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earth_science-114/extraction_0.txt | !Papua New Guinea # Orokolo Bay Project Overview !info Click for more information !Australia # Orokolo Bay Project To activate drag with keyboard, press Alt + Enter. Once in keyboard drag state, use the arrow keys to move the marker. To complete the drag, press the Enter key. To cancel, press Escape. **Location:** 280 ... | |
earth_science-114/extraction_1.txt | # Orokolo Bay Industrial Sands Updated DFS 23 January 2024 Mayur Resources Limited (ASX:MRL) (Mayur or the Company) is pleased to present an updated overview of the Orokolo Bay Definitive Feasibility Study (DFS). The original DFS, announced in September 2020 – “Orokolo Bay Industrial Sands Project DFS confirms low-cost... | |
earth_science-114/extraction_2.txt | # Iron & Industrial Sands Mayur is pioneering the development of a highly prospective iron and industrial sands province along the southern coastline and delta regions of the Gulf of Papua. There is potential for multiple projects, with near term routes to market and significant scalability to expand future low-cost op... | |
earth_science-114/extraction_3.txt | # Amazon Bay Ironsands Project # Overview Nearly 200 km stretch of coast line, 150 km south east of Port Moresby, PNG Focus on 30 km long Threadfin area, which has exploration target of 630 million tonnes! Concentrate of $52 %$ Fe, $1 % \\lor \_ { 2 } \\textcircled { > } 5$ & $1 7 %$ TiO2 to be produced on site Metallu... | |
earth_science-114/extraction_4.txt | The Bulletin is an official publication of the he Bulletin is an official publication of the Mineral Resources Authority (MRA) of Papua New Guinea. New Guinea The Bulletin is a bi- The Bulletin is a bi-annual publication that is annual publication that is intended to give information on the performance and development ... | |
earth_science-114/extraction_5.txt | ## 1\. Introduction Indonesia, a geologically unique country, is well known to possess a large deposit of natural iron minerals; comprising primarily of iron ore, iron sand, and lateritic iron ore. The amount of iron sand resources in Indonesia, published in 2008, reached up to 160 million tons, having higher concentra... | |
earth_science-114/extraction_7.txt | # Tectonic Components In discussing New Guinea tectonic components, we generally follow Crowhurst et al. (1996), Hill & Hall (2003), Cloos et al. (2005), and Davies (2012), focusing on major features common to most models. In this brief review, we simplify many aspects of, and controversies surrounding, the geologic ev... | |
earth_science-114/extraction_8.txt | 7.3 Mineralisation The Ramu laterite nickel and cobalt deposit occurs in the weathering crust of ultramafic intrusive rocks, mostly dunite. The deposit above the dunite bedrock is divided into six laterite layers, from top to bottom, the humic layer (Q), the red limonite (O), the yellow limonite (L), the saprolite (S),... | |
earth_science-115/extraction_0.txt | Laurens\_Stoop Jul 2024 Hi QWQ, As I mentioned in the other post; Maybe set your file as follows: ```hljs makefile url: https://cds-beta.climate.copernicus.eu/api key: [key here] ``` N.B.: The inclusion of your UID within the .cdsapirc file is gone for the CDS-beta system. In the past you indeed needed to list both use... | |
earth_science-115/extraction_1.txt | ## 1 Answer 1 Sorted by: Reset to default Highest score (default) Trending (recent votes count more) Date modified (newest first) Date created (oldest first) This answer is useful 0 Save this answer. Timeline Show activity on this post. go to user directory `C:Users\username` create a text file (like sample.txt) and ch... | |
earth_science-115/extraction_2.txt | I am new with Python so please be kind. I want to download data from ERA5 and so far I have installed the CDS API package and followed all the instructions from https://cds.climate.copernicus.eu/api-how-to I have my main file ready to use but I get an error about the configuration file. I know that this file should con... | |
earth_science-115/extraction_3.txt | ## Description !@jblarsen jblarsen opened on May 15, 2019 Contributor Issue body actions If the API key (by accident) is set to an invalid value: ```notranslate $ cat .cdsapirc url: https://cds.climate.copernicus.eu/api/v2 key: dummy ``` and we run the test example: ```notranslate >>> import cdsapi >>> cds = cdsapi.Cli... | |
earth_science-115/extraction_4.txt | You only need to go through this procedure once, before you can use the CDS API on Windows to programmatically download data from either the Climate Data Store (CDS) or the Atmosphere Data Store (ADS). ## Prerequisites 1. You need to have a CDS or ADS account. If you don't have an account, please self register at the C... | |
earth_science-115/extraction_5.txt | ### Using the API #### Installing credentials Users have to locate theyr credentials on the climate data store. In order to have credentials, users must register in the climate data store. Registered users can access https://cds.climate.copernicus.eu/api-how-to and locate the field named "Install the CDS API key" . The... | |
earth_science-115/extraction_6.txt | Hello, Currently access to ERA5-Land and ERA5-Land-T reanalysis requires access to the Climate Data Store (CDS) API (cdsapi). However, as per the API instructions, this requires a CDS account and a `.cdsapirc` file with your CDS credentials. Will we be able to use this account when executing the code in the remote runt... | |
earth_science-115/extraction_7.txt | # Is there elsewhere to put the .cdsapirc file? Running it on Databricks Software and Tools API c3s, api You have selected **0** posts. select all cancel selecting 590 views 4 links 2 Aug 2023 2 / 5 May 2024 Aug 2024 HANPU\_YAO Aug 2023 Hi everyone, I am trying to extract ERA5 data on Databricks. It turns out that the ... | |
earth_science-115/extraction_8.txt | #### 1\. Setup the CDS API personal access token Here is how to setup the CDS API personal access token: 1. If you do not have an account yet, please register 2. If you are not logged in, please login 3. Once logged in, copy the code displayed below to the file **$HOME/.cdsapirc** (in your Unix/Linux environment) ```hl... | |
earth_science-115/extraction_9.txt | ## 1. Introduction In a small number of cases, users may experience some issues when requesting data from the CDS API. The most common issues are documented in the "Troubleshooting" section below. Please note that CDS API requests are only shown on the CDS "Your Requests" web page while they are running. Once they have... | |
composition_of_cloud/Cloud_condensation_nuclei1.txt | part1 -------------------
Cloud condensation nuclei (CCNs), also known as cloud seeds, are small particles typically 0.2 µm, or one hundredth the size of a cloud droplet. CCNs are a unique subset of aerosols in the atmosphere on which water vapour condenses. This can affect the radiative properties of clouds and the ov... | |
earth_science-11/extraction_0.txt | # cloud From Glossary of Meteorology Jump to: navigation, search 1. A visible aggregate of minute water droplets and/or ice particles in the atmosphere above the earth's surface. Cloud differs from fog only in that the latter is, by definition, close (a few meters) to the earth's surface. Clouds form in the free atmosp... | |
earth_science-11/extraction_1.txt | # How Do Clouds Form? **The Short Answer:** Clouds are created when water vapor, an invisible gas, turns into liquid water droplets. These water droplets form on tiny particles, like dust, that are floating in the air. !Image of clouds over the Southern Indian Ocean. A camera on NASA’s Terra satellite captured this ima... | |
earth_science-11/extraction_2.txt | ## **What is a cloud?** Many people believe that clouds are just made of water vapour (a gas). However, this is not strictly true. Water vapour is invisible, and it is around us all the time in the air. Sometimes there is more water vapour in the air and it feels humid or muggy. Other times, the air has less water vapo... | |
earth_science-11/extraction_3.txt | Mixed-phase clouds represent a three-phase colloidal system consisting of water vapor, ice particles, and coexisting supercooled liquid droplets. Mixed-phase clouds are ubiquitous in the troposphere, occurring at all latitudes from the polar regions to the tropics. Because of their widespread nature, mixed-phase proces... | |
earth_science-11/extraction_4.txt | # A FOCUS ON MIXED-PHASE CLOUDS The Status of Ground-Based Observational Methods b y Matthew D. Shupe, John S. Daniel, Gijs d e Boer, Ed win W. Eloranta, Pav los Kollias , Charles N. Long, Ed ward P. Luk e, Dav id D. Turner, and Johannes Verlind e Ground-based observational methods provide key insights into mixed-phase... | |
sea_level_rising_factor/Sea_level_rise2.txt | part2 -------------------
Observations[edit]
Sea surface height change from 1992 to 2019 – NASA The visualization is based on data collected from the TOPEX/Poseidon, Jason-1, Jason-2, and Jason-3 satellites. Blue regions are where sea level has gone down, and orange/red regions are where sea level has risen.
Between 19... | |
shape_of_waves/Wave_shoaling1.txt | part1 -------------------
In fluid dynamics, wave shoaling is the effect by which surface waves, entering shallower water, change in wave height. It is caused by the fact that the group velocity, which is also the wave-energy transport velocity, changes with water depth. Under stationary conditions, a decrease in trans... | |
shape_of_waves/Dispersion_%28water_waves%291.txt | part1 -------------------
In fluid dynamics, dispersion of water waves generally refers to frequency dispersion, which means that waves of different wavelengths travel at different phase speeds. Water waves, in this context, are waves propagating on the water surface, with gravity and surface tension as the restoring f... | |
shape_of_waves/Wave_shoaling3.txt | part3 -------------------
Physics[edit]
When waves enter shallow water they slow down. Under stationary conditions, the wave length is reduced. The energy flux must remain constant and the reduction in group (transport) speed is compensated by an increase in wave height (and thus wave energy density).
Convergence of wa... | |
earth_science-13/extraction_0.txt | **Breaking Waves** Waves in the lonely stretches of the open sea are little noticed by anyone but the occasional sailor. But once they reach shore, they become much more interesting. When waves break, or become unstable and topple forward, they thrill beachgoers and dramatically reshape the coastline. Few people study ... | |
earth_science-13/extraction_1.txt | In fluid dynamics, **wave shoaling** is the effect by which surface waves, entering shallower water, change in wave height. It is caused by the fact that the group velocity, which is also the wave-energy transport velocity, decreases with water depth. Under stationary conditions, a decrease in transport speed must be c... | |
earth_science-13/extraction_2.txt | ## Orbital Motion of Waves By watching a buoy anchored in a wave zone one can see how water moves in a series of waves. The passing swells do not move the buoy toward shore; instead, the waves move the buoy in a circular fashion, first up and forward, then down, and finally back to a place near the original position. N... | |
earth_science-13/extraction_3.txt | **Catch a Wave** 1. What happens to a wave as it moves into shallow water? \[ **Check Answer**\] _When the water depth decreases to one half of a wave’s wavelength, the wave starts to “feel the bottom”. That means that the deepest water molecules set into circular motion by the wave’s energy run into the seafloor. This... | |
earth_science-13/extraction_4.txt | ## Wave Base **Wave base** is the depth of influence of a passing water wave—it is about half the wavelength of passing water waves ( **Figure 10-16**). At depths greater than half the wavelength wave motion dies out—the water motion is less than 4% of its value at the water surface and is generally insignificant. ### ... | |
earth_science-13/extraction_5.txt | Most of the waves discussed in the previous section referred to deep water waves in the open ocean. But what happens when these waves move towards shore and encounter shallow water? Remember that in deep water, a wave’s speed depends on its wavelength, but in shallow water wave speed depends on the depth ( section 10.1... | |
earth_science-13/extraction_6.txt | Based on local wave properties, theoretical criteria for the onset of breaking can be segregated into three categories: kinematic, dynamic and geometric criteria (Wu and Nepf, 2002). Although the kinematic breaking criterion or geometric wave properties have been traditionally used as indicators of breaking onset in de... | |
earth_science-13/extraction_7.txt | The discussion so far has been concerned exclusively with irregular waves. For regular irrotational waves (Stokes waves) the situation is different. Instabilities that lead regular waves to break have been studied in some detail during the last three decades. Longuet-Higgins (1978a,b) has shown by a linear perturbation... | |
earth_science-13/extraction_8.txt | ## Learning Goal 8c: Explain how wave and beach-slope characteristics determine the types of breaking waves. Waves are formed out in the open ocean and can travel vast distances before breaking on a distant coastline. The energy carried by these waves and the way they break against the shoreline has dramatic impacts on... | |
ridges_in_eastern_pacific_ocean/Fracture_zone1.txt | part1 -------------------
A fracture zone is a linear feature on the ocean floor—often hundreds, even thousands of kilometers long—resulting from the action of offset mid-ocean ridge axis segments. They are a consequence of plate tectonics. Lithospheric plates on either side of an active transform fault move in opposi... | |
ridges_in_eastern_pacific_ocean/Fracture_zone2.txt | part2 -------------------
Structure and formation[edit]
Mid-ocean ridges are divergent plate boundaries. As the plates on either side of an offset mid-ocean ridge move, a transform fault forms at the offset between the two ridges.
Fracture zones and the transform faults that form them are separate but related features.... | |
earth_science-14/extraction_0.txt | A **fracture zone** is a linear feature on the ocean floor—often hundreds, even thousands of kilometers long—resulting from the action of offset mid-ocean ridge axis segments. They are a consequence of plate tectonics. Lithospheric plates on either side of an active transform fault move in opposite directions; here, st... | |
earth_science-14/extraction_1.txt | ## _Transform boundaries_ The zone between two plates sliding horizontally past one another is called a _transform-fault boundary,_ or simply a _transform boundary._ The concept of transform faults originated with Canadian geophysicist J. Tuzo Wilson, who proposed that these large faults or _fracture zones_ connect two... | |
earth_science-14/extraction_3.txt | ## Principal ridges and basins !Palau: rock islands Palau: rock islands Aerial view of rock islands, Palau.(more) To the east of longitude 150° W, the relief of the ocean floor is considerably less pronounced than it is to the west. In the eastern Pacific the Cocos Ridge extends southwestward from the Central American ... | |
earth_science-14/extraction_4.txt | Fracture zones are common features in the geology of oceanic basins. Globally most fault zones are located on divergent plate boundaries on oceanic crust. This means that they are located around mid-ocean ridges and trend perpendicular to them. The term fracture zone is used almost exclusively for features on oceanic c... | |
earth_science-14/extraction_5.txt | **Clipperton Fracture Zone**, submarine fracture zone, 4,500 miles (7,240 km) in length, defined by one of the major transform faults dissecting the northern part of the East Pacific Rise in the floor of the Pacific Ocean. Discovered and delineated by expeditions of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography in 1950 and s... | |
earth_science-14/extraction_7.txt | ## Euler Poles Plates do not move in straight lines, as they are constrained to be on the surface of a globe. In fact, the plates are moving along curved paths, so their velocities should be described as angular velocities, strictly speaking. If one is considering only a very small area on the earth's surface, then lin... | |
interpolating_wind_speed/Wind_gradient3.txt | part3 -------------------
Characterization[edit]
See also: Ekman layer, Ekman spiral, Planetary boundary layer, and Surface layer
Typically, due to aerodynamic drag, there is a wind gradient in the wind flow, especially in the first few hundred meters above the Earth's surface—the surface layer of the planetary bounda... | |
interpolating_wind_speed/Wind_gradient4.txt | part4 -------------------
Implications[edit]
Engineering[edit]
The design of buildings must account for wind loads, and these are affected by wind gradient. The respective gradient levels, usually assumed in the Building Codes, are 500 meters for cities, 400 meters for suburbs, and 300 m for flat open terrain. For eng... | |
earth_science-15/extraction_0.txt | Wind model The **log wind profile** is a semi-empirical relationship commonly used to describe the vertical distribution of horizontal mean wind speed within the lowest portion of the planetary boundary layer (PBL).[\[1\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Log_wind_profile?utm_source=chatgpt.com#cite_note-1) The logarithmi... | |
earth_science-15/extraction_4.txt | Relationship of wind speeds at varying heights The **wind profile power law** is a relationship between the wind speeds at one height, and those at another. ## Definition The wind profile power law relationship is uur=(zzr)α{\\displaystyle {\\frac {u}{u\_{r}}}={\\bigg (}{\\frac {z}{z\_{r}}}{\\bigg )}^{\\alpha }}!{\disp... | |
artificial_river/Soil_conditioner1.txt | part1 -------------------
A soil conditioner is a product which is added to soil to improve the soil’s physical qualities, usually its fertility (ability to provide nutrition for plants) and sometimes its mechanics. In general usage, the term "soil conditioner" is often thought of as a subset of the category soil amend... | |
artificial_river/Humus3.txt | part3 -------------------
Humification[edit]
Microorganisms decompose a large portion of the soil organic matter into inorganic minerals that the roots of plants can absorb as nutrients. This process is termed "mineralization". In this process, nitrogen (nitrogen cycle) and the other nutrients (nutrient cycle) in the d... | |
artificial_river/Humus6.txt | part6 -------------------
Benefits of soil organic matter and humus[edit]
The importance of chemically stable humus is thought by some to be the fertility it provides to soils in both a physical and chemical sense, though some agricultural experts put a greater focus on other features of it, such as its ability to supp... | |
artificial_river/Soil_conditioner4.txt | part4 -------------------
Application[edit]
Soil conditioners may be applied in a number of ways. Some are worked into the soil with a tiller before planting. Others are applied after planting, or periodically during the growing season. Soil testing should be performed prior to applying a soil conditioner to learn more... | |
earth_science-16/extraction_0.txt | Part of a major push to green Egypt’s deserts, the New Delta project aims to transform 2.2 million feddans (9,240 square kilometers, or 3,500 square miles) of mostly barren desert west of the Nile Delta into productive farmland. The OLI (Operational Land Imager) and OLI-2 on Landsat 8 and 9 captured this pair of images... | |
earth_science-16/extraction_1.txt | Egypt is digging a 174-kilometre watercourse in the Western Desert to irrigate its largest ever agricultural project with reused water The new artificial river extends 174 kilometres in Egypt's Western Desert to irrigate New Delta agriculture project Egypt’s government recently started digging a 174-kilometre artificia... | |
earth_science-16/extraction_2.txt | The New Delta Project is one of the mega projects in the agricultural field, the Agricultural Wastewater Treatment Plant in El Hammam area, North Coast with a capacity of 7.5 million m3 of water/day. in Egypt that will be utilized to achieve the food security. The agricultural drainage water in North Delta would be col... | |
earth_science-16/extraction_3.txt | ## 2. Benefits of Agricultural Reuse The use of treated wastewater in agriculture benefits human health, the environment and the economy. This use represents an alternative practice that is being adopted in different regions confronted with water shortages and growing urban populations with increasing water needs \ [27... | |
mass_of_earth/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation1.txt | part1 -------------------
Newton's law of universal gravitation says that every particle attracts every other particle in the universe with a force that is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centers. Separated objects attract and are attrac... | |
mass_of_earth/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion3.txt | part3 -------------------
Laws
First law
Artificial satellites move along curved orbits, rather than in straight lines, because of the Earth's gravity.
Translated from Latin, Newton's first law reads,
Every object perseveres in its state of rest, or of uniform motion in a right line, except insofar as it is compelled t... | |
mass_of_earth/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation3.txt | part3 -------------------
Modern form[edit]
In modern language, the law states the following:
Every point mass attracts every single other point mass by a force acting along the line intersecting both points. The force is proportional to the product of the two masses and inversely proportional to the square of the dist... | |
earth_science-17/extraction_0.txt | Kepler’s Third Law says that the cube of the satellite’s orbit radius is directly proportional to the square of its orbit period. The proportionality constant, c, depends only on the mass of the planet that the satellite (or moon) is orbiting. For distances measured in meters, periods measured in seconds, and masses me... | |
earth_science-17/extraction_1.txt | # 1.2 Numerical standards Table 1.1, that lists adopted numerical standards, is organized into 5 columns: constant, value, uncertainty, reference, and description. Values of defining constants are provided without an uncertainty. The IAU (2009) System of Astronomical Constants (Luzum et al., 2010) is adopted for all as... | |
earth_science-17/extraction_2.txt | The Schiehallion experiment was an 18th-century experiment to determine the mean density of the Earth. Funded by a grant from the Royal Society, it was conducted in the summer of 1774 around the Scottish mountain of Schiehallion, Perthshire. The experiment involved measuring the tiny deflection of the vertical due to t... | |
vicous_climate_change/Climate_change_feedbacks4.txt | part4 -------------------
Positive feedbacks through other mechanisms[edit]
See also: Soil carbon feedback
Water vapor feedback[edit]
Main article: Water vapor feedback
If the atmospheres are warmed, the saturation vapor pressure increases, and the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere will tend to increase. Since ... | |
vicous_climate_change/Climate_change_feedbacks6.txt | part6 -------------------
Mechanisms with positive or negative feedback[edit]
Lapse rate[edit]
Main article: Lapse rate
The lapse rate is the rate at which an atmospheric variable, normally temperature in Earth's atmosphere, falls with altitude. It is therefore a quantification of temperature, related to radiation, as... | |
vicous_climate_change/Climate_change_feedbacks3.txt | part3 -------------------
Positive feedbacks through the carbon cycle[edit]
See also: Carbon cycle
The global warming projections contained in the IPCC's Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) include carbon cycle feedbacks. Authors of AR4, however, noted that scientific understanding of carbon cycle feedbacks was poor. Proje... | |
vicous_climate_change/Climate_change_feedbacks5.txt | part5 -------------------
Negative feedbacks[edit]
Planck feedback[edit]
As the temperature of a black body increases, the emission of infrared radiation increases with the fourth power of its absolute temperature according to the Stefan–Boltzmann law. This increases the amount of outgoing radiation back into space as ... | |
earth_science-18/extraction_0.txt | The combined effect of all known radiative feedbacks (physical, biogeophysical, and non-CO2 biogeochemical) is to amplify the base climate response, also known as the Planck temperature response (virtually certain). Combining these feedbacks with the base climate response, the net feedback parameter based on process un... | |
earth_science-18/extraction_1.txt | This year, both fossil and land-use change CO2 emissions are set to rise, with drought conditions exacerbating emissions from deforestation and forest degradation fires during the El Niño climate event of 2023-2024. With over 40 billion tonnes released each year at present, the level of CO2 in the atmosphere continues ... | |
earth_science-18/extraction_2.txt | ## 3.6 Ocean sink ### 3.6.2 Recent period 1960–2023 The ocean CO2 sink increased from 1.2 ± 0.4 GtC yr−1 in the 1960s to 2.9 ± 0.4 GtC yr−1 during 2014–2023 (Table†7), with interannual variations on the order of a few tenths of gigatonnes of carbon per year (Figs.†4, 11). The ocean-borne fraction (SOCEAN/(EFOS+ELUCSOCE... | |
earth_science-18/extraction_3.txt | However, there remains the potential loss of the CO2 uptake efficiency in the SPNA under global warming scenarios. The deep convection around the SPNA, particularly Labrador- Irminger Seas (hereafter Lab-Irm), and the regional carbon cycle are also tightly connected to the subpolar gyre (SPG)15."), 20."). Intense SPG m... | |
earth_science-18/extraction_5.txt | ## Abstract The ultimate fate of CO2 added to the ocean-atmosphere system is chemical reaction with silicate minerals and burial as marine carbonates. The time scale of this silicate weathering negative feedback on atmospheric _p_ CO2 will determine the duration of perturbations to the carbon cycle, be they geological ... | |
earth_science-18/extraction_6.txt | ## Abstract Silicate weathering as an important negative feedback can regulate the Earth’s climate over time, but much debate concerns its response strength to each climatic factor and its evolution with land surface reorganisation. Such discrepancy arises from lacking weathering proxy validation and scarce quantitativ... | |
earth_science-18/extraction_7.txt | Other key findings from the 2024 Global Carbon Budget include: - Globally, emissions from different fossil fuels in 2024 are projected to increase: coal (0.2%), oil (0.9%), gas (2.4%). These contribute 41%, 32% and 21% of global fossil CO2 emissions respectively. Given the uncertainty in the projections, it remains pos... | |
earth_science-18/extraction_8.txt | Executive summary Global fossil CO2 emissions (including cement carbonation) are expected to further increase in 2024 by 0.8 %. The 2023 emissions increase was 0.14 GtC yr−1 (0.5 GtCO2 yr−1) relative to 2022, bringing 2023 fossil CO2 emissions to 10.1 ± 0.5 GtC yr−1 (36.8 ± 1.8 GtCO2 yr−1). Preliminary estimates based ... | |
earth_science-18/extraction_9.txt | **FAQ 5.1 | Is the Natural Removal of Carbon From the Atmosphere Weakening?** _For decades, about half of the carbon dioxide (CO_ 2 _) that human activities have emitted to the atmosphere has been taken up by natural carbon sinks in vegetation, soils and oceans. These natural sinks of CO_ 2 _have thus roughly halved th... | |
earth_science-18/extraction_10.txt | Over the historical period, changes in aerosols and their effective radiative forcing (ERF) have primarily contributed to a surface cooling, partly masking the greenhouse gas-driven warming (high confidence). Radiative forcings induced by aerosol changes lead to both local and remote temperature responses (high confide... | |
earth_science-18/extraction_11.txt | # Explainer: How human-caused aerosols are ‘masking’ global warming Human-caused emissions of aerosols – tiny, light‑scattering particles produced mainly by burning fossil fuels – have long acted as an invisible brake on global warming. This is largely because they absorb or reflect incoming sunlight and influence the ... | |
earth_science-18/extraction_12.txt | Carbon dioxide is generated by burning fossil fuels for human activities. Like other greenhouse gasses, CO2 traps heat in our atmosphere which leads to warming and amplifies extreme weather like heat waves, droughts, wildfires, precipitation and flooding. The ocean absorbs about 27% of atmospheric CO2%2C%20with%20a%20s... | |
moon_collided_with_earth/Giant-impact_hypothesis6.txt | part6 -------------------
Evidence[edit]
Indirect evidence for the giant impact scenario comes from rocks collected during the Apollo Moon landings, which show oxygen isotope ratios nearly identical to those of Earth. The highly anorthositic composition of the lunar crust, as well as the existence of KREEP-rich samples... | |
moon_collided_with_earth/Giant-impact_hypothesis5.txt | part5 -------------------
Composition[edit]
In 2001, a team at the Carnegie Institution of Washington reported that the rocks from the Apollo program carried an isotopic signature that was identical with rocks from Earth, and were different from almost all other bodies in the Solar System.
In 2014, a team in Germany re... | |
earth_science-19/extraction_0.txt | ## Abstract The Moon formed 4.5 Ga ago through a collision between proto-Earth and a planetesimal known as Theia. The compositional similarity of Earth and Moon puts tight limits on the isotopic contrast between Theia and proto-Earth, or it requires intense homogenization of Theia and proto-Earth material during and in... | |
earth_science-19/extraction_1.txt | ## 2\. Isotopic similarity of the Earth and Moon There were signs of an isotopic problem with the then-understood giant impact hypothesis as early as 2001. Three-isotope (16O, 17O and 18O) oxygen measurements on the SNC (Shergottie, Nakhlite and Chassigny Martian) meteorites indicated a significant offset between the M... | |
earth_science-19/extraction_2.txt | The Earth–Moon system has unique chemical and isotopic signatures compared with other planetary bodies1–3; any successful model for the origin of this system therefore has to satisfy these chemical and isotopic constraints. The Moon is substantially depleted in volatile elements such as potassium compared with the Eart... | |
earth_science-19/extraction_3.txt | The Moon is depleted in volatile elements relative to the Earth and Mars. Low abundances of volatile elements, fractionated stable isotope ratios of S, Cl, K and Zn, high _μ_ (238U/204Pb) and long-term Rb/Sr depletion are distinguishing features of the Moon, relative to the Earth. These geochemical characteristics indi... | |
earth_science-19/extraction_8.txt | One of the most compelling lines of evidence for the timing of Earth's core formation and subsequent accretion comes from the highly siderophile elements (HSEs) and the extinct radionuclide 182Hf, which decays to 182W with a half-life of 8.9 Myr. The HSEs, including Re, Os, Ir, Ru, Pt, Pd, and Au, have an extremely hig... | |
earth_science-19/extraction_9.txt | ## 5\. Ramifications of existing observations One important ramification of the recent combined 182W–HSE data is that the long-term preservation of a very early formed, 182W-enriched endogenous reservoir in the terrestrial mantle implies that the putative Moon-forming giant impact did not result in complete global melt... | |
hurricanes_in_the_southern_Atlantic_basin/Tropical_cyclone1.txt | part1 -------------------
A tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating storm system characterized by a low-pressure center, a closed low-level atmospheric circulation, strong winds, and a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that produce heavy rain and squalls. Depending on its location and strength, a tropical cyclone is... | |
earth_science-1/extraction_0.txt | A tropical cyclone is a warm-core low pressure system, without any front attached, that develops over the tropical or subtropical waters and has an organized circulation. These include hurricanes and typhoons. There are several favorable environmental conditions that must be in place before a tropical cyclone can form.... | |
earth_science-1/extraction_1.txt | #### Why Do Tropical Cyclones Occur Primarily in the Summer and Autumn? The primary time of year for getting tropical cyclones is during the summer and autumn: July-October for the Northern Hemisphere and December-March for the Southern Hemisphere (though there are differences from basin to basin). The peak in summer/a... | |
earth_science-1/extraction_2.txt | # Regional effects of SPCZ variability The variability of the SPCZ on the timescales described above produces a wide range of effects on the climate of the South Pacific region, which in turn have socioeconomic and environmental consequences for South Pacific island communities. SPCZ-mediated climatic effects in the So... | |
earth_science-1/extraction_3.txt | #### Why Do Tropical Cyclones Occur Primarily in the Summer and Autumn? The primary time of year for getting tropical cyclones is during the summer and autumn: July-October for the Northern Hemisphere and December-March for the Southern Hemisphere (though there are differences from basin to basin). The peak in summer/a... | |
earth_science-1/extraction_4.txt | ## Abstract The development of Hurricane Catarina over the western South Atlantic Ocean in March 2004 marks the first time that the existence of a hurricane has been confirmed by analysis and satellite imagery in the South Atlantic basin. The storm undergoes a complex life cycle, beginning as an extratropical precursor... | |
ocean_continent_divergent_boundary/Plate_tectonics3.txt | part3 -------------------
Types of plate boundaries
Main article: List of tectonic plate interactions
Three types of plate boundaries exist, characterized by the way the plates move relative to each other. They are associated with different types of surface phenomena. The different types of plate boundaries are:
Diver... | |
earth_science-20/extraction_0.txt | At divergent boundaries, sometimes called constructive boundaries, lithospheric plates move away from each other. There are two types of divergent boundaries, categorized by where they occur: continental rift zones and mid-ocean ridges. Continental rift zones occur in weak spots in the continental lithospheric plate. A... | |
earth_science-20/extraction_1.txt | ## _Divergent boundaries_ Divergent boundaries occur along spreading centers where plates are moving apart and new crust is created by magma pushing up from the mantle. Picture two giant conveyor belts, facing each other but slowly moving in opposite directions as they transport newly formed oceanic crust away from the... | |
earth_science-20/extraction_2.txt | # Divergent Plate Boundary—Passive Continental Margins ## Introduction Where tectonic plates diverge they can rip a continent apart and eventually open an entire ocean. The continents slowly drift away from one another as the ocean widens. The beautiful beaches of the nine national seashores and three national parks on... | |
earth_science-20/extraction_5.txt | ## _Divergent boundaries_ Divergent boundaries occur along spreading centers where plates are moving apart and new crust is created by magma pushing up from the mantle. Picture two giant conveyor belts, facing each other but slowly moving in opposite directions as they transport newly formed oceanic crust away from the... | |
deepest_into_earth/Mponeng_Gold_Mine1.txt | part1 -------------------
Mponeng is a gold mine in South Africa's Gauteng province, it is an ultra-deep tabular mine of the Witwatersrand Basin. Previously known as Western Deep Levels #1 Shaft, the underground and surface works were commissioned in 1986. It extends over 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) below the surface, and ... | |
earth_science-21/extraction_0.txt | Coordinates: 69°23′47″N30°36′36″E / 69.3965°N 30.6100°E / 69.3965; 30.6100 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Borehole in Russia, deepest on Earth "Kola Superdeep" redirects here. For the Russian horror film, see _The Superdeep_. | [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D... |
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