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earth_science-21/extraction_1.txt | ### Withstanding the enormous pressure in the depth The heart of _Limiting Factor_ is the titanium pressure hull, which is a weld-free construction designed to withstand the enormous pressure of 1,127 bar at full ocean depth. The special design of the unprecedented three FOD viewports provides the two passengers with a... | |
earth_science-21/extraction_2.txt | WhoChallenger Deep What 10,935 metre(s) Where Guam When 01 October 2010 The deepest point in the sea is the Challenger Deep, located beneath the Pacific Ocean about 300 km (186 mi) south-west of Guam. The maximum depth as measured by a crewed submersible that has travelled to and observed the seabed of the Challenger D... | |
earth_science-21/extraction_3.txt | June 2, 2009 A new type of deep-sea robotic vehicle called _Nereus_ has successfully reached the deepest part of the world’s ocean, reports a team of U.S. engineers and scientists aboard the research vessel _Kilo Moana_. The dive to 10,902 meters (6.8 miles) occurred on May 31, 2009, at the Challenger Deep in the Maria... | |
earth_science-21/extraction_4.txt | ## Overview Mponeng is the deepest level shaft in the world, with a depth of 3 891 metres below datum and 2 062 metres below sea level. The mine, which began producing in 1986, is near the town of Carletonville, some 90km south-west of Johannesburg. The mine exploits the Ventersdorp Contact Reef, its primary orebody, e... | |
earth_science-21/extraction_5.txt | From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This **list of deepest caves** includes the deepest known natural caves according to maximum surveyed depth as of 2024[\[update\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_deepest_caves&action=edit). The depth value is measured from the highest to the lowest accessible ca... | |
earth_science-22/extraction_0.txt | What does a tornado sound like?People who have been in a tornado say it sounds like a jet engine or a freight train and is very loud. They said it hurt their ears, but they were more worried about what might happen to them than they were about the pain in their ears.Can tornadoes be stopped?You have to consider that th... | |
earth_science-22/extraction_1.txt | Schultz, C. J., 2014: Reflectivity vortex hole in a tornadic supercell. J. Operational Meteor., 2 (9), 103109, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.15191/nwajom.2014.0209. Corresponding author address: Chauncy J. Schultz, National Weather Service, 2170 Overland Ave., Billings, MT 59102-6455 E-mail: chauncy.schultz@noaa.gov 103 J... | |
earth_science-22/extraction_2.txt | # 1\. Introduction One of the most important achievements in recent years is the high-resolution documentation of the kinematic structure of the hook echo and intense circulations accompanying the tornado that has resulted from the deployment of mobile Doppler radars near severe storms (e.g., Bluestein et al. 1993, 199... | |
earth_science-22/extraction_4.txt | Mr. Will Keller, a farmer of near Greensburg, Kans., is the man to whom reference is made, and the following is substantially his story: It was on the afternoon of June 22, 1928, between 3 and 4 o'clock. I was out in my field with my family looking over the ruins of our wheat crop which had just been completely destroy... | |
earth_science-22/extraction_5.txt | **4. Multiple-vortex structure** **a. Overview of the multiple-vortex structure** A pronounced multiple-vortex structure was often evident in the Doppler velocity, power, and spectral-width data. Although the range of the tornado to the DOW would not have permitted the observation of small-scale (10 m) multiple vortice... | |
determine_hemisphere/Foucault_pendulum2.txt | part2 -------------------
Original Foucault pendulum[edit]
A print of the Foucault Pendulum, 1895
Foucault Pendulum at COSI Columbus knocking over a ball
Foucault was inspired by observing a thin flexible rod on the axis of a lathe, which vibrated in the same plane despite the rotation of the supporting frame of the la... | |
determine_hemisphere/Foucault_pendulum1.txt | part1 -------------------
The Foucault pendulum or Foucault's pendulum is a simple device named after French physicist Léon Foucault, conceived as an experiment to demonstrate the Earth's rotation. A long and heavy pendulum suspended from the high roof above a circular area was monitored over an extended time period, s... | |
determine_hemisphere/Foucault_pendulum3.txt | part3 -------------------
Explanation of mechanics[edit]
Animation of a Foucault pendulum on the northern hemisphere, with the Earth's rotation rate and amplitude greatly exaggerated. The green trace shows the path of the pendulum bob over the ground (a rotating reference frame), while the bob moves in the correspondin... | |
earth_science-23/extraction_0.txt | I have heard from many people that sinks do not empty in a particular pattern depending on what hemisphere you are in, but I have also heard from people who adamant that a sink of water would empty clockwise in one hemisphere and anti-clockwise in another. While I acknowledge the above idea is probably a myth, is there... | |
earth_science-23/extraction_1.txt | This answer is useful 14 Save this answer. Timeline Show activity on this post. It's my understanding that the famous "sink swirl" example doesn't work simply because the Coriolis effect is too weak at that scale: it's insignificant compared to the motion of the water from residual momentum from when it entered the sin... | |
earth_science-23/extraction_2.txt | In popular (non-technical) usage of the term "Coriolis effect", the rotating reference frame implied is almost always the Earth. Because the Earth spins, Earth-bound observers need to account for the Coriolis force to correctly analyze the motion of objects. The Earth completes one rotation for each sidereal day, so fo... | |
earth_science-23/extraction_3.txt | This answer is useful 23 Save this answer. Timeline Show activity on this post. You can use the Foucault pendulum to determine the hemisphere: Its plane of movement rotates: - anti-clockwise in the southern hemisphere; - clockwise in the northern hemisphere. The rotation of the plane can be explained by the Coriolis fo... | |
uranium_in_earth/Uranium5.txt | part5 -------------------
Occurrence
Origin
Along with all elements having atomic weights higher than that of iron, uranium is only naturally formed by the r-process (rapid neutron capture) in supernovae and neutron star mergers. Primordial thorium and uranium are only produced in the r-process, because the s-process (... | |
earth_science-24/extraction_0.txt | RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ---------------------- The results obtained in the present investigation reveal that the gamma activity concentrations of 238U (226Ra) in the rock powder samples is found to vary from 4.8 ± 0.5 – 31.9 ± 1.2 Bq/kg with a mean of 16.04 ± 0.82 Bq/kg whereas that of 232Th and 40K are found to be in t... | |
earth_science-24/extraction_1.txt | **Geological knowledge** Whatever minerals are in the earth, they cannot be considered usable resources unless they are known. There must be a constant input of time, money and effort to find out what is there. This mineral exploration endeavour is not merely fossicking or doing aerial magnetic surveys, but must eventu... | |
earth_science-24/extraction_2.txt | Uranium is a relatively common element in the crust of the Earth (very much more than in the mantle). It is a metal approximately as common as tin or zinc, and it is a constituent of most rocks and even of the sea. **Table 1: Typical natural uranium concentrations** | | | | --- | --- | | Very high-grade ore (Canada) – ... | |
earth_science-24/extraction_3.txt | Uranium is a naturally occurring element with an average concentration of 2.8 parts per million in the Earth's crust. Traces of it occur almost everywhere. It is more abundant than gold, silver or mercury, about the same as tin and slightly less abundant than cobalt, lead or molybdenum. Vast amounts of uranium also occ... | |
22_halo/22%C2%B0_halo1.txt | part1 -------------------
A 22° halo is an atmospheric optical phenomenon that consists of a halo with an apparent radius of approximately 22° around the Sun or Moon. When visible around the Moon, it is also known as a moon ring, storm ring, or winter halo. It forms as sunlight or moonlight is refracted by millions of ... | |
22_halo/Halo_(optical_phenomenon)5.txt | part5 -------------------
Bottlinger's ring[edit]
A Bottlinger's ring is a rare type of halo that is elliptical instead of circular. It has a small diameter, which makes it very difficult to see in the Sun's glare and more likely to be noticed around the dimmer subsun, often seen from mountain tops or airplanes. Bottli... | |
22_halo/22%C2%B0_halo3.txt | part3 -------------------
Weather relation[edit]
22° solar halo with very thin cirrostratus clouds.
In folklore, moon rings are said to warn of approaching storms. Like other ice halos, 22° halos appear when the sky is covered by thin cirrus or cirrostratus clouds that often come a few days before a large storm front. ... | |
22_halo/Halo_(optical_phenomenon)1.txt | part1 -------------------
A halo (from Ancient Greek ἅλως (hálōs) 'threshing floor, disk') is an optical phenomenon produced by light (typically from the Sun or Moon) interacting with ice crystals suspended in the atmosphere. Halos can have many forms, ranging from colored or white rings to arcs and spots in the sky. ... | |
22_halo/Halo_(optical_phenomenon)4.txt | part4 -------------------
Circular halo[edit]
Further information: 22° halo and 46° halo
Ice crystals (only four represented above) form the 22° halo, with red and blue light being refracted at slightly different angles
Among the best-known halos is the 22° halo, often just called "halo", which appears as a large ring... | |
22_halo/22%C2%B0_halo2.txt | part2 -------------------
Formation[edit]
Pathway of light through a hexagonal prism in the optimal angle resulting in minimum deviation.
Path of the light from the clouds to the observer.
Even though it is one of the most common types of halo, the shape and orientation of the ice crystals responsible for the 22° halo ... | |
earth_science-25/extraction_0.txt | **How are Halos, Sundogs and Sun Pillars Created?** The atmosphere does more than just produce our daily weather: from sunny to cloudy days, dry to wet, stormy to snowy. The atmosphere is also capable of producing colorful displays when conditions are right. Some of these optical effects include halos, sun pillars, and... | |
earth_science-25/extraction_1.txt | # Haloes and Coronas * * * Find out more about Haloes and Coronas and how they form. ## Haloes Haloes require ice crystals to form - either from high cirrus cloud of free falling crystals. Typically sunlight or moonlight is reflected by ice crystals producing a white halo. However, if the light rays strike the light at... | |
earth_science-25/extraction_2.txt | When sunlight or moonlight passes through a thin cloud of water droplets, diffraction and interference can produce a disk of bright sky centered on the luminary (light source), surrounded by one or more colored rings or **fringes** (Fig. 22.48). Figure 22.48 Corona caused by diffraction fringes around a luminary. !Scre... | |
ozone_layer/Ozone%E2%80%93oxygen_cycle1.txt | part1 -------------------
The ozone–oxygen cycle is the process by which ozone is continually regenerated in Earth's stratosphere, converting ultraviolet radiation (UV) into heat. In 1930 Sydney Chapman resolved the chemistry involved. The process is commonly called the Chapman cycle by atmospheric scientists.
Most of ... | |
ozone_layer/Ozone%E2%80%93oxygen_cycle2.txt | part2 -------------------
Photochemistry[edit]
Part of a series onBiogeochemical cycles
Water cycle
Water cycle
deep water cycle
Carbon cycle
Global
atmospheric
terrestrial
oceanic
Sequestration
carbon sink
deep carbon cycle
soil carbon
mycorrhizal fungi
Boreal forests
Nutrient cycle
Hydroge... | |
ozone_layer/Ozone%E2%80%93oxygen_cycle3.txt | part3 -------------------
Main reactions in different atmospheric layers[edit]
Thermosphere[edit]
For given relative reactants concentrations, The rates of ozone creation and oxygen recombination (reactions 2 and 5) are proportional to the air density cubed, while the rate of ozone conversion (reaction 4) is proportion... | |
earth_science-26/extraction_0.txt | ### Introduction > Ozone is present only in small amounts in the atmosphere. Nevertheless, it is vital to human well-being as well as agricultural and ecosystem sustainability. Most of Earth's ozone resides in the stratosphere, the layer of the atmosphere that is more than 10 kilometers (6 miles) above the surface. Abo... | |
earth_science-26/extraction_1.txt | # What is a Dobson Unit? The Dobson Unit is the most common unit for measuring ozone concentration. One Dobson Unit is the number of molecules of ozone that would be required to create a layer of pure ozone 0.01 millimeters thick at a temperature of 0 degrees Celsius and a pressure of 1 atmosphere (the air pressure at ... | |
earth_science-26/extraction_2.txt | Ozone is a gas that is naturally present in our atmosphere. Ozone has the chemical formula O3 because an ozone molecule contains three oxygen atoms (see Figure Q1-1). Ozone was discovered in laboratory experiments in the mid-1800s. Ozone’s presence in the atmosphere was later discovered using chemical and optical measu... | |
earth_science-26/extraction_3.txt | ### Q1 What is ozone, how is it formed, and where is it in the atmosphere? > Ozone is a gas that is naturally present in our atmosphere. Each ozone molecule contains three atoms of oxygen and is denoted chemically as O3. Ozone is found primarily in two regions of the atmosphere. About 10% of Earth’s ozone is in the tro... | |
earth_science-26/extraction_4.txt | ### Q3 How is total ozone distributed over the globe? > The distribution of total ozone over Earth varies with geographic location and on daily to seasonal timescales. These variations are caused by large-scale movements of stratospheric air and the chemical production and destruction of ozone. Total ozone is generally... | |
limestone/Limestone1.txt | part1 -------------------
Limestone (calcium carbonate CaCO3) is a type of carbonate sedimentary rock which is the main source of the material lime. It is composed mostly of the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different crystal forms of CaCO3. Limestone forms when these minerals precipitate out of water cont... | |
earth_science-27/extraction_0.txt | Abstract The work assesses the availability and localizations of different raw materials suitable for ocean alkalinity enhancement (OAE), like limestone, olivine, magnesite and brucite, since several billion tons of rocky materials are needed to achieve meaningful results for carbon sequestration through OAE. Resources... | |
earth_science-27/extraction_1.txt | 1. Introduction The increasing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions into the atmosphere are heavily affecting the global climate and at the same time are acidifying the oceans (IPCC, 2019). In particular, the concentration of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), the most important greenhouse gas (GHG) by radiative forcing, is significant... | |
earth_science-27/extraction_2.txt | Basic Idea: •Add finely ground (40-um radius) limestone powder to regions of the ocean where the boundary between saturated (upper) and unsaturated (lower) water wrt calcite is relatively shallow (250-500 m depth) and the upwelling velocity relatively large (50-100 m/year) •The limestone powder will dissolve within the... | |
earth_science-27/extraction_3.txt | ### Dissolution of Naturally Occurring Rocks and Minerals The overall approach proposed with OAE is to accelerate the slow geological process of mineral dissolution in seawater by increasing the reactive surface area of the minerals through pulverizing the alkaline rock into small particles. The hope with this approach... | |
earth_science-27/extraction_4.txt | **Sodium Bicarbonate Market Overview** -------------------------------------- The Sodium Bicarbonate Market size was valued at USD 1858.12 million in 2024 and is expected to reach USD 2488.72 million by 2033, growing at a CAGR of 3.3% from 2025 to 2033. The global sodium bicarbonate market reached total annual producti... | |
earth_science-27/extraction_5.txt | Sodium bicarbonate (chemical formula: NaHCO3), also called baking soda, is a crystalline salt, found in a natural mineral form in nahcolite deposits. The science of baking soda has a long and interesting history. First isolated by Nicolas Leblanc in the 1790s, it wasn’t until the Solvay process was introduced in the 18... | |
merged_hurricanes/Fujiwhara_effect2.txt | part2 -------------------
Description[edit]
Diagram of the Fujiwhara effect, showing how 2 tropical cyclones interact with each other.
When cyclones are in proximity of one another, their centers will circle each other cyclonically (counter-clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere) ... | |
merged_hurricanes/Fujiwhara_effect3.txt | part3 -------------------
Tropical cyclones[edit]
See also: Tropical cyclone
Odette (left) and Seroja (right) engaged in a Fujiwhara interaction whilst intensifying between 7–9 April 2021.
Tropical cyclones can form when smaller circulations within the Intertropical Convergence Zone merge. The effect is often mentioned... | |
merged_hurricanes/Fujiwhara_effect1.txt | part1 -------------------
The Fujiwhara effect, sometimes referred to as the Fujiwara effect, Fujiw(h)ara interaction or binary interaction, is a phenomenon that occurs when two nearby cyclonic vortices move around each other and close the distance between the circulations of their corresponding low-pressure areas. The... | |
earth_science-28/extraction_1.txt | Fujiwhara effect ================ The **Fujiwhara effect**, sometimes referred to as the **Fujiwara interaction** or **binary interaction**, is a phenomenon that occurs when two nearby cyclonic vortices move around each other and close the distance between the circulations of their corresponding low-pressure areas. The... | |
earth_science-28/extraction_2.txt | AUGUST20002967KUO ET AL. q2000 American Meteorological Society Merger of Tropical Cyclones Zeb and Alex HUNG-CHIKUO,GEORGET.-J. CHEN,ANDCHUNG-HSIENLIN Department of Atmospheric Sciences, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan (Manuscript received 2 February 1999, in final form 1 December 1999) ABSTRACT The merger o... | |
earth_science-28/extraction_3.txt | 4. DISCUSSION A common feature of TCs is the cooling of the ocean surface in their wake. This occurs because the TC’s rotation enhances the atmospheric inertial oscillation, leading to strong divergence in the upper ocean layer. Consequently, this process causes cooler water from below to rise to the surface. The cooli... | |
earth_science-28/extraction_5.txt | ### Hurricane Dora edit | | | | --- | --- | | Category 4 hurricane (SSHWS) | | | [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sat19640904Dora.png) [](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dora_1964_track.png) | | | Duration | August 28 – September 13 | | Peak intensity | 130 mph (215 km/h) (1-min); <br>942 mbar "Bar (unit)")<br>... | |
earth_science-29/extraction_0.txt | ### 3.5.4. Sveconorwegian metamorphism As outlined above, the supracrustal rocks in the centre of the Telemarkia lithotectonic unit were affected by greenschist to epidoteamphibolite facies metamorphism and deformed by open to tight folding. Basalt in the Sæsvatn-Valldal supracrustal complex (Fig. 6) was deformed under... | |
earth_science-29/extraction_1.txt | # Geology ### Geochemistry Graphite makes up only a small proportion of the carbon in Earth’s crust, probably less than 0.5 percent, and much of this graphite likely formed by high-temperature thermal alteration of organic matter from biogenic sources deposited in sedimentary rocks and subsurface reservoirs. The miner... | |
earth_science-29/extraction_2.txt | The low permeability of the Earth’s Precambrian crust ## Abstract The large volume of deep groundwater in the Precambrian crust has only recently been understood to be relatively hydrogeologically isolated from the rest of the hydrologic cycle. The paucity of permeability measurements in Precambrian crust below 1.3 km ... | |
earth_science-29/extraction_3.txt | # THERMAL EVIDENCE OF CALEDONIDE FORELAND, MOLASSE SEDIMENTATION IN FENNOSCANDIA It is generally accepted that most of the crystalline basement of the Fennoscandian Shield has been covered by Lower Palaeozoic deposits. As reconstructed from remnants in Sweden, this sedimentary cover was generally less than $5 0 0 \\mat... | |
earth_science-29/extraction_4.txt | ## Abstract The forces that drive uplift of the continental lithosphere outside collision zones are a topic of considerable dispute. Here we review our studies of the post-Caledonian development of Greenland, Fennoscandia and adjacent regions based on apatite fission-track analysis (AFTA) and stratigraphic landscape an... | |
earth_science-29/extraction_6.txt | # Discussion # Timing of continental building Figure 7 and Tables 1, 7-10 summarize available U-Pb dates on magmatic events in the Sveconorwegian orogen. The oldest cluster of peaks in the relative probability curve defines the main period of continental building in each domain (Fig. 7). In the Eastern Segment, contine... | |
earth_science-29/extraction_7.txt | Voluminous mantle- and crustal-derived Sveconorwegian magmatism took place in the hinterland in the west of the orogen, mainly: (i) bimodal magmatism at 1280–1145 Ma, overlapping with extensional intramontane basin sedimentation, (ii) the calc-alkaline Sirdal magmatic belt at 1065–1020 Ma, (iii) the hydrous ferroan hor... | |
pole_flip/Geomagnetic_reversal5.txt | part5 -------------------
Character of transitions[edit]
Duration[edit]
Most estimates for the duration of a polarity transition are between 1,000 and 10,000 years, but some estimates are as quick as a human lifetime. During a transition, the magnetic field will not vanish completely, but many poles might form chaotica... | |
pole_flip/Geomagnetic_reversal1.txt | part1 -------------------
A geomagnetic reversal is a change in a planet's magnetic field such that the positions of magnetic north and magnetic south are interchanged (not to be confused with geographic north and geographic south). The Earth's field has alternated between periods of normal polarity, in which the predo... | |
earth_science-2/extraction_0.txt | ## Is Earth's magnetic field going to reverse? While we now appear to be in a period of declining magnetic field strength, we cannot state for certain if or when a magnetic reversal will occur. Based on measurements of Earth's magnetic field taken since about 1850, some paleomagnetists estimate that the dipole moment w... | |
earth_science-2/extraction_1.txt | Since the forces that generate our magnetic field are constantly changing, the field itself is also in continual flux, its strength waxing and waning over time. This causes the location of Earth’s magnetic north and south poles to gradually shift, and to even completely flip locations every 300,000 years or so. That mi... | |
earth_science-2/extraction_2.txt | Earth's magnetic field is slowly changing and appears to have been changing throughout its existence. When the tectonic plates form along the oceanic ridges, the magnetic field that exists is imprinted on the rock as they cool below about 700 Centigrade. The slowly moving plates act as a kind of tape recorder leaving i... | |
earth_science-2/extraction_3.txt | ## 2\. Magnetic Pole Reversals During a pole reversal, Earth’s magnetic north and south poles swap locations. While that may sound like a big deal, pole reversals are common in Earth’s geologic history. Paleomagnetic records tell us Earth’s magnetic poles have reversed 183 times in the last 83 million years, and at lea... | |
earth_science-2/extraction_4.txt | Earth’s magnetic field acts like a protective shield around the planet, repelling and trapping charged particles from the Sun. But over South America and the southern Atlantic Ocean, an unusually weak spot in the field – called the South Atlantic Anomaly, or SAA – allows these particles to dip closer to the surface tha... | |
earth_science-2/extraction_6.txt | ## Earth's Magnetic History Sir James Clark Ross first discovered the North Magnetic Pole in northern Canada in 1831. Since 1831, the pole has been moving across the Canadian Arctic toward Russia. NCEI scientists with the Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences (CIRES) at the University of Colorado... | |
earth_science-2/extraction_8.txt | Summar y The perf ormance of the World Magnetic Model 2020 (WMM2020) was assessed by comparing its predictions on January 1, 2023 with that of a more recent model inferred from data collected by the European Space Agency (ESA) Swarm satellites from November 2013 until September 2022. For all magnetic field components, ... | |
earth_science-2/extraction_10.txt | ## Has Earth's magnetic field changed significantly in the last several years? Earth's magnetic field is slowly changing and appears to have been changing throughout its existence. When the tectonic plates form along the oceanic ridges, the magnetic field that exists is imprinted on the rock as they cool below about 70... | |
earth_science-2/extraction_11.txt | ## What happens during a reversal? What do we see at the Earth's surface? As above, we have limited evidence from geological measurements about the patterns of change in the magnetic field during a reversal. We might expect to see, based on models of the field run on supercomputers, a far more complicated field pattern... | |
g_needed/Atmospheric_escape#Thermal_escape_mechanisms1.txt | part1 -------------------
Atmospheric escape is the loss of planetary atmospheric gases to outer space. A number of different mechanisms can be responsible for atmospheric escape; these processes can be divided into thermal escape, non-thermal (or suprathermal) escape, and impact erosion. The relative importance of eac... | |
g_needed/Atmospheric_escape1.txt | part1 -------------------
Atmospheric escape is the loss of planetary atmospheric gases to outer space. A number of different mechanisms can be responsible for atmospheric escape; these processes can be divided into thermal escape, non-thermal (or suprathermal) escape, and impact erosion. The relative importance of eac... | |
g_needed/Maxwell_E2_80_93Boltzmann_distribution2.txt | part2 -------------------
Distribution function[edit]
For a system containing a large number of identical non-interacting, non-relativistic classical particles in thermodynamic equilibrium, the fraction of the particles within an infinitesimal element of the three-dimensional velocity space dv, centered on a velocity v... | |
g_needed/Maxwell_E2_80_93Boltzmann_distribution7.txt | part7 -------------------
In n-dimensional space[edit]
In n-dimensional space, Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution becomes:
f
(
v
)
d
n
v
=
[
m
2
π
k
T
]
n
2
exp
(
−
m
|
v
|
2
2
k
T
)
d
n
v
{\displaystyle f(v)~d^{n}v={\biggl [}{\frac {m}{2\pi kT}}{\biggr ]}^{\frac... | |
g_needed/Atmospheric_escape#Thermal_escape_mechanisms2.txt | part2 -------------------
Thermal escape mechanisms[edit]
Thermal escape occurs if the molecular velocity due to thermal energy is sufficiently high. Thermal escape happens at all scales, from the molecular level (Jeans escape) to bulk atmospheric outflow (hydrodynamic escape).
A visualization of Jeans escape. Temperat... | |
g_needed/Maxwell_E2_80_93Boltzmann_distribution4.txt | part4 -------------------
Typical speeds[edit]
The Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution corresponding to the solar atmosphere. Particle masses are one proton mass, mp = 1.67×10 kg ≈ 1 Da, and the temperature is the effective temperature of the Sun's photosphere, T = 5800 K.
V
~
{\displaystyle {\tilde {V}}}
,
... | |
earth_science-30/extraction_0.txt | ### Lower boundary Main article: Thermopause The lower boundary of the exosphere is called the _thermopause_ or _exobase_. It is also called the _critical altitude_, as this is the altitude where barometric conditions no longer apply. Atmospheric temperature becomes nearly a constant above this altitude.[\[6\]](https:/... | |
earth_science-30/extraction_1.txt | An underlying reason for many of the observed differences between terrestrial and Jovian planets is that the Jovian planets have a chemical composition that closely resembles that of the Sun; that is, they are mostly hydrogen and helium. The terrestrial planets are deficient in hydrogen and helium because they are too ... | |
earth_science-30/extraction_2.txt | # A "rule of thumb" in planetary science is that a planet can hold on to a gas for the age of the Solar System if the average speed of molecules in the gas is less than one-sixth the escape velocity of the planet (this takes into account the fact that molecules high in an atmosphere are influenced by a smaller pull fro... | |
earth_science-30/extraction_3.txt | So in fact, if this were the case, if the average molecular speed was about the same as the escape velocity, we would have an explosive loss of the atmosphere. It would be gone within moments. So when we're asking about whether a planet can retain an atmosphere, we have to use a more restrictive criteria than this. Bec... | |
earth_science-30/extraction_5.txt | The rate of escape of hydrogen is proportional to the concentration of hydrogen compounds in the lower stratosphere. We can see how this works by looking at a schematic diagram showing the abundance of hydrogen in all its forms in the Earth’s atmosphere as a function of height shown in Fig. 5.8(b) and schematically in ... | |
earth_science-30/extraction_6.txt | # ESCAPING WHEN THE CHEMISTRY IS RIGHT Let us return to the problem of why Jeans’ escape does not account for present-day atmospheric loss from Earth, Venus, Mars and Titan. The answer concerns the plethora of “non-thermal escape” processes, whereby atoms attain escape velocity from chemical or ionic reactions. An impo... | |
north_pole_rotation/Polar_motion1.txt | part1 -------------------
Polar motion of the Earth is the motion of the Earth's rotational axis relative to its crust. This is measured with respect to a reference frame in which the solid Earth is fixed (a so-called Earth-centered, Earth-fixed or ECEF reference frame). This variation is a few meters on the surface of... | |
north_pole_rotation/Polar_motion6.txt | part6 -------------------
Theory[edit]
Annual component[edit]
Figure 2. Rotation vector m of the annual component of polar motion as function of year. Numbers and tick marks indicate the beginning of each calendar month. The dash-dotted line is in the direction of the major axis. The line in the direction of the minor ... | |
north_pole_rotation/Polar_motion2.txt | part2 -------------------
Analysis[edit]
Polar motion is defined relative to a conventionally defined reference axis, the CIO (Conventional International Origin), being the pole's average location over the year 1900. It consists of three major components: a free oscillation called Chandler wobble with a period of about... | |
north_pole_rotation/Polar_motion4.txt | part4 -------------------
Principle[edit]
In the absence of external torques, the vector of the angular momentum M of a rotating system remains constant and is directed toward a fixed point in space. If the earth were perfectly symmetrical and rigid, M would remain aligned with its axis of symmetry, which would also be... | |
north_pole_rotation/Polar_motion5.txt | part5 -------------------
Observations[edit]
Polar motion is observed routinely by space geodesy methods such as very-long-baseline interferometry, lunar laser ranging and satellite laser ranging. The annual component is rather constant in amplitude, and its frequency varies by not more than 1 to 2%. The amplitude of t... | |
north_pole_rotation/Polar_motion3.txt | part3 -------------------
Causes[edit]
The slow drift, about 20 m since 1900, is partly due to motions in the Earth's core and mantle, and partly to the redistribution of water mass as the Greenland ice sheet melts, and to isostatic rebound, i.e. the slow rise of land that was formerly burdened with ice sheets or glaci... | |
earth_science-31/extraction_0.txt | ### POLAR MOTION The angles which characterize the direction of the rotational pole within the Earth are called the polar coordinates, x and y. Variation in these coordinates is called polar motion. The polar coordinates describe the position of the Earth's instantaneous pole of rotation in a reference frame which is d... | |
earth_science-31/extraction_2.txt | The March 11, magnitude 9.0 earthquake in Japan may have shortened the length of each Earth day and shifted its axis. But don't worry-you won't notice the difference. Using a United States Geological Survey estimate for how the fault responsible for the earthquake slipped, research scientist Richard Gross of NASA's Jet... | |
earth_science-31/extraction_5.txt | !New data on how water moves around Earth answer old questions about the planet's rotation. Earth does not always spin on an axis running through its poles. Instead, it wobbles irregularly over time, drifting toward North America throughout most of the 20th Century (green arrow). That direction has changed drastically ... | |
earth_science-31/extraction_6.txt | ## Abstract It has been demonstrated that the motion of the Earth's rotational pole with respect to the crust—termed polar motion—is increasingly influenced by barystatic processes, that is, continental-ocean mass redistribution due to melting of polar ice sheets, global glaciers, and variations in terrestrial water st... | |
earth_science-32/extraction_0.txt | - Home - WGSP Home - Download Climate Indices - Standard Format Toggle navigation Monthly TimeseriesLong TimeseriesFrom the GCOS siteShort (1948-->)These are suitable for the correlation/composite pagesSpecialized SST/LIM indicesCreate your own monthly timeseriesHerePlot monthly timeseriesHereUse monthly timeseriesMont... | |
earth_science-32/extraction_1.txt | # Measurement Descriptions and Units Real Time files generally contain the last 45 days of "Realtime" data - data that went through automated quality checks and were distributed as soon as they were received. Historical files have gone through post-processing analysis and represent the data sent to the archive centers.... | |
earth_science-32/extraction_2.txt | HPCP: The amount of precipitation recorded at the station for the hour ending at the time specified for DATE above given in hundredths of inches or tenths of millimeters depending on user’s specification of standard or metric units. The values 99999 means the data value is missing. Hours with no precipitation are not s... | |
temperature_anomaly/Global_dimming3.txt | part3 -------------------
Causes[edit]
Further information: Albedo, irradiance, insolation, and Anthropogenic cloud
Anthropogenic sulfates[edit]
Snapshot of atmospheric sulfur dioxide on April 15, 2017. As it moves through the atmosphere with prevailing winds, weather patterns and seasonality alter these distributions... | |
temperature_anomaly/Global_dimming2.txt | part2 -------------------
History[edit]
Further information: Climate model and pyranometer
The observed trends of global dimming and brightening in four major geopolitical regions. The dimming was greater on the average cloud-free days (red line) than on the average of all days (purple line), strongly suggesting that s... | |
temperature_anomaly/Global_dimming1.txt | part1 -------------------
Global dimming is a decline in the amount of sunlight reaching the Earth's surface, a measure also known as global direct solar irradiance. It was observed soon after the first systematic measurements of solar irradiance began in the 1950s, and continued until 1980s, with an observed reductio... | |
temperature_anomaly/Global_dimming5.txt | part5 -------------------
Relationship to climate change[edit]
Past and present[edit]
Air pollution, including from large-scale land clearing, has substantially increased the presence of aerosols in the atmosphere when compared to the preindustrial background levels. Different types of particles have different effects,... |
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