has led to conflict over public access to these materials. These competing interests as well as legislation addressing access has been covered separately under Pesticide regulation in the United States. In some cases, manufacturers choose to conduct addition work to satisfy requirements for peer-reviewed literature, as was the case for the herbicide, cloransulam-methyl. Publication of registration studies in the peer-reviewed literature not only provides unlimited public access, but also ensures sufficient rigor to satisfy the scientific community at large.
Under Section 408 of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA), the EPA can also regulate the amount of pesticide residues permissible on or in food/feed items, by establishing a "safe" level meaning there is "a reasonable certainty of no harm" from the exposure to the residue whether directly from the consumption of such food or from other non-occupational sources. For food crops, the EPA is required to establish a "tolerance" level, the maximum "safe" level of pesticide present on or in the particular food/feed commodity. The EPA may also choose to provide an exemption to the requirement of an established tolerance level, allowing any amount of a pesticide residue to remain on or in food or feed as long as the exemption meets FFDCA safety standards. Successfully registered pesticides must conform to approved uses and conditions of use, which the registrant must state on the label.
=== Reregistration of pesticides ===
A majority of older registered were required to be reregistered under guidelines set by Amendments in 1972, 1988, and 1996 (Table1) in order to meet current health and safety standards, labeling requirements, and for risk regulation and moderation. The Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA), amended FIFRA to require all older pesticides to cause no harm to infants, children, and sensitive individuals within "reasonable certainty". Through the reregistration program, older pesticides are eligible for reregistration if they have a complete database and not cause unreasonable health and environmental risks if used as directed in accordance to their labels. FQPA also requires the EPA to review pesticides on a 15-year cycle to ensure all pesticides meet contemporary safety and regulatory standards.
=== Fees ===
Initial and final fees for reregistration of food or feed use active ingredients are $50,000 and $100,000-$150,000, respectively. Reregistration fees for non-food use pesticides are $50,000-$100,000. Annual maintenance fees are also imposed: $425 per product up to fifty products and a maximum of $20,000 per company. For each product over fifty, the fee is $100, for a maximum fee of $35,000. Fees may be reduced or waived for small business registrants, public health pesticides, or minor use pesticides at the EPA's discretion, and failure to pay reregistration fees or maintenance fees may result in cancellation of a product registration.
== Regulated non-pesticidal products not requiring registration ==
Adjuvants are chemicals added to enhance the performance or efficacy and/or alter the physical properties of the pesticidal agents. More than 200 EPA registered pesticides recommends specific addition of one or more adjuvants into the pesticidal mixture to improve overall efficacy. Recognized as "other ingredients", the EPA also establishes tolerance levels for adjuvants, but they are not required to be registered. Examples of adjuvants include:
acidifying agents,
buffering agents,
anti-foam agents,
defoaming agents,
anti-transpirants,
dyes and brighteners,
compatibility agents,
crop oil concentrates,
oil surfactants,
deposition agents,
drift reduction agents,
foam markers,
feeding stimulants,
herbicide safeners,
spreaders, extenders,
adhesive agents,
suspension agents,
gelling agents,
synergists,
wetting agents,
emulsifiers,
dispersing agents,
penetrants,
tank and equipment cleaners,
neutralizers,
water absorbents, and
water softeners.
Devices and instruments used to trap or kill pests or plant life, but not including equipment used to apply pesticides when sold separately, are also regulated but not required to be registered. Pesticide "intermediates" used in the synthesis or manufacture of the pesticide products may be regulated but are also not required to be registered with FIFRA. However, these pesticide intermediates may be regulated by the Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976.
== Enforcement ==
Under FIFRA no individual may sell, use, nor distribute a pesticide not registered with the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). A few exceptions allow a pesticide to be exempt from registration requirements. There must be a label on each pesticide describing, in detail, instructions for safe use. Under the act, the EPA must identify each pesticide as "general use", "restricted use", or both. "General use" labeled pesticides are available to anyone in the general public. Those labeled as "restricted use" require specific credentials and certifications through the EPA (certified applicator).
Although FIFRA is generally enforced by the EPA, Sections 23, 24, 26 and 27 extend primary enforcement authorities to the states. However, EPA authority always supersedes state authority, and primary state authority can be rescinded if the state fails to assure safe enforcement of pesticides usage. Section 9 authorizes inspection of pesticides in storage for sale or distribution. Under Section 13, EPA may issue a Stop Sale, Use or Removal Order (SSURO) to prevent the sale or distribution of violative pesticides and for the authority to seize these pesticides. Section 15 provides indemnity payments for suspended or cancelled registrations. Section 16 allows for a judicial review process for individuals or entities affected by an EPA order or action.
Section 14 establishes civil and federal penalties for violative acts. Some examples of these unlawful acts include:
Distributing, selling, or delivering any unregistered pesticide.
Making any advertising claim about a pesticide not included in the registration statement.
Selling any registered pesticide if its content does not conform to label data.
Falsification of any test-related information or the submission of any false data to support registration.
Selling an adulterated or misbranded pesticide.
Detaching, altering, defacing, or destroying any part of a container or label.
Refusing to keep records or permit authorized EPA inspections.
Making a guarantee other than that specified by the label.
Advertising a restricted-use pesticide without giving the product classification.
Making a restricted-use pesticide available to a non-certified applicator (except as provided by law).
Using a pesticide in any manner not consistent with the label.
=== Civil penalties ===
When determining civil penalties, the EPA would take into consideration the severity of infraction, effects of penalties, and size of business. Under Section 14 (a)(1), commercial applicators, wholesalers, dealers, and retailers "may be assessed a civil penalty…of not more than $5,000 for each offense". Private applicators would be given a warning for the first offense, and a fine up to $1000 may be assessed for each subsequent violation.
=== Federal/criminal penalties ===
Violative acts are charged as misdemeanors and subject to fines and/or imprisonment. A private applicator is subject to $1000 and/or 30 days imprisonment. A commercial applicator is subject to $25,000 and/or up to one year imprisonment. A manufacturer or producer is subject to $50,000 and/or up to one year imprisonment.
== Special review ==
FIFRA requires the EPA to continually monitor and update registered pesticides for any new information concerning their safety. Registrants are required to promptly report any new evidence of adverse side effects and to continually conduct studies to aid in risk assessments. If new information indicates adverse side effects, then EPA may conduct a special review to assess the risks and benefit of continued use of the suspect pesticide. With the completion of a special review, EPA may choose to amend or cancel the registration.
== Pesticides and endangered species ==
The Endangered Species Act protects and promotes animal and plant recovery of ones in danger of extinction due to human activity. Under this act the EPA must also consider the dangers to animals and plants when registering a new pesticide. The pesticide must not harm the listed endangered and threatened animals and habitats. To be sure this program is implemented, some labels will direct users of the pesticides to bulletins with specific information regarding use. The protection program has 2 main goals: (1) provide the best protection of endangered species from pesticides and (2) minimize the impact of the program on pesticide users.
To protect the endangered species with the EPA program, the following was implemented:
sound science is used to assess risk to the listed species
there is an attempt at finding means to avoid concerns of listed species
When concerns of the listed species aren't avoidable, they consult with the Fish and Wildlife Services scientist
Implement usage limitations when the Fish and Wildlife service express a potential adverse effect on a particular species based on a biological opinion
In order to implement the usage limitations mentioned above, the EPA will:
add a generic label to the pesticide
develop bulletins containing habitat location and pesticide use limitations
distributing the bulletins containing this information to pesticide users
providing a toll-free number for users to contact regarding information in bulletins and how to obtain one.
== See also ==
Agriculture ministry
Endangered Species Act
Paris Green
Pesticide
Pesticide misuse
Restricted pesticides
== References ==
== Further reading ==
== External links ==
As codified in 7 U.S.C. chapter 6 subchapter II of the United States Code from the LII
As codified in 7 U.S.C. chapter 6 subchapter II of the United States Code from the US House of Representatives
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (PDF/details) as amended in the GPO Statute Compilations collection
EPA summary of the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act
EPA summary on regulating pesticides
EPA Pesticide Product Label System
Label database from Telus Agriculture |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Polanyi | Karl Polanyi | Karl Paul Polanyi (; Hungarian: Polányi Károly [ˈpolaːɲi ˈkaːroj]; 25 October 1886 – 23 April 1964) was an Austro-Hungarian economic historian, economic sociologist, and politician, best known for his book The Great Transformation, which questions the conceptual validity of self-regulating markets.
In his writings, Polanyi advances the concept of the Double Movement, which refers to the dialectical process of marketization and push for social protection against that marketization. He argues that market-based societies in modern Europe were not inevitable but historically contingent. Polanyi is remembered best as the originator of substantivism, a cultural version of economics, which emphasizes the way economies are embedded in society and culture. This opinion is counter to mainstream economics but is popular in anthropology, economic history, economic sociology and political science.
Polanyi's approach to the ancient economies has been applied to a variety of cases, such as Pre-Columbian America and ancient Mesopotamia, although its utility to the study of ancient societies in general has been questioned. Polanyi's The Great Transformation became a model for historical sociology. His theories eventually became the foundation for the economic democracy movement.
Polanyi was active in politics, and helped found the National Citizens' Radical Party in 1914, serving as its secretary. He fled Hungary for Vienna in 1919 when the right-wing authoritarian regime of Admiral Horthy seized power. He fled Vienna for London in 1933 when Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany and fascism was on the ascendancy in Austria. After years of unsuccessfully seeking employment at universities in the United Kingdom, he moved to the United States in 1940 where he joined the faculty at Bennington College and later taught at Columbia University.
== Early life ==
Karl Polanyi was born in Vienna and raised in Budapest by a German‑speaking Jewish family assimilating into the secular middle class. His younger brother was Michael Polanyi, a philosopher, and his niece was Eva Zeisel, a world-renowned ceramist. He was born in Vienna, at the time the capital of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. His father, Mihály Pollacsek, was a railway entrepreneur. Mihály never changed the name Pollacsek, and is buried in the Jewish cemetery in Budapest. Mihály died in January 1905, which was an emotional shock to Karl, and he commemorated the anniversary of Mihály's death throughout his life. Karl and Michael Polanyi's mother was Cecília Wohl. The name change to Polanyi was made by Karl and his siblings.
Polanyi was well educated despite the ups and downs of his father's fortune, and he immersed himself in Budapest's active intellectual and artistic scene. Polanyi studied at the Minta Gymnasium.
== Early career ==
Polanyi founded the radical and influential Galileo Circle while at the University of Budapest, a club which would have far reaching effects on Hungarian intellectual thought. During this time, he was actively engaged with other notable thinkers, such as György Lukács, Oszkár Jászi, and Karl Mannheim. Polanyi graduated from Budapest University in 1912 with a doctorate in Law. In 1914, he helped found the National Citizens' Radical Party of Hungary and served as its secretary.
Polanyi was a cavalry officer in the Austro-Hungarian Army in World War I, in active service at the Russian Front and hospitalized in Budapest. Polanyi supported the republican government of Mihály Károlyi and its Social Democratic regime. The republic was short-lived, with socialist Béla Kun toppling the Karolyi government to create the Hungarian Soviet Republic. Polanyi left Hungary for Vienna in order to undergo medical treatment. During this time, the Kun government was replaced by the right-wing authoritarian regime of Admiral Horthy. As a consequence, Polanyi left Hungary permanently.
== In Vienna ==
From 1924 to 1933, he was employed as a senior editor of the prestigious Der Österreichische Volkswirt (The Austrian Economist) magazine. It was at this time that he first began criticizing the Austrian school of economics, which he felt created abstract models that lost sight of the organic, interrelated reality of economic processes. Polanyi himself was attracted to Fabianism and the works of G. D. H. Cole. It was also during this period that Polanyi first developed an interest in Christian socialism.
Polanyi married the communist revolutionary Ilona Duczyńska, who was of Polish-Hungarian background. Their daughter Kari Polanyi Levitt carried on the family tradition of academic economic research.
== In London ==
Polanyi was asked to resign from Der Oesterreichische Volkswirt because the liberal publisher of the journal could not keep on a prominent socialist after the accession of Hitler to office in January 1933 and the suspension of the Austrian parliament by the rising tide of clerical fascism in Austria. He left for London in 1933, where he earned a living as a journalist and tutor and obtained a position as a lecturer for the Workers' Educational Association in 1936. His lecture notes contained the research for what later became The Great Transformation. However, he would not start writing this work until 1940, when he moved to Vermont to take up a position at Bennington College. Polanyi had for many years sought employment at British universities but was unsuccessful. The book was published in 1944, to great acclaim. In it, Polanyi described the enclosure process in England and the creation of the contemporary economic system at the beginning of the 19th century.
== United States and Canada ==
Polanyi joined the staff of Bennington College in 1940, teaching a series of five timely lectures on the "Present Age of Transformation". The lectures "The Passing of the 19th Century", "The Trend Towards an Integrated Society", "The Breakdown of the International System", "Is America an Exception?", and "Marxism and the Inner History of the Russian Revolution" took place during the early stages of World War II. Polanyi participated in Bennington's Humanism Lecture Series (1941) and Bennington College's Lecture Series (1943) where his topic was "Jean Jacques Rousseau: Or Is a Free Society Possible?"
After the war, Polanyi received a teaching position at Columbia University (1947–1953). However, his wife, Ilona Duczyńska (1897–1978), had a background as a former communist, which made gaining an entrance visa in the United States impossible. As a result, they moved to Canada, and Polanyi commuted to New York City. In the early 1950s, Polanyi received a large grant from the Ford Foundation to study the economic systems of ancient empires.
Having described the emergence of the modern economic system, Polanyi now sought to understand how "the economy" emerged as a distinct sphere in the distant past. His seminar at Columbia drew several famous scholars and influenced a generation of teachers, resulting in the 1957 volume Trade and Market in the Early Empires. Polanyi continued to write in his later years and established a new journal entitled Coexistence. In Canada he lived in Pickering, Ontario, where he died in 1964.
== Selected works ==
Dalton, George, ed. Primitive, Archaic, and Modern Economics: Essays of Karl Polanyi (New York: Doubleday & Company, 1968); collected essays and selections from his work.
Pearson, Harry W., ed. The Livelihood of Man (Academic Press, 1977)
Polanyi, Karl. '[1]|The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Insights of Our Time.' (Boston: Beacon Press. 1944) ISBN 0-8070-5679-0
Polanyi, Karl, Conrad M. Arensberg, and Harry W. Person, eds. Trade and Market in the Early Empires (Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press, 1957)
Polanyi, Karl. Dahomey and the Slave Trade: An Analysis of an Archaic Economy (Seattle: University of Washington Press, (1966).
Polanyi, Karl. For a New West: Essays, 1919–1958 (Polity Press, 2014), ISBN 978-0745684444
Articles by Karl Polanyi
"Socialist Accounting" (1922)
"The Essence of Fascism" (1933–1934); article
"Universal Capitalism or Regional Planning?", The London Quarterly of World Affairs, vol. 10 (3) (1945)
== See also ==
Michael Polanyi (brother)
John Polanyi (nephew)
Eva Zeisel (cousin)
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Adaman, Fikret, Pat Devine, eds. Economy and Society: Money, Capitalism and Transition. Black Rose Books, 2002. Additional subtitle: reciprocity, redistribution, and exchange: embedding the economy in society. Essays based on the legacy of Karl Polanyi.
Aulenbacher, Brigitte, et al. (ed.), Karl Polanyi, the life and works of an epochal thinker. Falter Verlag, 2020.
Block, Fred and Somers, Margaret, The Power of Market Fundamentalism : Karl Polanyi's Critique. Cambridge, Massachusetts : Harvard University Press, 2014.
Brie, Michael (ed.), Karl Polanyi in dialogue : a socialist thinker for our times, Montreal : Black Rose Books, 2017.
Brie, Michael and Thomasberger, Claus, Karl Polanyi's vision of a socialist transformation. Montreal : Black Rose Books, 2018.
Dale, Gareth, Karl Polanyi : a life on the left, New York : Columbia University Press, 2016.
Dale, Gareth, et al. (ed.), Karl Polanyi's political and economic thought : a critical guide. Newcastle upon Tyne : Agenda Publishing, 2019.
Dale, Gareth, Reconstructing Karl Polanyi : excavation and critique, London, England : Pluto Press, 2016.
Desai, Radhika and Polanyi Levitt, Kari, Karl Polanyi and twenty-first-century capitalism. Manchester : Manchester University Press, 2021.
Hann, Chris, Repatriating Karl Polanyi Market Society in the Visegrád States. Baltimore, Md. : Project MUSE, 2019.
Kuttner, Robert, "The Man from Red Vienna" (review of Gareth Dale, Karl Polanyi: A Life on the Left, Columbia University Press, 381 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXIV, no. 20 (21 December 2017), pp. 55–57. "In sum, Polanyi got some details wrong, but he got the big picture right. Democracy cannot survive an excessively free market; and containing the market is the task of politics. To ignore that is to court fascism." (Robert Kuttner, p. 57.)
== External links ==
Karl Polanyi Digital Archive
The Karl Polanyi Institute of Political Economy – The Karl Polanyi Institute of Political Economy at Concordia University web site.
Karl Polanyi Wiki
Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time (1944) Review Essay by Anne Mayhew, College of Arts and Sciences, University of Tennessee
Profile on Karl Polanyi – On the History of Economic Thought Website
The free market is an impossible utopia (2014-07-18), The Washington Post. A conversation with Fred Block and Margaret Somers on their book, The Power of Market Fundamentalism: Karl Polanyi’s Critique (Harvard University Press, 2014). The book argues that the ideas of Karl Polanyi are crucial to help understand economic recessions and their aftermath.
[2] – Why Two Karls Are Better Than One: Integrating Polyani and Marx in a Critical Theory of the Current Crisis by Nancy Fraser
Ferguson, Donna (23 June 2024). "'The greatest thinker you've never heard of': expert who explained Hitler's rise is finally in the spotlight". the Guardian. Retrieved 23 June 2024.
Works by or about Karl Polanyi at the Internet Archive |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piasecki_VZ-8_Airgeep#:~:text=The%20AirGeep%20II's%20first%20flight,to%20be%20stable%20in%20flight. | Piasecki VZ-8 Airgeep | The Piasecki VZ-8 Airgeep (company designation PA-59) was a prototype vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL) aircraft developed by Piasecki Aircraft. The Airgeep was developed to fulfill a U.S. Army Transportation Research Command contract for a flying jeep in 1957. The flying jeep was envisioned to be smaller and easier to fly than a helicopter.
== Design and development ==
To meet the US Army's requirement, Piasecki's design featured two tandem, three-blade ducted rotors, with the crew of two seated between the two rotors. Power was by two 180 hp (134.2 kW) Lycoming O-360-A2A piston engines, driving the rotors by a central gearbox. The first of two aircraft ordered by the Army, initially designated the Model 59K Skycar (and later renamed Airgeep) by Piasecki and designated VZ-8P by the Army, flew on 22 September 1958.
It was re-engined with a single 425 hp (317 kW) Turbomeca Artouste IIB turboshaft replacing the two piston engines, flying in this form in June 1959. After being loaned to the U.S. Navy for evaluation as the Model 59N where it was fitted with floats, it was returned to the Army and its engine replaced by a lighter and more powerful 550 hp (410.1 kW) Garrett AiResearch TPE331-6 engine.
The second prototype was completed to a modified design, designated Model 59H AirGeep II by Piasecki and VZ-8P (B) by the Army. It was powered by two Artouste engines, with ejection seats for the pilot and co-pilot/gunner and a further three seats for passengers. It was also fitted with a powered tricycle undercarriage to increase mobility on land.
The AirGeep II's first flight occurred on 15 February 1962, piloted by "Tommy" Atkins.
While the Airgeep would normally operate close to the ground, it was capable of flying to several thousand feet, proving to be stable in flight. Flying low allowed it to evade detection by radar. Despite these qualities, and its superiority over the other two types evaluated by the US Army to meet the same requirement (the Chrysler VZ-6 and the Curtiss-Wright VZ-7), the Army decided that the "Flying Jeep concept [was] unsuitable for the modern battlefield", and concentrated on the development of conventional helicopters instead.
== Variants ==
Model 59K Skycar
Company designation for the first aircraft powered by two 180 hp (134.2 kW)) Lycoming O-360-A2A piston engines, given the military designation VZ-8P Airgeep. Later, the piston engines were replaced by a single 425 hp (316.9 kW)) Turbomeca Artouste IIB turboshaft engine.
Model 59N SeaGeep I
The first aircraft, (after the piston engines were replaced by a single Artouste), whilst on loan to the United States Navy, fitted with floats.
PA-59H AirGeep II
The second aircraft, military designation VZ-8P (B), completed with two 400 hp (298.3 kW)) Turbomeca Artouste IIC turboshaft engines and seats for up to five, including the crew.
VZ-8P Airgeep I
The military designation of the first aircraft as delivered
VZ-8P-1 Airgeep I
The first aircraft after the piston engines were replaced by a single 425 hp (316.9 kW) Turbomeca Artouste IIB.
VZ-8P-2 Airgeep I
The first aircraft after the Artouste engine was replaced by a lighter and more powerful 550 hp (410.1 kW)) Garrett AiResearch TPE331-6 engine.
VZ-8P (B) Airgeep II
The military designation of the second aircraft.
== Specifications (VZ-8P (B)) ==
Data from Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1962-63 Flying Jeeps: The US Army's Search for the Ultimate 'Vehicle' General characteristics
Crew: two (pilot and co-pilot/gunner)
Capacity: up to three passengers
Length: 24 ft 5 in (7.45 m)
Width: 9 ft 3 in (2.82 m)
Height: 5 ft 10 in (1.78 m)
Empty weight: 2,611 lb (1,184 kg)
Gross weight: 3,670 lb (1,665 kg)
Max takeoff weight: 4,800 lb (2,177 kg)
Powerplant: 2 × Turbomeca Artouste IIC turbo-shaft engines, 550 hp (410 kW) each
Main rotor diameter: 2 × 8 ft 2 in (2.5 m)
Performance
Maximum speed: 73 kn (85 mph, 136 km/h)
Cruise speed: 60 kn (70 mph, 112 km/h)
Range: 30 nmi (35 mi, 56 km)
Service ceiling: 3,000 ft (914 m)
Armament
Guns: Provision for one recoilless rifle - not fitted
== See also ==
Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era
Avro Canada VZ-9 Avrocar
Curtiss-Wright VZ-7
Chrysler VZ-6
== References ==
=== Notes ===
=== Bibliography ===
Harding, Stephen. "Flying Jeeps: The US Army's Search for the Ultimate 'Vehicle'". Air Enthusiast, No. 73, January/February 1998. Stamford, Lincs, UK:Key Publishing. ISSN 0143-5450. pp. 10–12.
Taylor, John W.R. FRHistS. ARAeS (1962). Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1962-63. London: Sampson, Low, Marston & Co Ltd.
Piasecki Tests Twin-Turbine and Seagoing VTOLs. // Aviation Week & Space Technology, May 7, 1962, v. 76, no. 19, p. 83.
== External links ==
Piasecki Aircraft Corporation |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monir_Shahroudy_Farmanfarmaian | Monir Shahroudy Farmanfarmaian | Monir Shahroudy Farmanfarmaian (Persian: منیر شاهرودی فرمانفرمائیان; 13 January 1922 – 20 April 2019) was an Iranian artist and a collector of traditional folk art. She is noted for having been one of the most prominent Iranian artists of the contemporary period, and she was the first artist to achieve an artistic practice that weds the geometric patterns and cut-glass mosaic techniques (Āina-kāri) of her Iranian heritage with the rhythms of modern Western geometric abstraction.
In 2017, the Monir Museum in Tehran was opened in her honour.
== Early life and education ==
Shahroudy was born on January 13, 1922, to educated parents in the religious city of Qazvin, north-western Iran. Farmanfarmaian acquired artistic skills early on in childhood, receiving drawing lessons from a tutor and studying postcard depictions of Western art. After studying at the University of Tehran at the Faculty of Fine Art in 1944, she moved to New York City via steamboat, when World War II derailed her plans to study art in Paris. In New York, she studied at Cornell University, at Parsons School of Design, where she majored in fashion illustration, and at the Art Students League of New York.
== Career ==
As a fashion illustrator, she held various freelance jobs, working with magazines such as Glamour before being hired by the Bonwit Teller department store, where she made the acquaintance of a young Andy Warhol. Additionally, she learned more about art through her trips to museums and through her exposure to the 8th Street Club and New York's avant-garde art scene, becoming friends with artists and contemporaries Louise Nevelson, Jackson Pollock, Willem de Kooning, Barnett Newman, and Joan Mitchell.
=== First return to Iran ===
In early 1957, Farmanfarmaian moved back to Iran. Inspired by the resident culture, she discovered "a fascination with tribal and folk artistic tradition" of her country's history, which "led her to rethink the past and conceive a new path for her art." In the following years, she would develop her Persian inspiration by crafting mirror mosaics and abstract monotypes. Meanwhile, her work was featured at the Iran Pavilion in the 1958 Venice Biennale and held a number of exhibitions in places such as Tehran University (1963), the Iran-America Society (1973), and the Jacques Kaplan/Mario Ravagnan Gallery (1974).
=== Exile and return to Iran ===
In 1979, Farmanfarmaian and her second husband, Abol-Bashar, travelled to New York to visit family. Around the same time, the Islamic Revolution began, and so the Farmanfarmaians found themselves exiled from Iran, an exile that would last for over twenty years. Farmanfarmaian attempted to reconcile her mirror mosaics with the limited resources offered in America, but the lack of materials such as thin mirrors and the comparatively inexperienced workers restricted her work. In the meantime, she placed more significant emphasis on other aspects of her art, such as commissions, textile designs, and drawing.
=== Third return to Iran and death ===
In 1992, Farmanfarmaian returned to Iran and later, in Tehran in 2004, she reaffirmed her place among Iran's art community, gathering both former and new employees to help create her mosaics. She continued to live and work in Tehran until her death.
Farmanfarmaian died at her home at the age of 96 on April 20, 2019.
== Personal life ==
Farmanfarmaian married Iranian artist Manoucher Yektai in 1950. They divorced in 1953. In 1957, she returned to Tehran to marry lawyer Abolbashar Farmanfarmaian. In 1991, Abolbashar died of leukemia. She had two daughters, Nima Isham and Zahra Farmanfarmaian.
== Artwork ==
While living in Iran, Farmanfarmaian was also an avid collector. She sought out paintings behind glass, traditional tribal jewellery and potteries, and amassed one of the greatest collections of "coffee-house paintings" in the country—commissioned paintings by folk artists as coffee-house, story-telling murals. The vast majority of her works and her collections of folk art were confiscated, sold or destroyed.
Aside from her mirror work (a technique known as Āina-kāri), Farmanfarmaian is additionally known for her paintings, drawings, textile designs, and monotypes.
=== Mirror mosaics ===
Around the 1970s, Farmanfarmaian visited the Shah Cheragh mosque in Shiraz, Iran. With the shrine's "high-domed hall ... covered in tiny square, triangular, and hexagonal mirrors," similar to many other ancient Iranian mosques, this event acted as a turning point in Farmanfarmaian's artistic journey, leading to her interest in mirror mosaic artwork. In her memoir, Farmanfarmaian described the experience as transformative: "The very space seemed on fire, the lamps blazing in hundreds of thousands of reflection ... It was a universe unto itself, architecture transformed into performance, all movement and fluid light, all solids fractured and dissolved in brilliance in space, in prayer. I was overwhelmed."Aided by the Iranian craftsman, Hajji Ostad Mohammad Navid, she created a number of mosaics and exhibition pieces by cutting mirrors and glass paintings into a multitude of shapes, which she would later reform into constructions which evoked aspects of Sufism and Islamic culture. Āina-kāri is the traditional art of cutting mirrors into small pieces and slivers, placing them in decorative shapes over plaster. This form of Iranian reverse glass and mirror mosaics is a craft traditionally passed on from father to son. Farmanfarmaian, however, was the first contemporary artist to reinvent the traditional medium in a contemporary way. By striving to mix Iranian influences and the tradition of mirror artwork with artistic practices outside of strictly Iranian culture, "offering a new way of looking at ancient aesthetic elements of this land using tools that are not limited to a particular geography," Farmanfarmaian was able to express a cyclical conception of spirituality, space, and balance in her mosaics.
== Exhibitions ==
Farmanfarmaian's work has been publicly exhibited in museums, including: Boston's Museum of Fine Arts, Victoria & Albert Museum, London (2006 & 2009), Niavaran Cultural Center, Tehran (2007), Leighton House Museum (2008), Beirut Exhibition Centre (2011), Museum of Modern Art (MoMA), Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, Grand Rapids Art Museum, Haus der Kunst, Irish Museum of Modern Art (IMMA), Zentrum Paul Klee, Savannah College of Art and Design Museum and more. Her work has been shown in private galleries including, Rose Issa Projects, London; The Third Line, Dubai; New York; Grey Art Gallery, New York University; Galerie Denise Rene, Paris and New York; Lower Belvedere, Vienna; and Ota Fine Art, Tokyo.
Farmanfarmaian participated in the 29th Bienal de São Paulo (2010); the 6th Asia Pacific Triennial of Contemporary Art, Brisbane (2009); and the Venice Biennale (1958, 1966 and 2009). In 1958 she received the Venice Biennale, Iranian Pavilion (gold medal).
Suzanne Cotter curated Farmanfarmaian's work for her first large museum retrospective titled 'Infinite Possibility: Mirror Works and Drawings' which was on display at the Serralves Museum (also known as Fundação de Serralves) in Porto, Portugal (2014-2015), and then the exhibition travelled to the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York City (2015). This was her first large US museum exhibition.
Her work was included in the 2021 exhibition Women in Abstraction at the Centre Pompidou.
=== Commissioned installations ===
Major commissioned installations include work for the Queensland Art Gallery (2009), the Victoria and Albert Museum (2006), the Dag Hammerskjold building, New York (1981) and the Niyavaran Cultural Center (1977–78), as well as acquisitions by the Metropolitan Museum of Art, The Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art, and the Museum of Contemporary Art Tokyo.
== Collections ==
Farmanfarmaian's work is included in multiple public art collections worldwide, including: The Victoria & Albert Museum; The British Museum; the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Museum of Contemporary Art Chicago, Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, Tate Modern, Queensland Art Gallery, and others. In December 2017, the Monir Museum opened in Negarestan Park Gardens in Tehran and is dedicated to showcasing Farmanfarmaian's works. With a collection of 51 works donated by the artist, the Monir Museum collection is managed by the University of Tehran.
== In popular culture ==
Farmanfarmaian was named as one of the BBC's "100 Women" of 2015.
=== Film ===
Monir (2014) directed by Bahman Kiarostami, is a documentary film about Farmanfarmaian's life and work.
=== Publications ===
A Mirror Garden: A Memoir (2008) by Monir Farmanfarmaian and Zara Houshmand (ISBN 978-0307278784)
"In Persia in 1924, when a child still had to worry about hostile camels in the bazaar and a nanny might spin stories at her pillow until her eyes fell shut, the extraordinary and irresistible Monir Shahroudy Farmanfarmaian was born. From the enchanted basement storeroom where she played as a girl to the penthouse high above New York City where she would someday live, this is the delightful and inspiring story of her life as an artist, a wife and mother, a collector, and an Iranian. Here we see a mischievous girl become a spirited woman who defies tradition." (Excerpt from Penguin House)
Monir Sharoudy Farmanfarmaian: Heartaches (2007) by Rose Issa (ISBN 978-9646994539)
"The Heartaches' series sculptural boxes made of mixed collages and arrangements of photographs, prints and various objects was made by Monir Shahroudy Farmanfamaian in New York in the Nineties. These twenty-five intimate small-scale sculptures were primarily made after the loss of her husband, and draw inspiration from all the places, faces and paraphernalia that at some stage in her history were associated with a happy family life." (Excerpt from Amazon)
Selected Works of Monir Shahroudy Farmanfarmaian 1979-2008 (2009) (ISBN 978-6005191035)
"This overview of Iranian artist Farmanfarmaian charts a selection of her works created since she fled Iran at the beginning of the Iranian revolution in 1979, and that have been produced both during her exile in New York and subsequently since her return to her homeland some two decades later. While this period of exile has had an undeniable impact on the style of her work, aesthetic elements derived from Iranian traditions and practice remain consistently visible throughout her works. Presented in chronological order, this book includes a selection of the artists manuscripts, collages, reverse paintings on glass, mirror works, etchings and sculptures, all clearly and generously reproduced one to a page." (Excerpt from Amazon)
Monir Shahroudy Farmanfarmaian: Cosmic Geometry (2011) (ISBN 978-8862081757)
Published by Damiani Editore & The Third Line. The book features in-depth interview by Hans Ulrich Obrist, and critical essays by Nader Ardalan, Media Farzin and Eleanor Sims, tributes by Farmanfarmaian's friends Etel Adnan, Siah Armajani, caraballo-farman, Golnaz Fathi, Hadi Hazavei, Susan Hefuna, Aziz Isham, Rose Issa, Faryar Javaherian, Abbas Kiarostami, Shirin Neshat, Donna Stein and Frank Stella.
Other Publications:
Her work is documented in Iranian Contemporary Art, Barbican Art Centre, Booth Clibborn, 2001; Zendegi, 11 Iranian Contemporary Artists, Beirut Exhibition. She is referenced in an excerpt from The Sense of Unity: The Sufi Tradition in Persian Architecture by Nader Ardalan and Laleh Bakhtiar (1973), and an annotated timeline of Farmanfarmaian's life by Negar Azimi. Women in Abstraction, Centre Pompidou, (2021). She has a chapter in 'Women's Work' by Ferren Gipson.
== References ==
== External links ==
ArtForum magazine interview with Monir Shahroudy Farmanfarmaian
Monir Shahroudy Farmanfarmaian Interview from 2010 with ArtAsiaPacific at the Metropolitan Museum of Art
Byrnes, Lucy (19 August 2015). "Monir Shahroudy Farmanfarmaian". Freunde von Freunden. Retrieved 1 September 2015.
Mohammed Afkhami, Sussan Babaie, Venetia Porter, Natasha Morris. "Honar: The Afkhami Collection of Modern and Contemporary Iranian Art." Phaidon Press, 2017. ISBN 978-0-7148-7352-7. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basanti_Dulal_Nagchaudhuri | Basanti Dulal Nagchaudhuri | Basanti Dulal Nag Chaudhuri (6 September 1917 – 25 June 2006) was an Indian Nuclear scientist and academic, and Scientific Advisor to the Ministry of Defence, Government of India. He is known as one of the pioneers of nuclear physics in India. While serving as the Director General (chairman) to the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), he played influential role in Pokhran-I (Smiling Buddha), India's first successful Nuclear bomb test on 18 May 1974. This historic achievement made India the sixth nation in the world to become a nuclear superpower, after the United States of America, Soviet Union (now Russia), England, France, and China. He also initiated the first feasibility studies on India's ballistic missile program.
In the early 1970s, as the Scientific Advisor to the Ministry of Defence and chair of the Cabinet Committee on Science and Technology, Basanti Dulal Nagchaudhuri played an influential role in Smiling Buddha, India's first nuclear test. He also initiated the first feasibility studies on India's ballistic missile program. Later, he also served as a member of the Planning Commission and as Vice Chancellor of the Jawaharlal Nehru University.
== Early life ==
Basanti Dulal Nag Chaudhuri hailed from a Bengali Hindu family of Narayanganj, Dhaka, Bengal Presidency, British India (present-day Bangladesh). During the partition of India in 1947 and the ensuing communal violence in East Bengal (now Bangladesh) of Pakistan, his family moved to West Bengal, India.
His father became a professor of English at the Banaras Hindu University, now Indian Institute of Technology (Banaras Hindu University) Varanasi (IIT-BHU).
He graduated with a Bachelor of Science degree from the Banaras Hindu University. He obtained a Master's degree from Allahabad University. In Allahabad, he met influential lawyer Parmeshwar Narayan Haksar as well as renowned Indian physicist, Meghnad Saha. He became close to Saha and joined his research group. In July 1938, when Saha moved to the Rajabazar Science College campus of University of Calcutta, Nagchaudhuri moved with him.
Through Saha, he came in contact with Ernest Lawrence and with the latter's support he moved to the University of California, Berkeley at the end of 1938 to work on his doctorate in Nuclear Physics. His thesis advisor was Ernest Lawrence. Nagchaudhuri completed his doctorate in 1941 and returned to India.
After the partition of India in 1947 and the ensuing violence against Hindus in Dhaka, his family moved to India. His father took a position as a professor in the Department of English at the Banaras Hindu University.
Nagchaudhuri was married to Dipali Nag née Talukdar, daughter of a professor at St. John's College, Agra. Dipali Nag was a well-known classical vocalist. They had one son.
== Professional work ==
=== Academics and research ===
After completing his doctorate in 1941, Nagchaudhuri returned to the Rajabazar Science College, University of Calcutta to join Saha's research group. In 1949, when the Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics (SINP) was established, Nagchaudhuri was affiliated with research at the institute, while continuing to teach at Science College, Calcutta University. After Saha's retirement in 1952, he was named Director of the SINP.
Nagchaudhuri's research focused on nuclear isomers, induced radioactivity, Cherenkov radiation and nonthermal plasma. During his doctorate at Berkeley, he had worked with the pioneers of the cyclotron. Before returning to India in 1941, with support from Saha and funding from the Tatas, Nagchaudhuri had arranged for shipment of parts for a cyclotron magnet to the Calcutta University. However, ship carrying the second consignment of parts for the cyclotron was sunk by the Japanese. The team under the leadership of Saha and later under Nagchaudhuri took on the task of building the remaining parts themselves. Problems with the vacuum pumps continued to afflict the project. The demountable oscillators also proved difficult to build. It was only in 1954, after a visit from Emilio Segre to the laboratory, that the cyclotron started to function. Nagchaudhuri is thus credited with building the first cyclotron in India.
In 1953, he succeeded Meghnad Saha as the Palit Professor of Physics at Calcutta University, a post which he held until 1959. He was a visiting professor at University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in 1961-62 and nominated as a Lincoln Lecturer.
=== Government ===
Being well-connected to the political elite of West Bengal through his relationship with B.C. Roy and with P.N. Haksar, Nagchaudhuri was nominated to serve as the Chairman of the Cabinet Committee of Science & Technology from 1969 to 1972. During this period, he also served as the Scientific Advisor to the Ministry of Defence (MoD). He became a Member of the Planning Commission in 1970. From 1970 to 1974, he served as the Scientific Advisor to the DRDO.
Given his background in nuclear physics, and in his roles as the chair of the cabinet committee and as scientific advisor to the DRDO, he was closely involved in the policy discussion about India's nuclear test. In October 1972, then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi gave the go-ahead for the Smiling Buddha test. Nagchaudhuri was a member of the steering committee for the test preparations. It was in the scientific laboratories of the DRDO, headed by Nagchaudhuri, that the explosive lenses for the test were fabricated. The test was successfully conducted in May 1974.
In 1970, he was also tasked by Indira Gandhi to prepare a classified feasibility study for building long-range ballistic missiles. Based on Nagchaudhuri's recommendation, Project Valiant was initiated in 1972 to build a liquid-fuelled intermediate range ballistic missile. Another initiative, Project Devil, was initiated at the Defense Research & Development Laboratory (DRDL) to produce short-range surface-to-air missiles. While both projects were terminated in 1974 due to conflicts within DRDL and resulting lack of progress, they laid the foundation for the successful Integrated Guided Missile Development Program in the early 1980s.
In 1970-71, Nagchaudhuri also chaired a committee that examined India's maritime security issues. The committee made several key recommendations about the requirement to patrol India's vast coastline, set up a registry of offshore fishing vessels in order to identify illegal activity, and establish a capable and well-equipped force to intercept vessels engaged in illegal activities. The recommendations of the committee formed the foundation of the subsequent Rustamji Committee in 1974, that led to the establishment of the Indian Coast Guard.
=== Later work ===
From 1 July 1974 to 1 January 1979, he served as the Vice Chancellor of the Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU). From 1975 to 1977, he served as the Chairman of the National Committee on Environmental Planning and Coordination.
He also served on the Board of Governors of the Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi.
== Affiliations ==
Nagchaudhuri served on numerous Indian and international scientific councils. From 1976 to 1984, he served a Member of the Scientific Council of the International Centre for Theoretical Physics. From 1980 to 1982, he also served on the Research Advisory Council of the National Physical Laboratory. He also served as a member and vice-chair of the Board of Governors of the East-West Center.
He also served on the boards of various Indian public sector companies. These included Bharat Dynamics Limited, Bharat Electronics Limited and Hindustan Aeronautics Limited.
Nag Chaudhuri maintained an active interest in Hindustani Classical Music and Bengali literature and culture.
=== Awards ===
Nagchaudhuri was elected a Fellow of the Indian National Science Academy in 1964. He was awarded the Padma Vibhushan in 1975. He also received honorary doctorates from Andhra University and the Kanpur University.
== Death ==
Nagchaudhuri died of a cerebral infarction on 25 June 2006. He was survived by his wife, Dipali Nag, his son and his family.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honda_Juno#Juno_M80/M85 | Honda Juno | The Honda Juno is a scooter. Two versions were produced, the K-series of 1954 (K, KA, KB), and the M-series of 1962 (M80, M85).
== Juno K ==
The Juno K was a deliberately elaborate bike in 1954. It was Honda's first scooter and would be competing with the well established Fuji Rabbit and Mitsubishi Silver Pigeon. It featured the first electric start, a full windscreen with a tilt-back sun-shade, and built-in signal lamps. It also introduced Fibre-Reinforced Plastic body construction to Japan.
Only 5,980 were produced in a year and a half. Kihachiro Kawashima, who retired as executive vice-president in 1979, remembered the bike as a "splendid failure": it was too expensive, the engine overheated, the FRP body was heavier than expected and made the bike underpowered and clumsy, the new cantilevered suspension was problematic, and customers did not like the motorcycle-style clutch operation.
The final Juno KB model can be distinguished by enlarged rear vents and new vents added to the windscreen.
Technology developed for the Juno K would be applied to later bikes. The electric start was re-introduced with the C71 Dream in 1957, and the new Plastics department under Shozo Tsuchida developed polyethylene components that would distinguish the Super Cub.
== Juno M80/M85 ==
The Juno M80/M85 was a different approach, introduced in November 1961. Unlike the K-series, there is no upper windscreen, the engine is an exposed horizontal-twin rather than an enclosed fan-cooled unit, and the body construction is conventional monocoque steel rather than FRP panels over tube. The M80/M85 also introduced a clutchless Badalini-type hydraulic-mechanical transmission which would provide the basis for the later Hondamatic motorcycle transmissions.
The M80 and M85 are essentially the same vehicle, with the M85 designation indicating a mid-year engine enlargement. The Juno was discontinued by year-end with only 5,880 produced.
== See also ==
List of motorcycles of the 1950s
== References ==
Footnotes
Sources
Juno K-series specifications from these Honda pages on 2008-02-22:
http://www.honda.co.jp/factbook/motor/SCOOTER/19810707/005.html
http://www.honda.co.jp/factbook/motor/SCOOTER/19810707/008.html
http://world.honda.com/collection-hall/2r/junok_1954.html
Juno M-series specifications from these Honda pages on 2008-02-22:
http://www.honda.co.jp/factbook/motor/SCOOTER/19810707/005.html
http://www.honda.co.jp/factbook/motor/SCOOTER/19810707/008.html
https://web.archive.org/web/20080130031207/http://world.honda.com/collection-hall/2r/junom85_1962.html
== External links ==
(in Japanese) Gallery detailing the restoration of a Juno M85 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Atlantis | Space Shuttle Atlantis | Space Shuttle Atlantis (Orbiter Vehicle designation: OV‑104) is a retired Space Shuttle orbiter vehicle which belongs to NASA, the spaceflight and space exploration agency of the United States. Atlantis was manufactured by the Rockwell International company in Southern California and was delivered to the Kennedy Space Center in Eastern Florida in April 1985. Atlantis is the fourth operational and the second-to-last Space Shuttle built. Its maiden flight was STS-51-J made from October 3 to 7, 1985.
Atlantis embarked on its 33rd and final mission, also the final mission of a space shuttle, STS-135, on July 8, 2011. STS-134 by Endeavour was expected to be the final flight before STS-135 was authorized in October 2010. STS-135 took advantage of the processing for the STS-335 Launch on Need mission that would have been necessary if STS-134's crew became stranded in orbit. Atlantis landed for the final time at the Kennedy Space Center on July 21, 2011.
By the end of its final mission, Atlantis had orbited the Earth a total of 4,848 times, traveling nearly 126,000,000 mi (203,000,000 km), which is more than 525 times the distance from the Earth to the Moon.
Atlantis is named after RV Atlantis, a two-masted sailing ship that operated as the primary research vessel for the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution from 1930 to 1966.
The space shuttle is now on display at the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex.
== Construction milestones ==
== Specifications ==
Weight (with three shuttle main engines): 68,635 kg (151,314 lb)
Length: 37.2 m (122 ft)
Height: 17.2 m (56 ft)
Wingspan: 23.7 m (78 ft)
Atlantis was completed in about half the time it took to build Space Shuttle Columbia.
When it rolled out of the Palmdale assembly plant, weighing 68,635 kg (151,314 lb), Atlantis was nearly 3.5 short tons (3.2 t) lighter than Columbia.
== Missions ==
Space Shuttle Atlantis lifted off on its maiden voyage STS-51-J on October 3, 1985. This was the second shuttle mission that was a dedicated Department of Defense mission. It flew one other mission, STS-61-B (the second shuttle night launch) before the Challenger disaster temporarily grounded the shuttle fleet in 1986. Among the five Space Shuttles flown into space, Atlantis conducted a subsequent mission in the shortest time after the previous mission (turnaround time) when it launched in November 1985 on STS-61-B, only 50 days after its previous mission, STS-51-J in October 1985. Atlantis was then used for ten flights from 1988 to 1992. Two of these, both flown in 1989, deployed the planetary probes Magellan to Venus (on STS-30) and Galileo to Jupiter (on STS-34). With STS-30 Atlantis became the first Space Shuttle to launch an interplanetary probe.
During the launch of STS-27 in 1988, a piece of insulation shed from the right solid rocket booster struck the underside of the vehicle, severely damaging over 700 tiles and removing one tile altogether. The crew were instructed to use the remote manipulator system to survey the condition of the underside of the right wing, ultimately finding substantial tile damage. Due to the classified nature of the mission, the only images transferred to the mission control center were encrypted and of extremely poor quality. Mission control personnel deemed the damage to be "lights and shadows" and instructed the crew to proceed with the mission as usual, infuriating many of the crew. Upon landing, Atlantis became the single-most-damaged shuttle to successfully land. The survival of the crew is attributed to a steel L band antenna plate which was positioned directly under the missing tile. A similar situation would eventually lead to the loss of the shuttle Columbia in 2003, albeit on the more critical reinforced carbon-carbon.
During STS-37 in 1991, Atlantis deployed the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory. Beginning in 1995 with STS-71, Atlantis made seven straight flights to the former Russian space station Mir as part of the Shuttle–Mir program. STS-71 marked a number of firsts in human spaceflight: 100th U.S. crewed space flight; first U.S. Shuttle-Russian Space Station Mir docking and joint on-orbit operations; and first on-orbit change-out of shuttle crew. When linked, Atlantis and Mir together formed the largest spacecraft in orbit at the time.
Atlantis delivered several vital components for the construction of the International Space Station (ISS). During the February 2001 mission STS-98 to the ISS, Atlantis delivered the Destiny Module, the primary operating facility for U.S. research payloads aboard the ISS. The five-hour 25-minute third spacewalk performed by astronauts Robert Curbeam and Thomas Jones during STS-98 marked NASA's 100th extra vehicular activity in space. The Quest Joint Airlock, was flown and installed to the ISS by Atlantis during the mission STS-104 in July 2001. The successful installation of the airlock gave on-board space station crews the ability to stage repair and maintenance spacewalks outside the ISS using U.S. EMU or Russian Orlan space suits. The first mission flown by Atlantis after the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster was STS-115, conducted during September 2006. The mission carried the P3/P4 truss segments and solar arrays to the ISS. On ISS assembly flight STS-122 in February 2008, Atlantis delivered the Columbus laboratory to the ISS. Columbus laboratory is the largest single contribution to the ISS made by the European Space Agency (ESA).
In May 2009 Atlantis flew a seven-member crew to the Hubble Space Telescope for its Servicing Mission 4, STS-125. The mission was a success, with the crew completing five spacewalks totaling 37 hours to install new cameras, batteries, a gyroscope and other components to the telescope. This was the final mission not to rendezvous with the ISS.
The longest mission flown using Atlantis was STS-117, which lasted almost 14 days in June 2007. During STS-117, Atlantis' crew added a new starboard truss segment and solar array pair (the S3/S4 truss), folded the P6 array in preparation for its relocation and performed four spacewalks. Atlantis was not equipped to take advantage of the Station-to-Shuttle Power Transfer System so missions could not be extended by making use of power provided by ISS.
During the STS-129 post-flight interview on November 16, 2009, shuttle launch director Mike Leinbach said that Atlantis officially beat Space Shuttle Discovery for the record low amount of interim problem reports, with a total of just 54 listed since returning from STS-125. Leinbach added, "It is due to the team and the hardware processing. They just did a great job. The record will probably never be broken again in the history of the Space Shuttle Program, so congratulations to them." Leinbach made a similar report during a post-launch interview on May 14, 2010, saying that there were a total of 46 listed from STS-129 to STS-132.
== Orbiter maintenance down periods ==
Atlantis went through two overhauls of scheduled orbiter maintenance down periods (OMDPs) during its operational history.
Atlantis arrived at Palmdale, California in October 1992 for OMDP-1. During that visit 165 modifications were made over the next 20 months. These included the installation of a drag chute, new plumbing lines to configure the orbiter for extended duration, improved nose wheel steering, more than 800 new heat tiles and blankets, new insulation for main landing gear, and structural modifications to the airframe.
On November 5, 1997, Atlantis again arrived at Palmdale for OMDP-2 which was completed on September 24, 1998. The 130 modifications carried out during OMDP-2 included glass cockpit displays, replacement of TACAN navigation with GPS and ISS airlock and docking installation. Several weight reduction modifications were performed on the orbiter including replacement of Advanced Flexible Reusable Surface Insulation (AFRSI) insulation blankets on upper surfaces with FRSI. Lightweight crew seats were installed and the Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO) package installed on OMDP-1 was removed to lighten Atlantis to better serve its prime mission of servicing the ISS.
During the standdown period post Columbia accident, Atlantis went through over 75 modifications to the orbiter ranging from very minor bolt change-outs to window change-outs and different fluid systems.
Atlantis was known among the shuttle workforce as being more prone than the others in the fleet to problems that needed to be addressed while readying the vehicle for launch, leading to some nicknaming it "Britney".
== Decommissioning ==
NASA initially planned to withdraw Atlantis from service in 2008, as the orbiter would have been due to undergo its third scheduled OMDP; the timescale of the final retirement of the shuttle fleet was such that having the orbiter undergo this work was deemed uneconomical. It was planned that Atlantis would be kept in near-flight condition to be used as a spares source for Discovery and Endeavour. However, with the significant planned flight schedule up to 2010, the decision was taken to extend the time between OMDPs, allowing Atlantis to be retained for operations. Atlantis was subsequently swapped for one flight of each Discovery and Endeavour in the flight manifest. Atlantis had completed what was meant to be its last flight, STS-132, prior to the end of the shuttle program, but the extension of the Shuttle program into 2011 led to Atlantis being selected for STS-135, the final Space Shuttle mission in July 2011.
Atlantis is currently displayed at the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex. NASA Administrator Charles Bolden announced the decision at an employee event held on April 12, 2011, to commemorate the 30th anniversary of the first shuttle flight: "First, here at the Kennedy Space Center where every shuttle mission and so many other historic human space flights have originated, we'll showcase my old friend, Atlantis".
The Visitor Complex displays Atlantis with payload bay doors opened mounted at a 43.21° angle to give the appearance of being in orbit around the Earth. The mount angle pays tribute to the countdown that preceded every shuttle launch at KSC. A multi-story digital projection of Earth rotates behind the orbiter in a 5,900 m2 (64,000 sq ft) indoor facility. Ground breaking of the facility occurred in 2012.
The exhibit opened on June 29, 2013.
== Crews ==
A total of 207 individuals flew with Space Shuttle Atlantis over the course of its 33 missions. Because the shuttle sometimes flew crew members arriving and departing Mir and the ISS, not all of them launched and landed on Atlantis.
Astronaut Clayton Anderson, ESA astronaut Leopold Eyharts and Russian cosmonauts Nikolai Budarin and Anatoly Solovyev only launched on Atlantis. Similarly, astronauts Daniel Tani and Sunita Williams, as well as cosmonauts Vladimir Dezhurov and Gennady Strekalov only landed with Atlantis. Only 146 men and women both launched and landed aboard Atlantis.
Some of those people flew with Atlantis more than once. Taking them into account, 203 total seats were filled over Atlantis' 33 missions. Astronaut Jerry Ross holds the record for the most flights aboard Atlantis at five.
Astronaut Rodolfo Neri Vela who flew aboard Atlantis on STS-61-B mission in 1985 is the only Mexican to have traveled to space. ESA astronaut Dirk Frimout who flew on STS-45 as a payload specialist was the first Belgian in space. STS-46 mission specialist Claude Nicollier was the first astronaut from Switzerland. On the same flight, astronaut Franco Malerba became the first citizen of Italy to travel to space.
Astronaut Mike Massimino who flew on STS-125 mission became the first person to use Twitter in space in May 2009.
Having flown aboard Atlantis as part of the STS-132 crew in May 2010 and Discovery as part of the STS-133 crew in February/March 2011, Stephen Bowen became the first NASA astronaut to be launched on consecutive missions.
== Flights listing ==
== Problems ==
=== Composite overwrapped pressure vessels ===
NASA announced in 2007 that 24 helium and nitrogen gas tanks in Atlantis were older than their designed lifetime. These composite overwrapped pressure vessels (COPV) were designed for a 10-year life and later cleared for an additional 10 years; they exceeded this life in 2005. NASA said it could not guarantee any longer that the vessels on Atlantis would not burst or explode under full pressure. Failure of these tanks could have damaged parts of the orbiter and even wound or kill ground personnel. An in-flight failure of a pressure vessel could have even resulted in the loss of the orbiter and its crew. NASA analyses originally assumed that the vessels would leak before they burst, but new tests showed that they could in fact burst before leaking.
Because the original vendor was no longer in business, and a new manufacturer could not be qualified before 2010, when the shuttles were scheduled to be retired, NASA decided to continue operations with the existing tanks. Therefore, to reduce the risk of failure and the cumulative effects of load, the vessels were maintained at 80 percent of the operating pressure as late in the launch countdown as possible, and the launch pad was cleared of all but essential personnel when pressure was increased to 100 percent. The new launch procedure was employed during some of the remaining launches of Atlantis, but was resolved when the two COPVs deemed to have the highest risk of failure were replaced.
=== Window damage ===
After the STS-125 mission, a work light knob was discovered jammed in the space between one of Atlantis's front interior windows and the Orbiter dashboard structure. The knob was believed to have entered the space during flight, when the pressurized Orbiter was expanded to its maximum size. Then, once back on Earth, the Orbiter contracted, jamming the knob in place. Leaving "as-is" was considered unsafe for flight, and some options for removal (including window replacement) would have included a 6-month delay of Atlantis's next mission (planned to be STS-129). Had the removal of the knob been unsuccessful, the worst-case scenario was that Atlantis could have been retired from the fleet, leaving Discovery and Endeavour to complete the manifest alone. On June 29, 2009, Atlantis was pressurized to 17 psi (120 kPa) (3 psi above ambient), which forced the Orbiter to expand slightly. The knob was then frozen with dry ice, and successfully removed. Small areas of damage to the window were discovered where the edges of the knob had been embedded into the pane. Subsequent investigation of the window damage discovered a maximum defect depth of approximately 0.0003 in (7.6 μm), less than the reportable depth threshold of 0.0015 in (38 μm) and not serious enough to warrant the pane's replacement.
== Gallery ==
=== Tribute and mission insignias ===
* Mission canceled following the Challenger disaster.
== In media ==
The 1986 film SpaceCamp involves a crew of students at United States Space Camp that are accidentally launched into space on-board Atlantis.
The 1990 novel Earth by David Brin includes Atlantis, depicted as stranded on Rapa Nui in tribute to G. Harry Stine's serialized novel Shuttle Down, published in 1980.
Atlantis is featured in the 1998 science-fiction film Deep Impact, in which it is used to transport astronauts to the orbiting "Messiah" spacecraft at the start of their comet intercept mission.
Atlantis is also featured in, and destroyed in, the 1998 science-fiction film Armageddon, which was released almost two months after Deep Impact.
Atlantis is the setting and title of episode 2 of season 1 of the revived continuation of the TV series Quantum Leap, which features a fictional mission set between the real 1997 and 2000 missions (STS-86 and STS-101).
Atlantis was featured in the British program Chucklevision's episode "Kidnapped", in which Paul & Barry Chuckle were looking for Dan the Van but a lady redirected them to the Space Shuttle Atlantis; footage from STS-45 was used.
A dual finned space shuttle inspired by Atlantis appeared in the 2010 anime movie Metal Fight Beyblade vs the Sun: Sol Blaze, the Scorching Hot Invader.
== See also ==
List of human spaceflights
List of Space Shuttle crews
List of Space Shuttle missions
STS-135
== References ==
== External links ==
Mission Summary Archive
Orbiter Vehicles Archived February 9, 2021, at the Wayback Machine
Shuttle Orbiter Atlantis (OV-104)
16 April 2007: Consolidated Launch Manifest: Space Shuttle Flights and ISS Assembly Sequence
Space Shuttle Atlantis: Last Flight – slideshow by Life magazine
Atlantis photo essay From Boston.com.
Transition & Retirement: Hi-res spherical panoramas of the processing
Atlantis StickrBoo
Historic American Engineering Record (HAER) No. TX-116-B, "Space Transportation System, Orbiter Atlantis (OV-104), Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, 2101 NASA Parkway, Houston, Harris County, TX", 24 photos, 5 photo caption pages |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gloria_Hemingway | Gloria Hemingway | Gloria Hemingway (born Gregory Hancock Hemingway, November 12, 1931 – October 1, 2001) was an American physician and writer who was the third and youngest child of author Ernest Hemingway. Although she was born male and lived most of her life publicly as a man, she struggled with her gender identity from a young age. In her 60s, she underwent gender transition surgery, and preferred the name Gloria when possible.
A good athlete and a crack shot, she longed to be a typical Hemingway hero and trained as a professional hunter in Africa, but her alcoholism prevented her from gaining a license, and it ultimately cost her her medical license in the United States. Hemingway maintained a long-running feud with her father, stemming from a 1951 incident when her arrest for entering a women's bathroom in a Los Angeles movie theater dressed in women's clothing caused an argument between Ernest and Pauline Pfeiffer, Gloria's mother. Pfeiffer died from a stress-related condition the following day, which Ernest blamed on Gloria.
In 1976, she authored a bestselling memoir of her father, Papa: A Personal Memoir, which was seen by some to reflect troubles of her own. These included wearing women's clothes, which she ascribed to gender dysphoria.
== Early life and education ==
Born in Kansas City, Missouri, to novelist Ernest Hemingway and his second wife Pauline Pfeiffer, she was called 'Gigi' or 'Gig' in childhood and was, according to a close observer, "a tremendous athlete" and a "crack shot". As an adult, she preferred the name 'Greg'. At the age of 12, she was wearing her stepmother Martha Gellhorn's stockings almost daily. Ernest caught her wearing them, and had an outburst of anger that left an impression on her for decades. However, a few days later he said to her, "Gigi, we come from a strange tribe, you and I." Hemingway attended the Canterbury School, a Catholic prep school in Connecticut, graduating in 1949. She dropped out of St. John's College, Annapolis, after one year and worked for a time as an aircraft mechanic before moving to California in 1951.
In April 1951, Hemingway married Jane Rhodes. The two had not known each other long, and Rhodes was pregnant. Ernest objected to 19-year-old Hemingway marrying, because of her financial and mental instability. The same year, Hemingway met with L. Ron Hubbard and was quite taken by Scientology.
In September 1951, Hemingway was arrested for entering a women's bathroom in a Los Angeles movie theater dressed in women's clothing. Her mother, Pauline Pfeiffer, immediately flew out to see her, and took efforts to prevent media picking up the story. Pfeiffer called Ernest in Havana, and the two parents argued, with Hemingway recounting later that Ernest blamed Pauline for Hemingway's nature. According to Hemingway biographer Michael Reynolds the "conversation degenerated into accusations, blame-laying, vituperation, and general misunderstanding." Pfeiffer died of hypertension around 4am the following morning, and both Hemingways would blame the other for her death. During the autopsy it was discovered she suffered from a rare tumor that "secretes abnormal amounts of adrenaline causing extremely high blood pressure." Ernest blamed Hemingway for Pauline's death, and she was deeply disturbed by the accusation. It would be years before she and Ernest spoke to each other again, and their relationship would be tense for the rest of Ernest's life.
Another result was that Hemingway inherited a significant amount of money, which she used in part to retreat to Africa, where she drank alcohol and shot elephants. She spent the next three years in Africa as an apprentice professional hunter but failed to obtain a license because of her drinking. She joined the United States Army as a private in October 1956 and served briefly. She was stationed at Fort Bragg, North Carolina. She was soon institutionalized for bipolar disorder, and received several dozen treatments with electroconvulsive therapy. Of another period shooting elephants she wrote: "I went back to Africa to do more killing. Somehow it was therapeutic." Not until nearly a decade later, in 1960, did she feel strong enough to resume her medical studies and respond to her father's charges. She wrote her father a bitter letter, detailing the medical facts of her mother's death and blaming Ernest for the tragedy. The next year, Ernest killed himself, and again Hemingway wrestled with guilt over the death of a parent.
She obtained a medical degree from the University of Miami Medical School in 1964.
== Career ==
Hemingway practiced medicine in the 1970s and 1980s, first in New York and then as a rural family doctor in Montana, first in Fort Benton and later as the medical officer for Garfield County, based in Jordan, Montana. Much of her medical practice involved health exams for insurance companies. Interviewed there, she said: "When I smell the sagebrush or see the mountains, or a vast clean stream, I love those things. Some of my happiest memories of childhood were associated with the West." In 1988, authorities in Montana declined to renew Hemingway's medical license because of her alcoholism. Hemingway dealt with bipolar disorder, alcoholism, and drug abuse for many years.
Hemingway and her brothers tried to protect their father's name and their inheritance by taking legal action to stop the popular local celebrations called "Hemingway Days" in Key West, Florida. In 1999, they collaborated in creating a business venture, Hemingway Ltd., to market the family name as "an up-scale lifestyle accessory brand". Their first venture created controversy by putting the Hemingway name on a line of shotguns.
== Personal life ==
=== Gender identity ===
Throughout her life, Hemingway experienced gender dysphoria and wore women's clothes often, mostly privately and occasionally going out. When Hemingway was 12 years old, Ernest walked in on her dressed in her stepmother Martha Gellhorn's stockings, a near-daily activity at the time, and went berserk. A biographer of Hemingway's, Donald Junkins, stated that when Hemingway was 60 years old, she told him that "[she] never got over it: the raging wrath of [her] father". However, a few days after the childhood encounter Ernest counseled "Gigi, we come from a strange tribe, you and I." In 1946 Ernest's wife Mary accused the maid of stealing her lingerie, but later discovered the items under 14-year-old Hemingway's mattress. When Ernest rebuked her for stealing from Mary years later, Hemingway responded, "The clothes business is something that I have never been able to control, understand basically very little, and I am terribly ashamed of. I have lied about it before, mainly to people I am fond of, because I was afraid they would not like me as much if they had found out."
Hemingway's wife, Valerie, wrote that Hemingway "fought a losing battle against this crippling illness", faulting Hemingway's parents as "unable or unwilling to accept" what Hemingway herself could not "come to terms with it ... for a long time, taking up the study of medicine in the hope that [she] would find a cure, or at least a solace." Valerie described "an alternate persona, a character into which [Hemingway] could retreat from the unbearable responsibilities of being, among other things, his father's son [sic], and of never ever measuring up to" others' expectations and Hemingway's own.
Hemingway considered gender-affirming surgery as early as 1973. She tried conversion therapy to no avail. In a 1986 interview with The Washington Post, Hemingway stated "I've spent hundreds of thousands of dollars trying not to be a transvestite." Meyer's 2020 biography noted that "despite psychiatric help and shock treatments...[Hemingway]...remained an obsessive transvestite." She had bottom surgery in 1994 and began using the name Gloria, or sometimes Vanessa, her daughter's name. Hemingway remarried Galliher in 1997 in Washington state, presenting as male since same-sex marriage in Washington was illegal at the time.
While she was sometimes open with the media about her struggles with gender dysphoria and had been seen in women's clothing numerous times, Hemingway's public persona generally remained male, as she never gained the acceptance of her family or society, and repeatedly attempted conversion therapy. Using the name Gregory, she gave interviews about her father as late as 1999. In July of that year she attended events marking the centenary of Ernest Hemingway's birth in Oak Park, Illinois. She also spoke at the dedication of the Hemingway-Pfeiffer Museum in her mother's family home in Piggott, Arkansas, when it opened on July 4, 1999.
In addition to bottom surgery, Hemingway had breast implant surgery on one breast and then had it reversed; the autopsy and police report both noted the presence of breasts. She was increasingly seen in women's attire in public; yet, she also frequented a local tavern dressed as a man, presented as what a patron called "just one of the guys", though they knew about her feminine identity and persona and were not bothered.
On September 24, 2001, Hemingway wore a black cocktail dress to a party and used the name Vanessa; she did not become drunk and was regarded as noticeably happy by friends, many who had never been introduced to her as a woman before. Hemingway also stated that her gender-affirming surgery was the best thing she had ever done. Arrested the next day, she first gave the police the name Greg Hemingway, then changed it to Gloria and was detained in the Miami-Dade Women's Detention Center, where she died five days later.
== Relationship with Ernest Hemingway ==
In addition to the conflict over him finding Hemingway in Martha Gellhorn's clothing, Ernest and his child were estranged for many years, beginning when Hemingway was 19 and arrested for entering a women's bathroom in women's clothes. Ernest blamed Pauline, and the enormous stress triggered an underlying condition and caused her death, which he then blamed on Hemingway. Ernest also said Hemingway had "the biggest dark side in the family except me". As an attempt at reconciliation, Hemingway sent her father a telegram in October 1954 to congratulate him on being awarded the Nobel Prize and received $5,000 in return. They had intermittent contact thereafter.
One such example was a letter from Hemingway to Ernest in reply to one which referenced her gender exploration stating "The clothes business is something that I have never been able to control, understand basically very little, and I am terribly ashamed of. I have lied about it before, mainly to people I am fond of, because I was afraid they would not like me as much if they had found out."
Hemingway wrote a short account of her father's life and their strained relationship, Papa: A Personal Memoir, that became a bestseller. When it appeared in 1976, Norman Mailer wrote in the preface, "There is nothing slavish here....For once, you can read a book about [Ernest] Hemingway and not have to decide whether you like him or not." The New York Times called it "a small miracle" and "artfully elliptical" in presenting "gloriously romantic adventures" with "a thin cutting edge of malice". Hemingway wrote of her own ambitions in the shadow of her father's fame: "What I really wanted to be was a Hemingway hero." Of her father she wrote: "The man I remembered was kind, gentle, elemental in his vastness, tormented beyond endurance, and although we always called him papa, it was out of love, not fear." She quoted her father as telling her: "You make your own luck, Gig" and "You know what makes a good loser? Practice." Time magazine criticized the author's "churlishness" and called her work "a bitter jumble of unsorted resentments and anguished love." Her daughter Lorian responded to Papa with a letter to Time that said, "I would also like to know what type of person the author is ... I haven't seen [her] for eight years ... I think it sad that I learn more about [her] by reading articles and gossip columns than from my own communication".
According to her wife Valerie, Hemingway enjoyed her father's portrayal of her as Andrew in Islands in the Stream (1970) and later used the text as the epigraph to her memoir of her father. Valerie included this text as the epigraph to her own tribute to Hemingway written two years after her death:
The smallest boy was fair and was built like a pocket battle-ship. He was a Copy of Thomas Hudson, physically, reduced in scale and widened and shortened. His skin freckled when it tanned and he had a humorous face and was born being very old. He was a devil too, and deviled both his older brothers, and he had a dark side to him that nobody except Thomas Hudson could ever understand. Neither of them thought about this except that they recognized it in each other and knew it was bad and the man respected it and understood the boy's having it. They were very close to each other although Thomas Hudson had never been as much with this boy as with the others. This youngest boy, Andrew, was a precocious excellent athlete and he had been marvelous with horses since he had first ridden. The other boys were very proud of him but they did not want any nonsense from him, either. He was a little unbelievable and anyone could well have doubted his feats except that many people had seen him ride and watched him jump and seen his cold, professional modesty. He was a boy born to be quite wicked who was being very good and he carried his wickedness around with him transmuted into a sort of teasing gaiety. But he was a bad boy and the others knew it and he knew it. He was just being good while his badness grew inside him.
In the course of her first three marriages, Hemingway had eight children including Vanessa, John, and Lorian. One of her marriages, to Valerie Danby-Smith, Ernest's secretary, lasted almost 20 years. Hemingway's fourth marriage, to Ida Mae Galliher, ended in divorce in 1995 after three years, though they continued to live together and remarried in 1997.
== Death ==
Hemingway died on October 1, 2001, of hypertension and cardiovascular disease in Miami-Dade Women's Detention Center. That day, Hemingway was due in court to answer charges of indecent exposure and resisting arrest without violence. Hemingway had been living in Florida for more than ten years. She is interred next to her father and her half-brother Jack in the cemetery in Ketchum, Idaho.
== Public reactions to death ==
In most obituaries, she was called "Gregory", but Time magazine published a brief notice of the death of "Gloria Hemingway, 69, transsexual youngest son turned daughter of novelist Ernest Hemingway" and noted the novelist once said Hemingway had "the biggest dark side in the family except me". The gravestone reads: "Dr. Gregory Hancock Hemingway 1931–2001".
The media response to Hemingway's death has been condemned for not referring to her as "Gloria" and for portraying gender variance as inherently pathological. Shortly after Hemingway died, the LGBT magazine The Advocate published an article discussing the coverage of her death. In it, Vanessa Edwards Foster, spokeswoman for the National Transgender Advocacy Coalition, discussed how family rejection contributes to depression, how Hemingway had to fight for years to be recognized, especially growing up as Ernest's son, and how transgender people felt the coverage was lurid, degrading, and dehumanizing. Hemingway's daughter Lorian sympathized, and stated "I am proud of [her] for going through with it" and that she hoped it brought Hemingway "some peace in the years [she] had left". She said that it was good that Hemingway's life ended "in the women's cell, where [she] would have chosen to be."
She left two wills. One will left most of the $7 million estate to Galliher. The other left most of it to Hemingway's children. The children challenged the will that named Galliher as heir, claiming that Galliher was not legally Hemingway's widow given that Hemingway's home state of Florida did not recognize same-sex marriages. The parties eventually reached an undisclosed settlement.
In 1972, Maia Rodman, Hemingway's childhood tennis coach and a family friend who had fallen in love with her, dedicated her book The Life and Death of a Brave Bull to Hemingway.
Hemingway's daughter Lorian Hemingway wrote about Hemingway in the 1999 book Walk on Water: A Memoir. Hemingway's son Edward, an author and artist, has written or illustrated 11 books, including the children's books Bad Apple, Tough Cookie, and Pigeon and Cat. Her son John wrote the memoir Strange Tribe: A Family Memoir.
== Notes ==
== References ==
Hemingway, Gregory H. (1976). Papa: A Personal Memoir. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-39524-348-0. OCLC 421932512.
Hemingway, John Patrick (2007). Strange Tribe: A Family Memoir. Guilford, CT: Lyons Press. ISBN 978-1-59921-112-1. OCLC 122704535.
Hemingway, Valerie (2005). Running with the Bulls: My Years with the Hemingways. New York: Ballantine Books. ISBN 978-0-34546-734-8. OCLC 978651043.
Hendrickson, Paul (July 29, 1987). "Papa's Boys". The Washington Post. Retrieved May 11, 2021.
Meyers, Jeffrey (2020). "Gregory Hemingway: Transgender Tragedy". American Imago. 77 (2): 395–417. doi:10.1353/aim.2020.0018. ISSN 1085-7931. S2CID 226736451.
== Further reading ==
Schoenberg, Nana (October 26, 2001). "The old man and the she". The Chicago Tribune.
"Gregory Hemingway Dies; Writer's Child Battled Depression: [FINAL Edition]". The Washington Post. October 5, 2001. p. B07. ProQuest 409237954.
== External links ==
Gloria Hemingway at IMDb
Hemingway-Pfeiffer timeline
Childhood photo |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._V._Grant#Tax_evasion | W. V. Grant | Walter Vinson Grant Jr. (born May 25, 1945) is an American televangelist whose ministry has been based in the Greater Dallas area.
== Career ==
Grant began his career in Cincinnati, Ohio, in the mid-1970s with the "Cathedral of Compassion" in the Over-the-Rhine area of Cincinnati before relocating to the suburbs of St Bernard until the early 1980s. The son of minister Walter Vinson Grant, Sr., in 1983 Grant took over Soul's Harbor Church (located in the Oak Cliff section of Dallas) and expanded its ministry, later renaming the church as "Eagles Nest Cathedral". In 1987, Grant purchased 28 acres (11 hectares) in the southwest section of Dallas (near Dallas Baptist University) and built the "Eagle's Nest Family Church", and continued pastoring the 5000-seat church until 1996.
Grant was convicted in 1996 of tax evasion, and since his release from prison he has restarted his ministry.
He was married 3 times. His wife, Brenda Gayle Hayes, died on October 6, 2020. He has three adult children: daughter Misty and stepsons Barry and Mark Anderson.
== Education and degrees ==
As of August 2011, Grant's website stated the following about the minister's education and honorary degrees:
After attending Southwestern Assemblies of God Bible University, he started in the full-time ministry. He received his undergraduate degrees in English Literature and Religion, as well as his Master's Degree in History from Dallas Baptist University. He has two honorary degrees from Kingsway Bible University (Des Moines, Iowa) and the Colonial Academy (Chicago).
Paranormal investigator James Randi examined Grant's practices in his 1987 book, The Faith Healers. About Grant's degrees, Randi wrote:
. . . even Grant's college degree is phony. He claims that he obtained it from "Midstates Bible College" in Des Moines in 1972. He displays the diploma on his office wall. But Midstates wasn't then and isn't now accredited with the Iowa Department of Public Instruction, as all parochial and public schools are required to be. It wasn't recorded with the secretary of state's office in Iowa as a corporation; nor was it listed in the county recorder's office. It didn't even show up in the telephone directory.
Grant told a reporter in 1986 that he did not graduate from a seminary but, in Grant's words, had "more or less an honorary D.D. (doctor of divinity) degree" from Mid-States Bible College in Des Moines, Iowa, which later changed its name to Kingsway Christian College. "They take a formula of how many books you've written, how long you've been in the ministry, maybe how many times you've been on radio and TV," he said.
== Faith healing ==
Grant has denied being a faith healer, stating that "whatever healing there is, is a gift from God", for which he is merely "a mortal conduit".
== Tax evasion ==
In 1996, an Internal Revenue Service investigation into Grant's ministry resulted in Grant's imprisonment for tax evasion. He was found guilty of failing to report $375,000 in taxable income in the purchase of two homes, including his $1 million residence. An undercover video tape showed Grant admitting that he used $100,000 in 1988 from church members as a down payment on a $1.2 million home overlooking a Desoto, Texas, country club and not reporting it as income. Judge Joe Kendall criticized Grant by asking, "Did you watch the same videotape I watched?" He continued, "He's all over it admitting he's guilty. He swore to God under oath he is guilty". The judge sentenced Grant to 16 months in prison and a $30,000 fine, to be paid after his release, when he would also serve an additional year of probation. Kendall also ordered Grant to "perform 100 hours of community service, publish details of his arrest and sentence for everyone on his mailing list and provide complete, continuing financial reports to the court."
His wife was indicted on charges of blocking the IRS and evading taxes.
Though she initially pleaded guilty, the judge allowed her to withdraw the plea and she was later acquitted. Following the conviction, Grant transferred the Eagles Nest Cathedral facility to T. D. Jakes, also a televangelist, who renamed it "The Potter's House".
== Eagles Nest Cathedral ==
Grant was released from prison on September 18, 1997, and has since restarted his ministry, again under the name Eagles Nest Cathedral.
Originally located in the eastern part of Dallas in the area known as Pleasant Grove", in August 2012, W.V. Grant purchased a historic property in downtown Dallas (the former home of "First Church of Christ, Scientist," located at 1508 Cadiz Street, Dallas, Texas 75201) where "The Eagle's Nest Cathedral" and Grant now hold almost nightly services normally lasting from 7:00 PM – 9:00 PM.
== Media coverage ==
1986–87: Scientific skeptic and professional stage magician James Randi reported that Grant had been supplied with notes concerning the ailments of audience members before the show, that he used a "sleight of hand" trick to make a person's leg appear to grow, and that he had members of the audience who walked into the event placed into wheelchairs beforehand and then, during the service, he asked them to stand and walk. Randi also claimed that Grant's wife first gathered information about members of the audience, which she relayed to her husband via slips of paper in a Bible he displayed during his presentations. "They're agnostics," Grant said of his critics in 1986, "Or even atheists."
1987: Chicago Tribune religion writer Bruce Buursma reported the experiences of one of Randi's fellow investigators, Andrew A. Skolnick, who was twice "healed" by Grant and once by televangelist faith healer Peter Popoff.
1991: Grant was investigated by ABC News and Trinity Foundation for an exposé report on Primetime Live (with Larry Lea and Robert Tilton). A 2006 opinion article in the Dallas Observer claimed that the examination of documents in various lawsuits revealed deceptive journalistic techniques were utilized by ABC News, and concluded that a key element of the televised Primetime Live report relating to Tilton was "bogus".
The Trinity Foundation also found photos of a naked Grant in his trash and published one in the centrefold of their satirical magazine, The Door.
1996: The Dallas Morning News reported that one of Grant's fundraising letters was apparently written by Gene Ewing, who heads a multi-million dollar marketing empire, writing donation letters for other evangelicals like Don Stewart and Robert Tilton.
2003: Atlanta television station WAGA-TV investigated Grant and found that Grant liked to arrive at his revivals early, hours before they were supposed to begin. WAGA reporters showed up early as well, with hidden cameras, and watched the preacher talk to several people already in the church. As it turned out, many of them were people Grant would later pick out of the crowd and "miraculously" announce their name and their disease." The report concluded that of three people Grant claimed to heal, two were in worse condition after, and one assisted Grant with the setup with no sign of the condition he claimed during the service. In addition, "healing the short leg" was a magic trick demonstrated on a reporter by magician James Randi.
2006: Richmond, Virginia television station WWBT-TV aired an investigation on Grant while he conducted faith healing services at the Richmond Christian Center.
2010: Free Inquiry, the magazine of the Council for Secular Humanism, discussed how Grant's act had changed little in the preceding twenty years and detailed his "miracles" at a venue.
2011: British mentalist Derren Brown produced a program "Miracles for Sale" broadcast on Channel 4. As part of the program, Brown and his team made two visits to Grant's church in Dallas. During the first visit, Grant claimed that "God" had told him the name of a member of Brown's team, but the name he gave out was a false one that the person had written on a contact card prior to the start of the service. This indicated that Grant's knowledge came from the card and not from any supernatural means. On their second visit, Grant performed his leg lengthening "miracle" on Brown himself. The footage showed Grant using the same shoe-manipulation technique that Brown had exposed earlier on the program.
== References ==
== External links ==
Official ministries site |
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