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<｜fim▁begin｜> Contents 1 Ambient Light 2 Specular Highlights 3 Shader Code 4 Summary 5 Further reading “Apollo the Lute Player” (Badminton House version) by Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, ca. 1596. This tutorial covers per-vertex lighting (also known as Gouraud shading) using the Phong reflection model. It extends the shader code in Section “Diffuse Reflection” by two additional terms: ambient lighting and specular reflection. Together, the three terms constitute the Phong reflection model. If you haven't read Section “Diffuse Reflection”, this would be a very good opportunity to read it. Ambient Light Consider the painting by Caravaggio to the left. While large parts of the white shirt are in shadows, no part of it is completely black. Apparently there is always some light being reflected from walls and other objects to illuminate everything in the scene — at least to a certain degree. In the Phong reflection model, this effect is taken into account by ambient lighting, which depends on a general ambient light intensity I ambient light {\displaystyle I_{\text{ambient light}}} and the material color k diffuse {\displaystyle k_{\text{diffuse}}} for diffuse reflection. In an equation for the intensity of ambient lighting I ambient {\displaystyle I_{\text{ambient}}} : I ambient = I ambient light k diffuse {\displaystyle I_{\text{ambient}}=I_{\text{ambient light}}\,k_{\text{diffuse}}} Analogously to the equation for diffuse reflection in Section “Diffuse Reflection”, this equation can also be interpreted as a vector equation for the red, green, and blue components of light. In Unity, a uniform ambient light is specified by choosing Window > Rendering > Lighting Settings from the main menu, setting Scene > Environment Lighting > Source to Color and specifying the Ambient Color. In a Cg shader in Unity, this color is then available as UNITY_LIGHTMODEL_AMBIENT, which is one of the pre-defined uniforms mentioned in Section “Shading in World Space”. (If you choose Gradient instead of Color then UNITY_LIGHTMODEL_AMBIENT and unity_AmbientSky specify the Sky Color, while the Equator Color and the Ground Color are specified by unity_AmbientEquator and unity_AmbientGround.) The computation of the specular reflection requires the surface normal vector N, the direction to the light source L, the reflected direction to the light source R, and the direction to the viewer V. Specular Highlights If you have a closer look at Caravaggio's painting, you will see several specular highlights: on the nose, on the hair, on the lips, on the lute, on the violin, on the bow, on the fruits, etc. The Phong reflection model includes a specular reflection term that can simulate such highlights on shiny surfaces; it even includes a parameter n shininess {\displaystyle n_{\text{shininess}}} to specify a shininess of the material. The shininess specifies how small the highlights are: the shinier, the smaller the highlights. A perfectly shiny surface will reflect light from the light source only in the geometrically reflected direction R. For less than perfectly shiny surfaces, light is reflected to directions around R: the smaller the shininess, the wider the spreading. Mathematically, the normalized reflected direction R is defined by: R = 2 N ( N ⋅ L ) − L {\displaystyle \mathbf {R} =2\mathbf {N} (\mathbf {N} \cdot \mathbf {L} )-\mathbf {L} } for a normalized surface normal vector N and a normalized direction to the light source L. In Cg, the function float3 reflect(float3 I, float3 N) (or float4 reflect(float4 I, float4 N)) computes the same reflected vector but for the direction I from the light source to the point on the surface. Thus, we have to negate our direction L to use this function. The specular reflection term computes the specular reflection in the direction of the viewer V. As discussed above, the intensity should be large if V is close to R, where “closeness” is parametrized by the shininess n shininess {\displaystyle n_{\text{shininess}}} . In the Phong reflection model, the cosine of the angle between R and V to the n shininess {\displaystyle n_{\text{shininess}}} -th power is used to generate highlights of different shininess. Similarly to the case of the diffuse reflection, we should clamp negative cosines to 0. Furthermore, the specular term requires a material color k specular {\displaystyle k_{\text{specular}}} for the specular reflection, which is usually just white such that all highlights have the color of the incoming light I incoming {\displaystyle I_{\text{incoming}}} . For example, all highlights in Caravaggio's painting are white. The specular term of the Phong reflection model is then: I specular = I incoming k specular max ( 0 , R ⋅ V ) n shininess {\displaystyle I_{\text{specular}}=I_{\text{incoming}}\,k_{\text{specular}}\max(0,\mathbf {R} \cdot \mathbf {V} )^{n_{\text{shininess}}}} Analogously to the case of the diffuse reflection, the specular term should be ignored if the light source is on the “wrong” side of the surface; i.e., if the dot product N·L is negative. Shader Code The shader code for the ambient lighting is straightforward with a component-wise vector-vector product: float3 ambientLighting = UNITY_LIGHTMODEL_AMBIENT.rgb * _Color.rgb; For the implementation of the specular reflection, we require the direction to <｜fim▁hole｜> space, which we can compute as the difference between the camera position and the vertex position (both in world space). The camera position in world space is provided by Unity in the uniform _WorldSpaceCameraPos; the vertex position can be transformed to world space as discussed in Section “Diffuse Reflection”. The equation of the specular term in world space could then be implemented like this: float3 viewDirection = normalize(_WorldSpaceCameraPos - mul(modelMatrix, input.vertex).xyz); float3 specularReflection; if (dot(normalDirection, lightDirection) < 0.0) // light source on the wrong side? { specularReflection = float3(0.0, 0.0, 0.0); // no specular reflection } else // light source on the right side { specularReflection = attenuation * _LightColor0.rgb * _SpecColor.rgb * pow(max(0.0, dot( reflect(-lightDirection, normalDirection), viewDirection)), _Shininess); } This code snippet uses the same variables as the shader code in Section “Diffuse Reflection” and additionally the user-specified properties _SpecColor and _Shininess. (The names were specifically chosen such that the fallback shader can access them; see the discussion in Section “Diffuse Reflection”.) pow(a, b) computes a b {\displaystyle a^{b}} . If the ambient lighting is added to the first pass (we only need it once) and the specular reflection is added to both passes of the full shader of Section “Diffuse Reflection”, it looks like this: Shader "Cg per-vertex lighting" { Properties { _Color ("Diffuse Material Color", Color) = (1,1,1,1) _SpecColor ("Specular Material Color", Color) = (1,1,1,1) _Shininess ("Shininess", Float) = 10 } SubShader { Pass { Tags { "LightMode" = "ForwardBase" } // pass for ambient light and first light source CGPROGRAM #pragma vertex vert #pragma fragment frag #include "UnityCG.cginc" uniform float4 _LightColor0; // color of light source (from "Lighting.cginc") // User-specified properties uniform float4 _Color; uniform float4 _SpecColor; uniform float _Shininess; struct vertexInput { float4 vertex : POSITION; float3 normal : NORMAL; }; struct vertexOutput { float4 pos : SV_POSITION; float4 col : COLOR; }; vertexOutput vert(vertexInput input) { vertexOutput output; float4x4 modelMatrix = unity_ObjectToWorld; float3x3 modelMatrixInverse = unity_WorldToObject; float3 normalDirection = normalize( mul(input.normal, modelMatrixInverse)); float3 viewDirection = normalize(_WorldSpaceCameraPos - mul(modelMatrix, input.vertex).xyz); float3 lightDirection; float attenuation; if (0.0 == _WorldSpaceLightPos0.w) // directional light? { attenuation = 1.0; // no attenuation lightDirection = normalize(_WorldSpaceLightPos0.xyz); } else // point or spot light { float3 vertexToLightSource = _WorldSpaceLightPos0.xyz - mul(modelMatrix, input.vertex).xyz; float distance = length(vertexToLightSource); attenuation = 1.0 / distance; // linear attenuation lightDirection = normalize(vertexToLightSource); } float3 ambientLighting = UNITY_LIGHTMODEL_AMBIENT.rgb * _Color.rgb; float3 diffuseReflection = attenuation * _LightColor0.rgb * _Color.rgb * max(0.0, dot(normalDirection, lightDirection)); float3 specularReflection; if (dot(normalDirection, lightDirection) < 0.0) // light source on the wrong side? { specularReflection = float3(0.0, 0.0, 0.0); // no specular reflection } else // light source on the right side { specularReflection = attenuation * _LightColor0.rgb * _SpecColor.rgb * pow(max(0.0, dot( reflect(-lightDirection, normalDirection), viewDirection)), _Shininess); } output.col = float4(ambientLighting + diffuseReflection + specularReflection, 1.0); output.pos = UnityObjectToClipPos(input.vertex); return output; } float4 frag(vertexOutput input) : COLOR { return input.col; } ENDCG } Pass { Tags { "LightMode" = "ForwardAdd" } // pass for additional light sources Blend One One // additive blending CGPROGRAM #pragma vertex vert #pragma fragment frag #include "UnityCG.cginc" uniform float4 _LightColor0; // color of light source (from "Lighting.cginc") // User-specified properties uniform float4 _Color; uniform float4 _SpecColor; uniform float _Shininess; struct vertexInput { float4 vertex : POSITION; float3 normal : NORMAL; }; struct vertexOutput { float4 pos : SV_POSITION; float4 col : COLOR; }; vertexOutput vert(vertexInput input) { vertexOutput output; float4x4 modelMatrix = unity_ObjectToWorld; float3x3 modelMatrixInverse = unity_WorldToObject; float3 normalDirection = normalize( mul(input.normal, modelMatrixInverse)); float3 viewDirection = normalize(_WorldSpaceCameraPos - mul(modelMatrix, input.vertex).xyz); float3 lightDirection; float attenuation; if (0.0 == _WorldSpaceLightPos0.w) // directional light? { attenuation = 1.0; // no attenuation lightDirection = normalize(_WorldSpaceLightPos0.xyz); } else // point or spot light { float3 vertexToLightSource = _WorldSpaceLightPos0.xyz - mul(modelMatrix, input.vertex).xyz; float distance = length(vertexToLightSource); attenuation = 1.0 / distance; // linear attenuation lightDirection = normalize(vertexToLightSource); } float3 diffuseReflection = attenuation * _LightColor0.rgb * _Color.rgb * max(0.0, dot(normalDirection, lightDirection)); float3 specularReflection; if (dot(normalDirection, lightDirection) < 0.0) // light source on the wrong side? { specularReflection = float3(0.0, 0.0, 0.0); // no specular reflection } else // light source on the right side { specularReflection = attenuation * _LightColor0.rgb * _SpecColor.rgb * pow(max(0.0, dot( reflect(-lightDirection, normalDirection), viewDirection)), _Shininess); } output.col = float4(diffuseReflection + specularReflection, 1.0); // no ambient contribution in this pass output.pos = UnityObjectToClipPos(input.vertex); return output; } float4 frag(vertexOutput input) : COLOR { return input.col; } ENDCG } } Fallback "Specular" } Summary Congratulations, you just learned how to implement the Phong reflection model. In particular, we have seen: What the ambient lighting in the Phong reflection model is. What the specular reflection term in the Phong reflection model is. How these terms can be implemented in Cg in Unity. Further reading If you still want to know more about the shader code, you should read Section “Diffuse Reflection”. < Cg Programming/Unity Unless stated otherwise, all example source code on this page is granted to the public domain. <｜fim▁end｜>	the viewer in world
<｜fim▁begin｜> Table of Contents Supported devices Features "Flashing" instructions General instructions Linksys_WRT54G_v5/v5.1/v6 References Features These are the features available in the Standard version of DD-WRT. Other versions, such as the Micro or Mini, may lack some specific features to lower the package size. This list uses content from the WRT Wiki article "What is DD-WRT" as retrieved on September 24, 2006, which is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License 1.2. This article is in turn, as with all Wikibooks articles are licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License 1.2. 13 languages 802.1x (EAP (Extensible Authentication Protocol) encapsulation over LANs) Access Restrictions Adhoc Mode Afterburner Client Isolation Mode Client Mode (supports multiple connected clients) Client Mode WPA DHCP Forwarder (udhcp) DHCP Server (udhcp or Dnsmasq) DNS forwarder (Dnsmasq) DMZ Dynamic DNS (DynDNS, easyDNS, FreeDNS, No-IP, TZO, ZoneEdit, custom, and others) Hotspot Portal (Sputnik Agent ,Chillispot) IPv6 Support JFFS2 MMC/SD Card Support (hardware modification required) NTP client in a client-server basis <｜fim▁hole｜> Server (only in -vpn build of the firmware) Port Triggering Port Forwarding (max. 30 entries) PPTP VPN Server & Client QoS Bandwidth Management (Optimize for Gaming and Services / Netmask / MAC / Ethernet Port Priority) QoS L7 Packet Classifier l7-filter) RFlow/MACupd Routing: Static entries and Gateway, BGP, OSPF & RIP2 via (BIRD) Samba FS Automount Syslog to remote server Rx/Tx Antenna (Select or Auto) Show Status of Wireless Clients and WDS with System Uptime/Processor Utilization Site Survey SNMP SSH server & client (dropbear) Startup, Firewall, and Shutdown scripts (startup script) Static DHCP Assignment Style (Changeable GUI; v.23) Supports New Devices (WRT54G V3, V3.1, V4, V5 and WRT54GS V2.1, V3, V4) Telnet server & client Transmit Power Adjustment (0-251mW, default is 28mW, 100mW is safe) UPnP VLAN Wake On Lan client (WOL) WDS Connection Watchdog WDS Repeater Mode Wireless MAC Addresses Cloning Wireless MAC filter WMM (Wi-Fi MultiMedia QoS) WPA over WDS WPA/TKIP with AES WPA2 Xbox Kaid (Kai Engine) <｜fim▁end｜>	Ntop Remote Statistic OpenVPN Client &
<｜fim▁begin｜> Notes on Puredyne USB sticks Currently, Puredyne USB keys do not boot on Intel-based Apple Macintoshes - if you know why, please get in touch with us! Booting Puredyne from a USB stick Insert the USB stick into your computer and turn it on. Most computers will not automatically boot from the USB stick. If your computer does not, you need to change a setting in your computer's BIOS. Most PCs allow you to enter the BIOS settings quickly after you start your computer. You are usually prompted to press F1, F12 or F2 to enter the BIOS (check your computers manual if no information is displayed at <｜fim▁hole｜> settings, look for the Boot Sequence page. You should change the sequence so that the USB pen drive is first in the list, the hard disk and CD-ROM/DVD drive later. It differs per computer how this is done, please check the manual of your computer if you are unsure how to change these settings.Also, some machines' BIOS offer a quick boot device selection menu like this during startup when pressing F12: After changing the boot options in your computers BIOS make sure to save the settings and reboot your machine. Once your computer has restarted you should be greeted with a boot menu. Press enter to begin booting Puredyne. <｜fim▁end｜>	boot). Once you entered the BIOS
<｜fim▁begin｜> Contents 1 Workplace Harassment 2 Background 3 Case Studies 3.1 Racial Discrimination - Ford Motor Company 3.2 Racial Discrimination - FedEx 3.3 Allegations of Sexual Harassment - Anita Hill vs. Clarence Thomas 4 The Future of Workplace Harassment Training 5 References Workplace Harassment Background Workplace harassment is defined by the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) as unwelcome conduct that is based on race, color, religion, sex, national origin, disability, or genetic information[1]. It also defines it as conduct that creates an environment that a reasonable person would consider intimidating, hostile, or abusive. Over the past 60 years, the United States Government has implemented several laws to prevent workplace harassment[2]. In 1964, Congress enacted the Civil Rights Act that prohibits discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. This law was the first to make it illegal to discriminate against anyone anywhere, anytime, and for any reason[3]. While it represented a significant victory towards equality in legality, it did not cover those experiencing discrimination because of age or disability. In 1967, Congress enacted the Age Discrimination in Employment Act, which prohibited discrimination in the workplace for those over the age of 40[4]. In 1990, President Bush pushed the Americans with Disabilities Act, preventing discrimination against those with disabilities in public, school, work, etc[5]. In 2017, the EEOC reported that 61% of workers over the age of 45 had seen or experienced age discrimination at work. 38% of women had experienced sexual or gender based harassment in the workplace. 31.9% of harassment cases reported to the EEOC were related to disabilities[6]. After enacting the above laws, reports increased dramatically. Case Studies Racial Discrimination - Ford Motor Company In 2017, Faisal Khalaf, a former Ford Engineer, was awarded 16.8 million after suing Ford for racial discrimination[7]. The supervisors would harass him during meetings by interrupting him to yell at him for his accent and berate him about his accent. During some meetings, they would have him get coffee for the attendees. Khalaf took a leave of absence due to workplace stress and upon return, he reported his supervisors to the human resources department. After filing the report, he was instructed to take ESL classes to improve his English and they did not speak with the supervisors. After the harassment continued, he reported two of his supervisors at Ford to the EEOC for racial and national origin discrimination. Shortly after filing with the EEOC, Khalaf's employment was terminated at Ford[8]. In response to the case, Ford stood by their actions during Khalaf's employment. They claimed that their supervisor had not harassed Khalaf. Ford has been the center of several other workplace harassment cases including sexual and racial harassment in 2017[9]. Racial Discrimination - FedEx FedEx has been involved in multiple settlements involving racial discrimination. In 2007, FedEx settled for $53 million and promised to “implement multiple steps to promote equal employment opportunities, including making its performance evaluation process less discretionary, discarding use of the “Basic Skills Test” as a prerequisite to promotion into certain desirable positions, and changing employment policies to demonstrate that its revised practices do not continue to foster racial discrimination”. [10]The allegations were that 20,000 hourly employees in the companies’ western region were affected by racial discrimination by “passing them over for promotion, paying them less than white workers and treating them unfairly in evaluation and disciplinary proceedings”.[11] In 2012, <｜fim▁hole｜> with the United States Department of Labor. They were charged because of an audit that found minorities were not hired at the same rate as white applicants. This is a unique case because there was no individual complaint. The audit found that about 10% more of the white applicants were hired compared to blacks and the gap widened for Hispanic and Native American applicants. “The bottom line is we admitted no wrongdoing,” Patrick Fitzgerald, a spokesman for FedEx Ground said. He also declared that the Labor Department’s position was unlawful. [12] Allegations of Sexual Harassment - Anita Hill vs. Clarence Thomas In 1991, Clarence Thomas was nominated to the the Supreme Court. Since he had only been a judge for a year, his good character was used as his primary qualification. During the background investigation, a private interview between Anita Hill and the FBI was leaked. On October 11, 1991, Anita Hill testified in televised hearings that Thomas had sexually harassed her while he was her supervisor at the Department of Education and the EEOC. She alleged that he asked her out multiple times, and when she refused, he discussed inappropriate things in multiple work situations. [13] Four female witnesses were available to support Hill's claims, but they were never called. Hill took a polygraph test that supported that she was telling the truth, and Thomas did not take a polygraph test.[14] The hearing turned into a "he said, she said" scenario. Thomas was confirmed to the Supreme Court by the narrowest margin since the 19th century. Before these hearings, the term "sexual harassment" had not been widely referenced in the media or in harassment discussions. This case study is most important for the resulting effects. After the confirmation hearings, President George H. W. Bush dropped his opposition to a bill that gave harassment victims the right to seek federal damage awards, back pay, and reinstatement. [15] This law was then passed by Congress. One year later, harassment complaints filed within the EEOC went up 50%. Additionally, private companies started training programs to deter sexual harassment. The Future of Workplace Harassment Training As laws were passed in relation to harassment, employers updated their policies to satisfy legal requirements. In the age of the #MeToo movement [16], the future of workplace harassment policies and training is focused on "creating and fostering a workplace culture of respect and inclusion" rather than simple compliance with the law. Connecticut, California, and Maine have all required that specific employers provide anti-harassment training for supervisors. Recently, New York State passed a law that requires "all employers to provide annual anti-sexual harassment trainings to all employees." [17] Other states that do not currently have laws in place regarding workplace harassment training should take note of these initiatives and work to build out their own. Companies must move past legal compliance and create trainings that are effective in preventing harassment. In addition, trainings cannot be the sole deterrent from harassment. It must be part of a "holistic anti-harassment effort" combined with solid policies and procedures and committed senior leadership. Existing programs should be evaluated for their effectiveness and updated accordingly. [18] References ↑ https://www.eeoc.gov/laws/types/harassment.cfm ↑ https://www.eeoc.gov/laws/types/harassment.cfm ↑ https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/88/hr7152 ↑ https://www.eeoc.gov/laws/statutes/adea.cfm ↑ https://adata.org/learn-about-ada ↑ https://www1.eeoc.gov/eeoc/statistics/enforcement/state_17.cfm ↑ https://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/2018/04/03/ford-workplace-discrimination-suit/481197002/ ↑ https://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/2018/04/03/ford-workplace-discrimination-suit/481197002/ ↑ https://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/2018/04/03/ford-workplace-discrimination-suit/481197002/ ↑ https://www.lieffcabraser.com/employment/fedex-express/ ↑ https://www.reuters.com/article/us-fedex-settlement/fedex-to-pay-53-5-mln-to-settle-racial-bias-suit-idUSN1122015620070411 ↑ https://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/22/business/fedex-agrees-to-pay-3-million-to-settle-a-discrimination-case.html ↑ https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/20/us/politics/anita-hill-testimony-clarence-thomas.html ↑ https://www.nytimes.com/1991/10/14/us/the-thomas-nomination-hill-said-to-pass-a-polygraph-test.html ↑ http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,976770,00.html ↑ https://www.chicagotribune.com/lifestyles/ct-me-too-timeline-20171208-htmlstory.html ↑ https://www.ny.gov/combating-sexual-harassment-workplace/employers ↑ http://www.mondaq.com/unitedstates/x/728160/Discrimination+Disability+Sexual+Harassment/The+Future+Of+AntiHarassment+Training+And+Shifting+Workplace+Culture+In+The+Era+Of+Metoo+Blacklivesmatter+And+Others <｜fim▁end｜>	FedEx settled for $3 million
<｜fim▁begin｜> This page is by now available only in Russian. If you can help with translation, feel free to contribute. This is the last lesson of the tutorial. You already know practically the entire grammar of the language! And a significant number of verbs. It remains only to type a sufficient number of nouns and adjectives. In this lesson, there will be about 2,000 words broken down by topic. The choice of words in general terms corresponds to that used in Textbooks by M. Buynovoy. A complete leader-Russian dictionary can be foundHERE. Contents 1 Human 2 Внешность 3 Фауна 4 Флора 5 Стихии 6 Дом снаружи 7 Дом внутри 8 Погода. Время. 9 Одежда 10 Еда 11 Город 12 Свободное время 13 Путешествия 14 Образование 15 Профессия. Работа. 16 Жизнь 17 Рукотворные чудеса 18 Катастрофы. Преступления. 19 Обслуживание 20 Покупки 21 Медицина 22 Экология 23 Экономика 24 Политика Human nouns jen human jenta people man man gina woman bebi baby kinda child boy boy gela girl tineijer teenager adulta adult amiga friend visin neighbor familia family rishta relative mursha husband molya wife janmer parent mata mother patra father docha daughter son son sista sister brata brother brata-inloo brother-in-law twin twin opa grandfather oma grandmother kinson grandson kindocha granddaughter praopa great-grandfather tia aunt onkla uncle sistason nephew (sister's son) adjectives yash age yunge young lao old karakter характер hao хороший karim добрый buhao нехороший, плохой bade дурной, порочный dushte злобный ira-ney сердитый strikte строгий intele умный pumbe глупый gambir(seriose) серьёзный alegre веселый drole смешной felise счастливый triste грустный durte хитрый honeste честный kalme спокойный kyete тихий laute громкий nerva-ney нервный forte сильный feble слабый kuraje смелый, мужественный lan ленивый lagan-ney усердный latif вежливый karke грубый simple простой глаголы senti чувствовать, ощущать pri испытывать приязнь, нравиться lubi любить admiri восхищаться heni ненавидеть remembi помнить toki разговаривать, вести беседу shwo сказать shwo veritaa говорить правду rakonti рассказывать kwesti спрашивать jawabi отвечать plaki плакать chati болтать telefoni звонить по телефону jui наслаждаться preferi предпочитать jan знать dumi думать samaji понимать fogeti забывать gesi догадываться, отгадать krai кричать voki звать (кого-либо) nami называть, зваться lugi лгать Внешность существительные korpa тело kapa голова harharinka волосыволос galsa шея bey спина plecha плечо bracha рука (вся) handa рука, кисть finga палец (на руке) gamba нога genu колено peda нога, стопа pedafinga палец ноги fas лицо frenta лоб oko глаз brova бровь silya ресница nos нос aur ухо wanga щека muh рот laba губа denta зуб lisan язык mustash усы barba борода chibuk подбородок прилагательные kolor цвет blan белый swate черный rude красный rudish рыжий grin зеленый grey серый, седой blu синий klarblu голубой brun коричневый hwan желтый klare светлый, белокурый sais размер forma форма syao маленький gran большой chaure широкий tange узкий grose толстый dine тонкий magre худой, тощий kurte короткий longe длинный ronde круглый oval-ney овальный kwadra-ney(kwadre) квадратный rekte прямой kurla-ney(kurle) волнистый, кудрявый jamile красивый prival симпатичный, милый kare дорогой kurupe безобразный gao высокий grasile стройный, изящный глаголы kan смотреть (an – на) vidi видеть aspekti выглядеть audi слышать, услышать slu слушать, выслушивать tachi (при)касаться, трогать pon класть, положить teni держать kipi хранить pren брать kapti хватать dai давать lansi бросать, метать, запускать mah-lwo бросать lasi lwo ронять lifti поднимать Фауна существительные animal животное lubianimal домашний любимец krokodil крокоди bakak лягушка serpenta змея mamiler млекопитающее kota кот/кошка yunkota котенок doga собака yundoga щенок maus мышь rata крыса kaval лошадь govina корова swina свинья yan овца/баран wulfa волк foxa лиса tuza заяц berna медведь maimun обезьяна leon лев tigra тигр elefanta слон kamel верблюд kanguruu кенгуру kunila кролик delfin дельфин faula птица koko петух kokina курица yunkok цыпленок utka утка gansa гусь orla орел papagay попугай pinguin пингвин fish рыба salmon лосось silda сельдь tuna тунец sharka акула insekta насекомое moska муха parpar бабочка furmi муравей mifen пчела moskita комар spaida паук korpa тело farwa мех pluma перo swimala плавник ala крыло kauda хвост derma кожа pata лапа naka коготь mustash усы (кошки, тигра…) halsahar грива kafsa клетка прилагательные savaje дикий grave тяжелый leve легкий maoful пушистый, лохматый agude острый tupe тупой divaful удивительный, чудесный dashatival ужасный глаголы jivi жить muvi двигать, перемещать klimbi лазить, взбираться, карабкаться plunji нырять kipi хранить librisi освобождать shikari охотиться stan стоять sidi сидеть lagi лежать flai летать lopi бегать salti прыгать kripi ползать swimi плавать kapti ловить Флора существительные shulin лес ligna лес, древесина, дрова planta растение bush куст lif лист herba трава funga гриб baum дерево yel ель kwerka дуб palma пальма flor цветок rosa роза kamila ромашка legum овощи tomata помидор gurka огурец potata картофель kol капуста (garden)salata салат sihulu кабачок zukini цуккини nangwa тыква karota морковь chukanda свекла pepa перец paprika сладкий перец radis редиска luk лук saum чеснок kopra укроп persilya петрушка bona боб fasol фасоль pwa горох mais кукуруза fruta фрукт banana банан yabla яблоко pera груша sliva слива kirsa вишня dolchekirsa черешня melon дыня karpus арбуз ananas ананас greipa грейпфрут aprikos абрикос persik персик limon лимон oranja апельсин mandarina мандарин vinberi виноград kokosa кокос beri ягода malina малина fraula земляника, клубника karan смородина nuta орех ardanuta арахис mindal миндаль funduk фундук прилагательные nise низкий gro-gran огромный tanike крошечный ligne деревянный mature зрелый, спелый grinbumature незрелый, сырой глаголы planti сажать, сеять kuydi заботиться о flori цвести, расцветать fa-mature зреть, созревать jami собирать rekoli собирать урожай, жать pluki собирать (ягоды…) fadi вянуть, увядать kresi расти kultivi выращивать, культивировать arosi поливать kati срезать, стричь Стихии существительные arda земля, почва, суша kontinenta континент borda граница isla остров sahil берег playa берег, пляж sumpa болото monta гора kolina холм felda поле sahra пустыня ramla песок daokin тропинка ston камень, булыжник landa край, страна, местность loko место planeta планета lina луна natura природа pol полюс munda мир, свет akwa вода osean океан mar море lak озеро riva река onda волна inunda наводнение ais лед aira воздух universa вселенная kosmo космос skay небо agni огонь flama пламя stara звезда surya солнце luma свет kandela свеча kibrit спичка fum дым shada тень прилагательные lokale местный glube глубокий chyen мелкий lenge холодный lengish прохладный warme теплый garme горячий, жаркий freshe свежий klare ясный, светлый yarke яркий глаголы airavati проветривать mokrisi мочить inundi заливать, затапливать agnisi поджигать jal гореть tushi тушить, гасить, гаснуть fumi курить, дымить(ся) kavi копать Дом снаружи dom дом, здание, строение, домашний очаг bildura здание, постройка flat квартира skayskraper небоскреб ferma ферма dacha дача garaja гараж garden сад legumgarden огород kamina дорога korta двор pisina бассейн barana забор geit ворота, калитка ruf крыша shamba комната rufshamba чердак mur стена angula угол balkon балкон etaja этаж poda пол tavan потолок dwar дверь winda окно sulam лестница porcha крыльцо lifter лифт vida вид прилагательные nove новый guy дорогой chipe дешевый priate приятный moden современный gro-hao отличный nesese необходимый byen уютный глаголы nidi нуждаться drimi мечтать shanji менять(ся) ofni открывать klosi закрывать perteni (a) принадлежать (кому-л) en-habiti заселиться yao хотеть lusi потерять shuki искать findi найти, обнаружить kwiti покидать, оставлять Дом внутри существительные bifoo-shamba прихожая klef ключ swicher переключатель, выключатель pendika вешалка tapiskin коврик salon гостиная mebel мебель divan диван brachastula кресло kamin камин piktura картина televisor (TV) телевизор musika-pleisistema музыкальный центр telefon телефон tapis ковер kurtena занавеска kosa вещь, предмет kukishamba кухня chifanshamba столовая tabla стол stula стул kukiforna плита bartan-wosher посудомоечная машина lemar шкаф froster холодильник, морозилка woshipen раковина bartan посуда talam поднос pyata тарелка maga кружка glasa стакан, бокал furka вилка chiza ложка sikin нож ketla чайник chaydan заварник fraier сковорода pekitalam противень flordan ваза для цветов serveta салфетка somnishamba спальня lemar шкаф kama кровать kushen подушка manta одеяло kamatuh простыня lemarkin тумбочка mira зеркало CD-pleier си-ди плейер rekorder магнитофон kaseta кассета banishamba ванная комната banipen ванна dusha душ woshimashina стиральная машина tualet туалет tualya полотенце sabun мыло gunshamba кабинет skribitabla письменный стол tiriboxa ящик (стола) tana полка kitaba-lemar книжный шкаф papir бумага papirlif лист бумаги kitaba книга paja страница kalam ручка, карандаш guma стирательная резинка liniser линейка kalkulator калькулятор kompyuter компьютер lampa лампа прилагательные byen удобный domlik уютный vaste просторный mole мягкий twerde жесткий, твердый tume темный глаголы zwo делать, создавать yusi пользоваться, употреблять glui приклеивать, липнуть klini чистить waipi вытирать suhisi сушить brashi чистить щеткой en-jagi просыпаться fai dusha принимать душ rasi брить kangi расчесывать ordini kama заправлять постель tayari kama стелить постель porti нести bringi приносить wasci мыть, стирать somni спать en-somni засыпать en-stan вставать Погода. Время. существительное meteo погода klima климат garma жара surya-luma солнечный свет warmifa оттепель kicha грязь, слякоть feng ветер badal облако, туча storma шторм, буря guruha гром, грохот garja гроза bliza молния gro-pluva ливень pluva дождь raduga радуга aispluva град tuman туман, дымка lenga холод, холодная погода frosta мороз snega снег snegastorma вьюга, метель snega-tudun сугроб snegalwosa снегопад sneginka снежинка ambrela зонт temperatura температура plus плюс minus минус Прилагательные gro-hao прекрасный, превосходный tufi-she душный surya-ney солнечный kicha-ey грязный buhao плохой, неприятный feng-ney ветреный badal-ney облачный storma-ney бурный, штормовой pluva-ney дождливый tuman-ney туманный snega-ney снежный frosta-ney морозный mokre мокрый, влажный suhe сухой humide влажный, сырой (о погоде, климате) mole мягкий forte сильный, интенсивный глаголы tau таять pluvi идти (о дожде) aispluvi идти (о граде) fuki дуть fengi дуть (о ветре) guruhi греметь, стучать sta lenge мерзнуть prognosi прогнозировать brili сиять lumi светить begin начинать kontinu продолжать repeti повторять fini заканчивать apari показываться, появляться desaparifa-wek исчезать suoni звучать fusi плавить(ся) bikam становиться, делаться rupti ломать(ся), разбивать(ся) Me sta garme. Мне жарко. Me sta lenge. Мне холодно. Одежда существительные klaida одежда jinsa джинсы panta брюки shorta шорты колготки uniforma форма школьная форма kostum костюм tay галстук posh карман belta пояс, ремень jaketa пиджак jaka куртка теплая куртка, пуховик jupa юбка blusa блузка kamisa рубашка футболка свитер roba платье palto пальто mantela плащ farwapalto шуба shu туфля buta ботинок gaobuta сапог sandala сандалия sportashu кроссовки slipa тапок sok носок skarfa шарф, косынка, шейный платок tuh платок ganta перчатка shapa шляпа kepa кепка купальник pijama пижама прилагательное oranje оранжевый rose розовый violete фиолетовый goldish золотистый argentish серебристый pale бледный gande грязный klin чистый, опрятный нарядный, модный godi-she подходящий глагол shanji klaida переодеваться pagi платить (pur – за) kupi купить vendi продавать (pur – за) pendi вешать, висеть selekti выбирать diki показывать portionhev носить lospon снимать onpon надевать klaidi (swa) одевать(ся) pai получить Еда существительные fan пища, еда chifansa еда (прием пищи) sabahfan завтрак deyfan обед akshamfan ужин resepta рецепт шведский стол gusta вкус fauha запах, аромат chiadish блюдо, кушанье frai-ney potata жареный картофель pizza пицца hamburger гамбургер sandwich сэндвич tosta тост kasha каша yanmay-kasha овсяная каша flok хлопья ris рис спагетти makaron макаронные изделия kes сыр sup суп ovo яйцо bulen ovo вареное яйцо омлет (яичница-)глазунья salata салат masu мясо govamasu говядина swinamasu свинина yanmasu баранина kokmasu курица bekon бекон ветчина, окорок biftek бифштекс sosis колбаса sosiskin сосиска marfan морепродукты креветка kraba краб masala приправа, специи solta соль sukra сахар olea растительное масло nayu сливочное масло saus соус кетчуп майонез sinap горчица piwat напитки chay чай kahfa кофе jus сок limonada лимонад milka молоко vino вино bira пиво shampanya шампанское deser десерт farina мука panpasta тесто pekika печенье, булочка, пирожок pan хлеб pay пирог, пирожное torta торт biskwit печенье chokolat шоколад madu мёд jem варенье, джем aiskrem мороженое pesparta часть sorta сорт genra вид, род tip тип dilim ломтик pes кусок plata плитка botela бутылка, флакон boxa коробка glaska стеклянная банка ken жестяная банка paketa упаковка, пакет sak мешок volum объем vega вес litra литр gram грамм kilo(gram) килограмм прилагательное hao хороший, полезный utile полезный nuksanful вредный hunge голодный fule полный sate сытый vakue пустой hao-chi-ke вкусный osobe особый домашний dolche сладкий suan кислый karwe горький solte соленый pikishil острый kru сырой, необработанный глагол chi есть pi пить chifan принимать пищу, трапезничать chi sabahfan завтракать kuki готовить tayari готовить (fo – к чему-л) fulisi наполнять (bay – чем-л) adi добавлять mixi смешивать рубить, крошить чистить (от кожуры, шелухи) раскатывать probi пробовать bepon tabla накрывать стол подавать, сервировать ordi заказывать kati резать mah-chi кормить buli варить, кипятить frai жарить (на сковороде) rosti жарить (на вертеле) peki печь liti наливать fauhi пахнуть, нюхать ugosti угощать (bay – чем-л) pyasi испытывать жажду Город существительные urba город landa страна vilaja деревня region район maidan площадь shefurba столица sentra центр metro метро подземный переход gata улица тротуар monumenta памятник statua статуя fontan фонтан ponta мост stopika остановка bencha скамья metra метр kilometra километр milya миля (1609 метров) parka парк parkilok стоянка teatra театр kino кинотеатр musey музей картинная галерея palas дворец kastela замок kitabaguan библиотека shop магазин basar рынок (super)market супермаркет meilguan почта hospital больница polis полицейский участок agniguan (?) пожарная часть skola школа gastaguan гостиница banka банк kirka церковь sirkus цирк zoo зоопарк kluba клуб стадион дискотека fanguan ресторан kafee кафе airaportu аэропорт ferdao stasion железнодорожный вокзал portu порт прилагательные populare популярный fama-ney известный historike исторический gulao древний, старинный riche богатый (in – чем-л) povre бедный farke разный ajibe странный глагол loki быть расположенным, находиться returnilai bak возвращаться turni поворачивать(ся) visiti посещать, гостить осматривать достопримечательности tardi oпаздывать (a – куда-л) быть вовремя (for – куда-л) go идти, ехать raki ехать promeni гулять dai bak возвращать lifti (swa) поднимать(ся) lwo падать lai приходить, приезжать ateni достичь, прибыть resti оставаться kadalok везде nullok нигде koylok где-то enilok куда-нибудь Свободное время существительные geim игра habar новость gaseta газета jurnal иллюстрированный журнал radio радио filma кинофильм komedia комедия seriatot ??? сериал musika музыка dansa танец gana песня konserta концерт balet ??? балет opera опера kartun мультфильм roman роман rakonta рассказ versa стихотворение invita приглашение festa празднование amusa развлечения pati вечеринка mita встреча piknik <｜fim▁hole｜> улыбка joka шутка gasta гость hosta хозяин (принимающий гостей) mani деньги ??? сани ais-kolina ??? ледяная горка ais-maidan ??? каток ski лыжи ski-basa ??? лыжная база gratula поздравление ornika ??? украшение dona подарок bugundey ??? праздник, день отдыха vakasion каникулы, отпуск wikfin выходные дни, уикэнд Kristajanma рождество Nove-Yar Новый год paska ??? Пасха amigalik дружелюбный fortuna-ney удачливый yuma-ney юмористический ??? бредовый, сумасшедший magnifike замечательный romantike романтичный intere-ney интересный pinchan обыкновенный tedi-she ??? скучный doni дарить reposi отдыхать fai kuping ходить по магазинам gratuli поздравить (om) amusi развлекать(ся) festi праздновать dansi танцевать ridi смеяться smaili улыбаться joki шутить foti фотографировать plei играть plei pa kartas играть в карты plei shah ?? играть в шахматы plei kompa-geim играть в компьютерные игры plei tenis играть в теннис plei futbal играть в футбол plei basketabal играть в баскетбол plei snegabol играть в снежки baji piano играть на пианино baji gitara играть на гитаре fai kampus ??? ставить лагерь shai ??? загорать ??? заниматься серфингом zwo snegajen ??? лепить снеговика miti встречать(ся) weiti ждать orni украшать, отделывать ??? идти (о кино, спектакле…) lagi sub surya лежать на солнце ski кататься на лыжах sketi кататься на коньках ??? кататься на санках jami ??? собираться eventi случаться salti kun parasuta прыгать с парашютом ??? тратить pai принимать, получать pasi проводить (время) gani петь fai sporta заниматься (спортом) sinki тонуть glidi скользить Путешествия auslanda заграница nasionalitaa ??? национальность sitisentaa ??? гражданство distansia расстояние kwaytaa скорость dao путь, способ ??? посольство visa виза safariguan турагенство safara поездка gidiwanda экскурсия marsafara морское путешествие bileta билет ahir-bileta ??? билет в один конец ahir-adar-bileta ??? билет туда и обратно bileta-kasa билетная касса plan ??? расписание ???? полет, рейс departa отправление ariva прибытие musafer пассажир bavul чемодан bagaja багаж pasporta заграничный паспорт refistra ??? регистрация tol таможня weitisala ??? зал ожидания zinsa вход, въезд chusa ??? выход sidka место, сиденье safara-paga ??? плата за проезд mani-puna штраф busyuan кондуктор ??? водительские права resepsion ??? стойка администратора, приемная byentaa удобства servisguan центр услуг servigela ??? горничная, прислуга chaymani чаевые bil счет (за товар, за работу) gida / gider ??? гид ??? курорт tradision традиция abyas обычай, привычка kultura культура ??? коренной житель suvenir сувенир taraf сторона flanka бок, край norda север suda юг esta восток westa запад auto машина vagon вагон kamion грузовик bus автобус tram трамвай ??? троллейбус tren поезд avion самолет helikopta вертолет ship корабль bota лодка bisikla велосипед ??? мотоцикл taxi такси ??? пробка semafor светофор daokrosa ??? переход pasijen прохожий garibe иностранный, заграничный nasionale национальный stata-ney государственный jenmin-ney народный kway быстрый, скорый lente медленный kyete тихий shum-ney шумный nokalme неспокойный perfekte совершенный tradision-ney традиционный kultura-ney культурный janmalanda родина (duty-free ???) без таможенной пошлины safari путешествовать paki упаковывать hasti торопиться ??? провожать ??? взлететь landi ??? приземлиться aboli ??? отменять ordi заказывать, бронировать (check in ???) регистрироваться ??? выписываться sekwi следовать dukti, gidi вести ??? подвезти loni брать напрокат, снимать chu сходить, вылезать, выходить navigi плыть (о судне) deri, adjorni ??? задерживать, откладывать krosi пересекать, переходить habiti оставаться, временно проживать arivi прибывать Образование talim образование ??? детские ясли kindagarden детский сад skola школа ??? начальная школа ??? средняя школа jansa знание leson-plan ??? расписание pause перемена skolaboy ученик, школьник skolagela школьница leson урок fah предмет tamrin упражнение dafta тетрадь deydafta дневник letra буква leta письмо worda слово jumla предложение lingwa язык regula правило taska задание exampla пример kwesta вопрос tema тема kompositura сочинение testa проверка, испытание, тест examen экзамен galta ошибка nota отметка, оценка talomer учитель ??? домашний учитель, репетитор kolej ??? колледж universitet университет ??? соревнование, конкурс ??? вступление, поступление studenta студент ??? одноклассник lektia лекция skolayar учебный год, курс semesta ??? семестр seminar ??? семинар kursa курс (обучения, лечения…) diploma-gunsa ??? дипломная работа diploma диплом ??? аспирантура ??? диссертация proyekta проект ??? выпускник учебного заведения literatura литература matematika математика biologia биология geografia география historia история arta искусство vigyan наука kemia химия fisika физика sporta спорт talim-ney образованный ??? сообразительный atente внимательный lagan-ney старательный ??? небрежный prave правильный galta-ney ошибочный ??? хорошо разбираться interesi om интересоваться afsosi сожалеть lerni учиться, учить studi изучать talimi обучать tamrini тренировать(ся) konti считать pikti рисовать красками, красить rasmi рисовать, чертить expliki объяснять siginfi значить, означать tradukti переводить cheki ??? проверять editi, korekti ??? исправлять ??? соревноваться organisi организовывать ??? сдавать (тест, экзамен) misi??? пропускать pasi ??? справиться, выдержать investigi исследовать mah-wek ??? исключать, отчислять (студента) fini ??? заканчивать учебное заведение pren parta ??? принимать участие ??? отставать ??? сдать (тест, экзамен), выдержать lekti читать skribi писать ??? списывать (у кого-л) zin поступать (в учебное заведение) Профессия. Работа. talimer учитель profesor профессор ??? тренер sportajen ??? спортсмен direktor директор ??? босс menjer управляющий ??? бухгалтер sekretar секретарь artista ??? художник, артист pikter художник musiker музыкант komposer композитор ganer певец aktor актер skulpter ??? скульптор arkitekter архитектор skriber писатель poeta поэт leker врач zoo-leker ??? ветеринар fermer ??? фермер injener ??? инженер kosmonauta космонавт pilota пилот ??? военный politiker политик meilyuan почтальон polisyuan полицейский kanunyuan ??? юрист agniyuan пожарный jurnalista журналист vigyaner ученый garson официант ??? официантка kuker повар vender продавец gunsa работа, труд kompania компания firma фирма ofis офис zunsa занятие profesion профессия gunsafara ??? командировка talanta талант ??? объявление (в газете…) ??? вакансия ??? (CV) краткие биографические данные ??? заявление anketa ??? анкета intervyu интервью, собеседование yuan служащий yuantot штат (работников) ??? должность ??? служебные обязанности shefa глава, руководитель asistenta ??? помощник, заместитель ko-yuan ??? коллега anubav опыт gun-anubav стаж gunpaga зарплата ??? повышение kariera ??? карьера ??? смена ??? контракт, договор signitura подпись ??? великий geniale ??? гениальный talanta-ney талантливый haoish "сойдет" mange занятый fatige усталый libre свободный leve легкий mushkile трудный tayar готовый muhim важный utile полезный shefe главный sukses-ney успешный anubav-ney опытный profesionale ??? профессиональный gun работать servi служить fulisi заполнить ??? нанимать на работу spesialisi ??? специализироваться fulfil выполнять ??? заключить (сделку) signati подписывать informi информировать gwin зарабатывать ??? уволиться, прекращать (что-л делать) demisioni уйти на пенсию ??? уволить Жизнь janma рождение janmadey день рождения nam имя familianam фамилия suluka поведение muda настроение, расположение духа treta особенность, свойство, черта, признак datum дата lubimita ??? свидание eventa событие gamifesta свадьба dulho жених dulhina невеста ??? новобрачные ??? медовый месяц ??? брак patra-inloo тесть, свёкор mata-inloo тёща, свекровь son-inloo зять docha-inloo невестка kuyda забота, уход, внимание ??? неприятность problema проблема ??? ссора divorsa развод ??? холостяк widuwa вдова ??? вдовец atma душа kinda-yash детство yunga-yash молодость laoyash старость morta смерть kare милый, дорогой kuydi-she заботливый sinkuyda-ney беззаботный sole единственный ??? бывший ??? одинокий, холостой garwe гордый jive живой, в живых morte мертвый janmi родить(ся) simili походить на кого-л fa-adulte становиться взрослым kuydi заботиться ??? баловать shatami ругать ??? назначить свидание ??? встречаться en-lubi влюбиться kisi целовать embrasi обнять ??? делать предложение (кому-л) gami жениться, выходить замуж respekti уважать influi ??? влиять danki благодарить shakwi (om) жаловаться ofensi обижать ignori ??? игнорировать kalmisi успокаивать sinian (om) скучать skusi ??? извиниться ??? помириться divorsi разводиться ofri, proposi ??? предлагать relati ??? относиться к suluki вести себя ??? воспитывать laudi хвалить dependi зависеть ??? ссориться pardoni простить morti умирать Рукотворные чудеса diva чудо inventa изобретение inventer изобретатель autor автор kreata создание deskovra ??? открытие developa развитие deskriba описание ??? замысел, проект, набросок bliding строительство blidura здание ??? показ, выставка piktura выставка skulptura скульптура original ?? оригинал, подлинник imaja образ, изображение kopia копия ??? подделка, фальшивка impresa впечатление imajina воображение piramida пирамида ??? изобретательный, находчивый vere истинный, настоящий false поддельный, фальшивый dekorative декоративный kreative творческий divi удивляться reveli, deskovri ??? обнаруживать, открывать fundi ??? основывать developi развивать bildi строить ??? восстанавливать ??? подражать falsifiki ??? подделывать ??? поражать inventer изобретать, придумывать kreati создавать, творить nami afte ??? называть в честь deskribi описывать ruspi сломать, снести Катастрофы. Преступления. gwer война armee армия soldata солдат dushman враг salam мир batala драка wunda рана ushiba ушиб distrukti ??? разрушение, уничтожение jita победа hero ??? герой heroina героиня ??? непредвиденный случай, критическое положение beda бедствие, несчастье aksidenta несчастный случай danja опасность ugrosa опасность, угроза nuksan вред, ущерб hunga ??? голод (стихийное бедствие) ardasheika ??? землетрясение tsunami цунами kanun закон krimenjen преступник ??? разбойник, грабитель chorer вор chora воровство, кража ??? жертва kiler убийца pistola пистолет juda суд ??? подозреваемый akusa обвинение prison тюрьма puna наказание ??? выкуп libritaa свобода danjaful опасный wunda-ney раненый ??? беспомощный tragike трагический heroike героический suspektalik ??? подозрительный kulpa-ney виновный sinkulpa-ney невиновный, невинный kasuale случайный ??? захватывать, завоевывать batali драться, воевать ugrsi угрожать protekti защищать salvi спасать ausjivi выжить fai krimen ??? нарушать, переступать (закон…) ??? похитить ??? грабить, лишать wundi ранить kili убить suspekti подозревать akusi обвинять puni наказывать fobi бояться ataki нападать lusi проигрывать jiti выигрывать bigari портить ??? вламываться, врываться darbi ударять, бить, стучать juli обманывать, мошенничать chori украсть shuti стрелять eviti избежать Обслуживание klienta клиент, заказчик studio ??? цех, мастерская, ателье, студия repariguan ремонтная мастерская sunda поставка, доставка poseser ??? владелец, собственник, хозяин ??? неисправность, повреждение masaja массаж ??? маникюр naga ноготь laka ??? лак friser парикмахер harkata стрижка frisitura прическа ??? химическая завивка shampu шампунь suter портной moda мод stil ??? стиль fason ? фасон, покрой, стиль ножницы buton пуговица, кнопка dun дыра buter ?? сапожник kabluk пятка, каблук kabluk-kuta ??? набойка (на каблуке) fotiyuan фотограф fotoaparata, foter фотоаппарат kinokamera ??? видеокамера pelikula ?? кинопленка, пленка, фотопленка woshiguan прачечная yundi гладить, утюжить ??? пятно, отпечаток servisguan станция техобслуживания bensin бензин, топливо autowoshiguan мойка автомобилей meilkarta открытка telegraa телеграмма marka марка letakuta конверт, обертка sendiwat посылка, бандероль adres адрес meilboxa почтовый ящик ??? сотовый телефон ??? автоответчик faxi ??? посылать по факсу mesaja сообщение, извещение klokayuan часовщик hamra молоток naga гвоздь murkuta обои ordina исправность, порядок aksesibile доступный kwalitaa качество buhao плохой ??? обслуживат repari ремонтировать, чинить ordini налаживать suti шить pinti красить, раскрашивать, окрашивать frisi делать прическу ??? натирать, полировать klapi стучать, постукивать ??? проявлять (пленку) ??? отпечатывать ??? пачкать, марать, пятнать ??? заправляться горючим fulisi заполнять, заливать sendi посылать, отправлять telefoni набирать номер, звонить hasti ??? торопиться (о часах) ??? отставать (о часах) ??? заводить (часы) tori рвать(ся), разрывать(ся), отрывать(ся) ??? подрезать, обрезать кромки ??? красить, окрашивать plexi связывать, переплетать sendi посылать, отправлять ??? заходить (за) Покупки komersa торговля ??? розничная продажа ??? оптовая торговля, оптом kuper покупатель pin товар lot партия товара ??? корзина ??? тележка kupika покупка venda продажа, реализация ??? распродажа ??? примерочная fila очередь kaunta прилавок kasa касса manidan кошелек, бумажник ??? бумажник chek (кассовый) чек ??? срок годности kasayuan кассир mani деньги moneta монета bankanota банкнота ??? мелкие деньги ??? наличные деньги ??? кредитная карточка ??? банковый чек ??? счет, расчет ??? валюта ??? пункт обмена валюты ??? валютный курс prais цена, стоимость ??? скидка deba долг kupisentra торговый центр shop магазин dukan лавка kioska киоск, будка ??? магазин женской одежды ??? бутик sportashop / dukan магазин спортивных товаров shushop / dukan обувной магазин bartandukan магазин посуды pleika-dukan магазин игрушек flor-dukan цветочный магазин yuwel-dukan ювелирный магазин pan-dukan булочная masu-dukan мясная лавка ??? бакалея legum-dukan овощной магазин kitaba-dukan книжный магазин skribi-dukan ??? магазин канцтоваров yuwel драгоценность golda золото argenta серебро diamanta алмаз, бриллиант smaragda изумруд kadena цепь, цепочка galsa-halka ??? ожерелье, ошейник malina бусы halka кольцо, круг aurhalka ??? серьги handahalka браслет parfum духи, аромат okula очки kukla кукла (детская игрушка) teddi-berna плюшевый медвежонок ??? канцелярские товары glu клей album альбом deydafta дневник, ежедневник silka шелк koton хлопок mao шерсть ??? фарфор, фарфоровые изделия ??? запчасти Медицина medisina медицина sanitaa здоровье stata состояние simptom симптом morba болезнь muaa тошнота tunga боль kapa-tunga головная боль aur-tunga боль в ухе wunda рана, травма nuksan вред grip грипп lengitura простуда mukus сопли pulsa пульс klinika клиника pasienta пациент dentista зубной врач mednana медсестра operasion операция leking лечение resepta рецепт farmakguan аптека tableta таблетка farmak медикамент narko наркотик vitamin витамин dieta диета sanifa выздоровление ??? иммунитет apetit аппетит vata вата ??? страховой полис Экология populasion население ??? жилец, житель, обитатель milyoo окружающая среда atmosfera атмосфера, обстановка fabrika завод, фабрика laza мусор lazadan мусорное ведро kontener контейнер, тара laza-monton мусорная куча, свалка wekika отходы, отбросы gandifa ??? загрязнение ??? (смог) густой туман с дымом и копотью ??? валка леса defensa защита protekta охрана exista существование resursa ??? запасы, ресурсы metal металл fer железо gual ??? каменный уголь nafta нефть konsuming поглощение, потребление resulta результат sekwika следствие resolva решение kausa причина, основание materia вещество, материал warmifa потепление oxigen кислород karbon углерод Экономика industria промышленность ??? сельское хозяйство produkting ??? производство, добыча produkta продукт produktura продукция ??? провизия, обеспечение ??? поставка, запас distribusa распределение ??? отделение, филиал importa импорт exporta экспорт, вывоз bujeta бюджет naloga налог ??? налогоплательщик ??? налог, пошлина ??? проценты (на деньги) ??? ставка, тариф, цена ??? затрата gwinsa прибыль, доход inflasion инфляция ??? льгота ??? поддержка, пособие pension пенсия ??? пособие по болезни ??? пособие по безработице fundu фонд lusa потеря, проигрыш, убыток damaja ущерб hevsa имущество, собственность konkurer ??? конкурент, соперник konkura конкуренция gunstopa забастовка nivel уровень Политика stata государство imperor император imperatorina императрица regilanda королевство, царство rego король monarka монарх regina королева tsar царь tsarina царица prinsa принц prinsina принцесса presidenta президент, председатель governer губернатор, правитель mer мэр dashi посол, посланец general генерал sosietaa общество publika публика, общественность sitisen гражданин, городской житель elekta выборы kandidat кандидат ??? вице, заместитель memba ??? член (организации, семьи) guverna правительство administra администрация parlamenta парламент kongres конгресс, съезд partia партия mahta сила, мощь, могущество, власть konferensa конференция konsilum заседание, совещание ??? переговоры ??? встреча на высшем уровне konstitusion конституция kanun закон kontrakta договор, соглашение, конвенция kondision условие srok срок raita право dela дело bashan речь <｜fim▁end｜>	??? пикник rida смех smaila
<｜fim▁begin｜> There are quite a lot of miscellaneous structures which are useful for minor things but aren't common or useful enough to be a staple in a speedrunner's repertoire. Still knowing some things about them can be useful in some situations. Contents 1 Abandoned Mineshafts 2 Ocean Ruins 3 Desert Pyramids 4 Igloos 5 Jungle Temples 6 Pillager Outposts 7 Swamp Huts 8 Woodland Mansions 9 Dungeons Abandoned Mineshafts These spawn underground and have chests in minecarts which can contain food and iron. They spawn most commonly and are often exposed in mesa biomes. They have cave spiders inside which will poison you if the difficulty is higher than easy. Ocean Ruins These spawn in or near oceans and can have stone axes and buried treasure maps but are otherwise not very useful and you will often get attacked by a drowned. Desert Pyramids Also called desert temples, these spawn in deserts and have some useful resources like golden apples, iron, gold, diamonds, string and 9 tnt. Definitely can be very useful although they tend to not have quite enough iron or food and take too much time to loot to be a mainstay of speedrunning in 1.16. Igloos Igloos spawn in snowy biomes and will contain a furnace. Half of igloos spawn with a basement section which contains a golden apple and a splash potion of weakness for curing a zombie villager which gives good trades. This would be useful for the trading with villagers for ender pearls strategy, but this strategy <｜fim▁hole｜> bartering with piglins. Also can contain a stone axe in the chest in the basement. Jungle Temples Jungle Temples spawn in jungle biomes and contain 2 chests, one hidden behind the lever puzzle and one behind some dispensers with arrows. Can contain some iron, gold and diamonds but are quite inconsistent. Oftentimes, mining through the lever puzzle and accessing the chest this way is much faster than solving it. Pillager Outposts Pillager Outposts spawn in the same biomes a village can spawn in. They have one chest at the top which can contain some iron and logs as well as some food. They can also spawn with a caged iron golem, but killing the golem while being harassed by pillagers is very difficult. Swamp Huts Swamp huts, or witch huts are basically useless for speedrunning since they have no chests. Theoretically one could obtain a useful potion by killing the witch at the right time, but this is very inconsistent and not very applicable. Woodland Mansions Woodland mansions are actually quite useful but they are so rare as to not really be worth investing time into. They also can take a lot of time to navigate because of how large they are. There are many different rooms and lots of loot from chests. Here is a semi-serious guide to mansions made by T_Wagz. Dungeons Dungeons can have iron and buckets and some food in their chests so can be useful but as with most underground structures they are somewhat rare to find. <｜fim▁end｜>	is slower in 1.16.1 than
<｜fim▁begin｜> This page was imported and needs to be de-wikified.Books should use wikilinks rather sparsely, and only to reference technical or esoteric terms that are critical to understanding the content. Most if not all wikilinks should simply be removed. Please remove {{dewikify}} after the page is dewikified. In computing, a hyperlink is a reference to data that the reader can directly follow, or that is followed automatically.[1] A hyperlink points to a whole document or to a specific element within a document. Hypertext is text with hyperlinks. A software system for viewing and creating hypertext is a hypertext system, and to create a hyperlink is to hyperlink (or simply to link). A user following hyperlinks is said to navigate or browse the hypertext. A hyperlink has an anchor, which is the location within a document from which the hyperlink can be followed; the document containing a hyperlink is known as its source document. For example, in an online reference work such as Wikipedia, many words and terms in the text are hyperlinked to definitions of those terms. Hyperlinks are often used to implement reference mechanisms, such as tables of contents, footnotes, bibliographies, indexes, letters and glossaries. In some hypertext, hyperlinks can be bidirectional: they can be followed in two directions, so both ends act as anchors and as targets. More complex arrangements exist, such as many-to-many links. The effect of following a hyperlink may vary with the hypertext system and may sometimes depend on the link itself; for instance, on the World Wide Web, most hyperlinks cause the target document to replace the document being displayed, but some are marked to cause the target document to open in a new window. Another possibility is transclusion, for which the link target is a document fragment that replaces the link anchor within the source document. Not only persons browsing the document follow hyperlinks; they may also be followed automatically by programs. A program that traverses the hypertext, following each hyperlink and gathering all the retrieved documents is known as a Web spider or crawling. Contents 1 Types of links 1.1 Inline link 1.1.1 Anchor 2 Hyperlinks in various technologies 2.1 Hyperlinks in HTML 2.2 XLink: hyperlinks in XML 2.3 Hyperlinks in other document technologies 2.4 Hyperlinks in virtual worlds 2.5 Hyperlinks in wikis 3 How hyperlinks work in HTML 3.1 Link behavior in web browsers 4 History of the hyperlink 5 Legal issues 6 References 7 Further reading Types of links Inline link An inline link displays remote content without the need for embedding the content. The remote content may be accessed with or without the user selecting the link. For example, the image above is a document that can be viewed separately, but it is included into this page with an inline link. An inline link may display a modified version of the content; for instance, instead of an image, a thumbnail, low resolution preview, cropped section, or magnified section may be shown. The full content will then usually be available on demand, as is the case with print publishing software – e.g. with an external link. This allows for smaller file sizes and quicker response to changes when the full linked content is not needed, as is the case when rearranging a page layout. Anchor An anchor hyperlink is a link bound to a portion of a document—generally text, though not necessarily. For instance, it may also be a hot area in an image (image map in HTML), a designated, often irregular part of an image. One way to define it is by a list of coordinates that indicate its boundaries. For example, a political map of Africa may have each country hyperlinked to further information about that country. A separate invisible hot area interface allows for swapping skins or labels within the linked hot areas without repetitive embedding of links in the various skin elements. Hyperlinks in various technologies Hyperlinks in HTML Tim Berners-Lee saw the possibility of using hyperlinks to link any information to any other information over the Internet. Hyperlinks were therefore integral to the creation of the World Wide Web. Web pages are written in the hypertext mark-up language HTML. Links are specified in HTML using the <a> (anchor) elements. To see the HTML used to create a page, most browsers offer a "view page source" option. Included in the HTML code will be an expression in the form symbol "<a" and the reference "href="URL">" marking the start of an anchor, followed by the highlighted text and the "</a>" symbol, which indicates the end of the source anchor. The <a> element can also be used to indicate the target of a link. Webgraph is a graph, formed from web pages as vertices and hyperlinks, as directed edges. XLink: hyperlinks in XML Main page: XLink The W3C Recommendation called XLink describes hyperlinks that offer a far greater degree of functionality than those offered in HTML. These extended links can be multidirectional, linking from, within, and between XML documents. It also describes simple links, which are unidirectional and therefore offer no more functionality than hyperlinks in HTML. Hyperlinks in other document technologies Hyperlinks are used in the Gopher protocol, text editors, PDF documents, help systems such as Windows Help, word processing documents, spreadsheets, Apple's HyperCard and many other places. Hyperlinks in virtual worlds Main page: Hyperlinks in virtual worlds Hyperlinks are being implemented in various 3D virtual world networks, including those which utilize the OpenSimulator[2] and Open Cobalt[3] platforms. Hyperlinks in wikis While wikis may use HML-type hyperlinks, lightweight markup languages of wikis (wiki markup) provide simplified syntax, called wikilinks for linking pages within wiki environments. The syntax and appearance of wikilinks may vary. Ward Cunningham's original wiki software, the WikiWikiWeb, used CamelCase for this purpose. CamelCase was also used in the early version of Wikipedia and is still used in some wikis, such as JSPWiki, TiddlyWiki, Trac and PMWiki. A common markup is using double square brackets around the term to be wikilinked, for example, the following input: [[wiki software]] — will be converted by wiki software to look like this: wiki software. Hyperlinks used in wikis are commonly classified as follows: Internal wikilinks or intrawiki links lead to pages within the same wiki website. Interwiki links are simplified markup hyperlinks lead to pages of other wikis. External links lead to other webpages. If an internal wikilink leads to a page that does not exist, it usually has a distinct visual appearance. For example, in Wikipedia they are commonly displayed in red color, like this, and therefore they are called red links in Wikipedia.[4] Another way is to display a highlighted clickable question mark by the wikilinked term, like this?. How hyperlinks work in HTML A link from one domain to another is said to be outbound from its source anchor and inbound to its target. The most common destination anchor is a URL used in the World Wide Web. This can refer to a document, e.g. a webpage, or other resource, or to a position in a webpage. The latter is achieved by means of an HTML element with a "name" or "id" attribute at that position of the HTML document. The URL of the position is the URL of the webpage with a fragment identifier — "#attribute name" — appended. When linking to PDF documents from an HTML page the "attribute name" can be replaced with syntax that references a page number or another element of the PDF, for example, page=[pageNo] – "#page=386". Link behavior in web browsers A web browser usually displays a hyperlink in some distinguishing way, e.g. in a different color, font or style. The behavior and style of links can be specified <｜fim▁hole｜> language. In a graphical user interface, the appearance of a pointer may change into a hand motif to indicate a link. In most graphical web browsers, links are displayed in underlined blue text when not cached, but underlined purple text when cached. When the user activates the link (e.g. by clicking on it with the mouse) the browser will display the target of the link. If the target is not an HTML file, depending on the file type and on the browser and its plugins, another program may be activated to open the file. The HTML code contains some or all of the five main characteristics of a link: link destination ("href" pointing to a URL) link label link title link target *link class or link id It uses the HTML element "a" with the attribute "href" (HREF is an abbreviation for "Hypertext REFerence"[5]) and optionally also the attributes "title", "target", and "class" or "id": :<a href="URL" title="link title" target="link target" class="link class">link label</a> Example: To embed a link into a Page, blogpost, or comment, it may take this form: :<a href="http://example.com/">Example</a> After publishing, the complex link string is reduced to the following for visualization in typical Web browsers: Example This contributes to a clean, easy to read text or document. When the pointer hovers over a link, depending on the browser and/or graphical user interface, some informative text about the link can be shown, popping up, not in a regular window, but in a special hover box, which disappears when the pointer is moved away (sometimes it disappears anyway after a few seconds, and reappears when the pointer is moved away and back). Mozilla Firefox, IE, Opera, and many other web browsers all show the URL. In addition, the URL is commonly shown in the status bar. Normally, a link will open in the current frame or window, but sites that use frames and multiple windows for navigation can add a special "target" attribute to specify where the link will be loaded. If no window exists with that name, a new window will be created with the ID, which can be used to refer to the window later in the browsing session. Some developers may choose to capitalize links, to reflect server side interaction such as forms, or abbreviations. Capitalizing is OKAY. Creation of new windows is probably the most common use of the "target" attribute. In order to prevent accidental reuse of a window, the special window names "_blank" and "_new" are usually available, and will always cause a new window to be created. It is especially common to see this type of link when one large website links to an external page. The intention in that case is to ensure that the person browsing is aware that there is no endorsement of the site being linked to by the site that was linked from. However, the attribute is sometimes overused and can sometimes cause many windows to be created even while browsing a single site. Another special page name is "_top", which causes any frames in the current window to be cleared away so that browsing can continue in the full window. History of the hyperlink The term "hyperlink" was coined in 1965 (or possibly 1964) by Ted Nelson at the start of Project Xanadu. Nelson had been inspired by "As We May Think", a popular essay by Vannevar Bush. In the essay, Bush described a microfilm-based machine (the Memex) in which one could link any two pages of information into a "trail" of related information, and then scroll back and forth among pages in a trail as if they were on a single microfilm reel. In a series of books and articles published from 1964 through 1980, Nelson transposed Bush's concept of automated cross-referencing into the computer context, made it applicable to specific text strings rather than whole pages, generalized it from a local desk-sized machine to a theoretical worldwide computer network, and advocated the creation of such a network. Meanwhile, working independently, a team led by Douglas Engelbart (with Jeff Rulifson as chief programmer) was the first to implement the hyperlink concept for scrolling within a single document (1966), and soon after for connecting between paragraphs within separate documents (1968), with NLS. A database program HyperCard was released in 1987 for the Apple Macintosh that allowed hyperlinking between various types of pages within a document. Legal issues While hyperlinking among webpages is an intrinsic feature of the web, some websites object to being linked to from other websites; some have claimed that linking to them is not allowed without permission. Contentious in particular are deep links, which do not point to a site's home page or other entry point designated by the site owner, but to content elsewhere, allowing the user to bypass the site's own designated flow, and inline links, which incorporate the content in question into the pages of the linking site, making it seem part of the linking site's own content unless an explicit attribution is added. In certain jurisdictions it is or has been held that hyperlinks are not merely references or citations, but are devices for copying web pages. In the Netherlands, Karin Spaink was initially convicted in this way of copyright infringement by linking, although this ruling was overturned in 2003. The courts that advocate this view see the mere publication of a hyperlink that connects to illegal material to be an illegal act in itself, regardless of whether referencing illegal material is illegal. In 2004, Josephine Ho was acquitted of 'hyperlinks that corrupt traditional values' in Taiwan.[6] In 2000 British Telecom sued Prodigy, claiming that Prodigy infringed its patent (U.S. Patent 4,873,662) on web hyperlinks. After litigation, a court found for Prodigy, ruling that British Telecom's patent did not cover web hyperlinks.[7] In United States jurisprudence, there is a distinction between the mere act of linking to someone else's website, and linking to content that is illegal or infringing.[8] Several courts have found that merely linking to someone else's website is not copyright or trademark infringement, regardless of how much someone else might object.[9][10][11] Linking to illegal or infringing content can be sufficiently problematic to give rise to legal liability.[12][13][14][15][16] For a summary of the current status of US copyright law as to hyperlinking, see this discussion. References ↑ Merriam-Webster.com, hyperlink ↑ Hypergrid ↑ Creating, Saving, and Loading Spaces ↑ Wikipedia: the missing manual By John Broughton, 2008, ISBN 0596515162, p. 75 ↑ Tim Berners-Lee, Making a Server ("HREF" is for "hypertext reference") ↑ The prosecution of Taiwan sexuality researcher and activist Josephine Ho ↑ CNET News.com, Hyperlink patent case fails to click. August 23, 2002. ↑ Cybertelecom:: Legal to Link?[dead link] ↑ Ford Motor Company v. 2600 Enterprises, 177 F.Supp.2d 611 (EDMi December 20, 2001) ↑ American Civil Liberties Union v. Miller, 977 F.Supp. 1228 (ND Ga. 1997) ↑ Ticketmaster Corp. v. Tickets.Com, Inc., No. 99-07654 (CD Calif. March 27, 2000) ↑ Intellectual Reserve v. Utah Lighthouse Ministry, Inc., 75 FSupp2d 1290 (D Utah 1999) ↑ Universal City Studios Inc v Reimerdes, 111 FSupp2d 294 (DCNY 2000) ↑ Comcast of Illinois X LLC v. Hightech Elec. Inc., District Court for the Northern District of Illinois, Decision of July 28, 2004, 03 C 3231 ↑ WebTVWire.com, Linking to Infringing Video is probably Illegal in the US. December 10, 2006. ↑ Compare Perfect 10 v. Google, Decision of February 21, 2006, Case No. CV 04-9484 AHM (CD Cal. 2/21/06), CRI 2006, 76–88 No liability for thumbnail links to infringing content Further reading Weinreich, Harald; Hartmut Obendorf, Winfried Lamersdorf (2001). The look of the link – concepts for the user interface of extended hyperlinks. p. 19. doi:10.1145/504216.504225. http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=504225. Retrieved 2010-09-04. <｜fim▁end｜>	using the Cascading Style Sheets (CSS)
<｜fim▁begin｜> Authors · Print · License Edit this template Part 1: Lumped Acoustical Systems – 1.1 – 1.2 – 1.3 – 1.4 – 1.5 – 1.6 – 1.7 – 1.8 – 1.9 – 1.10 – 1.11 Part 2: One-Dimensional Wave Motion – 2.1 – 2.2 – 2.3 Part 3: Applications – 3.1 – 3.2 – 3.3 – 3.4 – 3.5 – 3.6 – 3.7 – 3.8 – 3.9 – 3.10 – 3.11 – 3.12 – 3.13 – 3.14 – 3.15 – 3.16 – 3.17 – 3.18 – 3.19 – 3.20 – 3.21 – 3.22 – 3.23 – 3.24 Contents 1 Electro-acoustical Analogies 1.1 Acoustical Mass 1.1.1 Acoustical Impedance 1.1.2 Acoustical Mobility 1.1.3 Impedance Analog vs. Mobility Analog 1.1.4 Acoustical Resistance 1.2 Acoustical Generators 1.3 Acoustical Compliance 1.4 Examples of Electro-Acoustical Analogies Electro-acoustical Analogies Acoustical Mass Consider a rigid tube-piston system as following figure. Piston is moving back and forth sinusoidally with frequency of f. Assuming f << c l o r S {\displaystyle f<<{\frac {c}{l\ or\ {\sqrt {S}}}}} (where c is sound velocity c = γ R T 0 {\displaystyle c={\sqrt {\gamma RT_{0}}}} ), volume of fluid in tube is, Π v = S l {\displaystyle \Pi _{v}=S\ l} Then mass (mechanical mass) of fluid in tube is given as, M M = Π v ρ 0 = ρ 0 S l {\displaystyle M_{M}=\Pi _{v}\rho _{0}=\rho _{0}S\ l} For sinusoidal motion of piston, fluid move as rigid body at same velocity as piston. Namely, every point in tube moves with the same velocity. Applying the Newton's second law to the following free body diagram, S P ′ = ( ρ 0 S l ) d u d t {\displaystyle SP'=(\rho _{0}Sl){\frac {du}{dt}}} P ^ = ρ 0 l ( j ω ) u ^ = j ω ( ρ 0 l S ) U ^ {\displaystyle {\hat {P}}=\rho _{0}l(j\omega ){\hat {u}}=j\omega ({\frac {\rho _{0}l}{S}}){\hat {U}}} Where, plug flow assumption is used. "Plug flow" assumption: Frequently in acoustics, the velocity distribution along the normal surface of fluid flow is assumed uniform. Under this assumption, the acoustic volume velocity U is simply product of velocity and entire surface. U = S u {\displaystyle U=Su} Acoustical Impedance Recalling mechanical impedance, Z ^ M = F ^ u ^ = j ω ( ρ <｜fim▁hole｜> {\hat {Z}}_{M}={\frac {\hat {F}}{\hat {u}}}=j\omega (\rho _{0}Sl)} acoustical impedance (often termed an acoustic ohm) is defined as, Z ^ A = P ^ U ^ = Z M S 2 = j ω ( ρ 0 l S ) [ N s m 5 ] {\displaystyle {\hat {Z}}_{A}={\frac {\hat {P}}{\hat {U}}}={\frac {Z_{M}}{S^{2}}}=j\omega ({\frac {\rho _{0}l}{S}})\quad \left[{\frac {Ns}{m^{5}}}\right]} where, acoustical mass is defined. M A = ρ 0 l S {\displaystyle M_{A}={\frac {\rho _{0}l}{S}}} Acoustical Mobility Acoustical mobility is defined as, ξ ^ A = 1 Z ^ A = U ^ P ^ {\displaystyle {\hat {\xi }}_{A}={\frac {1}{{\hat {Z}}_{A}}}={\frac {\hat {U}}{\hat {P}}}} Impedance Analog vs. Mobility Analog Acoustical Resistance Acoustical resistance models loss due to viscous effects (friction) and flow resistance (represented by a screen). File:Ra analogs.png rA is the reciprocal of RA and is referred to as responsiveness. Acoustical Generators The acoustical generator components are pressure, P and volume velocity, U, which are analogus to force, F and velocity, u of electro-mechanical analogy respectively. Namely, for impedance analog, pressure is analogus to voltage and volume velocity is analogus to current, and vice versa for mobility analog. These are arranged in the following table. Impedance and Mobility analogs for acoustical generators of constant pressure and constant volume velocity are as follows: File:Acoustic gen.png Acoustical Compliance Consider a piston in an enclosure. File:Enclosed Piston.png When the piston moves, it displaces the fluid inside the enclosure. Acoustic compliance is the measurement of how "easy" it is to displace the fluid. Here the volume of the enclosure should be assumed to be small enough that the fluid pressure remains uniform. Assume no heat exchange 1.adiabatic 2.gas compressed uniformly , p prime in cavity everywhere the same. from thermo equitation File:Equ1.jpg it is easy to get the relation between disturbing pressure and displacement of the piston File:Equ3.gif where U is volume rate, P is pressure according to the definition of the impendance and mobility, we can getFile:Equ4.gif Mobility Analog VS Impedance Analog File:Comp.gif Examples of Electro-Acoustical Analogies Example 1: Helmholtz Resonator Assumptions - (1) Completely sealed cavity with no leaks. (2) Cavity acts like a rigid body inducing no vibrations. Solution: - Impedance Analog - File:Example2holm1sol.JPG Example 2: Combination of Side-Branch Cavities File:Exam2prob.JPG Solution: - Impedance Analog - File:Exam2sol.JPG Back to Main page <｜fim▁end｜>	0 S l ) {\displaystyle
<｜fim▁begin｜> Contents 1 FBCompareContainers function 1.1 FBCompareContainers 1.1.1 Function 1.1.2 Syntax 1.1.3 Revised 1.1.4 Description FBCompareContainers function FBCompareContainers Function ✔ Appearance ✔ Standard ✔ Console Syntax result& = FN FBCOMPARECONTAINERS(a$$,b$$) Revised June 12, 2000 (Release 3) Description This function returns a result that represents how container a$$ compares to container b$$. If the result& is zero, the containers are identical. A negative <｜fim▁hole｜> position at which container a$$ was found to be less than container b$$. A positive result give the character position where container a$$ became greater than container b$$. Result Indicates Negative container a$$ < container b$$ Zero container a$$ = container b$$ Positive container a$$ > container b$$ Note: With this function, containers are evaluated by ASCII (not numeric) values. <｜fim▁end｜>	result (-n&) provides the character
<｜fim▁begin｜> These are exercises on the formulae derived in Book 1 for converting the sum or difference of two sines or two cosines into a product. [1] sin ⁡ 7 θ − sin ⁡ 5 θ cos ⁡ 7 θ + cos ⁡ 5 θ = tan ⁡ θ {\displaystyle {\frac {\sin 7\theta -\sin 5\theta }{\cos 7\theta +\cos 5\theta }}=\tan \theta } [2] cos ⁡ 6 α − cos ⁡ 4 α sin ⁡ 6 α + sin ⁡ 4 α = − tan ⁡ α {\displaystyle {\frac {\cos 6\alpha -\cos 4\alpha }{\sin 6\alpha +\sin 4\alpha }}=-\tan \alpha } [3] sin ⁡ A + sin ⁡ 3 A cos ⁡ A + cos ⁡ 3 A = tan ⁡ 2 A {\displaystyle {\frac {\sin A+\sin 3A}{\cos A+\cos 3A}}=\tan 2A} [4] sin ⁡ 7 A − sin ⁡ A sin ⁡ 8 A − sin ⁡ 2 A = cos ⁡ 4 A sec ⁡ 5 A {\displaystyle {\frac {\sin 7A-\sin A}{\sin 8A-\sin 2A}}=\cos 4A\sec 5A} [5] cos ⁡ 2 ϕ + cos ⁡ 2 θ cos ⁡ 2 ϕ − cos ⁡ 2 θ = cot ⁡ ( ϕ + θ ) cot ⁡ ( ϕ − θ ) {\displaystyle {\frac {\cos 2\phi +\cos 2\theta }{\cos 2\phi -\cos 2\theta }}=\cot \left(\phi +\theta \right)\cot \left(\phi -\theta \right)} [6] sin ⁡ 2 A + sin ⁡ 2 B sin ⁡ 2 A − sin ⁡ 2 B = tan ⁡ ( A − B ) cot ⁡ ( A − B ) {\displaystyle {\frac {\sin 2A+\sin 2B}{\sin 2A-\sin 2B}}=\tan \left(A-B\right)\cot \left(A-B\right)} [7] sin ⁡ A + sin ⁡ 2 A cos ⁡ A − cos ⁡ 2 A = cot ⁡ ( A 2 ) {\displaystyle {\frac {\sin A+\sin 2A}{\cos A-\cos 2A}}=\cot \left({\frac {A}{2}}\right)} [8] sin ⁡ 5 λ − sin ⁡ 3 λ cos ⁡ 5 λ + cos ⁡ 3 λ = tan ⁡ λ {\displaystyle {\frac {\sin 5\lambda -\sin 3\lambda }{\cos 5\lambda +\cos 3\lambda }}=\tan \lambda } [9] cos ⁡ 2 B − cos ⁡ 2 A sin ⁡ 2 <｜fim▁hole｜> = tan ⁡ ( A − B ) {\displaystyle {\frac {\cos 2B-\cos 2A}{\sin 2B+\sin 2A}}=\tan \left(A-B\right)} [10] cos ⁡ ( ϕ + θ ) + sin ⁡ ( ϕ − θ ) = 2 sin ⁡ ( 45 o + ϕ ) cos ⁡ ( 45 o + θ ) {\displaystyle \cos \left(\phi +\theta \right)+\sin \left(\phi -\theta \right)=2\sin \left(45^{o}+\phi \right)\cos \left(45^{o}+\theta \right)} [11] sin ⁡ α + sin ⁡ β sin ⁡ α − sin ⁡ β = tan ⁡ ( α + β 2 ) cot ⁡ ( α − β 2 ) {\displaystyle {\frac {\sin \alpha +\sin \beta }{\sin \alpha -\sin \beta }}=\tan \left({\frac {\alpha +\beta }{2}}\right)\cot \left({\frac {\alpha -\beta }{2}}\right)} [12] cos ⁡ ψ + cos ⁡ ω cos ⁡ ω − cos ⁡ ψ = cot ⁡ ( ψ + ω 2 ) cot ⁡ ( ψ − ω 2 ) {\displaystyle {\frac {\cos \psi +\cos \omega }{\cos \omega -\cos \psi }}=\cot \left({\frac {\psi +\omega }{2}}\right)\cot \left({\frac {\psi -\omega }{2}}\right)} [13] sin ⁡ ϕ + sin ⁡ θ cos ⁡ ϕ + cos ⁡ θ = tan ⁡ ( ϕ + θ 2 ) {\displaystyle {\frac {\sin \phi +\sin \theta }{\cos \phi +\cos \theta }}=\tan \left({\frac {\phi +\theta }{2}}\right)} [14] sin ⁡ A − sin ⁡ B cos ⁡ B − cos ⁡ A = cot ⁡ ( A + B 2 ) {\displaystyle {\frac {\sin A-\sin B}{\cos B-\cos A}}=\cot \left({\frac {A+B}{2}}\right)} [15] cos ⁡ 3 A − cos ⁡ A sin ⁡ 3 A − sin ⁡ A + cos ⁡ 2 A − cos ⁡ 4 A sin ⁡ 4 A − sin ⁡ 2 A = sin ⁡ A cos ⁡ 2 A cos ⁡ 3 A {\displaystyle {\frac {\cos 3A-\cos A}{\sin 3A-\sin A}}+{\frac {\cos 2A-\cos 4A}{\sin 4A-\sin 2A}}={\frac {\sin A}{\cos 2A\cos 3A}}} [16] a cos ⁡ ϕ + b sin ⁡ ϕ = a 2 + b 2 cos ⁡ [ ϕ − tan − 1 ⁡ ( b a ) ] {\displaystyle a\cos \phi +b\sin \phi ={\sqrt {a^{2}+b^{2}}}\cos[\phi -\tan ^{-1}({\frac {b}{a}})]} <｜fim▁end｜>	B + sin ⁡ 2 A
<｜fim▁begin｜> Proclamation 5514 by Ronald Reagan Delivered on 29 July 1986. By the President of the United States of America A Proclamation Nuclear medicine is an invaluable medical resource that contributes significantly to improvements in the diagnosis and treatment of patients in the United States. It also provides powerful tools for biomedical research. Today, nuclear medicine allows physicians to probe the bodies of patients without using a scalpel. Three-dimensional images of organs such as the heart and kidneys can be obtained, leading to early diagnosis of disease. In addition to images of anatomy, nuclear medicine yields information on subtle chemical processes as they occur in the body. For example, investigators can now examine the brain's processing of glucose, which it uses as a source of energy. Due to advances in nuclear medicine, the underlying pathological changes in such illnesses as Alzheimer's disease and schizophrenia are now closer to being understood. The field is growing so fast that what today seems a breakthrough will tomorrow be routine. Powerful tools such as positron emission tomography, or PET, are being brought to bear on heart disease and cancer. Where nuclear medicine techniques were once used to provide images of tumors, the tumors themselves <｜fim▁hole｜> and treated using specially targeted isotopes linked to antibodies specific to the tumor. All across the country, from medical centers to community hospitals, nuclear medicine departments are becoming as common as x-ray laboratories. This field unites the skills of medicine, physics, chemistry, and mathematics in a common focus-healing the sick. To stimulate public awareness of a medical field that has come of age, the Congress, by House Joint Resolution 297, has designated the week beginning July 27, 1986, as "National Nuclear Medicine Week" and authorized and requested the President to issue a proclamation in observance of this week. Now, Therefore, I, Ronald Reagan, President of the United States of America, do hereby proclaim the week beginning July 27, 1986, as National Nuclear Medicine Week, and I call upon the people of the United States to observe this week with appropriate observances and activities. In Witness Whereof, I have hereunto set my hand this twenty-ninth day of July, in the year of our Lord nineteen hundred and eighty-six, and of the Independence of the United States of America the two hundred and eleventh. RONALD REAGAN [Filed with the Office of the Federal Register, 2:48 p.m., July 30, 1986] SOURCE: Wikisource <｜fim▁end｜>	may now be located
<｜fim▁begin｜> Arakan(Rohang) Myanmar (Burma) Introduction -What is Rohangnian Ethnic Baali Language and Rohangnian Ethnic Rakhine Language? Rohangnian Baali Language is the written and spoken language of Rohangnian Baali Muslim people who are the aboriginals of Arakan(Rohang) State of Myanmar (formerly known as Burma) in South East Asia. Arakan(Rohang) is one of the larger States of Myanmar and is a place of two sister communities, namely Ethnic Baali of Islamic faith, and ethnic Rakhine of Buddhist faith, each speaking a totally different language. Myanmar is comprised of seven states and seven divisions. Seven States are homes for seven major minority-ethnic groups and seven divisions for a single majority-ethnic group known as Bamar. -Language Type Rohangnian Ethnic Baali People language and Rohangnian Ethnic Rakhine Language And Chittagongnian Ethnic Baali People Language and Chittagongnian Ethnic Rakhine Language in both places speak one Mother Tongue known as 'Baali' and spoken in the south-most region of Bangladesh bordering Arakan (Rohang) State of Myanmar. Rohangnian Baali people's second language is either Urdu for studying at religious schools or Bamar for studying at government schools in Myanmar (Burma). The study of English is also very much encouraged. You can find many words from Urdu, Hindi, Bamar, and English happened to be used in Baali Language by the Ethnic Baali. -Script Types The first Rohangnian Baali language written was in Arabic Script more than 300 years ago. The first person who revived the Arabic Script again is Master Sultan in Mid 1970s which is about 40 years ago. His great effort was much appreciated and he wrote a number of books that reached to many Rohangnians(Arakanese) Baali people. However, due to lack of some sounds in Arabic script to fulfill Rohangnian Baali people Mother tongue sounds or pronounciations,many ordinary Rohangnian Baalis find much difficulties in reading. In early <｜fim▁hole｜> Maulana Hanif invented new characters mostly similar to Arabic script and a couple of other characters borrowed from Latin and Bamar. He managed to solve the reading problems significantly and his effort too was appreciated by many. But implementation of his characters in today's electronic media is not that simple because its writing system is right to left orientation and the shapes of characters changes by position within a word. By the year 2000 a new intuitive, logical and revolutionary concept has been used by Eng. Mohammed Siddique to write Rohangnian Baali Language using Latin characters only. He made Rohangnian Baali language extremely easy enabling you to read and write within few minutes by just following seven simple rules. -Number of Alphabets Aa Bb Cc Çç Dd Ee Ff Gg Hh Ii Jj Kk Ll Mm Nn Ññ Oo Pp Qq Rr Ss Tt Uu Vv Ww Xx Yy Zz Rohingya alphabets consist of all 26 English alphabets plus two Latin characters -Çç and Ññ - making a total of 28 alphabets. Out of these, five are used for forming three different types of vowels namely normal, stressed and two types of circular vowels. There are six normal vowels - a, e, i, o, u, ou - where the sixth one is formed by joining two alphabets o and u. Stressed vowels are formed by using accented vowels - á, é, í, ó, ú, óu - where the sixth one being accented ó and normal u joined. There are four circular vowels - ai, ei, oi, ui which are formed by just adding i next to the four normal vowels. And there are also stressed circular vowels - ái, éi, ói, úi - that are formed by adding the same i to each of the four accented vowels. <｜fim▁end｜>	1980s another scholar known as
<｜fim▁begin｜> Gurmukhi Muharni Vocabulary Conversation Grammar Row 1 • Vowels • Diacritics • Row 2 • Row 3 • Row 4 • Row 5 • Row 6 • Row 7 • Row 8 • Conjuncts • Practice Practice writing ਚ by following its animation or click below to practice writing a different letter. ੳ ਅ ੲ ਸ ਹ ਕ ਖ ਗ ਘ ਙ ਚ ਛ ਜ ਝ ਞ ਟ ਠ ਡ ਢ ਣ ਤ ਥ ਦ ਧ ਨ ਪ ਫ ਬ ਭ ਮ ਯ ਰ ਲ ਵ ੜ v • d • e PunjabiGurmukhi Row 1 • Vowels • Diacritics • Row 2 • Row 3 • Row 4 • Row 5 • Row 6 • Row 7 • Row 8 • Conjuncts • PracticeMuharni First row • Second row • Third row • Fourth row • Fifth row • Sixth row • Seventh row • Full muharniVocabulary Colors • Birds • Animals • Flowers • Fruits • Trees • Vegetables • Food • Body parts • Jewellery • Transport • Sports • Metals • Furniture • Relations • Weekdays • Months • Festivals • <｜fim▁hole｜> People • Introducing Yourself • Parting • Drawing Attention • Making Phone Call • Making Telephonic Inquiries • Placing Telephonic Order • Go Shopping • Seeking Advice • Talking About People • Expressing Emotions • Asking For Directions • Sending Messages • Talking About SuccessGrammar Parts of speech • Noun • Pronoun • Adjective • Verb • Participle • Adverb • Postposition • Conjunction • InterjectionMore about Punjabi Punjabi Language • Punjabi Literature • Punjabi Culture • Punjabi Wikibook • Using Punjabi Wikibook • ContributorsAppendices Appendix 1 : Phonetics • Appendix 2 : Numbers Appendix 3 : Dictionary - ੳ ਅ ੲ ਸ ਹ ਕ ਖ ਗ ਘ ਙ ਚ ਛ ਜ ਝ ਞ ਟ ਠ ਡ ਢ ਣ ਤ ਥ ਦ ਧ ਨ ਪ ਫ ਬ ਭ ਮ ਯ ਰ ਲ ਵ ੜReferences Punjabi grammar - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia • Online Punjabi Teaching -- ACTDPL, Punjabi University, Patiala • Omniglot: Useful Punjabi phrasesFurther readings ਪੰਜਾਬੀ ਕਵਿਤਾ Punjabi Kavita • ਤਿੰਨ ਰੰਗ ਨਹੀਉਂ ਲਭਣੇ - Wikisource • ਅਜੀਤ Ajit Jalandhar • ਪੰਜਾਬੀ ਟ੍ਰਿਬਿਊਨ Punjabi Tribune • ਜਗਬਾਣੀ Jagbani • ਪੰਜਾਬੀ ਪੋਸਟ Punjabi Post (Canada) <｜fim▁end｜>	Numbers • MiscellaneousConversation Meeting
<｜fim▁begin｜> Very early on in the evolution of life, single-celled organisms had a primitive kind of perception. The surface of the cells had detectors that could identify chemicals in the environment. If the chemical was something good, like food, then the organism might move in the direction that had a higher concentration of that chemical. If the presence of a chemical is higher in some areas, and lower in others, this is known as a chemical gradient. Similarly, harmful environmental conditions, like extreme heat, cause small organisms to move away. This is the biological origin of perception.[1] Multicellular organisms (humans included) have much more complex sensory systems. Contents 1 Detection of Polarization of Light 2 Echolocation 3 Electrolocation 4 Magnetoreception Detection of Polarization of Light Octopuses have, as a part of their visual system, the ability to detect the polarization of light.[2] Light is made of waves, and the plane of the oscillation determines its polarization. <｜fim▁hole｜> only allowing certain polarizations to get through, so when you turn your head, you can sometimes see some light blocked but not other. Echolocation Many bats use echolocation to navigate in their environment. With practice, human beings can do a limited version of this as well. Electrolocation Platypuses and electric eels can detect electrical fields given off by other animals. They use this sense to detect prey.[2] Magnetoreception Magnetoreception is the ability to detect Earth's magnetic field, so that the individual can tell which way is north. Many bacteria have this sense, as do many fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and, rarely, mammals such as mice, mole-rats, and bats. ↑ Gazzaley, A., & Rosen, L. D. (2016). The Distracted Mind: Ancient Brains in a High-tech World. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Page 20. ↑ a b Mitchell, K. J. (2018). ‘’Innate: How the wiring of our brains shapes who we are.’’ Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Page 132 <｜fim▁end｜>	Certain sunglasses work by
<｜fim▁begin｜> Contents 1 files 1.1 Menus.h 1.2 Menus.rcp 1.3 Menus.c 1.4 MenusMakefile files With all of these files in the working directory, invoke: make -f MenusMakefile ..which will create Menus.prc in the working directory ready for installation on a Palm. Menus.h This file defines in one place constants that are referred to by both Menus.rcp and Menus.c. #define MainForm 1000 #define MainMenu 1000 #define MainMenuRecordNew 1011 #define MainMenuRecordOpen 1012 #define MainMenuHelpAbout 1020 Menus.rcp #include "Menus.h" MENU ID MainMenu BEGIN PULLDOWN "Record" BEGIN MENUITEM "New" ID MainMenuRecordNew "N" MENUITEM SEPARATOR MENUITEM "Open" ID MainMenuRecordOpen "O" END PULLDOWN "Help" BEGIN MENUITEM "About" ID MainMenuHelpAbout "A" END END FORM ID MainForm AT (0 0 160 160) USABLE MENUID MainMenu BEGIN END Menus.c #include <PalmOS.h> #include <unix_stdarg.h> #include "Menus.h" void showMessage( char format, ...) { va_list args; char msg[99]; va_start( args, format); StrVPrintF( msg, <｜fim▁hole｜> msg, StrLen(msg), 0, 80); } Boolean appHandleEvent( EventPtr event) { Boolean handled; FormPtr form; handled = true; if ( frmLoadEvent == event->eType) { form = FrmInitForm( event->data.frmLoad.formID); FrmSetActiveForm( form); } else if ( menuEvent == event->eType) { showMessage( "selected resource %i", event->data.menu.itemID); } else { handled = false; } return handled; } UInt32 PilotMain( UInt16 cmd, void cmdPBP, UInt16 launchFlags) { EventType event; UInt16 error; if ( sysAppLaunchCmdNormalLaunch == cmd) { FrmGotoForm( MainForm); showMessage( "open the menu"); do { EvtGetEvent( &event, evtWaitForever); if ( ! SysHandleEvent( &event)) if ( ! MenuHandleEvent( 0, &event, &error)) appHandleEvent( &event); } while (event.eType != appStopEvent); FrmCloseAllForms(); } return 0; } MenusMakefile PROJECT=Menus CREATOR_ID=Anon .SILENT: all: $(PROJECT).prc $(PROJECT).prc: $(PROJECT).c $(PROJECT).h $(PROJECT).rcp m68k-palmos-gcc $(PROJECT).c -o $(PROJECT) m68k-palmos-obj-res $(PROJECT) pilrc -q $(PROJECT).rcp build-prc $(PROJECT).prc "$(PROJECT)" $(CREATOR_ID) .$(PROJECT).grc .bin rm .$(PROJECT).grc .bin $(PROJECT) clean: rm -f $(PROJECT).prc <｜fim▁end｜>	format, args); va_end( args); WinDrawChars(
<｜fim▁begin｜> Beginner level Intermediate level Advanced level Cycle 1 Quiz Cycle 2 Quiz Cycle 3 Cycle 4 Cycle 5 Cycle 6 Main Les 1 Les 2 Les 3 Les 4 Les 5 Les 6 Les 7 Les 8 Les 9 Les 10 Les 11 Les 12 Les 13 Les 14 Les 15 Les 16 Les 17 Les 18 Les 19 Les 20 Les 21 Les 22 Les 23 Main Practice Les 1A Les 2A Les 3A Les 4A Les 5A Les 6A Les 7A Les 8A Les 9A Les 10A Les 11A Les 12A Les 13A Les 14A Les 15A Les 16A Practice Examples Vb. 1 Vb. 2 Vb. 3 Vb. 4 Vb. 5 Vb. 6 Vb. 7 Vb. 8 Vb. 9 Vb. 10 Vb. 11 Vb. 12 Vb. 13 Vb. 14 Vb. 15 Vb. 16 Examples Main page Introduction Pronunciation Vocabulary Index News Inhoudsopgave ~ Index Sorteerbare index ~ Sortable Index • Nominal • Verbal • Adverbial • Syntactic Index Linguistic Index The following table provides access to grammatical, syntactic and phonological topics covered. Supertopic Topic Subtopic Chapter Nominal Articles 2, 4 Nominal Articles Definite articles 2 Nominal Articles Indefinite articles 4 Nominal Articles Negative article 4 Nominal Adjectives 2, 13, 22 Nominal Adjectives Comparative form 13 Nominal Adjectives Superlative form form 13 Nominal Adjectives Partitive form 13 Nominal Adjectives Material adjectives 13 Nominal Adjectives Participles 13, 22 Nominal Nouns Nominal Nouns Verbal nouns 14 Nominal Nouns Case endings 15 Nominal Nouns Compound nouns 7, Nominal Nouns Diminutives 7, Nominal Nouns Numerals 6 Nominal Nouns Gender 3 Nominal Nouns Plurals 4 Nominal Pronouns Nominal Pronouns Exclamative pronoun 20 Nominal Pronouns Interrogative pronouns 11 Nominal Pronouns Indefinite pronouns 15 Nominal Pronouns Relative pronouns 11 Nominal Pronouns Personal pronouns 1, 3 Nominal Pronouns Demonstrative pronouns 4 Nominal Pronouns Possessive pronouns 4 Nominal Pronouns Reflexive pronouns 4, 16 Nominal Pronouns Reciprocal pronouns 4 Verbal Verbs Verbal Verbs Continuous tenses 9, 14 Verbal Verbs Perfect tense 6, 12 Verbal Verbs Future tense 9 Verbal Verbs <｜fim▁hole｜> tense 2, 5 Verbal Verbs Compound tenses 16 Verbal Verbs Separable verbs 11, 18, 19 Verbal Verbs Inseparable verbs 6, 19 Verbal Verbs Transitive verbs 16 Verbal Verbs Ditransitive verbs 16 Verbal Verbs Absolute verbs 16 Verbal Verbs Inergative verbs 16 Verbal Verbs Ergative verbs 12,12,16 Verbal Verbs Reflexive and reciprocal verbs 16 Verbal Verbs Impersonal verbs 16 Verbal Verbs Verbal nouns 14 Verbal Verbs Participles 13, 22 Verbal Verbs Extended infinitive 16, 18 Verbal Verbs Passive voice 12 Verbal Verbs Auxiliary verbs 6, 9,12 Verbal Verbs Auxiliary verb worden 12 Verbal Verbs Auxiliary verb hebben 6,12 Verbal Verbs Auxiliary verb zijn 6, 12 Verbal Verbs Auxiliary verb krijgen 12 Verbal Verbs Auxiliary verb zullen 9 Verbal Verbs Auxiliary verb doen 9 Verbal Verbs Auxiliary verb laten 9 Verbal Verbs Auxiliary verb raken 16, 22 Verbal Verbs Modal verbs willen 7 Verbal Verbs Modal verbs kunnen, mogen, moeten 4, 9 Verbal Verbs Copulas 11 Verbal Verbs Verbs of motion 12 Verbal Verbs Stative verbs staan, zitten, liggen, lopen 9, 14 Verbal Verbs Infinitives for participles 9 Verbal Verbs Infinitive mood 5, 16 Verbal Verbs Subjunctive mood 5 Verbal Verbs Imperative mood 5 Adverbial Adverbs 15 17 Adverbial Adverbs Adjectives as adverbs 13 Adverbial Adverbs Prepositional adverbs 8,12,17 Adverbial Adverbs Modal adverbs 15 Adverbial Adverbs The use of er 8, 12 Adverbial Adverbs Adverbial pronouns 8, 21 Adverbial Adverbs Locative adverbs 8 Adverbial Conjunctions 11 Adverbial Interjections 20 Syntaxis Word order 18 21 Syntaxis Word order Separability 19 Syntaxis Word order SOV/VSO 21 Syntaxis Word order Adverbs 21 Syntaxis Word order Objects 21 Syntaxis Word order Negation 3, 4,21 Syntaxis Word order Separable verbs in dependent clauses 18 Syntaxis Word order Exclamations 20 Syntaxis Word order Inversion 2, 3, 11 Syntaxis Word order Word order in dependent clauses 11 Syntaxis Word order Final position in perfect / passive 11 Syntaxis Word order Separability of pronominal adverbs 8, 21 Syntaxis Word order Questions 3 Syntaxis Word order Clitics 1 Phonology Changes Intervocalic -d- 12A <｜fim▁end｜>	Past tense 6, Verbal Verbs Present
<｜fim▁begin｜> Distress Tolerance Skills: IMPROVE the moment Imagery Use imagery to distract, soothe, bolster courage, and improve confidence. Imagery can make future rewards more salient (a leap of faith). Using imagery, you can create a situation different from the actual one; so, it is like leaving the situation. With imagery, you can go to a place that is safe and secure. Going to an imaginary safe place or room within can be very helpful during flashbacks. For it to be useful, you have to practice this in advance. Your ability to conjure this place must be solid if you are going to use imagery in a crisis. Practice imaging your safe place (when you are not in a crisis) enough times to get it firmly in mind and learned as a skill. An over-learned skill is available under stress. Meaning Finding or creating meaning helps many people in crises. Meaning answers the question why? For example, I’m doing this for the good of my family. Problems in life are opportunities to practice skills, this is the idea behind the phrase, “when life gives you lemons, make lemonade.” Suffering, when accepted, enhances empathy, and those who have suffered can reach out and help others. Prayer The essence of prayer is <｜fim▁hole｜> to the moment. Ask for strength from a higher power to bear the pain in this moment. Relaxation Relaxing changes how the body responds to stress and crises. This skill, like imagery, takes practice. In crisis, some people tense their muscles as if to control the situation by controlling their body. The goal is to accept reality with the body. The body communicates relaxation to the mind promoting psychological acceptance. One thing at a time Focusing on one thing in a stressful situation can provide a means to settle down. One-mindfully often has a calming effect. The only pain one has to survive is “just this moment.” Notice how much discomfort increases by ruminating about past stressors or worrying about future problems. Let go of the future and the past. When feeling discomfort, irritation, or anxiety, tell yourself to focus on “just this moment.” Vacation Everyone needs a vacation from adulthood occasionally. Plan a timeout to regroup (planning is key to remaining in control and use vacations appropriately). Make it brief, and don’t choose an inappropriate time. Encouragement Talk to yourself the way you would talk to someone you care about who is in crisis. Talk to yourself the way you would like others to talk to you. <｜fim▁end｜>	the complete opening of oneself
<｜fim▁begin｜> This strategy guide was originally written on StrategyWiki. You can access their strategy guide and walkthrough at Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney/Episode 4: Turnabout Goodbyes/Day 3 - Trial. You instantly begin trial, and von Karma wants to end the trial in three minutes (don't worry, there's no time limit). Karma calls the caretaker to the stand. You still haven't found the caretaker's name, so when you have the choice, "Raise an objection". Karma adds that he didn't ask the name, as the caretaker has a bad long-term memory. He should be okay to remember what happened three days ago. Or so you thought. Contents 1 The Caretaker's Testimony: The Night of the Murder 2 The Night of the Murder: Cross-examination 3 It's all over... or is it? 4 Recess 5 Larry's Testimony: The Night of the Murder 6 The Night of the Murder: Cross-examination 7 Larry's Testimony: What Larry Heard 8 What Larry Heard: Cross-examination 9 Turning the case around The Caretaker's Testimony: The Night of the Murder The Caretaker's Testimony - The Night of the Murder - It was the night of the 24th, just after midnight, ayup. I was in the restaurant… where I er… rent boats, as usual. Then I heard a "bang!". Ayup. When I looked out the window, I saw a boat just a' floating on the lake. Then I heard another "bang". Just about then the boat comes to shore, and a man walks by my window. Just before your cross-examination begins, Karma says there's no need for it as there's only 10 seconds left. The judge asks if you'll agree. Of course you'll choose "Cross-examine". The judge sides with you, angering Karma. Alternatively, even if you "Don't cross-examine", Karma is about to have a heart attack, believing his three minutes is up after Maya presses you to check the witness' statements. The Night of the Murder: Cross-examination Press the caretaker on his sixth statement. He claims to have seen that man by his window. The judge wants the caretaker to add who it was to his statement. Karma laughs. What's he up to? "That man was the defendant… he was saying, 'I can't believe he's dead.'" Didn't the caretaker forget what he said yesterday? Press him on that statement. The caretaker yells at "Keith" that he really saw Edgeworth, before he falls to the ground. Looks like Karma lured you to your fall, and the whole court is staring. Didn't you prove that Edgeworth's right fingerprints on the gun, yet the murderer was shooting from his left? You are given an option, so choose "Raise an objection". Karma will object back, saying Edgeworth must have wiped off the fingerprints. The judge is lost. Raise an objection again. Karma says the evidence says it all, unless you have proof. Unfortunately, you ran out of ideas. Maya tries to reach Mia once more… again, no luck. Without any more evidence or objections, the judge sees no reason to continue. Miles Edgeworth is found Guilty! It's all over... or is it? The judge adjourns court… and then a "Wait!". It isn't Maya this time, if you recall yesterday's court, but Larry, who remembered just then that he heard a gunshot on the night of the murder. When Larry was listening to the caretaker's testimony, it didn't match with what he heard that night. Karma objects, as the verdict has already been announced, however the judge states that they must hear all witnesses to ensure an accurate verdict. He then calls a five-minute recess after withdrawing his Guilty verdict. Recess That was a very close one, perhaps too close. Maya asks Edgeworth why his fingerprints were on the gun. He explains that after Hammond fell into the water, he picked the pistol up without any thought. Edgeworth then says that before this one, Karma had run nothing but perfect trials. The secret to his success is to have perfect witness' and perfect evidence. It seems that this case is the very first time Karma has seen anything unexpected. This is the first time in his career that he has let someone he hasn't talked to (in this case Larry) testify in court. You're back in court and Larry goes on to the stand. This is your last hope of obtaining the not guilty verdict. Hopefully, he doesn't mess up. Larry's Testimony: The Night of the Murder Larry's Testimony - The Night of the Murder - That night, I was out in the boat on the lake. I was looking for something, and I, er, found it. So I quietly slipped the boat back in at the rental shop dock. Then, just as I was thinking about going home, I heard this "bang"! I looked out over the lake, but I didn't notice the boat. So after I heard that single gunshot I went home. The Night of the Murder: Cross-examination Present Lotta's Deposition against Larry's sixth statement. Both Lotta and the caretaker heard two gunshots. Larry then admits that he missed the second gunshot, because he was listening to the radio on his headphones. Choose either statement. Choosing That's enough causes Phoenix to ask the Judge to continue to cross-examine Larry. Continue to cross-examine when you get the choice. Larry is allowed to give another testimony about his radio. Just what is he listening to? Larry's Testimony: What Larry Heard Larry's Testimony - What Larry Heard - It's lonely, being alone on Christmas Eve! That's why I was listening to an all-requests show on the radio, see? I was listening to it real booming loud, like. But I'm sure <｜fim▁hole｜> remember exactly what the DJ was saying when I heard it, too. Larry was hearing it at high volume. Karma says that Larry was hearing a drum beating. You object to this. The DJ was talking, so no music was playing and Larry must have heard the gunshot. You would like to cross-examine this topic. The judge agrees. What Larry Heard: Cross-examination Press Larry on his fifth statement. The judge asks if we should care about what the DJ said, so choose "We should care" and the judge then allows Larry to add a statement. "Just when she said 'Hey! it's almost Christmas!' I heard the gunshot!" Present the Lake Photo or Lotta's Deposition on that statement. The DJ said, "It's almost Christmas!" when Larry heard the shot. This means it was still Christmas Eve when he heard it. In the other two testimonies, Lotta and the caretaker said it was after midnight when they heard the shots, meaning it was Christmas by then. Karma says that the witness was mistaken. Choose "Larry's right". Karma wants proof. But if you choose "Larry's wrong", he'll chastise you for not agreeing with his statement and force you to try again. Ouch! Present the Second Lake Photo to the court. It reveals the photo was taken just before midnight. It looks like Larry did hear it. The photo was used to detect loud noises. The loud noise occurred on Christmas Eve. Karma objects, saying there is no proof that the loud noise was a gunshot. Present the Pistol to the court. The report shows that the Pistol actually fired three times rather than two. But this leaves the judge wondering what really happened. Karma asks Phoenix to answer why there were two shots 25 minutes apart. Turning the case around Phoenix thinks for a moment, and then finally figures something out. There was a shot 15 minutes after midnight, however, it turns out that Robert Hammond was already killed by then. Karma then asks if that wasn't the victim on the boat, then who was it? Answer, "Edgeworth and the murderer". Phoenix says that the murderer assumed the guise of the victim and met Edgeworth. It seems that the murderer called Edgeworth, and Edgeworth didn't recognize his face. The judge asks you to say the murderer's name. Answer, "I don't know", because he hasn't told you. Phoenix assumes the caretaker is the murderer, and that the murder didn't take place on the lake. The judge asks you where it happened. You'll automatically examine the Gourd Lake Map. Present the Boat Shop (just below and left of the SUV). Karma wants proof. Phoenix tells Karma to recall Larry's testimony. As Larry starts to go home, he heard the gunshot despite wearing earphones, thus, the gunshot was nearby. So, it couldn't have been out on the lake. The judge tells Phoenix to make a summary of the night of the murder. The caretaker called Hammond to his shop, and at 11:50 PM he shot Hammond dead, as Larry was passing by. He then took Hammond's coat and called Edgeworth. When the judge asks who fired the shot at 12:15 AM, out on the boat, answer "The boat shop caretaker". He shot twice, missing both times. Karma asks you why. Answer, "To create a witness". The caretaker fired one shot to ensure someone was looking out at the lake. He then shot the second time, and jumped in the lake to make it look like he was shot. He then swam back to his shop, put the coat back on the victim, and threw the body into the lake. The judge calls the bailiff to retrieve the caretaker. While he waits, the judge calls Edgeworth to the stand. Edgeworth says he received a letter from "Hammond" to meet him at the lake. The guard comes back with rather shocking news: the caretaker is gone! Karma says a search is underway. The judge then says he cannot reach a verdict with the case in this state, and will extend the trial until tomorrow before adjourning the court for the day. Thanks to Larry, Edgeworth is saved once again. Another close one. Edgeworth however, still feels it's far from over, as he had a nightmare about a crime he committed. Note: If you're experimenting with other lines, yes it can be silly but it can also cause such a comedy of errors that forces the court to correct you. Well the lines you can experiment on is "If it's not the victim, who is it?", "Murderer's name?" and "Why the caretaker shoot twice?". Phoenix Wright: Ace AttorneyGetting started Gameplay • Controls • CharactersEpisode 1: The First Turnabout Day 1 - TrialEpisode 2: Turnabout Sisters Day 1 - Investigation • Day 2 - Trial • Day 2 - Investigation • Day 3 - TrialEpisode 3: Turnabout Samurai Day 1 - Investigation • Day 2 - Trial • Day 2 - Investigation • Day 3 - Trial • Day 3 - Investigation • Day 4 - TrialEpisode 4: Turnabout Goodbyes Day 1 - Investigation • Day 2 - Trial • Day 2 - Investigation • Day 3 - Trial • Day 3 - Investigation • Day 4 - TrialEpisode 5: Rise from the Ashes Day 1 - Investigation • Day 2 - Trial Former • Day 2 - Trial Latter • Day 2 - Investigation • Day 3 - Trial Former • Day 3 - Trial Latter • Day 3 - Investigation • Day 4 - Trial Former • Day 4 - Trial Latter • Day 4 - Trial Latter 2 <｜fim▁end｜>	I heard that gunshot! I
<｜fim▁begin｜> Contents 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS 2 A Introduction 3 B Reagents 4 C. Enhancement of Chemiluminescence 5 D. Instrumentation 6 E. Applications TABLE OF CONTENTS A Introduction Electronic transitions and luminescence Chemiluminescence spectroscopy B Reagents Luminol Lophine and pyrogallol Luciferins Lucigenin and coelenterazine Dioxetanes and oxalates Organic peroxides and lipid peroxidation Manganese Cerium Ruthenium Oxygen radicals Sulfites and persulfates Hypohalites and halates C. Enhancement of Chemiluminescence Micellar enhancement Dye enhancement Enhancement by ultrasound D. Instrumentation Detection of chemiluminescence Flow injection analysis (FIA) Sequential injection analysis (SIA): lab on a valve Lab on a chip Chemiluminescence sensors Chemiluminescence imaging Electrochemiluminescence Photo-induced chemiluminescence Chemiluminescence detection in gas chromatography Chemiluminescence detection in high performance liquid chromatography Chemiluminescence detection in capillary electrophoresis E. Applications Environmental analysis Pharmaceutical analysis Food analysis Biomedical analysis The starting point for this wiki-book is a synopsis of analytical chemiluminescence, <http://myweb.tiscali.co.uk/chemiluminescence>. <｜fim▁hole｜> it does not attempt to summarise all the work done to date. It aims to use mainly well-established literature to give a brief introduction to the achievements of each division of the field. It deals with the research and development that underlies the present state of the art. The chemistry of each reagent that has been used in chemiluminescence is explained and the techniques for increasing the magnitude of the emitted signal are discussed. Further sections describe the different instrumental methods that have been used and examine the sort of work that has been carried out with them. The final sections discuss the applications of chemiluminescence in some of the major areas of analytical chemistry. The aim of the book is to give a comprehensive account of the subject suitable for students, research workers, professional analytical chemists and life scientists. <｜fim▁end｜>	In its fifteen thousand words
<｜fim▁begin｜> Contents 1 Presentations 1.1 Define Your Presentation's Objectives 1.2 Planning the Verbal and Visual Parts of Your Presentation 1.2.1 Why Use Visuals? 1.2.2 Choosing the Type of Oral Delivery 1.3 Who is Your Audience? 1.4 How Will You Start Your Introduction? 1.5 What the Body of Your Speech Should and Shouldn’t Include 1.6 Don’t Forget About Your Conclusion! 1.7 Example of a Speech Outline 1.8 When Should You Ask for Questions? 1.9 What Visual Aids Will You Use? 1.10 Make Sure Your Visual Aid Uses Easy-to-Read Text and Graphics 1.11 Making a Proper PowerPoint 1.12 Preparing for Your Speech 1.13 Presenting Your Speech 1.14 Extra: Team Presentations 1.15 Checklist: Presentations Define Your Presentation's Objectives Oral presentations are designed using some of the same techniques that you would use in written communication; however, there are different techniques since oral presentations are another form of communication. To accurately accomplish what you want to present, it is important to analyze the situation by looking at four differing aspects. •Think about your listeners and your communication goals- Know who your listeners are and how you want your presentation to affect them. For example, ask yourself what you really want to tell your listeners and what they really want to hear from you. •Think about what your listeners expect- Understand what your listeners’ expectations are about the presentation. For example, ask yourself, "what is the purpose of my listeners hearing me?" •Know the time limit of your presentation- Listeners appreciate knowing how long the presentation will take. Have your watch or clock with you anytime you present. •Assess the environment of your presentation- The size of your audience: With a smaller audience, you can use smaller graphics, present in a less formal manner usually, and can expect to be interrupted with questions. The seating of your audience: Consider what the seating is like and if your audience will be able to move their chairs to best see the visuals. The type of equipment available: The availability of equipment determine the types of graphics you can use. If a projector is not available, you will not be able to use PowerPoint or slides. Planning the Verbal and Visual Parts of Your Presentation Why Use Visuals? Speakers who use graphics are viewed as: Better prepared More professional More understandable More persuasive More credible More interesting To gain the full advantage of the combined communicative power of the verbal and visual dimensions of your presentations, you must integrate them fully. First choose the type of oral delivery and the visual medium you will use. Then plan how you will weave your words and images together. Choosing the Type of Oral Delivery Oftentimes at work, people generally use three forms of oral delivery: the scripted talk, the outlined talk, or the impromptu talk. Sometimes the situation or the profile of your listeners will dictate the types of talk you will give. At other times, you will be free to choose. Scripted: A scripted speech is a word-for-word speech. Everything is written out that the presenter is planning to say. It can either be read or recited from memory. This offers security to the presenter if he/she is nervous or has a lot of specific or complex important information he/she needs to inform the audience about. It is also helpful for keeping within a time limit. Having a scripted talk ensures the presenter that each key point will be talked about, but be careful because this can make the speech rigid and is hard to deliver naturally. Outlined: An outlined speech is just that, a speech that has been outlined to hit its main points. The outline helps the presenter remember to touch on a certain topic and offers more flexibility to “tune” the speech to the reactions from the audience. With this type of speech the presenter should be knowledgeable on the subject matter. Some may have trouble with phrasing an outlined speech or get tongue-tied. If critical information is not written down the presenter may forget to fully elaborate on key points that are vital to the success of the speech. This type of presentation is ideal when presenting information that is familiar to you. Impromptu: An impromptu speech is given with little or no preparation. The presenter should be very knowledgeable on the subject matter. It is not uncommon for information delivered to the audience to be disorganized. Impromptu speeches are usually used in short informal meetings where the audience can interrupt and ask questions to help guide the speech and retrieve the information they need from the speaker. Although, depending on how interactive the audience is, without the help of proper questions, the speaker may miss the main point of the speech entirely. Who is Your Audience? When planning out your speech remember that in order for it to be effective it needs to be tailored as best as it can to reach the specific audience. If your audience cannot understand what you are trying to say you will find it much harder to deliver your message. This means that you should figure out who your audience is so that you can format your presentation accordingly. The easiest way to figure out your audience is to focus on their characteristics. Be Mindful of Your Audience's: • Age • Knowledge Level • Gender • Occupation • Ethnicity and Culture • Values and Morals • Goals Keep in mind though; your audience members are individuals not stereotypes. If you do not know much about your audience, research! Researching your audience can only benefit you, the more that you know the better prepared that you will be. If you are presenting to another culture or non-English fluent audience, doing research cannot be stressed enough. Different cultures have different ways of presenting speeches. For instance, in the Chinese culture all of their points are made indirectly and speeches do not give the audience an overview of what their presentation will cover. You will find instead, an introduction offering an observation of a concrete reality followed by a story. →Important aspects to research include: Opening format, organization style, directness, tone, eye contact, gestures, and visuals Basic Guidelines That Would Be Safe to Follow For Any Speech: • Avoid Slang (Generational gaps must always be kept in mind) • Use Graphics to Highlight Key Points (Pictures can help break confusion or a language barrier) • Use Full Sentences Not Phrases (Phrases can make you sound unintelligent, or lazy) • Avoid Using Gestures (A friendly gesture in one culture could be considered rude or offensive in another) • Avoid Jargon (Language or terminology that is industry specific) • NEVER Discriminate (This includes age, gender, race, ethnicity, etc.) • Maintain Good Eye Contact (Maintain with the entire audience, not just a select few) • Speak Up (You want to sound confident and knowledgeable to your audience) How Will You Start Your Introduction? Will you start with a quote, statistic, personal story, a joke, or an overview? Opening: There are many ways to start a speech before segueing into an introduction, beginning with a quote, statistic, personal story, or even opening with humor are all good options; but only if they are used correctly. So be careful, because humor is only funny when it is told right, and humor can do more harm than good if it is not used properly. Be sure to avoid all sexual, religious, and racial topics if you open with humor. As far as opening with a statistic, quote, or sharing a personal story, it doesn’t matter which one you choose, just be aware that they have to be directly related to the main point of the speech. Overview: An overview should follow whichever opening you choose, or can be just used as an opening. Formal speeches usually start with an overview as an opening. Using an overview as an opening would be the best to use if you are unsure how your audience will react to a joke or a startling statistic. Your overview for your introduction should contain the following: a brief introduction of your topic, an explanation of the relevance of the topic to your audience, a forecast of the organization for your presentation, and possibly some background information if necessary. What the Body of Your Speech Should and Shouldn’t Include The body of your speech should help you elaborate and develop your main objectives clearly by using main points, sub points, and support for your sub points. Try to limit both your main points and sub points to three or four points each; this goes for your supporting points as well. Select your main points according to the relevancy of your audiences need and interest. Develop a logical structure for your points, shorten words and phrases whenever possible, and be sensitive how your words sound, not just look. Keep you listeners in mind while writing, and if necessary make a good argument by citing evidence and providing examples. Don’t get set on using certain words and ignore the main goal of your speech. Also, use repetition; it adds rhythm to your speech and helps the words stick in your listeners mind. George Orwell Summarized How to Write Well: • Never use a long word where a short one will do • If it is possible to cut out a word, always cut it out • Never use the passive where you can use the active • Never use a foreign phrase, a scientific word, or jargon word if you can think of an everyday English equivalent • Break any of these rules sooner than say anything barbarous (meaning: uncivilized, primitive, or lacking refinement) Don’t Forget About Your Conclusion! The last thing presented tends to be what the audience remembers best. Restate your main points in a short summary. You can create a lasting impression by using one of the techniques to open a speech with, a statistic, fact, or personal story, but remember only do so if it can directly relate. If possible, summarize the next steps your audience can take, and lastly always thank your audience. Example of a Speech Outline Sample Draft I. Introduction (Opening and/or Overview) A. Greeting (Introduce yourself and your title) B. Attention getter (quote, statistic, etc) C. Objective of the Speech D. Preview of main points (Be brief, you will go into more detail later in your speech) →Transition (It is important to make this as smooth as possible) II. Body A. Main point #1 1. Sub point a. Support 2. Sub point a. Support b. Support B. Main point #2 1. Sub point a. Support 2. Sub point a. Support b. Support C. Main point #3 1. Sub point a. Support 2. Sub point a. Support b. Support →Transition (It is important to make this as smooth as possible) III. Conclusion A. Signal closing B. Restate the objective of the speech C. Review the main points 1. Main point #1 2. Main point #2 3. Main point #3 D. Memorable statement or call to action (if necessary) E. Thank the audience for listening Sample Draft When Should You Ask for Questions? Traditionally, the speaker asks for questions after the speech is finished and has thanked the audience. That is not always the case though. A speaker can guide the audience to ask questions throughout his/her speech, by simply pausing in between points and asking the audience. Or, a speaker could politely ask the audience to hold all questions until the end. If the speaker does not ask the audience members to hold all questions until the end, he/she should be prepared for interruptions and rehearse accordingly. Tips for Answering Questions: • Make a point to have everyone hear the question, repeat the question if you are in a large room and then follow-up with a response so that every audience member is aware. • If you do not know the answer to a question simply say so, do not lie, and explain any relevant information you do know. • If an audience member asks a question in disagreement with your topic, remain in good terms. Politely and respectfully acknowledge the opposing thoughts. • If an audience member interrupts your speech with a question, answer it, and return to where you left off. What Visual Aids Will You Use? To help your audience focus on and remember your major points, you should present them verbally and visually. Visual aids can help your audience better understand what you are talking about and reinforce the point you are making. Before you decide which types of visual aids to use, you need to figure out where you will be presenting, what technology will be available, and your audience. Figure out about the layout of the room and the seating, if you can move the seating around (if necessary), as well as how large your audience will be. These all will play a factor in choosing which visual aids you should use. The Four Most Common Visual Aids: • PowerPoint – a visual aid which can incorporate <｜fim▁hole｜> and graphs. Advantages: Is beneficial for large audiences, easy to modify slides in a timely manner, and creates a colorful, attractive design for viewers. Disadvantages: It has to be shown in a room with dim lighting which makes note taking for listeners difficult. Depending on seating, screen size, and room layout not everyone may be able to see. A projector and computer/laptop is needed which can be expensive to buy and challenging to rent. Also, many people make "poor power point presentations." Make sure to research what is proper power point etiquette before presenting. • Overhead Transparencies – slides can be written on and observed through an overhead projector. Advantages: Allows you to maintain eye contact with the audience, able to be write while talking towards the crowd, and can be created easily. Also, easy for note taking. Disadvantages: Transparencies are plain looking without motion or sound, and have to be shown in a room with dim lighting. A large, deep room may have visibility problems from the back of the room. Overhead projectors are becoming outdated and contain light bulbs which may burn out. • Chalkboards/Dry Boards – boards which can be written on with chalk or dry erase markers. Advantages: There is no preparation necessary, very flexible, can be used to record audience responses, and are great for discussions. Fast, easy, and simple to use. No learning curve. Disadvantages: Writing on a chalkboard/dry board can delay the presentation and may make you talk to the board instead of the audience. Does not present well for large groups and poor spelling and handwriting can become problematic. No sound/motion available. • Handouts – materials with key points and information for the audience to use. Advantages: Beneficial for large and small audiences and aid listeners with note taking. The audience is able to refer to the information later on. Can enhance key points of presentation by reiterating the points. Disadvantages: Requires preparation and access to a copier. Audience members may read ahead or never look at the handout again. May be a distraction to the presentation. Make Sure Your Visual Aid Uses Easy-to-Read Text and Graphics Use graphics! People identify items more quickly when using graphics in addition to text alone. When creating your visual aids, however, make sure your text and graphics are easy to read. Labeling •Use headlines and sub headlines in a larger font •Bold, italicize, or CAPITALIZE important information •Use bullet points or create lists to organize material. Make sure this is "nice" to look at (easy to read) Charts and graphs •Make sure there is clear information presented and support your presentation. Color coordinate charts/graphs if necessary •Use text to support/explain your charts and graphs (be brief but cover the high points) •Avoid charts and graphs that can be misleading to your readers Wording and Lettering •Use large sized easy to read fonts •Be concise with as little text as possible. Also use simple language to avoid confusion •Limit number of fonts to one or two •Think about the age of your audience when setting font size and type •For slides, limit the number of lines to no more than six lines per slide with six words per line →Overcrowding slides is common and can be easily avoided by limiting the amount of text Color •Use color for clarity and emphasis, not for decoration •Use color schemes •Keep a similar color scheme throughout the entire presentation •Use contracting colors to highlight main points Making a Proper PowerPoint We have all encountered boring power points with overloading information and lack of creativity. The following are precautions to ensure that you are making a proper power point using PowerPoint etiquette. • Do not write the entire presentation on your Power point. Instead, create bullet points and headings no longer than three to five words that give the main points. • Have no more than five to seven lines per slide. • It is better to have two slides than it is to cram to much information on one. • Be consistent with your "theme". (Do not use a different theme for each slide) • Do not overuse transitions. They are meant to enhance your presentation, not take over. • Be careful with your color scheme. Again, this is meant to enhance your presentation. Make sure the audience can read the text. • Make an outline of what you will be talking about so the listeners can know what to expect within the presentation. • Use at least 18 point font, and for each sub-bullet portion use a smaller font size. • Do not use complicated and unreadable font. • Use a font color that stands out against the background. Preparing for Your Speech When preparing to give your speech, it is important to rehearse just as you plan to present it. This, then, includes using your visual aids when you practice. This is necessary to do, since it trains you to make smooth transitions between slides. Take time into consideration as well- it is hard to sit through a long speech, even if it is interesting. Usually, people can only concentrate for about twenty minutes at a time. This may mean you need to break your speech up into two parts if it is lengthy. Doing this gives the audience a short break in between and allows them to refocus and retain the important information. Rehearsing • Pay special attention to the delivery of your key points; this is typically where stumbling for your words can become the greatest problem. • Speak in a conversational style. Do not talk at your audience; pretend you are talking with your audience. • Prepare for interruptions and questions. On this note, make sure to leave room for a formal time of questions at the end of your presentation. • Practice pausing in your speech after important information you would like to stress, as well as when you are transitioning from one main point to another. By doing so, the audience can better digest the information and reflect on what they have just heard. • Rehearse with your graphics and coordinate them to your talk. • Display your graphics only when you are talking about them. Graphics should support your presentation, not detract from it. • Time your rehearsal, and use the same pace you will use when you present. • Rehearse in front of others. Feedback can improve your speech and having an audience for practice can pin-point weaknesses in the presentation. • If possible, rehearse your speech in the location you will be giving it. This will allow you to feel more comfortable when you are giving your presentation. • Make sure you hear your speech aloud, either by recording it, or listening carefully to yourself during rehearsal. This will enable you to make sure that your words flow smoothly in an understandable manner. Presenting Your Speech Your appearance and delivery are just as important as your speech. You want your audience to give you respect and to take you seriously, so show your audience this by how you dress and in how you present your speech. For your dress, consider what your particular audience will expect of you, in most cases this means business casual, but sometimes a suit/dress may be necessary. Dress to Impress: • Men – button-up shirt and tie, blazer (optional), dress pants, and dress shoes. Be clean shaven and have tidy hair. • Women – button-up shirt, blouse, or a nice sweater, dress pants or skirt (of appropriate length – below the knee), and dress heals or flats. Not too much make-up and have tidy hair. Avoid large dangling jewelry, as this can be distracting to your audience. Deliver Your Message Act poised and confident; don’t let your nerves get the best of you. Accept your nervousness and work with it, everyone understands how it feels to be nervous and will be supportive. When rehearsing identify your weak spots, practice fixing them, as well as practice hitting the crucial points in your speech. Do your best to avoid fidgeting, pacing, looking at the floor, and over using “um”, “uh”, or “and”. Try to breathe easy and pace your speech. The most important thing to remember before giving your speech is to deliver your message. If you forget to say certain points it is fine, just deliver your message and let the audience know the main objective of your speech. Also, find comfort in knowing your nervousness is not as visible to others as it is to you. Body Language While standing in front of a large or small audience for a presentation body language is crucial. Audiences may become distracted with flailing laser pointers or fidgeting fingers playing with a useless pen or paperclip. As a presenter remain relaxed and calm while creating animated and lively facial expressions. Always remember to smile, maintain eye contact with the audience, and enjoy your experience as being a presenter. Tips That May Help Calm You: • Practice and rehearsal- the more you practice, the less nervous you will be • Arrive early • Talk with a few of the audience members before your speech • Take a few minutes to relax before you speak • Pause for a moment before you start talking Involve Your Audience The great thing about presenting a speech is you can gauge your audiences understanding by paying attention to your audience. If your listeners are looking confused, you can ask if they understand before moving on to the next point and back-up and re-explain your points as needed. Make eye contact with your audience members, and make sure not to stare at your notes the whole time. If you have a large audience, make sure to alternate talking to the audience members to the right and left of you as well as in front of you. When you begin your speech do not look at your notes, look at your audience! You know your topic and who you are so introduce yourself and your topic as you would introduce yourself when you meet a new person. Tips For Looking At Your Listeners • Look at your audience before you begin • Create and follow a plan for looking • Pick a particular feature of your listeners' face • Practice looking at the audience while rehearsing • Avoid skimming over faces in your audience Extra: Team Presentations Team presentations are becoming increasingly common in the workplace. Usually each person will specialize on a certain part in the project and then each will present the piece of the project he/she is most knowledgeable on. Team Presentation Tips: • Make plans in advance and set dates for team meetings • Plan thoroughly • Allow for individual differences • Make effective transitions between speakers • Show respect for one another • Rehearse together • Be familiar with all parts of the presentation • Have speakers discuss how the pieces fit together if it is unclear Checklist: Preparing For Your Speech • Which speech will you present? (scripted, outlined, or impromptu) • Who is your audience? (Consider: age, gender, knowledge base, etc.) • What is your introduction? (Will you begin with a statistic or story? Or Start with an overview? What is your objective?) • What is in body of the speech? (Elaborate on your main points) • What is your conclusion? (Will you add a statistic in at the end? Be sure to summarize your main points and thank your audience!) • When will you ask for questions? (Throughout the speech or at the end?) • Which visual aids will you use? (PowerPoint, blackboard/dry board, handouts, or overhead transparencies?) • Are you graphics easy to read and understand? • Don’t forget to rehearse! (Yes, with your graphics!) Helpful Tips • Do not chew gum while your giving your speech • Do not put your hands in your pocket- to stop yourself, hold a pencil or a pen in your hand (make sure not to fidget with it though) • If you're nervous, take a deep breath before you begin • If you're nervous about the crowd size, try and focus on one person until you feel comfortable • If you lose your place, calmly look down at your notes rather than saying "um" or "ah"; it is better to pause for a moment to find your place than to fumble with your words • If you're feeling under the weather when giving your speech, bring a bottle of water with you because you can always pause for a second to take a sip • When rehearsing, try practicing in front of a mirror so you see if you have any bad habits that you can try and correct before giving your speech Presenting Your Speech • Dress to impress! • Arrive early! • Look at the audience not your notes or the presentation screen • Don’t forget to involve your audience! (Talk with them, not at them!) • Smile and present with energy • Deliver your message • Thank your audience! <｜fim▁end｜>	sound, video clips, photos, charts, tables,
<｜fim▁begin｜> DSS Decision Support System A computer based information system that provides a flexible tool for an analysis and helps managers focus on the future. It takes all kinds of data from all different places and gathers it in a way that humans can understand it. Features Inputs or Outputs- input includes internal data, ie- prossed transaction data. Output are demand reports on which a top manager can make a dicision about problems. Tactical Managers- used to assist tactical level manager in making tactical decisions. Produces Analytic models- this is a key attribut to the DSS as it uses models. Uses Dss are developed to support the types of decision <｜fim▁hole｜> indistries, ie- airline and real estate. American Airlines produced a DSS that helps to decide how much to over book and how to set prices for each seat so that a plane is filled and profits are maximized. DSS Applications Development About 1980, people started the activities that related to expanding DSS applications. Those actions expanded the decision support systems which beyond the management and business application domain. These diverse systems called Decision Support Systems(DSS). During those days, people recognized that DSS could be used to support decision-makers at any level and in an organization. As well, it could support operations decision making, strategic decision-making and financial management. <｜fim▁end｜>	faces by managers in specific
<｜fim▁begin｜> Table of values of χ2 in a Chi-Squared Distribution with k degrees of freedom such that p is the area between χ2 and +∞ k Probability Content, p, between χ2 and +∞ 0.995 0.99 0.975 0.95 0.9 0.75 0.5 0.25 0.1 0.05 0.025 0.01 0.005 0.002 0.001 1 3.927e-5 1.570e-4 9.820e-4 0.00393 0.0157 0.102 0.455 1.323 2.706 3.841 5.024 6.635 7.879 9.550 10.828 2 0.0100 0.0201 0.0506 0.103 0.211 0.575 1.386 2.773 4.605 5.991 7.378 9.210 10.597 12.429 13.816 3 0.0717 0.115 0.216 0.352 0.584 1.213 2.366 4.108 6.251 7.815 9.348 11.345 12.838 14.796 16.266 4 0.207 0.297 0.484 0.711 1.064 1.923 3.357 5.385 7.779 9.488 11.143 13.277 14.860 16.924 18.467 5 0.412 0.554 0.831 1.145 1.610 2.675 4.351 6.626 9.236 11.070 12.833 15.086 16.750 18.907 20.515 6 0.676 0.872 1.237 1.635 2.204 3.455 5.348 7.841 10.645 12.592 14.449 16.812 18.548 20.791 22.458 7 0.989 1.239 1.690 2.167 2.833 4.255 6.346 9.037 12.017 14.067 16.013 18.475 20.278 22.601 24.322 8 1.344 1.646 2.180 2.733 3.490 5.071 7.344 10.219 13.362 15.507 17.535 20.090 21.955 24.352 26.124 9 1.735 2.088 2.700 3.325 4.168 5.899 8.343 11.389 14.684 16.919 19.023 21.666 23.589 26.056 27.877 10 2.156 2.558 3.247 3.940 4.865 6.737 9.342 12.549 15.987 18.307 20.483 23.209 25.188 27.722 29.588 11 2.603 3.053 3.816 4.575 5.578 7.584 10.341 13.701 17.275 19.675 21.920 24.725 26.757 29.354 31.264 12 3.074 3.571 4.404 5.226 6.304 8.438 11.340 14.845 18.549 21.026 23.337 26.217 28.300 30.957 32.909 13 3.565 4.107 5.009 5.892 7.042 9.299 12.340 15.984 19.812 22.362 24.736 27.688 29.819 32.535 34.528 14 4.075 4.660 5.629 6.571 7.790 10.165 13.339 17.117 21.064 23.685 26.119 29.141 31.319 34.091 36.123 15 4.601 5.229 6.262 7.261 8.547 11.037 14.339 18.245 22.307 24.996 27.488 30.578 32.801 35.628 37.697 16 5.142 5.812 6.908 7.962 9.312 11.912 15.338 19.369 23.542 26.296 28.845 32.000 34.267 37.146 39.252 17 5.697 6.408 7.564 8.672 10.085 12.792 16.338 20.489 24.769 27.587 30.191 33.409 35.718 38.648 40.790 18 6.265 7.015 8.231 9.390 10.865 13.675 17.338 21.605 25.989 28.869 31.526 34.805 37.156 40.136 42.312 19 6.844 7.633 8.907 10.117 11.651 14.562 18.338 22.718 27.204 30.144 32.852 36.191 38.582 41.610 43.820 20 7.434 8.260 9.591 10.851 12.443 15.452 19.337 23.828 28.412 31.410 34.170 37.566 39.997 43.072 45.315 21 8.034 8.897 10.283 11.591 13.240 16.344 20.337 24.935 29.615 32.671 35.479 38.932 41.401 44.522 46.797 22 8.643 9.542 10.982 12.338 14.041 17.240 21.337 26.039 30.813 33.924 36.781 40.289 42.796 45.962 48.268 23 9.260 10.196 11.689 13.091 14.848 18.137 22.337 27.141 32.007 35.172 38.076 41.638 44.181 47.391 49.728 24 9.886 10.856 12.401 13.848 15.659 19.037 23.337 28.241 33.196 36.415 39.364 42.980 45.559 48.812 51.179 25 10.520 11.524 13.120 14.611 16.473 19.939 24.337 29.339 34.382 37.652 40.646 44.314 46.928 50.223 52.620 26 11.160 12.198 13.844 15.379 17.292 20.843 25.336 30.435 35.563 38.885 41.923 45.642 48.290 51.627 54.052 27 11.808 12.879 14.573 16.151 18.114 21.749 26.336 31.528 36.741 40.113 43.195 46.963 49.645 53.023 55.476 28 12.461 13.565 15.308 16.928 18.939 22.657 27.336 32.620 37.916 41.337 44.461 48.278 50.993 54.411 56.892 29 13.121 14.256 16.047 17.708 19.768 23.567 28.336 33.711 39.087 42.557 45.722 49.588 52.336 55.792 58.301 30 13.787 14.953 16.791 18.493 20.599 24.478 29.336 34.800 40.256 43.773 46.979 50.892 53.672 57.167 59.703 31 14.458 15.655 17.539 19.281 21.434 25.390 30.336 35.887 41.422 44.985 48.232 52.191 55.003 58.536 61.098 32 15.134 16.362 18.291 20.072 22.271 26.304 31.336 36.973 42.585 46.194 49.480 53.486 56.328 59.899 62.487 33 15.815 17.074 19.047 20.867 23.110 27.219 32.336 38.058 43.745 47.400 50.725 54.776 57.648 61.256 63.870 34 16.501 17.789 19.806 21.664 23.952 28.136 33.336 39.141 44.903 48.602 51.966 56.061 58.964 62.608 65.247 35 17.192 18.509 20.569 22.465 24.797 29.054 34.336 40.223 46.059 49.802 53.203 57.342 60.275 63.955 66.619 36 17.887 19.233 21.336 23.269 25.643 29.973 35.336 41.304 47.212 50.998 54.437 58.619 61.581 65.296 67.985 37 18.586 19.960 22.106 24.075 26.492 30.893 36.336 42.383 48.363 52.192 55.668 59.893 62.883 66.633 69.346 38 19.289 20.691 22.878 24.884 27.343 31.815 37.335 43.462 49.513 53.384 56.896 61.162 64.181 67.966 70.703 39 19.996 21.426 23.654 25.695 28.196 32.737 38.335 44.539 50.660 54.572 58.120 62.428 65.476 69.294 72.055 40 20.707 22.164 24.433 26.509 29.051 33.660 39.335 45.616 51.805 55.758 59.342 63.691 66.766 70.618 73.402 41 21.421 22.906 25.215 27.326 29.907 34.585 40.335 46.692 52.949 56.942 60.561 64.950 68.053 71.938 74.745 42 22.138 23.650 25.999 28.144 30.765 35.510 41.335 47.766 54.090 58.124 61.777 66.206 69.336 73.254 76.084 43 22.859 24.398 26.785 28.965 31.625 36.436 42.335 48.840 55.230 59.304 62.990 67.459 70.616 74.566 77.419 44 23.584 25.148 27.575 29.787 32.487 37.363 43.335 49.913 56.369 60.481 64.201 68.710 71.893 75.874 78.750 45 24.311 25.901 28.366 30.612 33.350 38.291 44.335 50.985 57.505 61.656 65.410 69.957 73.166 77.179 80.077 46 25.041 26.657 29.160 31.439 34.215 39.220 45.335 52.056 58.641 62.830 66.617 71.201 74.437 78.481 81.400 47 25.775 27.416 29.956 32.268 35.081 40.149 46.335 53.127 59.774 64.001 67.821 72.443 75.704 79.780 82.720 48 26.511 28.177 30.755 33.098 35.949 41.079 47.335 54.196 60.907 65.171 69.023 73.683 76.969 81.075 84.037 49 27.249 28.941 31.555 33.930 36.818 42.010 48.335 55.265 62.038 66.339 70.222 74.919 78.231 82.367 85.351 50 27.991 29.707 32.357 34.764 37.689 42.942 49.335 56.334 63.167 67.505 71.420 76.154 79.490 83.657 86.661 51 28.735 30.475 33.162 35.600 38.560 43.874 50.335 57.401 64.295 68.669 72.616 77.386 80.747 84.943 87.968 52 29.481 31.246 33.968 36.437 39.433 44.808 51.335 58.468 65.422 69.832 73.810 78.616 82.001 86.227 89.272 53 30.230 32.018 34.776 37.276 40.308 45.741 52.335 59.534 66.548 70.993 75.002 79.843 83.253 87.507 90.573 54 30.981 32.793 35.586 38.116 41.183 46.676 53.335 60.600 67.673 72.153 76.192 81.069 84.502 88.786 91.872 55 31.735 33.570 36.398 38.958 42.060 47.610 54.335 61.665 68.796 73.311 77.380 82.292 85.749 90.061 93.168 56 32.490 34.350 37.212 39.801 42.937 48.546 55.335 62.729 69.919 74.468 78.567 83.513 86.994 91.335 94.461 57 33.248 35.131 38.027 40.646 43.816 49.482 56.335 63.793 71.040 75.624 79.752 84.733 88.236 92.605 95.751 58 34.008 35.913 38.844 41.492 44.696 50.419 57.335 64.857 72.160 76.778 80.936 85.950 89.477 93.874 97.039 59 34.770 36.698 39.662 42.339 45.577 51.356 58.335 65.919 73.279 77.931 82.117 87.166 90.715 95.140 98.324 60 35.534 37.485 40.482 43.188 46.459 52.294 59.335 66.981 74.397 79.082 83.298 88.379 91.952 96.404 99.607 61 36.301 38.273 41.303 44.038 47.342 53.232 60.335 68.043 75.514 80.232 84.476 89.591 93.186 97.665 100.888 62 37.068 39.063 42.126 44.889 48.226 54.171 61.335 69.104 76.630 81.381 85.654 90.802 94.419 98.925 102.166 63 37.838 39.855 42.950 45.741 49.111 55.110 62.335 70.165 77.745 82.529 86.830 92.010 95.649 100.182 103.442 64 38.610 40.649 43.776 46.595 49.996 56.050 63.335 71.225 78.860 83.675 88.004 93.217 96.878 101.437 104.716 65 39.383 41.444 44.603 47.450 50.883 56.990 64.335 72.285 79.973 84.821 89.177 94.422 98.105 102.691 105.988 66 40.158 42.240 45.431 48.305 51.770 57.931 65.335 73.344 81.085 85.965 90.349 95.626 99.330 103.942 107.258 67 40.935 43.038 46.261 49.162 52.659 58.872 66.335 74.403 82.197 87.108 91.519 96.828 100.554 105.192 108.526 68 41.713 43.838 47.092 50.020 53.548 59.814 67.335 75.461 83.308 88.250 92.689 98.028 101.776 106.440 109.791 69 42.494 44.639 47.924 50.879 54.438 60.756 68.334 76.519 84.418 89.391 93.856 99.228 102.996 107.685 111.055 70 43.275 45.442 48.758 51.739 55.329 61.698 69.334 77.577 85.527 90.531 95.023 100.425 104.215 108.929 112.317 71 44.058 46.246 49.592 52.600 56.221 62.641 70.334 78.634 86.635 91.670 96.189 101.621 105.432 110.172 113.577 72 44.843 47.051 50.428 53.462 57.113 63.585 71.334 79.690 87.743 92.808 97.353 102.816 106.648 111.412 114.835 73 45.629 47.858 51.265 54.325 58.006 64.528 72.334 80.747 88.850 93.945 98.516 104.010 107.862 112.651 116.092 74 46.417 48.666 52.103 55.189 58.900 65.472 73.334 81.803 89.956 95.081 99.678 105.202 109.074 113.889 117.346 75 47.206 49.475 52.942 56.054 59.795 66.417 74.334 82.858 91.061 96.217 100.839 106.393 110.286 115.125 118.599 76 47.997 50.286 53.782 56.920 60.690 67.362 75.334 83.913 92.166 97.351 101.999 107.583 111.495 116.359 119.850 77 48.788 51.097 54.623 57.786 61.586 68.307 76.334 84.968 93.270 98.484 103.158 108.771 112.704 117.591 121.100 78 49.582 51.910 55.466 58.654 62.483 69.252 77.334 86.022 94.374 99.617 104.316 109.958 113.911 118.823 122.348 79 50.376 52.725 56.309 59.522 63.380 70.198 78.334 87.077 95.476 100.749 105.473 111.144 115.117 120.052 123.594 80 51.172 53.540 57.153 60.391 64.278 71.145 79.334 88.130 96.578 101.879 106.629 112.329 116.321 121.280 124.839 81 51.969 54.357 57.998 61.261 65.176 72.091 80.334 89.184 97.680 103.010 107.783 113.512 117.524 122.507 126.083 82 52.767 55.174 58.845 62.132 66.076 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129.340 140.334 151.934 162.904 169.711 175.765 182.979 188.001 194.205 198.635 142 102.348 105.757 110.903 115.463 120.876 130.299 141.334 152.975 163.980 170.809 176.882 184.118 189.154 195.376 199.819 143 103.196 106.619 111.787 116.366 121.800 131.259 142.334 154.015 165.056 171.907 177.998 185.256 190.306 196.546 201.002 144 104.044 107.482 112.671 117.268 122.724 132.219 143.334 155.055 166.132 173.004 179.114 186.393 191.458 197.716 202.184 145 104.892 108.345 113.556 118.171 123.649 133.180 144.334 156.094 167.207 174.101 180.229 187.530 192.610 198.885 203.366 146 105.741 109.209 114.441 119.075 124.574 134.140 145.334 157.134 168.283 175.198 181.344 188.666 193.761 200.054 204.547 147 106.591 110.073 115.326 119.979 125.499 135.101 146.334 158.174 169.358 176.294 182.459 189.802 194.912 201.222 205.727 148 107.441 110.937 116.212 120.883 126.424 136.061 147.334 159.213 170.432 177.390 183.573 190.938 196.062 202.390 206.907 149 108.291 111.802 117.098 121.787 127.349 137.022 148.334 160.252 171.507 178.485 184.687 192.073 197.211 203.557 208.086 150 109.142 112.668 117.985 122.692 128.275 137.983 149.334 161.291 172.581 179.581 185.800 193.208 198.360 204.723 209.265 151 109.994 113.533 118.871 123.597 129.201 138.944 150.334 162.330 173.655 180.676 186.914 194.342 199.509 205.889 210.443 152 110.846 114.400 119.759 124.502 130.127 139.905 151.334 163.369 174.729 181.770 188.026 195.476 200.657 207.054 211.620 153 111.698 115.266 120.646 125.408 131.054 140.866 152.334 164.408 175.803 182.865 189.139 196.609 201.804 208.219 212.797 154 112.551 116.134 121.534 126.314 131.980 141.828 153.334 165.446 176.876 183.959 190.251 197.742 202.951 209.383 213.973 155 113.405 117.001 122.423 127.220 132.907 142.789 154.334 166.485 177.949 185.052 191.362 198.874 204.098 210.547 215.149 156 114.259 117.869 123.312 128.127 133.835 143.751 155.334 167.523 179.022 186.146 192.474 200.006 205.244 211.710 216.324 157 115.113 118.738 124.201 129.034 134.762 144.713 156.334 168.561 180.094 187.239 193.584 201.138 206.390 212.873 217.499 158 115.968 119.607 125.090 129.941 135.690 145.675 157.334 169.599 181.167 188.332 194.695 202.269 207.535 214.035 218.673 159 116.823 120.476 125.980 130.848 136.618 146.637 158.334 170.637 182.239 189.424 195.805 203.400 208.680 215.197 219.846 160 117.679 121.346 126.870 131.756 137.546 147.599 159.334 171.675 183.311 190.516 196.915 204.530 209.824 216.358 221.019 161 118.536 122.216 127.761 132.664 138.474 148.561 160.334 172.713 184.382 191.608 198.025 205.660 210.968 217.518 222.191 162 119.392 123.086 128.651 133.572 139.403 149.523 161.334 173.751 185.454 192.700 199.134 206.790 212.111 218.678 223.363 163 120.249 123.957 129.543 134.481 140.331 150.486 162.334 174.788 186.525 193.791 200.243 207.919 213.254 219.838 224.535 164 121.107 124.828 130.434 135.390 141.260 151.449 163.334 175.825 187.596 194.883 201.351 209.047 214.396 220.997 225.705 165 121.965 125.700 131.326 136.299 142.190 152.411 164.334 176.863 188.667 195.973 202.459 210.176 215.539 222.156 226.876 166 122.823 126.572 132.218 137.209 143.119 153.374 165.334 177.900 189.737 197.064 203.567 211.304 216.680 223.314 228.045 167 123.682 127.445 133.111 138.118 144.049 154.337 166.334 178.937 190.808 198.154 204.675 212.431 217.821 224.472 229.215 168 124.541 128.318 134.003 139.028 144.979 155.300 167.334 179.974 191.878 199.244 205.782 213.558 218.962 225.629 230.383 169 125.401 129.191 134.897 139.939 145.909 156.263 168.334 181.011 192.948 200.334 206.889 214.685 220.102 226.786 231.552 170 126.261 130.064 135.790 140.849 146.839 157.227 169.334 182.047 194.017 201.423 207.995 215.812 221.242 227.942 232.719 171 127.122 130.938 136.684 141.760 147.769 158.190 170.334 183.084 195.087 202.513 209.102 216.938 222.382 229.098 233.887 172 127.983 131.813 137.578 142.671 148.700 159.154 171.334 184.120 196.156 203.602 210.208 218.063 223.521 230.253 235.053 173 128.844 132.687 138.472 143.582 149.631 160.117 172.334 185.157 197.225 204.690 211.313 219.189 224.660 231.408 236.220 174 129.706 133.563 139.367 144.494 150.562 161.081 173.334 186.193 198.294 205.779 212.419 220.314 225.798 232.563 237.385 175 130.568 134.438 140.262 145.406 151.493 162.045 174.334 187.229 199.363 206.867 213.524 221.438 226.936 233.717 238.551 176 131.430 135.314 141.157 146.318 152.425 163.009 175.334 188.265 200.432 207.955 214.628 222.563 228.074 234.870 239.716 177 132.293 136.190 142.053 147.230 153.356 163.973 176.334 189.301 201.500 209.042 215.733 223.687 229.211 236.023 240.880 178 133.157 137.066 142.949 148.143 154.288 164.937 177.334 190.337 202.568 210.130 216.837 224.810 230.347 237.176 242.044 179 134.020 137.943 143.845 149.056 155.220 165.901 178.334 191.373 203.636 211.217 217.941 225.933 231.484 238.328 243.207 180 134.884 138.820 144.741 149.969 156.153 166.865 179.334 192.409 204.704 212.304 219.044 227.056 232.620 239.480 244.370 181 135.749 139.698 145.638 150.882 157.085 167.830 180.334 193.444 205.771 213.391 220.148 228.179 233.755 240.632 245.533 182 136.614 140.576 146.535 151.796 158.018 168.794 181.334 194.480 206.839 214.477 221.251 229.301 234.891 241.783 246.695 183 137.479 141.454 147.432 152.709 158.951 169.759 182.334 195.515 207.906 215.563 222.353 230.423 236.026 242.933 247.857 184 138.344 142.332 148.330 153.623 159.883 170.724 183.334 196.550 208.973 216.649 223.456 231.544 237.160 244.084 249.018 185 139.210 143.211 149.228 154.538 160.817 171.688 184.334 197.586 210.040 217.735 224.558 232.665 238.294 245.234 250.179 186 140.077 144.090 150.126 155.452 161.750 172.653 185.334 198.621 211.106 218.820 225.660 233.786 239.428 246.383 251.339 187 140.943 144.970 151.024 156.367 162.684 173.618 186.334 199.656 212.173 219.906 226.761 234.907 240.561 247.532 252.499 188 141.810 145.850 151.923 157.282 163.617 174.583 187.334 200.690 213.239 220.991 227.863 236.027 241.694 248.681 253.659 189 142.678 146.730 152.822 158.197 164.551 175.549 188.334 201.725 214.305 222.076 228.964 237.147 242.827 249.829 254.818 190 143.545 147.610 153.721 159.113 165.485 176.514 189.334 202.760 215.371 223.160 230.064 238.266 243.959 250.977 255.976 191 144.413 148.491 154.621 160.028 166.419 177.479 190.334 203.795 216.437 224.245 231.165 239.386 245.091 252.124 257.135 192 145.282 149.372 155.521 160.944 167.354 178.445 191.334 204.829 217.502 225.329 232.265 240.505 246.223 253.271 258.292 193 146.150 150.254 156.421 161.860 168.288 179.410 192.334 205.864 218.568 226.413 233.365 241.623 247.354 254.418 259.450 194 147.020 151.135 157.321 162.776 169.223 180.376 193.334 206.898 219.633 227.496 234.465 242.742 248.485 255.564 260.607 195 147.889 152.017 158.221 163.693 170.158 181.342 194.334 207.932 220.698 228.580 235.564 243.860 249.616 256.710 261.763 196 148.759 152.900 159.122 164.610 171.093 182.308 195.334 208.966 221.763 229.663 236.664 244.977 250.746 257.855 262.920 197 149.629 153.782 160.023 165.527 172.029 183.273 196.334 210.000 222.828 230.746 237.763 246.095 251.876 259.001 264.075 198 150.499 154.665 160.925 166.444 172.964 184.239 197.334 211.034 223.892 231.829 238.861 247.212 253.006 260.145 265.231 199 151.370 155.548 161.826 167.361 173.900 185.205 198.334 212.068 224.957 232.912 239.960 248.329 254.135 261.290 266.386 200 152.241 156.432 162.728 168.279 174.835 186.172 199.334 213.102 226.021 233.994 241.058 249.445 255.264 262.434 267.541 201 153.112 157.316 163.630 169.196 175.771 187.138 200.334 214.136 227.085 235.077 242.156 250.561 256.393 263.578 268.695 202 153.984 158.200 164.532 170.114 176.707 188.104 201.334 215.170 228.149 236.159 243.254 251.677 257.521 264.721 269.849 203 154.856 159.084 165.435 171.032 177.643 189.071 202.334 216.203 229.213 237.240 244.351 252.793 258.649 265.864 271.002 204 155.728 159.969 166.338 171.951 178.580 190.037 203.334 217.237 230.276 238.322 245.448 253.908 259.777 267.007 272.155 205 156.601 160.854 167.241 172.869 179.516 191.004 204.334 218.270 231.340 239.403 246.545 255.023 260.904 268.149 273.308 206 157.474 161.739 168.144 173.788 180.453 191.970 205.334 219.303 232.403 240.485 247.642 256.138 262.031 269.291 274.460 207 158.347 162.624 169.047 174.707 181.390 192.937 206.334 220.337 233.466 241.566 248.739 257.253 263.158 270.432 275.612 208 159.221 163.510 169.951 175.626 182.327 193.904 207.334 221.370 234.529 242.647 249.835 258.367 264.285 271.574 276.764 209 160.095 164.396 170.855 176.546 183.264 194.871 208.334 222.403 235.592 243.727 250.931 259.481 265.411 272.715 277.915 210 160.969 165.283 171.759 177.465 184.201 195.838 209.334 223.436 236.655 244.808 252.027 260.595 266.537 273.855 279.066 211 161.843 166.169 172.664 178.385 185.139 196.805 210.334 224.469 237.717 245.888 253.122 261.708 267.662 274.995 280.217 212 162.718 167.056 173.568 179.305 186.076 197.772 211.334 225.502 238.780 246.968 254.218 262.821 268.788 276.135 281.367 213 163.593 167.943 174.473 180.225 187.014 198.739 212.334 226.534 239.842 248.048 255.313 263.934 269.912 277.275 282.517 214 164.469 168.831 175.378 181.145 187.952 199.707 213.334 227.567 240.904 249.128 256.408 265.047 271.037 278.414 283.666 215 165.344 169.718 176.283 182.066 188.890 200.674 214.334 228.600 241.966 250.207 257.503 266.159 272.162 279.553 284.815 216 166.220 170.606 177.189 182.987 189.828 201.642 215.334 229.632 243.028 251.286 258.597 267.271 273.286 280.692 285.964 217 167.096 171.494 178.095 183.907 190.767 202.609 216.334 230.665 244.090 252.365 259.691 268.383 274.409 281.830 287.112 218 167.973 172.383 179.001 184.828 191.705 203.577 217.334 231.697 245.151 253.444 260.785 269.495 275.533 282.968 288.261 219 168.850 173.271 179.907 185.750 192.644 204.544 218.334 232.729 246.213 254.523 261.879 270.606 276.656 284.106 289.408 220 169.727 174.160 180.813 186.671 193.582 205.512 219.334 233.762 247.274 255.602 262.973 271.717 277.779 285.243 290.556 221 170.604 175.050 181.720 187.593 194.521 206.480 220.334 234.794 248.335 256.680 264.066 272.828 278.902 286.380 291.703 222 171.482 175.939 182.627 188.514 195.460 207.448 221.334 235.826 249.396 257.758 265.159 273.939 280.024 287.517 292.850 223 172.360 176.829 183.534 189.436 196.400 208.416 222.334 236.858 250.457 258.837 266.252 275.049 281.146 288.653 293.996 224 173.238 177.719 184.441 190.359 197.339 209.384 223.334 237.890 251.517 259.914 267.345 276.159 282.268 289.789 295.142 225 174.116 178.609 185.348 191.281 198.278 210.352 224.334 238.922 252.578 260.992 268.438 277.269 283.390 290.925 296.288 226 174.995 179.499 186.256 192.203 199.218 211.320 225.334 239.954 253.638 262.070 269.530 278.379 284.511 292.061 297.433 227 175.874 180.390 187.164 193.126 200.158 212.288 226.334 240.985 254.699 263.147 270.622 279.488 285.632 293.196 298.579 228 176.753 181.281 188.072 194.049 201.097 213.257 227.334 242.017 255.759 264.224 271.714 280.597 286.753 294.331 299.723 229 177.633 182.172 188.980 194.972 202.037 214.225 228.334 243.049 256.819 265.301 272.806 281.706 287.874 295.465 300.868 230 178.512 183.063 189.889 195.895 202.978 215.194 229.334 244.080 257.879 266.378 273.898 282.814 288.994 296.600 302.012 231 179.392 183.955 190.797 196.818 203.918 216.162 230.334 245.112 258.939 267.455 274.989 283.923 290.114 297.734 303.156 232 180.273 184.847 191.706 197.742 204.858 217.131 231.334 246.143 259.998 268.531 276.080 285.031 291.234 298.867 304.299 233 181.153 185.739 192.615 198.665 205.799 218.099 232.334 247.174 261.058 269.608 277.171 286.139 292.353 300.001 305.443 234 182.034 186.631 193.524 199.589 206.739 219.068 233.334 248.206 262.117 270.684 278.262 287.247 293.472 301.134 306.586 235 182.915 187.524 194.434 200.513 207.680 220.037 234.334 249.237 263.176 271.760 279.352 288.354 294.591 302.267 307.728 236 183.796 188.417 195.343 201.437 208.621 221.006 235.334 250.268 264.235 272.836 280.443 289.461 295.710 303.400 308.871 237 184.678 189.310 196.253 202.362 209.562 221.975 236.334 251.299 265.294 273.911 281.533 290.568 296.828 304.532 310.013 238 185.560 190.203 197.163 203.286 210.503 222.944 237.334 252.330 266.353 274.987 282.623 291.675 297.947 305.664 311.154 239 186.442 191.096 198.073 204.211 211.444 223.913 238.334 253.361 267.412 276.062 283.713 292.782 299.065 306.796 312.296 240 187.324 191.990 198.984 205.135 212.386 224.882 239.334 254.392 268.471 277.138 284.802 293.888 300.182 307.927 313.437 241 188.207 192.884 199.894 206.060 213.327 225.851 240.334 255.423 269.529 278.213 285.892 294.994 301.300 309.058 314.578 242 189.090 193.778 200.805 206.985 214.269 226.820 241.334 256.453 270.588 279.288 286.981 296.100 302.417 310.189 315.718 243 189.973 194.672 201.716 207.911 215.210 227.790 242.334 257.484 271.646 280.362 288.070 297.206 303.534 311.320 316.859 244 190.856 195.567 202.627 208.836 216.152 228.759 243.334 258.515 272.704 281.437 289.159 298.311 304.651 312.450 317.999 245 191.739 196.462 203.539 209.762 217.094 229.729 244.334 259.545 273.762 282.511 290.248 299.417 305.767 313.580 319.138 246 192.623 197.357 204.450 210.687 218.036 230.698 245.334 260.576 274.820 283.586 291.336 300.522 306.883 314.710 320.278 247 193.507 198.252 205.362 211.613 218.979 231.668 246.334 261.606 275.878 284.660 292.425 301.626 307.999 315.840 321.417 248 194.391 199.147 206.274 212.539 219.921 232.637 247.334 262.636 276.935 285.734 293.513 302.731 309.115 316.969 322.556 249 195.276 200.043 207.186 213.465 220.863 233.607 248.334 263.667 277.993 286.808 294.601 303.835 310.231 318.098 323.694 250 196.161 200.939 208.098 214.392 221.806 234.577 249.334 264.697 279.050 287.882 295.689 304.940 311.346 319.227 324.832 300 240.663 245.972 253.912 260.878 269.068 283.135 299.334 316.138 331.789 341.395 349.874 359.906 366.844 375.369 381.425 350 285.608 291.406 300.064 307.648 316.550 331.810 349.334 367.464 384.306 394.626 403.723 414.474 421.900 431.017 437.488 400 330.903 337.155 346.482 354.641 364.207 380.577 399.334 418.697 436.649 447.632 457.305 468.724 476.606 486.274 493.132 450 376.483 383.163 393.118 401.817 412.007 429.418 449.334 469.855 488.849 500.456 510.670 522.717 531.026 541.212 548.432 500 422.303 429.388 439.936 449.147 459.926 478.323 499.333 520.950 540.930 553.127 563.852 576.493 585.207 595.882 603.446 550 468.328 475.796 486.910 496.607 507.947 527.281 549.333 571.992 592.909 605.667 616.878 630.084 639.183 650.324 658.215 600 514.529 522.365 534.019 544.180 556.056 576.286 599.333 622.988 644.800 658.094 669.769 683.516 692.982 704.568 712.771 650 560.885 569.074 581.245 591.853 604.242 625.331 649.333 673.942 696.614 710.421 722.542 736.807 746.625 758.639 767.141 700 607.380 615.907 628.577 639.613 652.497 674.413 699.333 724.861 748.359 762.661 775.211 789.974 800.131 812.556 821.347 750 653.997 662.852 676.003 687.452 700.814 723.526 749.333 775.747 800.043 814.822 827.785 843.029 853.514 866.336 875.404 800 700.725 709.897 723.513 735.362 749.185 772.669 799.333 826.604 851.671 866.911 880.275 895.984 906.786 919.991 929.329 850 747.554 757.033 771.099 783.337 797.607 821.839 849.333 877.435 903.249 918.937 932.689 948.848 959.957 973.534 983.133 900 794.475 804.252 818.756 831.370 846.075 871.032 899.333 928.241 954.782 970.904 985.032 1001.630 1013.036 1026.974 1036.826 950 841.480 851.547 866.477 879.457 894.584 920.248 949.333 979.026 1006.272 1022.816 1037.311 1054.334 1066.031 1080.320 1090.418 1000 888.564 898.912 914.257 927.594 943.133 969.484 999.333 1029.790 1057.724 1074.679 1089.531 1106.969 1118.948 1133.579 1143.917 <｜fim▁end｜>	182.460 186.762 132 93.904
<｜fim▁begin｜> Definition of nursing Nursing is a health-care profession focused on the care of individuals, families, and communities so they may attain, maintain, or recover optimal health and quality of life from conception to death. Nursing involves a greater, and often continued, level of human interaction than any other health care discipline. It is a holistic discipline with its own body of scientific knowledge. Nurses work in collaboration with interdisciplinary team members as to provide the best evidence based care. At the highest levels of nursing practice, nurse practitioners may act as primary health care providers. Nurses work in a large variety of specialties where they work independently and as part of a team to assess, plan, implement and evaluate care. Nursing Science is a field of knowledge based on the contributions of nursing scientists through peer-reviewed scholarly journals and evidenced-based practice. Nurses care for individuals and populations on all degrees of wellness, ages and cultural backgrounds, and who have physical, emotional, psychological, intellectual, social, and spiritual needs. The profession innovates art and science from numerous fields including nursing in caring for those individuals. Some nurses follow the traditional role of working in a hospital setting, but there are a number of career specializations which can be pursued, such as psycho-gerontological nursing. Scope of this book This book is intended for registered nurses,researchers and academics. A more basic nursing text is under development at Nursing Study Guide Entry to nursing There are a number of educational paths to becoming a professional nurse, which all involve extensive study of nursing training and licensure by a regional regulatory body. In order to work in the nursing profession, nurses hold one or more credentials depending on their training and scope of practice . Vocational nurses have a variety of titles including enrolled (EN), licensed (LPN) or registered practical nurse (RPN). A vocational nurse works with Registered nurse supervision. A Registered nurse (RN) provides scientific, psychological, and technological knowledge in the care of <｜fim▁hole｜> care settings. Registered nurses may also earn additional credentials or degrees enabling them to work under different titles and career stages. Subjects (Gordon's Functional Health Patterns) Health Perception and Management Cultural Security Nutritional metabolic Nutritional Issues Elimination Activity exercise Sleep rest Cognitive-perceptual Self perception/self concept Role relationship Sexuality reproductive Coping-stress tolerance Value-Belief Pattern Skin Integrity Subjects (Additional) Nursing assessment Nursing diagnosis Nursing process Nursing theory Critical thinking Respiratory Care References Joanna Briggs Institute for Nursing Research Australian Nursing Midwifery Board further reading Notes on Nursing by Florence Nightingale [http://www.archive.org/details/diaryofanursings18910gut Diary of a Nursing Sister on the Western Front, 1914-1915 ] Amnesty International Nurses and Human Rights Our army nurses. Interesting sketches, addresses, and photographs of nearly one hundred of the noble women who served in hospitals and on battlefields during our civil war (1895) Medical Disclaimer Wikibooks contains books on many medical topics; however, no warranty whatsoever is made that any of the books are accurate. There is absolutely no assurance that any statement contained or cited in a book touching on medical matters is true, correct, precise, or up-to-date. The overwhelming majority of such books are written, in part or in whole, by nonprofessionals. Even if a statement made about medicine is accurate, it may not apply to you or your symptoms. The medical information provided on Wikibooks is, at best, of a general nature and cannot substitute for the advice of a medical professional (for instance, a qualified doctor/physician, nurse, pharmacist/chemist, and so on). Wikibooks is not a doctor. None of the individual contributors, system operators, developers, sponsors of Wikibooks nor anyone else connected to Wikibooks can take any responsibility for the results or consequences of any attempt to use or adopt any of the information presented on this web site. Nothing on Wikibooks.org or included as part of any project of Wikimedia Foundation Inc., should be construed as an attempt to offer or render a medical opinion or otherwise engage in the practice of medicine. <｜fim▁end｜>	patients and families in many health
<｜fim▁begin｜> Contents 1 Researching local history 1.1 Primary sources 1.2 Secondary sources 1.3 Using paintings, drawings, prints and photographs 1.4 Using old maps 1.5 Baronial or manorial records 1.6 Etymology 1.7 Personal names 1.8 Aerial and satellite imagery 1.9 The interpretation of landscape features 1.10 Site visits and oral information 1.11 Folklore, tradition and oral history 1.12 Sharing information and encouraging others 1.13 Notes 1.14 Bibliography Researching local history Local history research is often taken up as a hobby by people without prior training or experience in the appropriate techniques and approaches. The very nature of local history is such that starting points are always available locally and lay researchers can learn the necessary skills as they study their subject in ever increasing depth. Archivists and societies can provide advice, encouragement, and information; formal courses of study are also widely available. Most local history researchers follow a process in which they start from the basic facts offered by the available evidence, make a more detailed analysis of that evidence to explore its implications, and then put that analysis in its wider temporal and geographical context. Some take a more theoretical approach: starting from a hypothesis, which they seek to demonstrate or disprove through evidence. Primary sources These are records that were created at the time of an event. For example, a primary source for a birth date would be a birth certificate. While you can find birth dates on other documents, such as marriage certificates, they would not be primary sources for the birth date, because they were not created at the time of the birth. The survival and availability of local records differs significantly from area to area. West [1] is a good guide to what records may exist and how they might be used. Similarly Iredale [2] also describes where records may be found and how they can be used, although he originally wrote more than thirty years ago and is somewhat dated in parts. There are numerous guides to individual record categories [3] which can be found in bibliographies or referenced in more general works. Secondary sources A secondary source is a record that was created a significant amount of time after an event occurred. For example, a marriage certificate would be a secondary source for a birth date, because the birth took place several years before the time of the marriage. However, that same marriage certificate would be a primary source for a marriage date, because it was created at the time of the marriage. There is often a local studies library which will contain a wealth of local material and web access. Early county historians [4] often provide parish by parish accounts, although they frequently include long descriptions of manorial descents which are of little interest to the current generation of historians. If there is a history of the parish church, this may well contain useful material. Many books as secondary sources have a tendency to contain information which is of special interest to the author, even if the book titles are broadly similar. When researching a particular topic it is best to consult as many 'histories' as possible for vital clues can lurk in the most unexpected places. It is also true however that mistakes can be repeated through plagiarism by author after author and even exaggerated. This is the ever present problem with secondary sources of information. Using paintings, drawings, prints and photographs Photographs are usually reliable and can be interpreted directly and with confidence. (While this is true, remember that sources are created with intent by the author. Therefore a photo essay of a community may emphasize some areas, and omit others. As such, the use of photographic images as a primary basis for exploring a community may be limited. This is why it is always desirable to use multiple sources.) Paintings and prints are open to artistic interpretation and / or a formulaic construction. For example the artist Gilpin[5] set a fashion for a romantic style of drawing and painting which influenced artists for many years and Billings[6] is famous for his stylised and romantised representation of Scottish castles, etc. Such sources can only be 'trusted' as factual in generalised terms. Using old maps Privately produced antique maps often go back several centuries, the Ordnance Survey (OS) itself did not start until the 19th-century. Many maps can be found either online [1] or are available for study at libraries, purchasable at bookshops, etc. Comparing maps sequentially by age can reveal a great deal of information about place names (etymology), landscape features, natural habitats, changing farming practices, etc. Older OS maps may have many place names which are left out on modern OS maps. The 'Name Book' was the written record of the OS and this can be very helpful and informative. The OS is sometimes wrong, with examples of misnamed hills, burns, historical features, etc. which have never been corrected and have been repeated by other 'official' bodies. Such errors can sometimes be identified and corrected by making comparisons with pre-OS maps, an example being where the OS at first used the name 'Drumastle Mill,' then 'Drumcastle Mill,' however a 1747 map gives 'Drumaskus Mill.' An old 'Tower' was nearby and this may have led to the OS error during re-surveying, etc. Old maps, through comparing various surveys, can also reveal the extent to which geographical features have been altered by the activities of man. Rivers were surprisingly often diverted by natural circumstances, the landowning class, factory owners, etc.; lakes were created through mining, quarrying, road construction, etc.; small hills were removed through quarrying, etc.; lakes drained for agriculture, etc., etc. Baronial or manorial records The Barony became the principal administrative unit of medieval landed estates in Scotland and its business was carried out in the Barony court before the laird or his baillie. The records of the Barony, and in particular its court, document many aspects of local agriculture, the resolution of disagreements between tenants, the transfer of property amongst tenants, etc. Many lairds also had a legal heritable jurisdiction which permitted the laird of the barony to deal with certain minor criminal matters and regulate the sale of bread and ale. Baronies continued to function in a minor way until the early 20th century, but by this date the business of the courts had for a long time been dominated by the transfer of tenants' property. The proceedings of the court and other documents give much information about local agriculture and the management of estates. Records reveal a great deal about the community living in the barony, its social structure, households, responsibilities, and the local economy. Etymology The names of habitations, hills, rivers, villages, etc. can reveal a great deal about the history of such features, especially if the name can be traced throughout its existence to show subtle changes which help to positively identify the original meaning. Such changes can be very complex and confusing, especially if they involve other languages, such as Cornish, Welsh, Scottish Gaelic, etc. Local dialects can lead the local historian astray, as with 'Watermillock' beside Ullswater in the Lake District. The name seems to imply something along the lines of 'The small mill by a stream', whilst it actually involves the dialect word 'wethers' for sheep and 'hillock', or small hill.[7] Even well established placenames may change with new ownership, such as with the farm 'Sandilands', which was change to 'Bankend' once Lord Torphichen of the Sandilands family, sold the estate on which the farm stood. In such cases extra confusion can effect historical researchers as the farm was renamed after a previous farm which once stood on another site some distance away. A tradition, particularly in Victorian times, was to enhance the 'image' of a place by renaming it using more upper or middle class names. Maybole in Ayrshire for example had many streets renamed through the influence of a local minister. A particular tradition that exists in parts of Ayrshire in Scotland and probably elsewhere, is to rename places after old family homes or estates, places of particular personal interest, etc. For example the Fergushill Manse became 'Janburrow' after Janet from Burrowland Farm and Bonnyton became 'Girgenti' after an historic site in Sicily. Landowners often altered names, such as that of Culzean castle, which used to be 'The cove', named after the caves that the castle stood on. Little Dreghorn near Dreghorn in North Ayrshire was changed to Fairlie after the family's main home on the Ayrshire coast. Clues can also be found by speaking to local people who may provide the <｜fim▁hole｜> a map, etc. which might be significantly different from the deduced pronunciation. Another difficulty with the interpretation of placenames, standard expressions, etc. is that the meanings of words may have changed, for example the expression 'Pit and gallows' refers to a pit which was actually a form of dungeon or prison cell, not a pit for drowning the condemned. Words may also take on new meanings which supplant the original, for example a 'turnpike' was used for the spiral stairs in a tower and became more familiarly a term for the Toll Roads first constructed in the 18th-century.[8] Some descriptive terms were used very much in one locality, such as that of 'bastel-house' being confined to the East and Middle March of the Scottish - English border. Some names can link certain features to industrial activity in the past, such as the name 'Red Boiler' which referred to the manufacture of soap at one particular site. Here the clues were that a plentiful supply of hardwood trees was a pre-requisite, together with a supply of animal carcasses, both of which the site had once provided in abundance. The folk memory of cast iron cauldrons at the site and the characteristic colour added to the circumstantial evidence. Changes in the spoken language of an area results in the loss of some placenames and the corruption of others. Such changes may reflect such transition as that from Pictish to Gaelic to Scots and finally to English. Personal names The spelling of personal names, like that of placenames, was highly variable and only became consistent in the 19th century in many cases. Some spelling usages may reflect cadets of a family, such as with the Cunnnighame family, who used Cunninghame for the Glencairn and Corsehill branch; Cuninghame for Caddel and Monkredding; Cunningham for Baidland and Clonbeith; and finally Cuningham for Glengarnock. When following family trees it is worth noting that many heirs changed their names to retain a traditional surname, as with the branch of the Seton family who inherited the Earldom of Eglinton and took the Montgomerie name associated with that title. This practise was sometimes a condition of inheritance or an act of gratitude. Aerial and satellite imagery Imagery from aerial reconnaissance is especially common from the first and second world wars. Some of which can be viewd in 3D. Such photographs are held by the Imperial War Museum and turn up at antique fairs, through on line auction, sites, etc. Various websites can now provide satellite imagery which gives an overview, often in considerable detail, of areas which are being researched. Many sites additionally have live links on the satellite image which provide further details and sometimes link to sites such as Wikipedia, often providing much more information to the researcher. Features are usually easy to follow, such as Corpse roads, old railways, castles, rivers, rig and furrow systems, etc. Taken together with maps, satellite imagery can clarify or add substantially to existing knowledge on a particular topic. The imagery is however not 'live' and can be several years old. Crop marks are sometimes visible, indicating the course of old roads, the position of old dwellings, etc. Due to the imagery being from above, some vertical structures can be hard to make out, only being visible by the shadows they cast, etc. The interpretation of landscape features There is no alternative than to keep an open mind and to develop or seek expert advice when making deductions from features in the landscape. Oliver Rackham is well known for his pioneering work on woodlands, leading to a better understanding of previous landscapes, which sustained lost crafts such as sawyers, digging temporary sawpits which collapsed upon themselves to leave 'grave' like features. They are often found in old woods, close to water and occasionally made with stone sides.[9] Q-pits are another landscape feature, found in woodlands or what has been woodland, they were kilns used to produce a sort of dried wood called 'white coal,' at one time used in the smelting of lead from the ore. Even old land usage can be deduced to some extent through examining the plants present, the form of trees, particular woodland boundary features, the presence or absence of coppicing, etc., etc. Some plants for instance have been known to linger on in one locality from the days of the monasteries and their 'physic' gardens. Site visits and oral information A visit is often essential, although satellite imagery can be a partial substitute. Local people rarely have a deep knowledge of their locality's history, however such information can be invaluable. It is often the case that site visits uncover the existence of primary sources of material such as photographs, deeds, etc. Additionally, personal contact with other local historians may result from meeting people local to an area. Folklore, tradition and oral history Many places have a rich folklore and tradition which can be both a help and a hindrance. Usually a kernel of truth is associated with such historical records, however they often suffer from exaggeration, fusion with other events, the 'Chinese whispers' phenomenon and other corruptions of historical accuracy. It is important for the researcher to remain impartial and often the simpler the version the more truth it holds. False memory syndrome is a very real problem and questions to 'local' interviewees should be framed without any leading facts which could distort the correspondents memory at that time or later. Selena's Tree is an example of how stories develop. This tree stands near Kilwinning in Ayrshire, Scotland. One legends records that it was the meeting place of lovers; a man from Eglinton castle and a woman from the town. A second legend records that it was where a local witch was burned at the stake. The first story is pure romantic fiction, the second confuses the site with the nearby place of execution where a witch was executed and the truth is that a local lady named Selena walked to this tree every day for many following a stroke at a relatively early age. Sharing information and encouraging others Wikipedia and Wikibook sites enable local historians to make their work available to a very wide audience, inviting the assistance and contributions of others. Contacting 'interested' individuals via email, post, etc. can widen the use of such Wiki sites and actively involve people in the recording of their own local history. Researchers in other countries often have an interest in work done by local historians, leading to productive communications and furtherance of objectives. The writers of articles do not have any form of veto and it is inevitable that opinions will sometimes differ, resulting in edits which may or may not be a real improvement. Such is life! The important thing is to keep enthusiastic and pursue the Wikiway (democracy). One great advantage of writing information on websites such as the various Wiki sites is that it will not get lost or corrupted by accident; it is a secure home therefore. A disadvantage, certainly on Wikipedia, is the less than perfect hard copy provided through the printing options. Notes ↑ J West, Village Records ↑ D Iredale, Enjoying Archives ↑ NW Alcock, Old Title Deeds is a particularly good introduction to an under-used source for local history ↑ Morant, History and Antiquities of Essex for example ↑ Gilpin, William (1786). Observations relative chiefly to picturesque beauty on several parts of England. Vol.1. Cumberland and Wrestmorland. R.Blamire. London. ↑ Billings, Robert William (1901). The Baronial and Ecclesiastical Antiquities of Scotland. Pub. Oliver & Boyd. ↑ Lee, Joan (1998). The Place Names of Cumbria. Cumbria Heritage Services. ISBN 0-905404-70-X. P. 90 ↑ Mackenzie, W. Mackay (1927). The Mediaeval Castle in Scotland. Pub. Methuen & Co. Ltd., London. ↑ Rackham, Oliver (1976). Trees and Woodland in the British Landscape. Pub. J.M.Dent & Sons Ltd. ISBN 0-460-04183-5. Bibliography The Victoria History of the Counties of England (VCH). Allison, K. J. (ed.) The Ealing Census Bede, History of the English Church and People (AD 731). Burke, Peter (ed.), New Perspectives on Historical Writing (Polity Press, 1991) Clanchy, M.T. From Memory to Written Record (Blackwell, 1992). Currie, C. R. J. and Lewis, C. P. A Guide to English County Histories (Thrupp: Sutton, 1994) ISBN 0-7509-0289-2 Donaldson, Gordon and Morpeth, Robert S. (1977), A Dictionary of Scottish History. Edinburgh : John Donaldson. ISBN 0-85976-018-9 Hoskins, W. G. The Making of the English Landscape. Phythian-Adams, Charles. ‘An Agenda for English Local History’, in Societies, Cultures and Kinship 1580-1850 (Leicester Univ. Press, 1993). Sheeran, George and Yanina. ‘Reconstructing Local History’, Local Historian (November 1999) <｜fim▁end｜>	pronunciation of a name from
<｜fim▁begin｜> Positive thinking can be defined by the goal of health and happiness. It concentrates at positive qualities such as inner peace, strength, love, joy and happiness. In this direction research the positive psychology. Positive thinking and meditation are a path to enlightenment. However, positive thinking is a term that can be filled with different contents. Some people misunderstand it as a way of manipulation, repression of feelings and problems. Dogmatically practiced positive thinking can be the enemy of free thought. Properly practiced positive thinking leads to inner happiness, peace, health and good interpersonal relations. Positive thinking must be based on the principles of wisdom, love, strength, peace and happiness. Helpful positive thoughts often arise from the careful and free thinking about a problem. Buddha was a master of positive thinking. He called it right thinking. His thinking had a clear goal: awakening, enlightenment, peace, love, happiness. Positive thinking is a mental technique, that must practiced wisely. It should not be misused to repress feelings or problems. Positive thinking must used sensitively and healingly. According to the Buddhist master Tsongkhapa enlightenment is created by the wise combination of positive thinking and meditation. The combination of mind work and meditation is the basis of the eightfold buddhist path and the eightfold yoga path (Patanjali). Wikipedia: Optimism is a mental attitude that interprets situations and events as being best (optimized). A common idiom used to illustrate optimism versus pessimism is a glass with water at the halfway point, where the optimist is said to see the glass as half full, but the pessimist sees the glass as half empty. Optimism may be linked to health. Optimists have been shown to live healthier lifestyles which may influence disease. For example, optimists smoke less, are more physically active, consume more fruit, vegetables and whole-grain bread, and consume more moderate amounts of alcohol. The relationship between optimism and health has also been studied with regards to physical symptoms, coping strategies and negative affect for those suffering from rheumatoid arthritis, asthma, and fibromyalgia. A meta-analysis has confirmed the assumption that optimism is related to psychological well-being: “Put simply, optimists emerge from difficult circumstances with less distress than do pessimists. (...) Optimists seem intent on facing problems head-on, taking active and constructive steps to solve their problems; pessimists are more likely to abandon their effort to attain their goals.” Contents 1 How to practice positive thinking? 2 Mathilde: My methods: 3 Get Positive in Five Minutes 4 Tips for happiness from Anselm Grün (Benedictine monk) 5 The 10 pillars of Yoga 6 Yoga with Positive Thinking 7 Your magic word 8 Loving goodness meditation 9 Passion Test (from Janet and Chris Attwood) 10 Happiness Research 11 Happiness through positive thinking 12 Techniques of thought exercise 12.1 The Three Steps 13 Thoughts and feelings 13.1 Anger and grief 13.2 Fear 13.3 Aggression from other people 14 Psychological learning theory 15 Daily sayings 16 See also 17 External links How to practice positive thinking? Two smiling women Those who think positively, get more out of life. They live happier. They live healthier. They have better relationships with other people. They don’t take life too seriously. They live like winners and win as they go through life. Sad and gray was yesterday. Today, optimism is in demand and on the rise. Starwoman: My way of positive thinking is this mental mantra: “hold your head up high, don’t let anything get you down.” Jenny: There’s good to be found in everything. You just have to learn to recognize it. Man: Don’t take everything too seriously. The sunshine comes out after the rain. There is a positive aspect to everything. Monika: Stop any worthless thoughts. Tell yourself: ”Stop! That’s not how it goes!” if worthless thoughts run through your mind. Replace negative thoughts with new and encouraging thoughts. Positive mantras such as “I can do it.” Repeat these self-encouragement mantras several times daily. Think out a nice, positive thought that feels good for you! Then sit down for five minutes and think this thought for the entire time. Feel the good feelings in you. If you stray from the good thought, then just let it happen and bring yourself back to the positive thought gently. With practice, positive thinking gets easier. Helga: After the death of my husband, I did autogen training for 1 year on a regular basis. Since that time, I’ve managed to think positively. That wasn’t always the case with me. With positive thinking, life is easier and it’s easier to find reasons to be glad. David: One should be able to rest and find calm within the self. Listen to yourself and don’t allow yourself to be influenced by the negativity of others. Rick: Meditate and concentrate on Buddha or another positive role model. Sabrina: You can write down 10 nice things every evening. At first it’s difficult but after awhile it will get easier to think of things that went well during the day or that were pleasant. That way, you’ll also get better at seeing the small things that are positive and as a result you’ll be able to think more positive, too. Mathilde: My methods: Everything is in God’s hands. God loves me and I don’t need to have fear. Whatever I can’t change, I accept. Don’t let people aggravate you. Religion and the Bible have always helped me. They’ve accompanied me through my life and influenced my life. A master is yet to fall from the sky. Mistakes are there for us to learn from. God doesn’t burden people with more than they can handle. I’ve always tried to live my life in a way that makes me happy. I’ve tried to be harmony with myself and to live from my inner guidance. I have experience a lot of negative things. Somehow I’m a rugged person who always gets back up when knocked down with a strong will to survive. Get Positive in Five Minutes In every life there is pain, loss, illness, loneliness and death. We have no claim to a long life still to be spared by fate. What is your pain today? 1. The Problem: Describe briefly your situation and your problem. How exactly is your situation? What is the problem? Where is the center of the problem? 2. The Emotions: What are the feelings it in you? Fear, anger, addiction / desire, grief. What feeling is strongest? Where is the feeling sitting in your body? 3. The Thoughts: What thoughts are connected with your feelings? Why are you sad, anxious, angry or longing? Count all your stressful thoughts down. (My thoughts are ...) 4. Thinking: What triggers your problem? What is the way out of your problem? What brings you to love, success, fulfillment, satisfaction? Think about your problem for so long, until you find a solution. Think about different solutions. Collect all the information you need. 5. Implementation: Follow your positive thoughts. Fulfil your positive life plan. Avoid meaningless brooding. Now is the time to realize powerful. Go your way to victory. "My positive motto is ...." Tips for happiness from Anselm Grün (Benedictine monk) Anselm Gruen 1. Accept your limitations! 2. Don’t take yourself too seriously! 3. Look over your thinking! We should look at what we think and see if our thoughts are actually damaging. Do our thoughts really reflect reality, or is it a false reality? If I see my job as negative, I will also experience it as negative. 4. Learn to simply be! Learn to live intensively. Try to go slower more consciously when you want to walk around at work. Take each step consciously when going for walks. Feel how you touch the earth and then step away from it. 5. Learn to wait! Waiting causes consciousness of the moment we live in, and to the people with whom we are speaking with at a given moment. Waiting makes the heart big and open. 6. Dare to try something new! Show courage! We live in a world and in a society that doesn’t take much consideration for weakness. Of course, one tries to work without errors. But at work, we also see that those who don’t want to make mistakes never try something new. 7. Open your heart! To really speak means to break open the heart and to open it for others, to allow them to enter your own heart. Speak so that the relationship grows and trust is created. 8. Enjoy- it is later than you think!! People don’t know how long life will last. They should enjoy every second. 9. Don’t repress or hide anything from yourself! Those who do not pay attention to their wounds will be ruled by them. They live a lie. They think that they have their own lives, but they simply repeat the errors from their childhood. 10. Go your own way! You have to find your own personal way. It is not enough to follow others. You have to listen to your inner voice to find your way. And then you need to bravely decide to take that path, even if you feel lonesome doing it. The 10 pillars of Yoga Patanjali is the father of Indian Yoga. He lived in the second century before Christ. In the Yoga Sutra he summarized the essence of Yogic knowledge with just a few words. The two main tenets of Patanjali say “Yoga is the calming of the spirit. Then the Yogi rests in the light.” The more you live in a state of calm, the greater the inner happiness and the more all-encompassing the light. Patanjali said that inner happiness takes a long time to develop and only can be reached through consistent practice. The calming of the thoughts can be achieved using the two step path. The first step is the development of positive characteristics (the 10 pillars of Yoga). The second step is meditation. Simply spoken, Patanjali’s way of practice is also the way of positive thinking and meditation. 1. Non-violence (Ahimsa)= Never injure another being. Be peaceful and gentle. 2. Truthfulness. (Satya)= Live in the truth. Be honest with yourself and others. Be consistent in your personal truth and live from that as your center. A lie is only allowed in especially well-founded circumstances, for example, if you can save someone’s life with a lie. A Yogi is silent, when in doubt. 3. Integrity (Asteya)=Don’t steal and don’t deceive. A Yogi is honest in his or her professional life. A Yogi doesn’t strive for an unjustified advantage over others, but rather for a fair balance, a fair trade. A Yogi can be trusted in his or her professional life. He or she gives too much rather than too little. Those who are fair do not create bad karma. 4. Wisdom (Brahmacharia) = To live spiritually, to live in wisdom. To differentiate between the essential and the non-essential. A Yogi doesn’t use up his or her energy in worldly doings, rather lives calmly and peacefully so that the self is turned inward and so that the body cleanses itself from the inside. One day, then the Yogi is able to receive God energy and let it flow within the self and to give this energy to others through good deeds from a place of love. In that way, the Yogi grows eternally in his or her inner happiness, energy and love. 5. Simplicity(Aparigraha)= Moderation on external enjoyment. A spiritual person lives modestly on the outside and rich on the inside. He or she does not strive toward riches (carrier, maximum consumption). Yogis make sure they have what they need and concentrate otherwise on spiritual exercises (Yoga, meditation, thought work)and the well-being of fellow beings. 6. Honoring of the spiritual goal (Ishvara-Pranidhana) = So that we don’t lose our way along the spiritual path, it is necessary to constantly focus on our spiritual goal. We can honor an image, a statue or speak a mantra. The four most important role models in Yoga are Vishnu (love), Shiva (strength), Brahma (living in peace and calm)and Ganesha (joy). 7. Ego sacrifice (Shaucha)= Cleansing. The way to light leads to the crucifiction. The ten ego characteristics are pride, envy, the desire to possess, longing, addiction to enjoyment, fear, rage, sadness, laziness, foolishness. What is your negative characteristic today? Which positive thoughts help you to overcome them? 8. Goal striving (Tapas)= A clear decision, a clear plan for life and a consistent path. Tapas means living a disciplined life. Those who have a good plan and enough perseverance are victorious along the spiritual path. What is your decisive plan for spiritual action today? Ask an enlightened master for guidance and help, follow your inner wisdom and you will be victorious on the spiritual path. 9. Reading (Svadhyaya) =The daily reading meditation keeps us on the spiritual path, cleanses our spirit, connects us with the enlightened masters and makes us into spiritual victors. Those who do not involve themselves with spirituality daily lose their inner happiness to the age of consumption. What is your spiritual text for today? 10. Satisfaction (Santosha)= Reach great satisfaction with yourself and life. Which thoughts help you to come to a satisfied state? “My thoughts of satisfaction today are…” Yoga with Positive Thinking Yoga with positive thinking is very helpful for many people. It allows one to quickly overcome negative tendencies and reach a happy and healthy life. Positive thinking and daily meditation are the two basic techniques of enlightenment. All the negative characteristics are ultimately based on attachment (to external pleasures, other people, to his ego) or rejection (of suffering situations, pain). If we accept the suffering in our lifes and let go of our worldly desires and longings, the tensions in our minds resolve. Our inner happiness creates a positiv feeling of life. We get into a life in the light (in a paradise view of life). The main way to overcome the negative qualities is to focus on the positive qualities of wisdom, self-discipline, peace, love and happiness. 1. Go = Jog on the spot, with your arms moving by your side. Visualize light, turn around and think, "I go the positive way." 2. Windmill = Straddle your legs apart, bow forward, turn like a windmill into the spinal column and think: "My goal is ...". 3. Frog = Bring your feet together. Bow your upper body forward. Push yourself up with your hands on the floor and move your buttocks down in a crouch and back up in the air. The head goes up to the sky and down to the earth. Practice the frog several times and think: "I have strength and endurance." 4. Arm-leg raising = Lie down on your stomach. Raise your left arm and right leg. Bring both back to the earth and lift the right arm and the left leg. Do this several times. Think, "I take things the way they are." 5. Upper body raising = Lie in the prone position, with your hands on the floor and repeatedly press the upper body up and down. The head goes to the neck and forward. While breathing in and out, think, "I let go of my false desires." 6. Pelvic rotation = In the prone position, turn your pelvis to the right and then to the left. Your head must lie on your hands. Think, "I am sad because ...". 7. Feet = Get your feet moving in the prone position. The head lies relaxed on your hands. Think, "I forgive... (my partner / parents / the cosmos / God), that he/she...". Whom do you want to forgive today? Think these words until a feeling of sadness arises in you, of letting go and forgiveness. 8. Cycling = Turn on your back, lift your head and move your arms and legs. Think, "My positive thought today is....". 9. Candle = Stretch your legs to the sky. Your hands support you at the back. Visualize the sky, move your feet and think many times the mantra "Optimism". 10. Meditation = Roll from the candle into your meditation seat (cross-legged or heel seat). Put your hands in your lap. The back is straight and the stomach is relaxed. Move one hand and wrap them and think, "I send light to ... May all people be happy. May the world be happy." Stop all your thoughts for a minute. Relax. Your magic word There is in all people a thought which hinders the enlightenment and the inner happiness. This thought mostly has something to do with unwisdom, immodesty and lack of love to all. We need either wisdom, humility, resting, self-discipline, some fun or universal love. We need a special thought which awakens the lacking quality. Suddenly the happiness, the love, the light and the peace is in us. The right word in the right moment for the right person causes a breakthrough to inner happiness. What is now your magic word? 1. Shower = We visualize a shower above us. We turn on the shower and clean us with enlightenment energy. We think the mantra "Water" and massage water (or light energy) from head to toe in our body. We rub all tensions and stress from the body. 2. Earthing = We rub the earth with our feet. We draw a circle with a color of healing around us. We think the name of our healing color several times as a mantra. What is your healing color (purple, orange, yellow, red)? 3. Friend = We go in the shower on the spot. We move our feet. We visualize a boyfriend or a girlfriend and say a positive word. What is your positive word? Imagine that the word actually reaches your person. Think your word several times as a mantra: "My word for... is... (I love you.)" 4. Enemy = We remember an enemy (aggressive person). Whom do you feel in this moment as an enemy? Who is your opponent? Give him a positive word. What do you say to him? Forgive him and get inner peace. Move a hand and send him wisdom and love. Think your word so long as a mantra, until you are in peace with your enemy. 5. A word for you = Investigate your own mind. Is there a thought that blocks your inner peace, your happiness and your love? Which positive word can overcome it? What makes you feel good? What brings you to peace and happiness? Do it! Loving goodness meditation 1. Develop feelings of friendliness and good intentions for yourself. Remind yourself of a moment where you were happy and felt good. Think: “May I be friendly to myself. May I feel good. May I be happy.” What is your way to make yourself feel good and be happy? 2. Imagine a person you like. Wish him happiness and think: “may he feel good and be happy.” 3. Think of some people whom you are neutral to (people on the street, in the supermarket, in your city). Wish them happiness, love, wisdom and peace. Move a hand in a blessing, send light and think: “may everyone in the world be happy. May the world be a happy one.” 4. Think of someone you don’t like or that you find difficult. Wish them love, peace, happiness and wisdom, too. Send them light, move a hand in a blessing and think: “may even this person be happy. May the world be a happy place.” 5. Imagine all of these people (yourself, your friend, your enemy and the neutral people.) Move your hand in a blessing, send light to everyone and think: “I send light to everyone. May everyone be happy. May the world be a happy place.” 6. Relax. Let the meditation work on you. Think it over. See yourself as mother and father to every being on earth. Every being is your child, including the good and the bad. Wish them all love, happiness and peace. Do what you can toward that end. Passion Test (from Janet and Chris Attwood) Make a list of the ten most important things that a life full of joy, passion and fulfillment would bring. Begin each sentence with the words: “In my ideal life…”, choose the ten things that are most important to you. How do you want to reach your goals? “My way to victory is…” Go your way. Live in the essence. Proceed with wisdom, love and infinite perseverance. You WILL have success in your life. Your life will be a success. Those who connect wisdom with optimism are winners. Happiness Research The most important results of today’s happiness research can be summarized in 10 points. 1. People are happy when they‘re busy People are happy when they have positive goals and positive tasks. Active people are 15% more happy with their lives than those who are more passive. Happiness researcher Ed Diener explained: “happy people set goals again and again.” 2. Exercise makes you happy Regular exercise keeps the body healthy and makes the spirit happy. Daily walks increase happiness by 12%. David Niven confirms: “People who stay fit with exercise are healthier, more positive and more successful.” 3. Doing good for others makes you happy Those who do good things for others on a regular basis are 24% happier than those who only live for themselves. John A. Schindler wrote: “be a giving person. Those who give are happier than those who take. Those who give to the world and all beings discover the beauty of the world.” 4. Rest makes happy In addition to spending time working, exercising and being around others, we should take time to rest and recover every day. We need to get enough sleep. Scientific research shows that relaxed people think more positively and are happier. Every hour of missed sleep affects how positive one’s attitude is the next day by 8%. 5. Positive thinking makes happy Those who think positively double their chances of happiness. Those who want to be happy should work on thinking positively every day. They should facilitate wisdom, love, peace, inner strength and joy and put them at the center of their existence and work on those characteristics daily. For example, a positive attitude for the day can consist of: “how are things looking today? How can I get through the day positively? What will make me a winner today?” 6. Too much TV makes you unhappy Scientific research has found: “Every hour of TV decreases happiness in life by 5%.” TV causes people to focus more on material happiness. It awakens wishes and aggression. It creates fear. Those who want to grow in inner happiness should get rid of the TV or learn to have a positive way of dealing with it. The way of positive TV watching consists of three steps: a) choose your television programs consciously. Avoid negative films. B) Find the right amount of TV. Children should watch a maximum of one hour of TV every day. C) Do some spiritual exercises after each TV watching session (to center oneself on the spiritual path). 7. Put time and energy into friendships Find a positive circle of friends. Women who meet and converse with other women feel their worries decrease by 55%. Cancer inflicted women who meet in a group weekly survive twice as often as women who don’t meet in such a group. In the western world, there is a strong tendency to isolation. There are a lot of singles and lonely, old people. People with a good circle of friends are happy. Overcome the isolation. Let’s dedicate time and energy to friendships. 8. Facilitate joy in life Those who incorporate little elements of joy into their lives increase their general happiness in life by 20%. Once, Nils felt bad. In order to find balance, he ate a lot of sweets. His spirit felt lighter and lighter. Unfortunately, after a while his stomach felt a bit uneasy. Despite this, his mind was still totally happy. Nils imagined the sweets in his belly and awakened his kundalini energy. A strong happiness energy awoke, which brought him to the light quickly. Nils learnt how to connect enjoyment with spiritual exercises. You don’t need to eat too many sweets. Just enjoying something nice is enough for the path of inner happiness. 9. Humor People with a sense of humor are 33% happier. We should facilitate and encourage humor in our lives. We shouldn’t take things too seriously. We should learn how to laugh about ourselves. Those who can laugh about themselves go more lightly through life. It’s good to watch cheerful and funny movies, humorous books and to visit with happy people. 10. Self-Confidence and trust Happy people believe in themselves. They believe in their goals, their wisdom and their strength. They see themselves as winners. They believe that they will be successful in life. May we all be winners along the spiritual path. May we have faith in ourselves, our positive goals and our inner strength. Happiness through positive thinking Sonja Lyubomirsky is among the best known American happiness researchers. She is a professor at the University of California and wrote the worldwide bestseller “Be Happy” (2008). Her specialty is the level of happiness. She brought the debate surrounding the level of happiness to modern happiness research. Sonja was annoyed that newer research results seem to indicate that a person’s level of happiness remains the same. The danger with such research is that it strengthens people’s tendency to falling back on the comfortably familiar (even if this causes people to be stuck on a lower level) : “my level of happiness is genetic and is dependent on outer circumstances. I can’t do anything to be happier. Everything is pointless.” Sonja wondered what she could do if she wants to have a happy life. She accepted that today’s research has the position that 50% of a person’s level of happiness is genetic (determined by the body and hormone production). Some 10% of a person’s level of happiness is determined by outer circumstances. 40% of a person’s level of happiness can be influenced by working on one’s thoughts. If only 10% of a person’s general happiness is determined by outer circumstances then it isn’t usually important to change one’s circumstances in life. It is relatively unimportant for one’s personal happiness whether one has a better job, better partner, better children or a better apartment. We can only change our level of happiness by 10% by changing some circumstances of our lives. We should concentrate on the 40% that can be changed. Sonja is very radical. “Let your outer circumstances stay the way they are. Work on yourself instead. Exercise positive thoughts and positive behaviors. That is the way to be happy over the long run.” Sonja even has a word of warning regarding this too: “Don’t think that it’s easy to raise your level of happiness. It requires decisiveness and constant effort throughout one’s life. Without goal-orientedness, perseverance, effort and daily motivation it won’t work. You have to practice happiness exercises every day.” A lot of time and effort is necessary. The most important component is to establish positive habits in life. We have to get used to stopping our negative thoughts and countering them with positive thoughts. We begin each day with a positive resolution. We forgive others for their errors and turn our perspective to the positive in life with gratitude. We should organize a system of social support. Most people need a <｜fim▁hole｜> partner or spiritual teacher to support them in order to raise their level of happiness. Only a few people have the necessary self-discipline required to do happiness raising exercises an entire life long. The results of research in the area of self- help show that only 24% of all people stay more than a half a year on the path of a positive life alone. 95% stick to it with the help of others. Those who would like to increase their overall level of happiness should avoid excessive stress in their lives. Outer circumstances only play a small role regarding inner happiness. An exception to that is stress. Too much stress has a negative influence on the overall happiness of a person. In particular, this point shows how incorrect the west is in terms of priorities. High stress is the main characteristic in today’s schools and in today’s professions. This stress is transferred to people’s relationships, destroys physical health and reduces happiness. We should work to reduce stress in each of our lives as much as possible. Sonja recommends regular exercise, a healthy diet, and to meditate every day for 20 minutes. It’s enough to start with five minutes and then to slowly increase to twenty minutes. What could be eaiser than doing Yoga for a few minutes or meditating every day for a few minutes to systematically reduce stress? Techniques of thought exercise The main technique of thought work is contemplation. Think about yourself, your life or your situation. Solve your problem and then calm yourself. If you can’t find a solution then take things as they are. Life doesn’t need to be perfect. An enlightened person is happy in an imperfect world. Accepting things in an imperfect world can be a way to enlightenment. Find your way of wisdom. Consider what is right at that given moment. Is it correct to take action or to take no action? What needs to be done? Do it. Don’t think too much about it. Be present and in a state of calm. If you can’t solve a problem at the given moment, then let go of it. Take some time each day to think about that problem. With time, you’ll find a solution. Most of the time we can find a thought that brings us to inner calm and peace during the course of contemplation. If no such thoughts come to us, then we have to probe our inner being thoroughly. Which feelings are present in you? Anger, grief, fear, addiction or longing? What is the strongest feeling? Which problem is connected with it? Which thoughts appear when you feel out your emotions? Feelings of fear, rage, sadness and addiction can be dissolved if you can find the negative thoughts that dissolve the feeling. Which positive thoughts help to dissolve the negative thoughts? We have to be very creative with this sometimes. Which thoughts are strong enough to overpower the negative thoughts? What do we believe in the depths of the soul? It’s good to develop strong pillars of faith. They help us in emergencies and help to overcome negative thoughts. Most of the time, thorough contemplation or personal pillars of faith help us to find inner peace. The negative feelings and thoughts often come from the depths of the consciousness. Our subconscious is like a small child. We have to be careful when dealing with the small child. We have to convince it and take good care of it. Then a positive psyche can develop. Which thoughts does the small child in us react to? When do the negative thoughts dissolve? Does the inner child need love, happiness, wisdom or strength? Find a way to give that to him. Do something good for yourself. Concentrate on your wisdom. Take the path of all-encompassing love. Send all beings light and do a good deed. If your inner child needs strength, go your way with discipline. Exercise, do your spiritual exercises, work on yourself and strength and peace will appear. If these techniques don’t help, then exercise thought control. Stop all of your negative thoughts. Meditate, think a mantra, or distract yourself by reading or watching videos. Often it’s good to talk to other people. Half the problem disappears when you can talk about it with a good friend. If you don’t have any good friends, then connect with God or your spiritual master. Tell them about your problems. Take an oracle card (Buddha oracle, tarot) and you will get an answer that helps you. Negative thoughts can be stopped with a mantra. Find your personal mantra. Think “stop” or another mantra (a motto of wisdom) until the negative thoughts totally disappear. Repeat the mantra during crisis situations. At some point you will have overcome your negative thoughts. Feelings like happiness, love and peace will appear in their place. Visualization exercises are a big help. Do a fantasy journey. Imagine what the solution to your problem looks like. Visualize yourself in a happy life. Let burdening situations play out in your mind’s eye. Find a positive thought that helps you. Orient your perspective around positive intentions and a positive future. Go with positive intentions throughout the day. What gives you strength to get through your day positively? What gives you hope and confidence in your life? Begin each day with a positive intention. In the evening, consider whether you put your positive intentions into practice. What could you do better the next day? Develop a plan for a positive life. Put into practice with consistency. That’s how winners live. What is your goal? What is your way to win? Reward yourself whenever you have managed to put your positive resolutions into practice. Your inner child loves rewards. This way you can motivate yourself to stay positive along your way. It doesn’t need to be a big reward. Sometimes a cookie or a beautiful flower is enough. Sometimes one needs big visions in order to maintain the strength for a positive life. Such a positive vision could be enlightenment, the life in lasting joy and happiness and peace. Such a vision could also be the goal for a happy world. Find your way of happiness and love and spread those characteristics throughout the world. Then you will make yourself happy and overcome negative thoughts. The Three Steps Psychic well-being appears through the dissolving of tension in the body and the mind. If a person is relaxed on the inside, then happiness develops on its own. There are three steps to inner happiness. 1. Positive Thinking Think about your problem and find an inner and outer solution. What is your problem? What would solve your problem? What is your path of wisdom? Find a positive thought that you can use to overcome negative thoughts. What is your negative feeling (rage, fear, grief, addiction or longing)? What negative thoughts are connected to that? What positive thoughts help you? Positive thoughts come from wisdom, love, letting go, acceptance, joy and strength (self-discipline). Develop a positive resolution and think out a mantra. Repeat it again and again. Stop your negative thoughts this way :”my way of wisdom is… my way of love is… My false wishes are… I accept… What can I do good today? What makes me happy? Proceed with happiness.” Thought stop. If a negative thought surfaces which destroys your happiness, call out ”stop!”. Observe your thoughts. Be aware of your thinking and your behavior. The constant observation will reduce negative thoughts all on its own. Meditate, work out or og for a walk if negative thoughts start to bother you. Come to a state of calm. Read a book. Talk to positive people. Live positively. Plan your life positively. Then you will come to a state of calm and be happy. 2. Process your feelings Feel your emotions. Understand your emotions. Recognize the source of your thoughts. Don’t suppress your feelings. Be sad when you feel sad. Be angry without hurting others. Go for a walk. Meditate on your rage. Learn to peacefully deal with the aggression of other people. Don’t identify with it. Forgive. Find positive thoughts. See your fears for what they are. Feel the center of your fear. Then you can find a way to overcome it. 3. Physical Exercises - Dissolve your inner tension and conflict with exercise (Yoga, walking, jogging). - Meditate regularly. - Practice a calm and relaxed lifestyle. - Avoid stress to the extent that it is possible. - Think like a Buddha. Act like a Buddha. Live like a Buddha. Be a Buddha. Concentrate on making other people happy and forget your own worries. Thoughts and feelings I am blue Most people believe that they can’t think any differently in a given situation. They think their way of thinking depends on the outer situation. They don’t understand that each person has a choice between various thoughts in each situation. Each person can think thoughts that lead to positive feelings, to health and to well-being. Each person can think thoughts that make him or her unhappy, that lead to suffering and that harm other people. What he or she thinks depends less on the outer situation and more on the inner habits related to thinking. These habits form over a person’s life and form his or her character. How a person’s thinking can differ within the context of a similar situation can be reflected in the following example. Imagine that a young couple is sitting in a train kissing. In the same section of the train, five old ladies are seated. The first one thinks :”That’s unbelievable.” The second thinks: “I’d also like to be loved.” The third fears: “Hopefully a conductor doesn’t come to chase them away.” The fourth thinks : “two people are kissing.” And the fifth is of the opinion: “Oh how nice, there are people who love each other.” Now let’s take a look at the emotions that the old ladies have because of their thoughts. The first is angry, the second sad, the third afraid, the fourth neutral, and the fifth is happy. The first three women are full of tension, the fourth is relaxed, and the fifth feels good. We can see that the same occurrence causes varied reactions and feelings. In extreme cases, one of the first three women could become so upset that bodily symptoms like stomachache or difficulty breathing or heart attack could appear. This example is useful in explaining what positive thinking actually is. Positive thinking is thinking which doesn’t result in inner tension. It doesn’t hinder health, instead it facilitates inner well-being. Positive thinking can also be neutral thinking. It is important to make use of this in difficult situations. We first accept the situation and then consider what we can do in order to constructively find a solution to improve the situation. An often heard preconception against positive thinking is that positive reality doesn’t fully take in reality. Unpleasant realities are suppressed. The above example makes it obvious that the five women observed reality. They simply interpreted it differently. If one of the ladies looked away, only then would she be blind to reality. Sometimes such things can be helpful, but sometimes not. It’s not very helpful when it hinders one’s ability to take action. We don’t always need to expose ourselves to negative thought patterns. We’ve gotten to know the way to influence feelings through the thoughts. Bodily tension (energy blockages) and feelings can influence the thoughts. If someone is very tense, they tend toward negative thoughts. If someone is very sad, they find it difficult to see the beauty in the world. Maybe you’ve seen that you see life more positively when you can relax and go through the day. If you are tense then you can get aggravated about the smallest things. It’s important to understand the context if you want to take the path of health and happiness (who doesn’t?) Only then is it possible to develop inner well-being and positivity. What needs to be done in order to achieve lasting positive feelings? First of all, one should recognize negative thought patterns in the self and replace them with positive thoughts and habits. Another thing one should do is to work out already present sources of tension systematically with the help of Yoga and meditation. Anger and grief Feelings of rage and sadness appear through negative thoughts that cause conflict within. This tension is resolved through feelings of rage and grieving. With these feelings, our inner tension works itself out. They are actually something positive, because they help to relax us deep inside. We should let ourselves live out these feelings (within reason in the context of socially acceptable means). At the same time we should try to overcome the negative thoughts that cause these feelings using positive thoughts. Otherwise negative thoughts will create new tension again and again. Our rage and sadness then become reinforced, and we do not want that. It’s also possible to meditate on the feeling. We put ourselves in a meditate state. The thoughts and feelings come and go as they will. We observe them. We don’t give them any energy. This way, they will quiet on their own after a time. They appear again, and then dissolve. At some point, peace and happiness will appear spontaneously. Basically we need both techniques of working with the feelings. We need to dissolve negative thoughts using positive thinking and we need the meditative perspective on the feelings. Positive thinking and meditation are ways to relax deep within and enlightenment. Our wisdom tells us which methods are correct at which moment. Fear Fear is based in thoughts. These thoughts can be dissolved using positive thoughts. We have to look at the situation closely in order to dissolve the fear. If we try to run from the fear, it will just grow larger. If we go through the fear, it will dissolve on its own. Questions such as: “What is really so bad about it? Is my happiness really dependent upon it? What is the worst that could happen? Are these thoughts realistic? Or am I worrying for no reason? Is there a positive side to the situation?” The more our positive thoughts affect the problem and the more we believe in it, then the more we can overcome our fears. We can try out various positive thoughts and figure out which thoughts help us out of our fear the most effectively. The strongest thoughts arise out of thorough contemplation and an exact observation of the situation. A good method to overcome fears is to place one’s self in a relaxed state and then to confront one’s self with the fear. We relax in the state of fear until the tension from the fear dissipates or at least decreases. If we repeat the exercise often, then we can overcome our fears. It helps to have faith. If we believe in ourselves and our own power, then we can overcome every fear. If we believe in God and the enlightened masters, then we take fear out of our future. It is good to read the holy texts from one’s given religion. Fear can be overcome using inner strength. Exercise, Yoga and meditation help us to build up our inner strength. Our self trust grows and our fears lessen. We concentrate on our fear when going for walks and move them out of our bodies. We thus loosen the inner tension and then make room for peace, strength and positivity to take over within us. It’s good to have goals in life. If we concentrate on something positive, the negative thoughts and feelings lessen. Some fear can sometimes be a helpful thing. Fear protects us from doing the wrong things. It gives us the strength to master our lives. It helps us to take the path to enlightenment because it is the only way to really be free of suffering. In enlightenment, we raise ourselves above all of the suffering in the world and all of the fears. Peace, love and happiness reign in us instead. Aggression from other people Negative feelings arise when other people are aggressive to us. It is difficult to shield the self from other people’s aggressions. It is possible if we send back the aggression energy, or redirect it and change it into something positive. The transformation occurs through positive thoughts. You can try to understand why the other person is aggressive and develop understanding for it. You can consider how you can help that person or what you can do in this situation. You can look at the aggressions from a positive point of view with thoughts such as: “Those who are angry with me, show that I am important to them with their anger.” Another possibility is to step outside the situation and then direct the energy to yourself as a third person in the situation. That way, it doesn’t affect you personally. You simply accept that you made a mistake. You give up the need for perfection. Everyone makes mistakes. You can also direct the aggression to a third object, and together complain about the unpleasant situation (instead of about each other). You can also tell the other person he or she is right and let them talk. When things have calmed down, you can both go back to being reasonable and calmly solve the problem. Psychological learning theory Happiness Philosopher Nils The psychological learning theory suggests that positive thinking can be learned. An athlete trains for several weeks or months an external behavior. He carries a certain behavior, and after some time he masters it. Thoughts can be understood as the internal behavior of a person. When we consciously practice some time a positive mental behavior, then our mind accustoms to positive thinking. It automatically responds to certain external situations with positive thoughts. Positive thoughts lead to positive feelings. And positive feelings lead to health and happiness. To train positive thoughts has a great gain. It gives us a happy and healthy life. Especially if we practice also regularly sports (yoga, walking), enough relaxation (enough breaks, enough sleep, daily meditating) and a healty diat (at least an apple a day). How to learn positive thoughts? The learning method consists of four steps. First, we need a positive thought system that suits us like the philosophy of happiness. The philosophy of happiness teaches to make the happiness to the center of life. The essence of the philosophy of happiness are the five qualities of wisdom, peace, love, strength and joy. These five properties we practice every day. The second step is systematically to train positive thoughts. The best way is to remember every morning on the five positive qualities. We create a positive plan of the day. We get up with a positive thought. We retain our positive vision during the day. And at night we think about the day and what we can do better the next day. We feel our negative emotions (fear, anger, grief, addiction). What negative thought is associated with it? What positive thought helps us to overcome it? Which thought brings us into a positive attitude towards life? Helpful positive phrases are, "I'm a winner. I reach my goals. Wisdom is to organize my life so that I can live healthy and happy. " The third step is to observe consistently our thoughts throughout the day, and to stop all negative thoughts. If we recognize a negative thought, we push him away immediately. We consider what positive thought is helpfull right now. We develop a positive thought and set it in place of the negative thought. If we make this at the long term, our negative thoughts are becoming less and our positive thoughts grow more and more. Nils was able to overcome his depression by this technique. The constant observation of thought is the essence of positive thinking. Often we overcome our negative thoughts already through the constant observation of our mind. We are aware of our negative thoughts and that already deprives them their power. Sometimes we have to intervene forcefully. And just at the beginning of our mental work we should be relatively strict with our thoughts. If our inner children are educated good, we can give them a little more freedom. The fourth step is the stabilization of positive thinking. It is not easy all day to control our negative thoughts. We need strong helpers to keep us on our long-term path of inner happiness. Such helpers are the daily spiritual reading in a book, the daily oracle reading, the daily meditation, walking and a group of positive thinking people. Very good it is to distribute some caregivers throughout the day. We create our system of daily happiness exercises. We're putting so many exercises for us in right intervals in the day that we keep ourselves constantly on the path of the positive. We stay with perseverance on our way of wisdom and happiness. If we fall off the path once, we stand up again next day. In particularly difficult situations helps the constant change of lying (hearing meditation music), reading (praying, chanting), sports (yoga, walking) and work (doing good to others). We are practicing it for so long until our negative emotions have calmed down und we are positive again. Daily sayings The stone of the wise looks astoundingly similar to the stone of the fools. Joachim Ringelnatz A friendly word can warm up three winter months. God has given you a face. It is up to you to smile. It is better to light a tiny candle than to curse the darkness. Confucius Today’s Happiness Tea Saying= Do what brings you fulfillment. Your way begins there where you stop following others. Greatness isn’t being this or that, rather it is to be one’s self. Søren Kierkegaard Have the courage to serve your own understanding. Immanuel Kant What a man thinks of himself decides his fate. Mark Twain The wise live in inner fulfillment and not in outer appearances. Laotse Those who do not know the word “enough” will never have enough. Epicurus When the thoughts come to a state of calm, the Yogi rests in the light. Patanjali (Yoga-Sutra) Blessed are the pure of heart, for they will see God. Jesus (sermon on the moun) Everywhere Krishna, the lord of Yoga is, there you find victory, wisdom and happiness. Krishna (Bhagavad Gita) A friend is someone who hums the melody when you have forgotten your own song! I don’t have friends. I have a selection of crazy people. If you have just the right amount of food and drink, you will live to an old age and seldom be sick. Everyone has dumb thoughts, but the wise keep them to themselves. Wilhelm Busch A clever man never contradicts a woman. He waits until she does it herself. (Humphrey Bogarth) The world could be so much better if I could just be cloned! (Lucy/Peanuts) Through diet and exercise the greater portion of all disturbances may be equalized and overcome, if the right mental attitude is kept.(Edgar Cayce) Nice days, not crying when they are gone. Rather smiling that they once were. Rabindranath Tagore Wait out bad luck. Often what seems bad at the moment will reveal itself as a great blessing in the end. Euripides Those who do not contemplate the morning will have worry before the day is through. Confucius Perseverance is the talisman of life. Think of your goals. They decide where you will arrive one day. Only those who dare can win. Life is too short to be taken seriously!! Oscar Wilde Intelligence is following me, but I am faster. You are correct, but I still prefer my own opinion. I am not perfect. I am not working to change that either. When God created me, he wanted to brag. A halo? I already had one. It didn’t look good on me. There are sheep and there are wolves. And you are a fish. What now? Be a fish!! Dear God, give me patience!! But right now!! As an uninvolved party, what do you say to the topic of intelligence? A life without chocolate? Possible. But pointless. Make sure everyone you meet is happier after they have met you. Mother Teresa "You only need a little to live a happy life.” Marc Aurel Monika Minder Say thank you for the wonderful time, so much love, so much life, and for all that remains.Monika Minder "Beauty is in the eye of the beholder" Thukydides "I have decided to be happy because it is good for my health" Voltaire "To love one’s self is the beginning of a lifelong romance." Oscar Wilde " One day it will have to be admitted officially that what has been called reality, is a greater illusion than the world of dreams " Salvador Dali "A day without laughter is a lost day " Charlie Chaplin "The more you give, the more treasures you will find.." Anais Nin "Everything viewed with the eyes of love is beautiful." Christian Morgenstern " Many people miss out on the little happiness because they are waiting for the big happiness in vain ." Pearl S. Buck "Be yourself. All of the other options have been taken.." Oscar Wilde „ Joy, my friends is the medicine of life! I am happy when I hear something good from another person, or when my dog wags his tail, or a cat is purring in the corner.” Ernest Hemingway " If you don’t have the urge to do something, do nothing.” Samarpan " The hands in the sand, the feet in the sea, the face turned toward the sun, freedom from the day’s stress. Be happy simply. " Arnica Montana ""The most beautiful harmony occurs through the uniting of opposites." Heraklit " Life is a white leaf, the colors are in you. Color it bright, radiant and beautiful" Jochen Mariss „The earth could become a paradise. Everything is possible.” Erich Kästner "Those who sow thoughts today, harvest the deed tomorrow, the habit the day after, and destiny after that." Gottfried Keller "Calm is the healthy soul. " Immanuel Kant "First they ignore you, then they laugh at you, then they fight you and then you win.” Mahatma Gandhi "The universe doesn’t follow any firmly established plan. As soon as you make a decision, the universe works with it." Deepak Chopra „ Serve others, love everyone, live to give, cleanse yourself on the inside, meditate a lot and realize the holiness in you.“ Swami Sivananda " Do what you love and love what you do. " Beata Korioth „ Regular Yoga exercises help you to deal with the hectic daily life and counteract its effects.“ B.K.S. Iyengar "Yoga allows chaotic thoughts to be softened." B.K.S. Iyengar " If the light of Yoga is lit once, do not burn it out. The more intensive the practice, the more bright the flame will burn. " B.K.S. Iyengar " Make efforts to only allow positive thoughts. Then miracles will occur within you.” Rabbi Nachman von Bratslav See also Wikipedia has related information at Optimism Wikipedia has related information at Positive psychology Wikiversity has learning materials about Happiness/Optimism Happiness research Philosophy of Happiness Everyone needs a spiritual centering A World of Peace, Love and Happiness External links Encyclopedia Britannica learning theory How to Be Positive How to Be a Bodhisattva (Buddha of Love) Positive Thinking Your Key to Success The Power of Positive Thinking <｜fim▁end｜>	group or a friend,
<｜fim▁begin｜> Introduction This article is to describe the Manor System in Lineage 2. (To be Continued) The Manor System in Lineage 2 In a nutshell, the Manor System in Lineage 2 works in this manner: Castle owner determines what seeds to sell at what quantities and value. Manor NPC sell seeds to PC. PC plants seed in mob. PC kills mob (Ah duh! ;). PC harvests matured seeds from mob's dead body. PC sells matured seeds back to Manor NPC, and also get some material in exchange. Castle owner takes matured seeds and use them to manufacture other items. The list of materials is fixed, and is replicated below. Each seed has two possible rewards, only one of which is active at any time. The Manor NPC will allow you to check each region's reward so that you can take advantage of the Manor system. For Castle owners, the seeds allow them to create high level items such as Enchant Weapons Grade A scrolls. This effectively allows Castle owners to equip their Clans better, and increases the supply of such items into the economy. Thus, the Manor system is an important (and currently probably overlooked) part of the Aden economy. Like pretty much everything in Lineage 2, this is <｜fim▁hole｜> The Manor system increases the consistency of the supply of raw material into the economy, thus enabling the non-Castle owners to gain better equipment. But at the same time the system makes the Castle owners stronger and more capable of defending their lands. While both sides benefits from the Manor system, from a defensive point of view, the Castle owners tend to gain more from the system. (To be continued) List of Seeds and Products Redeemed Seed Type Intended Levels Reward Type 1 Reward Type 2 Dark Coda 5-15 Stem Braided Hemp Red Coda 8-18 Varnish Coke Chilly Coda 11-21 Suede Oriharukon Ore Blue Coda 14-24 Animal Skin Crafted Leather Golden Coda 17-27 Thread Mithril Ore Lute Coda 20-30 Iron Ore Metallic Fiber Desert Coda 23-33 Coal Adamantite Nugget Red Cobol 26-36 Charcoal Enria Chilly Cobol 29-39 Animal Bone Steel Blue Cobol 32-42 Silver Thons Thorn Cobol 35-45 Stem Metallic Thread Golden Cobol 38-48 Varnish Mold Glue Great Cobol 41-51 Suede High Grade Suede Red Codran 44-54 Animal Skin Asofe Sea Codran 45-55 Thread Cord Chilly Codran 47-57 Iron Ore Mold Harderner Blue Codran 50-60 Coal Leather Twin Codran 53-63 Charcoal Mold Lubricant Great Codran 56-66 Animal Bone Coarse Bone Powder Desert Codran 61-71 Silver Durable Metal Plate <｜fim▁end｜>	a rather paradoxical situation.
<｜fim▁begin｜> Contents 1 A 2 B 3 V 4 G 5 D 6 E A Uzbek Glossary • Glossary • audio (upload) A avval first avtobus bus avtobusga oʻtirmoq to take the bus ajoyib wonderful aytib qoʻymoq to request to say aytmoq to tell, to say aka older brother allo hello (used only on the telephone) almashtirmoq to exchange alohida separately Amerika America Amerikalik American ana that (there) ana u that one (there) anor pomegranate arzimaidi don't mention it arzon cheap asosan mostly, basically assalomu alaykum! Peace to You (from Arabic) atlas atlas (brightly colored silk cloth) achchik bitter, hot, spicy aʼzo member ahvol condition B Uzbek Glossary • Glossary • audio (upload) B band busy, occupied baliq fish bank bank baraka abundance baraka toping! good luck to you! baʼzan sometimes baho cost, price bahor spring bekat stop, station (for bus, tram, trolly) bermoq to give, to sell, to pay; (aux.) to do something for someone besh five biz we bizda on/by us, we have biznes business bilan with, by, by means of bilet (bir/ikki tomonga bilet) ticket (one-way/round-trip ticket) bilmoq <｜fim▁hole｜> a bir neqa several biroz a little, some bitta one (item) bodring cucumber bolam my child (form of address) bora olmoq to be able to go bormoq to go bosh head boshlanmoq to start, to begin boxqarmoq to manage bu this bugun today bulut cloud butun whole, entire buyurtma order, (reservation for a) call boʻlab along boʻlim deparment boʻlmoq to become, to be boʻsh free, empty V Uzbek Glossary • Glossary • audio (upload) V vaalaykum assalom! and peace to you (response to greeting assalom alaikum) va and viloyat province G Uzbek Glossary • Glossary • audio (upload) V gap talk, word, sentence gaplashmoq to speak, to converse, to talk goʻsht meat goʻshtli with meat D Uzbek Glossary • Glossary • audio (upload) V davr period, era dam rest (dam olmoq to rest, to take a rest) daraja degree demoq to say dehqon farmer doktor doctor dollar dollar dorixona drugstore dumba tail of sheep (dumba yogʻi tail fat (of a sheep)) doʻppi cap (skull cap worn by Uzbeks) doʻst friend E Erkak Is men Eshik Is door Ena Is mom <｜fim▁end｜>	to know bino building bir one,
<｜fim▁begin｜> Kanji for the JLPT N5. 1: 一二三四五 2:六七八九十 3:百千万父母 4:友女男人子 5:日月火水木 6:金土本休語 7:年午前後時 8:間毎先今何 9:上下左右北 10:南東西外名 11:高小中大長 12:半分学校生 13:山川白天雨 14:電気車国円 15:話聞食読来 16:書見行出入 17:目耳口手足 18:新古多少空 19:店社買立安 20:会道飲駅魚 21: 週花言 Meaning: gold, metal, money 音読み：キン・コン金曜日（きんようび） friday 金製（きんせい） made of gold 黄金（おうごん） gold 訓読み：かね・かな金田（かねだ） (surname) 金物（かなもの） hardware Meaning: earth, soil, ground 音読み：ド土曜日（どようび） saturday 土木（どぼく） civil engineering <｜fim▁hole｜> souvenir 土屋（つちや） surname Meaning: book, origin 音読み：ホン本屋（ほんや） bookstore 日本（にほん） japan 訓読み：もと宮本（みやもと） (surname) Meaning: rest 音読み：キュウ休日（きゅうじつ） a day off 休学（きゅうがく） absence from school 訓読み：やす（む）・やす（める）・やす（まる）夏休み（なつやすみ） summer vacation お休みなさい（おやすみなさい） (said before going to sleep) Meaning: word, chat, talk 音読み：ゴ日本語（にほんご） japanese (language) 英語（えいご） english (language) 訓読み：かた（る）・かた（らう）語り合う（かたりあう） chat together <｜fim▁end｜>	訓読み：つちお土産（おみやげ）
<｜fim▁begin｜> Contents 1 Theory 2 Propositions 3 Limitations 4 Notes 5 References Theory Reinforcement Theory proposes that social behavior is governed by external events (events outside the human psyche). The basic premise is that people will more likely perform a specific behavior if it is followed directly by the occurrence of something pleasurable or by the removal of something aversive. Additionally, the opposite premise is also included in the theory, but tends not to have as strong of an impact on behavior: people will less likely perform a specific behavior if it is followed by something aversive or the removal of something pleasurable. One of the benefits of this approach to understanding human (and animal) behavior is that the events are observable, as compared with cognitive theories of human behavior. The external events that play a role in reinforcement theory are referred to as stimuli. They include any event that leads to an alteration or change in behavior. The change in behavior induced by a stimulus is a response. Reinforcement theory has been operationalized in a process called operant conditioning. Positive reinforcement is the contingent presentation of a stimulus following a response, resulting in an increased likelihood of the response occurring in the future. Negative reinforcement is the contingent withdrawal of a stimulus following a response, resulting in an increased likelihood of the response occurring in the future. Unconditioned reinforcement, also called primary reinforcement, is the presentation of stimuli that are inherently reinforcing, such as affection, food, sex, or sleep. Conditioned reinforcement, also called secondary reinforcement, is the presentation of a stimulus which has acquired reinforcing power through association with primary reinforcers. Social reinforcement is a form of conditioned reinforcement in which the reinforcer involves some sort of interaction with others. Positive punishment is the contingent presentation of a stimulus following a response, resulting in a decreased likelihood of the response occurring in the future, whereas negative punishment is the contingent withdrawal of a stimulus following a response, resulting in a decreased likelihood of the response occurring in the future. Successive approximation is the presentation of reinforcers after increasingly accurate productions of the desired response. For example, in training rats or pigeons to depress a lever or peck a key, reinforcement will initially be contingent on simply turning toward the lever or key. As training progresses, <｜fim▁hole｜> more like the response desired by the trainer (i.e., actually pecking the key). Behaviours developed through the reinforcement of successive approximations to the eventual desired behaviour are called shaped behaviours and the process is called shaping. The study of reinforcement has produced strong, replicable results. The effects of different schedules of reinforcement (i.e., variations in the rate or ratio of reinforcement) have been extensively studied. Some of these schedules include: Continuous reinforcement, in which a reinforcer is presented after every desired response, Fixed ratio, in which a reinforcer is presented after every nth response, Fixed interval, in which a reinforcer is presented after the passage of a specified length of time from the beginning of training or from the presentation of the last reinforcer, provided a response has been made during the period, Variable ratio, in which the number of responses between reinforcers varies, but on the average equals a predetermined number Variable interval, in which the time between reinforcers varies, but on the average equals a predetermined time. Ratio schedules produce higher rates of responding than interval schedules, with variable ratio scales producing the highest rates of response. Variable ratio schedules produce the greatest resistance to extinction, which is the decline in response strength following the cessation of reinforcement. Propositions Limitations This theoretical approach to understanding human behavior has been criticized on a number of levels. First, it has been criticized as employing circular reasoning, since it appears to argue that response strength is increased by reinforcement while defining reinforcement as something which increases response strength. However, non-circular definitions have been proposed. For example, reinforcement can be defined as consummatory behaviour contingent on a response. Another limitation of this theoretical approach is that it portrays individuals as primarily reacting to environmental stimuli rather than as initiating behavior based on imaginative or creative thought. In short, it downplays the role of cognition in human behavior. As a result, this theoretical approach downplays the influence of other motivations in explaining human behavior. Additionally, reinforcement theory cannot explain selfless behavior and altruism, instances where the individual acts to their own detriment in order to help another. Notes References Michener, H. Andrew and DeLamater, John D. 1999. Theoretical Perspectives in Social Psychology. Harcourt Brace College Publishers. ISBN 0534583210 See also the following wikipedia articles: operant conditioning reinforcement conditioning <｜fim▁end｜>	the response reinforced becomes progressively
<｜fim▁begin｜> Crowdsourcing: the Wiki Way of Working explains an approach to organising work that is in some ways the opposite of traditional planning and management. It draws out some lessons from the most visibly successful crowdsourcing projects that support education and research, including Wikipedia. It shows how these community-based projects, despite their unorthodox methods, share educational and scholarly objectives with more traditional institutions and projects. It suggests ways in which those institutions and projects can benefit from working with Wikipedia and the wider Wikimedia community. It was originally published in February 2014 as an infoKit on the Jisc infoNet site and is reproduced here under its CC-BY-SA licence. It can be read as a series of self-contained points or case-studies, or as a journey from theory to practice. Development of the infoKit was funded by Jisc and Wikimedia UK. The principal author of the text is Martin Poulter. Improvements are welcome <｜fim▁hole｜> infoKit. This is not meant to be a comprehensive manual of crowdsourcing. The topic is also addressed in parts of the Wikibooks Citizen Science and Lentis: The Social Interface of Technology. A printable version of Crowdsourcing is available. (edit it) Contents Two approaches to complex tasks The Wikipedia way Division of labour Wikipedia, the triumph of crowdsourcing Progress without a plan The drive for quality Summing up Free content and open processes Making soup with stone Intellectual property Network effects (the power of one) Summing up Community design Norms and culture A shared goal The right kind of goal Summing up Gamification Managing motivations Recognition and badging in Wikipedia Summing up Crowdsourcing in practice Division of labour for a scholarly database Defining progress: geographical data Motivation: documenting a town Crowdsourcing the restoration and reuse of images Keeping everybody happy Image restoration Contextualisation Improving image metadata Summing up Further reading Start <｜fim▁end｜>	to this Wikibook edition of the
<｜fim▁begin｜> Note - This is a "meta page", and a central location to discuss the planning and organization of this Wikibook. Feel free to add your thoughts, ideas, humorous incidents, and rambling prose about Scratch in this area. The focus should be the Scratch programming language, but slightly off topic comments loosely related will also be tolerated. The "talk" pages attached to the other modules of this Wikibook should be used to help organize or raise objections to those specific pages, while this is more about the project as a whole. If you add a comment, please sign your comments with four tildes like this: --~~~~ Welcome to the Scratch Wikibook If you are reading this, you have done a pretty good job of navigating through this Wikibook. The tone I'm trying to set for this Wikibook is one of being rather relaxed, and to try out some very new ideas for textbook development, but also allow traditional "textbook-like" content to be created. Please help me in discussing your thoughts and criticisms about this Wikibook, and keep the goal in mind that we <｜fim▁hole｜> learn about Scratch. --Rob Horning 15:17, 27 May 2007 (UTC) The Wikibook is going through a major period of changes as it is updated to Scratch 1.4 By me Tanderson11, I am updating images and adding terminology as my current project now. --Tanderson11 (talk) 23:20, 31 December 2009 (UTC) I applaud the start of a tutorial on Scratch, but I don't know if I have time to develop any materials for it. If you see anything in my Tech News (http://www.soe.ucsc.edu/~karplus/tech_club/) that could be useful, let me know. I'd have no problem including any of that in the wikibook. Kevin k (talk) 17:35, 27 December 2007 (UTC) Layout of the Book It looks like this book hasn't seen a lot of edits lately and is only around 10% complete as of 2015. I am interested in working on it and I wanted to know if some of the original authors have any particular structure in mind. Like am outline or something. There are some redlinks already that I assume are planned pages? Thanks, Blackhat999 (discuss • contribs) 21:24, 11 November 2015 (UTC) <｜fim▁end｜>	are here to help people
<｜fim▁begin｜> Solutions This exercise is recommended for all readers. Problem 1 Solve each system. Express the solution set using vectors. Identify the particular solution and the solution set of the homogeneous system. 3 x + 6 y = 18 x + 2 y = 6 {\displaystyle {\begin{array}{{2}{rc}r}3x&+&6y&=&18\\x&+&2y&=&6\end{array}}} x + y = 1 x − y = − 1 {\displaystyle {\begin{array}{{2}{rc}r}x&+&y&=&1\\x&-&y&=&-1\end{array}}} x 1 + x 3 = 4 x 1 − x 2 + 2 x 3 = 5 4 x 1 − x 2 + 5 x 3 = 17 {\displaystyle {\begin{array}{{3}{rc}r}x_{1}&&&+&x_{3}&=&4\\x_{1}&-&x_{2}&+&2x_{3}&=&5\\4x_{1}&-&x_{2}&+&5x_{3}&=&17\end{array}}} 2 a + b − c = 2 2 a + c = 3 a − b = 0 {\displaystyle {\begin{array}{{3}{rc}r}2a&+&b&-&c&=&2\\2a&&&+&c&=&3\\a&-&b&&&=&0\end{array}}} x + 2 y − z = 3 2 x + y + w = 4 x − y + z + w = 1 {\displaystyle {\begin{array}{{4}{rc}r}x&+&2y&-&z&&&=&3\\2x&+&y&&&+&w&=&4\\x&-&y&+&z&+&w&=&1\end{array}}} x + z + w = 4 2 x + y − w = 2 3 x + y + z = 7 {\displaystyle {\begin{array}{{4}{rc}r}x&&&+&z&+&w&=&4\\2x&+&y&&&-&w&=&2\\3x&+&y&+&z&&&=&7\end{array}}} Answer For the arithmetic to these, see the answers from the prior subsection. The solution set is { ( 6 0 ) + ( − 2 1 ) y \| y ∈ R } . {\displaystyle \{{\begin{pmatrix}6\\0\end{pmatrix}}+{\begin{pmatrix}-2\\1\end{pmatrix}}y\,{\big \|}\,y\in \mathbb {R} \}.} Here the particular solution and the solution set for the associated homogeneous system are ( 6 0 ) and { ( − 2 1 ) y \| y ∈ R } . {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}6\\0\end{pmatrix}}\quad {\text{and}}\quad \{{\begin{pmatrix}-2\\1\end{pmatrix}}y\,{\big \|}\,y\in \mathbb {R} \}.} The solution set is { ( 0 1 ) } . {\displaystyle \{{\begin{pmatrix}0\\1\end{pmatrix}}\}.} The particular solution and the solution set for the associated homogeneous system are ( 0 1 ) and { ( 0 0 ) } {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}0\\1\end{pmatrix}}\quad {\text{and}}\quad \{{\begin{pmatrix}0\\0\end{pmatrix}}\}} The solution set is { ( 4 − 1 0 ) + ( − 1 1 1 ) x 3 \| x 3 ∈ R } . {\displaystyle \{{\begin{pmatrix}4\\-1\\0\end{pmatrix}}+{\begin{pmatrix}-1\\1\\1\end{pmatrix}}x_{3}\,{\big \|}\,x_{3}\in \mathbb {R} \}.} A particular solution and the solution set for the associated homogeneous system are ( 4 − 1 0 ) and { ( − 1 1 1 ) x 3 \| x 3 ∈ R } . {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}4\\-1\\0\end{pmatrix}}\quad {\text{and}}\quad \{{\begin{pmatrix}-1\\1\\1\end{pmatrix}}x_{3}\,{\big \|}\,x_{3}\in \mathbb {R} \}.} The solution set is a singleton { ( 1 1 1 ) } . {\displaystyle \{{\begin{pmatrix}1\\1\\1\end{pmatrix}}\}.} A particular solution and the solution set for the associated homogeneous system are ( 1 1 1 ) and { ( 0 0 0 ) t \| t ∈ R } . {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}1\\1\\1\end{pmatrix}}\quad {\text{and}}\quad \{{\begin{pmatrix}0\\0\\0\end{pmatrix}}t\,{\big \|}\,t\in \mathbb {R} \}.} The solution set is { ( 5 / 3 2 / 3 0 0 ) + ( − 1 / 3 2 / 3 1 0 ) z + ( − 2 / 3 1 / 3 0 1 ) w \| z , w ∈ R } . {\displaystyle \{{\begin{pmatrix}5/3\\2/3\\0\\0\end{pmatrix}}+{\begin{pmatrix}-1/3\\2/3\\1\\0\end{pmatrix}}z+{\begin{pmatrix}-2/3\\1/3\\0\\1\end{pmatrix}}w\,{\big \|}\,z,w\in \mathbb {R} \}.} A particular solution and the solution set for the associated homogeneous system are ( 5 / 3 2 / 3 0 0 ) and { ( − 1 / 3 2 / 3 1 0 ) z + ( − 2 / 3 1 / 3 0 1 ) w \| z , w ∈ R } . {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}5/3\\2/3\\0\\0\end{pmatrix}}\quad {\text{and}}\quad \{{\begin{pmatrix}-1/3\\2/3\\1\\0\end{pmatrix}}z+{\begin{pmatrix}-2/3\\1/3\\0\\1\end{pmatrix}}w\,{\big \|}\,z,w\in \mathbb {R} \}.} This system's solution set is empty. Thus, there is no particular solution. The solution set of the associated homogeneous system is { ( − 1 2 1 0 ) z + ( − 1 3 0 1 ) w \| z , w ∈ R } . {\displaystyle \{{\begin{pmatrix}-1\\2\\1\\0\end{pmatrix}}z+{\begin{pmatrix}-1\\3\\0\\1\end{pmatrix}}w\,{\big \|}\,z,w\in \mathbb {R} \}.} Problem 2 Solve each system, giving the solution set in vector notation. Identify the particular solution and the solution of the homogeneous system. 2 x + y − z = 1 4 x − y = 3 {\displaystyle {\begin{array}{{3}{rc}r}2x&+&y&-&z&=&1\\4x&-&y&&&=&3\end{array}}} x − z = 1 y + 2 z − w = 3 x + 2 y + 3 z − w = 7 {\displaystyle {\begin{array}{{4}{rc}r}x&&&-&z&&&=&1\\&&y&+&2z&-&w&=&3\\x&+&2y&+&3z&-&w&=&7\end{array}}} x − y + z = 0 y + w = 0 3 x − 2 y + 3 z + w = 0 − y − w = 0 {\displaystyle {\begin{array}{{4}{rc}r}x&-&y&+&z&&&=&0\\&&y&&&+&w&=&0\\3x&-&2y&+&3z&+&w&=&0\\&&-y&&&-&w&=&0\end{array}}} a + 2 b + 3 c + d − e = 1 3 a − b + c + d + e = 3 {\displaystyle {\begin{array}{{5}{rc}r}a&+&2b&+&3c&+&d&-&e&=&1\\3a&-&b&+&c&+&d&+&e&=&3\end{array}}} Answer The answers from the prior subsection show the row operations. The solution set is { ( 2 / 3 − 1 / 3 0 ) + ( 1 / 6 2 / 3 1 ) z \| z ∈ R } . {\displaystyle \{{\begin{pmatrix}2/3\\-1/3\\0\end{pmatrix}}+{\begin{pmatrix}1/6\\2/3\\1\end{pmatrix}}z\,{\big \|}\,z\in \mathbb {R} \}.} A particular solution and the solution set for the associated homogeneous system are ( 2 / 3 − 1 / 3 0 ) and { ( 1 / 6 2 / 3 1 ) z \| z ∈ R } . {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}2/3\\-1/3\\0\end{pmatrix}}\quad {\text{and}}\quad \{{\begin{pmatrix}1/6\\2/3\\1\end{pmatrix}}z\,{\big \|}\,z\in \mathbb {R} \}.} The solution set is { ( 1 3 0 0 ) + ( 1 − 2 1 0 ) z \| z ∈ R } . {\displaystyle \{{\begin{pmatrix}1\\3\\0\\0\end{pmatrix}}+{\begin{pmatrix}1\\-2\\1\\0\end{pmatrix}}z\,{\big \|}\,z\in \mathbb {R} \}.} A particular solution and the solution set for the associated homogeneous system are ( 1 3 0 0 ) and { ( 1 − 2 1 0 ) z \| z ∈ R } . {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}1\\3\\0\\0\end{pmatrix}}\quad {\text{and}}\quad \{{\begin{pmatrix}1\\-2\\1\\0\end{pmatrix}}z\,{\big \|}\,z\in \mathbb {R} \}.} The solution set is { ( 0 0 0 0 ) + ( − 1 0 1 0 ) z + ( − 1 − 1 0 1 ) w \| z , w ∈ R } . {\displaystyle \{{\begin{pmatrix}0\\0\\0\\0\end{pmatrix}}+{\begin{pmatrix}-1\\0\\1\\0\end{pmatrix}}z+{\begin{pmatrix}-1\\-1\\0\\1\end{pmatrix}}w\,{\big \|}\,z,w\in \mathbb {R} \}.} A particular solution and the solution set for the associated homogeneous system are ( 0 0 0 0 ) and { ( − 1 0 1 0 ) z + ( − 1 − 1 0 1 ) w \| z , w ∈ R } . {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}0\\0\\0\\0\end{pmatrix}}\quad {\text{and}}\quad \{{\begin{pmatrix}-1\\0\\1\\0\end{pmatrix}}z+{\begin{pmatrix}-1\\-1\\0\\1\end{pmatrix}}w\,{\big \|}\,z,w\in \mathbb {R} \}.} The solution set is { ( 1 0 0 0 0 ) + ( − 5 / 7 − 8 / 7 1 0 0 ) c + ( − 3 / 7 − 2 / 7 0 1 0 ) d + ( − 1 / 7 4 / 7 0 0 1 ) e \| c , d , e ∈ R } . {\displaystyle \{{\begin{pmatrix}1\\0\\0\\0\\0\end{pmatrix}}+{\begin{pmatrix}-5/7\\-8/7\\1\\0\\0\end{pmatrix}}c+{\begin{pmatrix}-3/7\\-2/7\\0\\1\\0\end{pmatrix}}d+{\begin{pmatrix}-1/7\\4/7\\0\\0\\1\end{pmatrix}}e\,{\big \|}\,c,d,e\in \mathbb {R} \}.} A particular solution and the solution set for the associated homogeneous system are ( 1 0 0 0 0 ) and { ( − 5 / 7 − 8 / 7 1 0 0 ) c + ( − 3 / 7 − 2 / 7 0 1 0 ) d + ( − 1 / 7 4 / 7 0 0 1 ) e \| c , d , e ∈ R } . {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}1\\0\\0\\0\\0\end{pmatrix}}\quad {\text{and}}\quad \{{\begin{pmatrix}-5/7\\-8/7\\1\\0\\0\end{pmatrix}}c+{\begin{pmatrix}-3/7\\-2/7\\0\\1\\0\end{pmatrix}}d+{\begin{pmatrix}-1/7\\4/7\\0\\0\\1\end{pmatrix}}e\,{\big \|}\,c,d,e\in \mathbb {R} \}.} This exercise is recommended for all readers. Problem 3 For the system 2 x − y − w = 3 y + z + 2 w = 2 x − 2 y − z = − 1 {\displaystyle {\begin{array}{{4}{rc}r}2x&-&y&&&-&w&=&3\\&&y&+&z&+&2w&=&2\\x&-&2y&-&z&&&=&-1\end{array}}} which of these can be used as the particular solution part of some general solution? ( 0 − 3 5 0 ) {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}0\\-3\\5\\0\end{pmatrix}}} ( 2 1 1 0 ) {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}2\\1\\1\\0\end{pmatrix}}} ( − 1 − 4 8 − 1 ) {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}-1\\-4\\8\\-1\end{pmatrix}}} Answer Just plug them in and see if they satisfy all three equations. No. Yes. Yes. This exercise is recommended for all readers. Problem 4 Lemma 3.8 says that any particular solution may be used for p → {\displaystyle {\vec {p}}} . Find, if possible, a general solution to this system x − y + w = 4 2 x + 3 y − z = 0 y + z + w = 4 {\displaystyle {\begin{array}{{4}{rc}r}x&-&y&&&+&w&=&4\\2x&+&3y&-&z&&&=&0\\&&y&+&z&+&w&=&4\end{array}}} that uses the given vector as its particular solution. ( 0 0 0 4 ) {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}0\\0\\0\\4\end{pmatrix}}} ( − 5 1 − 7 10 ) {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}-5\\1\\-7\\10\end{pmatrix}}} ( 2 − 1 1 1 ) {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}2\\-1\\1\\1\end{pmatrix}}} Answer Gauss' method on the associated homogeneous system gives ( 1 − 1 0 1 0 2 3 − 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 ) → − 2 ρ 1 + ρ 2 ( 1 − 1 0 1 0 0 5 − 1 − 2 0 0 1 1 1 0 ) → − ( 1 / 5 ) ρ 2 + ρ 3 ( 1 − 1 0 1 0 0 5 − 1 − 2 0 0 0 6 / 5 7 / 5 0 ) {\displaystyle \left({\begin{array}{{4}{c}\|c}1&-1&0&1&0\\2&3&-1&0&0\\0&1&1&1&0\end{array}}\right)\;{\xrightarrow[{}]{-2\rho _{1}+\rho _{2}}}\;\left({\begin{array}{{4}{c}\|c}1&-1&0&1&0\\0&5&-1&-2&0\\0&1&1&1&0\end{array}}\right)\;{\xrightarrow[{}]{-(1/5)\rho _{2}+\rho _{3}}}\;\left({\begin{array}{{4}{c}\|c}1&-1&0&1&0\\0&5&-1&-2&0\\0&0&6/5&7/5&0\end{array}}\right)} so this is the solution to the homogeneous problem: { ( − 5 / 6 1 / 6 − 7 / 6 1 ) w \| w ∈ R } . {\displaystyle \{{\begin{pmatrix}-5/6\\1/6\\-7/6\\1\end{pmatrix}}w\,{\big \|}\,w\in \mathbb {R} \}.} That vector is indeed a particular solution, so the required general solution is { ( 0 0 0 4 ) + ( − 5 / 6 1 / 6 − 7 / 6 1 ) w \| w ∈ R } . {\displaystyle \{{\begin{pmatrix}0\\0\\0\\4\end{pmatrix}}+{\begin{pmatrix}-5/6\\1/6\\-7/6\\1\end{pmatrix}}w\,{\big \|}\,w\in \mathbb {R} \}.} That vector is a particular <｜fim▁hole｜> is { ( − 5 1 − 7 10 ) + ( − 5 / 6 1 / 6 − 7 / 6 1 ) w \| w ∈ R } . {\displaystyle \{{\begin{pmatrix}-5\\1\\-7\\10\end{pmatrix}}+{\begin{pmatrix}-5/6\\1/6\\-7/6\\1\end{pmatrix}}w\,{\big \|}\,w\in \mathbb {R} \}.} That vector is not a solution of the system since it does not satisfy the third equation. No such general solution exists. Problem 5 One of these is nonsingular while the other is singular. Which is which? ( 1 3 4 − 12 ) {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}1&3\\4&-12\end{pmatrix}}} ( 1 3 4 12 ) {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}1&3\\4&12\end{pmatrix}}} Answer The first is nonsingular while the second is singular. Just do Gauss' method and see if the echelon form result has non- 0 {\displaystyle 0} numbers in each entry on the diagonal. This exercise is recommended for all readers. Problem 6 Singular or nonsingular? ( 1 2 1 3 ) {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}1&2\\1&3\end{pmatrix}}} ( 1 2 − 3 − 6 ) {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}1&2\\-3&-6\end{pmatrix}}} ( 1 2 1 1 3 1 ) {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}1&2&1\\1&3&1\end{pmatrix}}} (Careful!) ( 1 2 1 1 1 3 3 4 7 ) {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}1&2&1\\1&1&3\\3&4&7\end{pmatrix}}} ( 2 2 1 1 0 5 − 1 1 4 ) {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}2&2&1\\1&0&5\\-1&1&4\end{pmatrix}}} Answer Nonsingular: → − ρ 1 + ρ 2 ( 1 2 0 1 ) {\displaystyle {\begin{array}{rcl}&{\xrightarrow[{}]{-\rho _{1}+\rho _{2}}}&{\begin{pmatrix}1&2\\0&1\end{pmatrix}}\end{array}}} ends with each row containing a leading entry. Singular: → 3 ρ 1 + ρ 2 ( 1 2 0 0 ) {\displaystyle {\begin{array}{rcl}&{\xrightarrow[{}]{3\rho _{1}+\rho _{2}}}&{\begin{pmatrix}1&2\\0&0\end{pmatrix}}\end{array}}} ends with row 2 {\displaystyle 2} without a leading entry. Neither. A matrix must be square for either word to apply. Singular. Nonsingular. This exercise is recommended for all readers. Problem 7 Is the given vector in the set generated by the given set? ( 2 3 ) , {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}2\\3\end{pmatrix}},} { ( 1 4 ) , ( 1 5 ) } {\displaystyle \{{\begin{pmatrix}1\\4\end{pmatrix}},{\begin{pmatrix}1\\5\end{pmatrix}}\}} ( − 1 0 1 ) , {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}-1\\0\\1\end{pmatrix}},} { ( 2 1 0 ) , ( 1 0 1 ) } {\displaystyle \{{\begin{pmatrix}2\\1\\0\end{pmatrix}},{\begin{pmatrix}1\\0\\1\end{pmatrix}}\}} ( 1 3 0 ) , {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}1\\3\\0\end{pmatrix}},} { ( 1 0 4 ) , ( 2 1 5 ) , ( 3 3 0 ) , ( 4 2 1 ) } {\displaystyle \{{\begin{pmatrix}1\\0\\4\end{pmatrix}},{\begin{pmatrix}2\\1\\5\end{pmatrix}},{\begin{pmatrix}3\\3\\0\end{pmatrix}},{\begin{pmatrix}4\\2\\1\end{pmatrix}}\}} ( 1 0 1 1 ) , {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}1\\0\\1\\1\end{pmatrix}},} { ( 2 1 0 1 ) , ( 3 0 0 2 ) } {\displaystyle \{{\begin{pmatrix}2\\1\\0\\1\end{pmatrix}},{\begin{pmatrix}3\\0\\0\\2\end{pmatrix}}\}} Answer In each case we must decide if the vector is a linear combination of the vectors in the set. Yes. Solve c 1 ( 1 4 ) + c 2 ( 1 5 ) = ( 2 3 ) {\displaystyle c_{1}{\begin{pmatrix}1\\4\end{pmatrix}}+c_{2}{\begin{pmatrix}1\\5\end{pmatrix}}={\begin{pmatrix}2\\3\end{pmatrix}}} with ( 1 1 2 4 5 3 ) → − 4 ρ 1 + ρ 2 ( 1 1 2 0 1 − 5 ) {\displaystyle {\begin{array}{rcl}\left({\begin{array}{{2}{c}\|c}1&1&2\\4&5&3\end{array}}\right)&{\xrightarrow[{}]{-4\rho _{1}+\rho _{2}}}&\left({\begin{array}{{2}{c}\|c}1&1&2\\0&1&-5\end{array}}\right)\end{array}}} to conclude that there are c 1 {\displaystyle c_{1}} and c 2 {\displaystyle c_{2}} giving the combination. No. The reduction ( 2 1 − 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 ) → − ( 1 / 2 ) ρ 1 + ρ 2 ( 2 1 − 1 0 − 1 / 2 1 / 2 0 1 1 ) → 2 ρ 2 + ρ 3 ( 2 1 − 1 0 − 1 / 2 1 / 2 0 0 2 ) {\displaystyle \left({\begin{array}{{2}{c}\|c}2&1&-1\\1&0&0\\0&1&1\end{array}}\right)\;{\xrightarrow[{}]{-(1/2)\rho _{1}+\rho _{2}}}\;\left({\begin{array}{{2}{c}\|c}2&1&-1\\0&-1/2&1/2\\0&1&1\end{array}}\right)\;{\xrightarrow[{}]{2\rho _{2}+\rho _{3}}}\;\left({\begin{array}{{2}{c}\|c}2&1&-1\\0&-1/2&1/2\\0&0&2\end{array}}\right)} shows that c 1 ( 2 1 0 ) + c 2 ( 1 0 1 ) = ( − 1 0 1 ) {\displaystyle c_{1}{\begin{pmatrix}2\\1\\0\end{pmatrix}}+c_{2}{\begin{pmatrix}1\\0\\1\end{pmatrix}}={\begin{pmatrix}-1\\0\\1\end{pmatrix}}} has no solution. Yes. The reduction ( 1 2 3 4 1 0 1 3 2 3 4 5 0 1 0 ) → − 4 ρ 1 + ρ 3 ( 1 2 3 4 1 0 1 3 2 3 0 − 3 − 12 − 15 − 4 ) → 3 ρ 2 + ρ 3 ( 1 2 3 4 1 0 1 3 2 3 0 0 − 3 − 9 5 ) {\displaystyle \left({\begin{array}{{4}{c}\|c}1&2&3&4&1\\0&1&3&2&3\\4&5&0&1&0\end{array}}\right)\;{\xrightarrow[{}]{-4\rho _{1}+\rho _{3}}}\;\left({\begin{array}{{4}{c}\|c}1&2&3&4&1\\0&1&3&2&3\\0&-3&-12&-15&-4\end{array}}\right)\;{\xrightarrow[{}]{3\rho _{2}+\rho _{3}}}\;\left({\begin{array}{*{4}{c}\|c}1&2&3&4&1\\0&1&3&2&3\\0&0&-3&-9&5\end{array}}\right)} shows that there are infinitely many ways { ( c 1 c 2 c 3 c 4 ) = ( − 10 8 − 5 / 3 0 ) + ( − 9 7 − 3 1 ) c 4 \| c 4 ∈ R } {\displaystyle \{{\begin{pmatrix}c_{1}\\c_{2}\\c_{3}\\c_{4}\end{pmatrix}}={\begin{pmatrix}-10\\8\\-5/3\\0\end{pmatrix}}+{\begin{pmatrix}-9\\7\\-3\\1\end{pmatrix}}c_{4}\,{\big \|}\,c_{4}\in \mathbb {R} \}} to write ( 1 3 0 ) = c 1 ( 1 0 4 ) + c 2 ( 2 1 5 ) + c 3 ( 3 3 0 ) + c 4 ( 4 2 1 ) . {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}1\\3\\0\end{pmatrix}}=c_{1}{\begin{pmatrix}1\\0\\4\end{pmatrix}}+c_{2}{\begin{pmatrix}2\\1\\5\end{pmatrix}}+c_{3}{\begin{pmatrix}3\\3\\0\end{pmatrix}}+c_{4}{\begin{pmatrix}4\\2\\1\end{pmatrix}}.} No. Look at the third components. Problem 8 Prove that any linear system with a nonsingular matrix of coefficients has a solution, and that the solution is unique. Answer Because the matrix of coefficients is nonsingular, Gauss' method ends with an echelon form where each variable leads an equation. Back substitution gives a unique solution. (Another way to see the solution is unique is to note that with a nonsingular matrix of coefficients the associated homogeneous system has a unique solution, by definition. Since the general solution is the sum of a particular solution with each homogeneous solution, the general solution has (at most) one element.) Problem 9 To tell the whole truth, there is another tricky point to the proof of Lemma 3.7. What happens if there are no non-" 0 = 0 {\displaystyle 0=0} " equations? (There aren't any more tricky points after this one.) Answer In this case the solution set is all of R n {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{n}} , and can be expressed in the required form { c 1 ( 1 0 ⋮ 0 ) + c 2 ( 0 1 ⋮ 0 ) + ⋯ + c n ( 0 0 ⋮ 1 ) \| c 1 , … , c n ∈ R } . {\displaystyle \{c_{1}{\begin{pmatrix}1\\0\\\vdots \\0\end{pmatrix}}+c_{2}{\begin{pmatrix}0\\1\\\vdots \\0\end{pmatrix}}+\cdots +c_{n}{\begin{pmatrix}0\\0\\\vdots \\1\end{pmatrix}}\,{\big \|}\,c_{1},\ldots ,c_{n}\in \mathbb {R} \}.} This exercise is recommended for all readers. Problem 10 Prove that if s → {\displaystyle {\vec {s}}} and t → {\displaystyle {\vec {t}}} satisfy a homogeneous system then so do these vectors. s → + t → {\displaystyle {\vec {s}}+{\vec {t}}} 3 s → {\displaystyle 3{\vec {s}}} k s → + m t → {\displaystyle k{\vec {s}}+m{\vec {t}}} for k , m ∈ R {\displaystyle k,m\in \mathbb {R} } What's wrong with: "These three show that if a homogeneous system has one solution then it has many solutions— any multiple of a solution is another solution, and any sum of solutions is a solution also— so there are no homogeneous systems with exactly one solution."? Answer Assume s → , t → ∈ R n {\displaystyle {\vec {s}},{\vec {t}}\in \mathbb {R} ^{n}} and write s → = ( s 1 ⋮ s n ) and t → = ( t 1 ⋮ t n ) . {\displaystyle {\vec {s}}={\begin{pmatrix}s_{1}\\\vdots \\s_{n}\end{pmatrix}}\quad {\mbox{and}}\quad {\vec {t}}={\begin{pmatrix}t_{1}\\\vdots \\t_{n}\end{pmatrix}}.} Also let a i , 1 x 1 + ⋯ + a i , n x n = 0 {\displaystyle a_{i,1}x_{1}+\cdots +a_{i,n}x_{n}=0} be the i {\displaystyle i} -th equation in the homogeneous system. The check is easy: a i , 1 ( s 1 + t 1 ) + ⋯ + a i , n ( s n + t n ) = ( a i , 1 s 1 + ⋯ + a i , n s n ) + ( a i , 1 t 1 + ⋯ + a i , n t n ) = 0 + 0. {\displaystyle {\begin{array}{rcl}a_{i,1}(s_{1}+t_{1})+\cdots +a_{i,n}(s_{n}+t_{n})&=&(a_{i,1}s_{1}+\cdots +a_{i,n}s_{n})+(a_{i,1}t_{1}+\cdots +a_{i,n}t_{n})\\&=&0+0.\end{array}}} This one is similar: a i , 1 ( 3 s 1 ) + ⋯ + a i , n ( 3 s n ) = 3 ( a i , 1 s 1 + ⋯ + a i , n s n ) = 3 ⋅ 0 = 0. {\displaystyle a_{i,1}(3s_{1})+\cdots +a_{i,n}(3s_{n})=3(a_{i,1}s_{1}+\cdots +a_{i,n}s_{n})=3\cdot 0=0.} This one is not much harder: a i , 1 ( k s 1 + m t 1 ) + ⋯ + a i , n ( k s n + m t n ) = k ( a i , 1 s 1 + ⋯ + a i , n s n ) + m ( a i , 1 t 1 + ⋯ + a i , n t n ) = k ⋅ 0 + m ⋅ 0. {\displaystyle {\begin{array}{rcl}a_{i,1}(ks_{1}+mt_{1})+\cdots +a_{i,n}(ks_{n}+mt_{n})&=&k(a_{i,1}s_{1}+\cdots +a_{i,n}s_{n})+m(a_{i,1}t_{1}+\cdots +a_{i,n}t_{n})\\&=&k\cdot 0+m\cdot 0.\end{array}}} What is wrong with that argument is that any linear combination of the zero vector yields the zero vector again. Problem 11 Prove that if a system with only rational coefficients and constants has a solution then it has at least one all-rational solution. Must it have infinitely many? Answer First the proof. Gauss' method will use only rationals (e.g., − ( m / n ) ρ i + ρ j {\displaystyle -(m/n)\rho _{i}+\rho _{j}} ). Thus the solution set can be expressed using only rational numbers as the components of each vector. Now the particular solution is all rational. There are infinitely many (rational vector) solutions if and only if the associated homogeneous system has infinitely many (real vector) solutions. That's because setting any parameters to be rationals will produce an all-rational solution. <｜fim▁end｜>	solution so the required general solution
<｜fim▁begin｜> Contents 1 Motivation 2 Method 3 Configuration Steps 3.1 Enable the SQL Module 3.2 Install the Driver library 3.3 Execute the Query 3.4 References Motivation You would like to perform SQL queries from within your XQuery code. Method eXistdb provides a module for executing SQL queries. Configuration Steps Enable the module Configure your connection string Execute a test query Enable the SQL Module Your fist step is to enable the SQL Module. To do this you must uncomment the following lines from the conf.xml file in your EXIST_HOME directory: <module class="org.exist.xquery.modules.sql.SQLModule" uri="http://exist-db.org/xquery/sql" /> In eXist 1.5 there is also an additional Oracle module that is undocumented. <module class="org.exist.xquery.modules.oracle.OracleModule" uri="http://exist-db.org/xquery/oracle" /> Install the Driver library The SQL Module uses JDBC for its database connectivity and as such for each database type that you wish to connect to, a JDBC Driver is required. JDBC Drivers should be placed in EXIST_HOME/lib/user. After this is done you must restart your server. You should now see the additional SQL Module documentation in your function list and the Driver class(es) used in the connection function <｜fim▁hole｜> Execute the Query In order to execute the query there are two steps you must take: get a connection to the database execute the query There are five different functions to get a connection to the database but only one function to execute the query. The connection string allows you to connect to the correct server with the appropriate username and password. In its most basic form, the format of the get-connection function is the following: sql:get-connection('JavaClass', 'JDBC-Connection-URL') This format assumes you can put the login and password to the database directly in the JDBC connection URL. If you can not do this, the format of the connection string with a username and password is: sql:get-connection('JavaClass', 'JDBC-Connection-URL', 'username', 'password') Note that some systems also put the username and password in the JDBC connection string. For example in MySQL the string might be: sql:get-connection("com.mysql.jdbc.Driver", 'jdbc:mysql://localhost/db1', 'mysql-user-name', 'mysql-password') In Oracle the string might be sql:get-connection('oracle.jdbc.OracleDriver', 'jdbc:oracle:thin:[USER/PASSWORD]@//[HOST][:PORT]/SERVICE", 'jdbc-connection-string', 'mysql-user-name', 'mysql-password') let $connection := sql:get-connection("com.mysql.jdbc.Driver", 'jdbc:mysql://localhost/db1', 'mysql-user-name', 'mysql-password') let $q1 := "select * from table1" return sql:execute( $connection, $q1, fn:true() ) References eXistdb Documentation <｜fim▁end｜>	calls should be found.
<｜fim▁begin｜> Front Page: Radiation Oncology \| RTOG Trials \| Randomized Trials Contents 1 CSI RT Dose 2 CSI +/- Chemo 3 CSI + adjuvant chemo alternatives 4 Pre-RT chemo vs. Post-RT chemo CSI RT Dose POG 8631/CCG 923 (1986-1990) -- CSI 36 Gy vs. CSI 23.4 Gy 2000, PMID 10944134 -- "Low-stage medulloblastoma: final analysis of trial comparing standard-dose with reduced-dose neuraxis irradiation." (Thomas PR, J Clin Oncol. 2000 Aug;18(16):3004-11.) Randomized. 126 patients, low risk (>3 years, complete resection T1-T2, later also T3a, M0) standard CSI 36(201.8) vs. reduced CSI 23.4(131.8); both followed by posterior fossa boost to 54(30*1.8) Gy. Study closed prematurely due to high relapse in reduced arm 5-year EFS: standard CSI 67% vs. reduced CSI 52% (p=0.080)8-year EFS: standard CSI 67% vs. reduced CSI 52% (p=0.141)These data confirm the original one-sided conclusions but suggest that differences are less marked with time Conclusion: Reduced CSI 23.4 Gy alone is insufficient; may need concurrent chemo SIOP II (1984-1989) -- CSI 35 Gy vs. CSI 25 Gy; also +/- adjuvant chemo 1995, PMID 7623725 "Prospective randomised trial of chemotherapy given before radiotherapy in childhood medulloblastoma. International Society of Paediatric Oncology (SIOP) and the (German) Society of Paediatric Oncology (GPO)" Bailey et al. Med Pediatr Onc 25(3):166-78, 1995 Randomized. 364 patients. SIOP I low risk (total/subtotal resection, no brain stem invasion, M0) randomized to +/- adjuvant chemo (vincristine, methotrexate, procarbazine), and then randomized to standard CSI 35 Gy vs. reduced CSI 25 Gy. Boost posterior fossa to 55 Gy. High risk randomized to +/- adjuvant chemo, then standard CSI and additional post-RT chemo Outcome: No advantage to pre-RT chemo. Standard CSI 35 Gy for low risk pts increased EFS (68% vs 55%). Low risk patients with adjuvant chemo and CSI 25 Gy did particularly badly Conclusion: No benefit to adjuvant chemo. Standard dose of CSI is 35 Gy CSI +/- Chemo CCG A9961 (1996-2000) -- CSI 23.4 Gy + CCNU-based vs. cyclophosphamide-based chemo 2006, PMID 16943538 "Phase III study of craniospinal radiation therapy followed by adjuvant chemotherapy for newly diagnosed average-risk medulloblastoma" Packer et al. JCO 24(25):4204-8, 2006. Randomized. 421 patients, standard risk. Treated with reduced dose RT (23.4 Gy CSI + 55.8 Gy to posterior fossa) and concurrent vincristine, and randomized to either: 1) CCNU, cisplatin and vincristine or 2) cyclophosphamide, cisplatin, vincristine. Median F/U 5 years 5-year outcome: EFS 81%, OS 86%. No difference by chemo arm Prognostic factors: anaplasia OS 75% vs. 89% (SS) Relapse: posterior fossa alone 32%, disseminated alone 40%, PF+disseminated 25% Toxicity: 25% with delayed onset mutism, hypotonia, cerebellar deficits, supranuclear CN deficits, extreme irritability, and/or emotional lability. ~50% residual deficits at 1 year Conclusion: Reduced dose CSI with chemo can be done safely to avoid toxicities of higher dose RT. No difference between chemo arms PNET 3 (1992-2000) -- CSI 35 Gy +/- neoadjuvant chemo 2003, PMID 12697884 -- "Results of a randomized study of preradiation chemotherapy versus radiotherapy alone for nonmetastatic medulloblastoma: The International Society of Paediatric Oncology/United Kingdom Children's Cancer Study Group PNET-3 Study." (Taylor RE, J Clin Oncol. 2003 Apr 15;21(8):1581-91.) Randomized. 179/217 standard risk patients (including M1). Treated with neoadjuvant chemo (vincristine/etoposide/carboplatin/cyclophosphamide) vs. RT alone (CSI 35 Gy + 20 Gy posterior fossa boost). Median F/U 5.4 years. Study closed early due to lack of accrual in RT alone arm 5-year outcome: OS 70% (NS), EFS chemo-RT 74% vs. RT alone 60% (SS) Conclusion: improved EFS with addition of chemo, no impact on survival SIOP II (1984-1989) -- CSI 35 Gy vs. CSI 25 Gy; also +/- adjuvant chemo 1995, PMID 7623725 "Prospective randomised trial of chemotherapy given before radiotherapy in childhood medulloblastoma. International Society of Paediatric Oncology (SIOP) and the (German) Society of Paediatric Oncology (GPO)" Bailey et al. Med Pediatr Onc 25(3):166-78, 1995 Randomized. 364 patients. SIOP I low risk (total/subtotal resection, no brain stem invasion, M0) randomized to +/- <｜fim▁hole｜> procarbazine), and then randomized to standard CSI 35 Gy vs. reduced CSI 25 Gy. Boost posterior fossa to 55 Gy. High risk randomized to +/- adjuvant chemo, then standard CSI and additional post-RT chemo Outcome: No advantage to pre-RT chemo. Standard CSI 35 Gy for low risk pts increased EFS (68% vs 55%). Low risk patients with adjuvant chemo and CSI 25 Gy did particularly badly Conclusion: No benefit to adjuvant chemo. Standard dose of CSI is 35 Gy SIOP I -- CSI +/- adjuvant chemo 1990, PMID 2141512 -- "Adjuvant chemotherapy for medulloblastoma: the first multi-centre control trial of the International Society of Paediatric Oncology (SIOP I)." (Tait DM, Eur J Cancer. 1990 Apr;26(4):464-9.) Randomized. 286 patients, 15 countries. Treated with CSI, randomized to +/- chemo (concurrent vincristine, then CCNU/vincristine maintenance) Survival: 5-year 53%, 10-year 45%. No difference between arms Subgroup benefit: subtotal surgery, brainstem involvement, T3-T4 disease Conclusion: No difference, but subgroup benefit CCG 942 -- CSI +/- adjuvant chemo 1990, PMID 2319316 -- "The treatment of medulloblastoma. Results of a prospective randomized trial of radiation therapy with and without CCNU, vincristine, and prednisone." (Evans AE, J Neurosurg. 1990 Apr;72(4):572-82.) Randomized. 233 patients. CSI +/- chemo (CCNU, vincristine, prednisone) 5-year outcomes: EFS chemo-RT 59% vs. RT alone 50% (NS); OS 65% for both (NS) Subgroup benefit: large tumors (EFS chemo-RT 48% vs. RT alone 0%) Conclusion: no benefit for chemo in low stage, subgroup benefit for advanced stage CSI + adjuvant chemo alternatives CCG 921 (1986-1992) -- vincristine/lomustine/prednisone (VCP) vs. 8-in-1 Randomized. 427 children <21 years, with medulloblastoma, pineoblastoma, ependymoblastoma, central neuroblastoma, PNET, or malignant ependymoma, with unfavorable features. For ST-PNET required M+ staging. Children age >1.5 years (n=328) received post-op CSI with Arm A) vincristine, lomustine, prednisone vs. Arm B) 8-in-1 (cisplatin, procarbazine, lomustine, vincristine, cyclophosphamide, methylprednisolone, hydroxyurea, cytarabine). RT: age >3 received CSI 36 Gy, boost to 50.4-54 Gy spine mets and 54 Gy primary brain site; age <3 received CSI 23.4 Gy with boost to 45 Gy. Children age <1.5 years (n=99) were not randomized and received only Arm B 1999 PMID 10071274 -- "Metastasis stage, adjuvant treatment, and residual tumor are prognostic factors for medulloblastoma in children: conclusions from the Children's Cancer Group 921 randomized phase III study." (Zeltzer PM, J Clin Oncol. 1999 Mar;17(3):832-45.) Median F/U 7.0 years Subset analysis. 203 patients with medulloblastoma. Median OS 8-in-1 55% vs. VCP 54% (NS); PFS 63% vs. 45% (SS) Prognostic factors: age <3 (who received lower CSI dose); if >3 y/o then M stage (PFS M0 70% vs. M1 57% vs. M2+ 40%, SS); if M0 tumors, then residual (PFS <1.5 cm2 78% vs. >1.5 cm2 54%) Conclusion: VCP + XRT superior; if <3 years (with reduced RT) had lowest survival Pre-RT chemo vs. Post-RT chemo German HIT 91 (1991-97) -- Chemo x2 cycles ->RT vs. RT -> chemo x8 cycles Trial enrolled pts with supratentorial PNET, medulloblastoma, and anaplastic ependymomas. All treated with extensive resection. In HIT 88/89, pts treated In HIT 91, randomized to 1) chemo x2 cycles (Ifosfamide, etoposide, MTX, cisplatin, cytarabine) -> RT (CSI 35.2 Gy + PF boost 20 Gy) or 2) immediate RT (35.2 + 20) followed by maintenance chemo x8 cycles (CCNU, cisplatin, vincristine). Medullo subset, 2000 PMID 10661332 -- "Postoperative neoadjuvant chemotherapy before radiotherapy as compared to immediate radiotherapy followed by maintenance chemotherapy in the treatment of medulloblastoma in childhood: results of the German prospective randomized trial HIT '91." (Kortmann RD, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2000 Jan 15;46(2):269-79.) Subset report of 158 medulloblastoma patients (137 randomized). Median F/U 2.5 years 3-year outcome: RFS RT->chemo 78% vs. chemo->RT 65% (SS), but no difference if age 3-6 years Negative prognosis: M2/3 disease, age <8 years. M1 not a bad prognostic factor Conclusion: RT upfront with maintenance chemo more effective. Neoadjuvant chemo caused higher RT myelotoxicity, and more RT interruptions <｜fim▁end｜>	adjuvant chemo (vincristine, methotrexate,
<｜fim▁begin｜> Petite Abeille Here is a little example on how to write your own WOResourceManager: The main methods to implement are urlForResourceNamed() and bytesForResourceNamed(). urlForResourceNamed simply build an URL for a resource from wherever you would like (e.g. a jar file). Unfortunately, urlForResourceNamed uses pathForResourceNamed so you will need to rewrite that also: private URL urlForResourceNamed(String aResourceName) { return this.getClass().getResource( aResourceName ); } public String pathForResourceNamed(String aResourceName, String aFrameworkName, NSArray someLanguages) { URL anURL = this.urlForResourceNamed( aResourceName ); if ( anURL != null ) { return anURL.toExternalForm(); } return null; } public String urlForResourceNamed(String aResourceName, String aFrameworkName, NSArray someLanguages, WORequest aRequest) { String anURL = super.urlForResourceNamed( aResourceName, aFrameworkName, someLanguages, aRequest ); this.bytesForResourceNamed( aResourceName, aFrameworkName, someLanguages ); return anURL; } bytesForResourceNamed simply retrieve a resource from wherever you would like (e.g. a jar file): public InputStream inputStreamForResourceNamed(String aResourceName, String aFrameworkName, NSArray someLanguages) { return this.getClass().getResourceAsStream( aResourceName ); } public byte[] bytesForResourceNamed(String aResourceName, String aFrameworkName, NSArray someLanguages) { if ( aResourceName != null ) { URL anURL = this.urlForResourceNamed( aResourceName ); if ( anURL != null ) { String aKey = anURL.toString(); WOURLValuedElementData anElement = (WOURLValuedElementData) _cache.get( <｜fim▁hole｜> == null ) { synchronized( this ) { InputStream anInputStream = this.inputStreamForResourceNamed( aResourceName, null, null ); if ( anInputStream != null ) { try { InputStream aBufferStream = new BufferedInputStream( anInputStream ); byte[] someBytes = new byte[ aBufferStream.available() ]; aBufferStream.read( someBytes ); aBufferStream.close(); anInputStream.close(); { Data someData = new Data( someBytes ); String aType = this.contentTypeForResourceNamed( aKey ); anElement = new WOURLValuedElementData( someData, aType, aKey ); _cache.put( aKey, anElement ); } } catch(Exception anException) { SZLog.warning( anException ); } } } } return ( (Data) anElement.data() ).bytesNoCopy(); } SZLog.debug( "Null url for resource named '" + aResourceName + "'." ); return null; } throw new IllegalArgumentException ( "ResourceManager.bytesForResourceNamed: null resource name." ); } Last but not least, you need to take care of those funky WOURLValuedElementData so dataForResourceNamed will work: public NSData dataForResourceNamed(String aResourceName) { this.bytesForResourceNamed( aResourceName, null, null ); String aKey = this.urlForResourceNamed( aResourceName ).toString(); WOURLValuedElementData anElement = (WOURLValuedElementData) _cache.get( aKey ); return anElement.data(); } Finally, you need to register your resource manager with WOApplication: anApplication.setResourceManager( new ResourceManager() ); Handling of languages and frameworks are left as an exercise to the reader. <｜fim▁end｜>	aKey ); if ( anElement
<｜fim▁begin｜> Contents 1 Team Cohesion Defined 2 The Question 3 Team Composition 3.1 How to promote team cohesion when selecting and identifying diversity within teams 3.2 Surface-Level Diversity: 3.3 Deep-Level Diversity: 3.4 Summary 4 Internal Environment Factors Needed in Team Cohesion 4.1 Communication 4.2 Unity of Purpose or a Common Goal 4.3 Commitment 5 Role of Management in Team Cohesion 5.1 Establish the Team Vision/Goal 5.2 Facilitate a Working Environment 5.3 Set Clear Expectations and Responsibilities 5.4 Training and Staffing 5.5 Get Out of Their Way 5.6 Summary 6 Examples of Team Cohesion: The Good 7 Examples of Team Cohesion: The Bad 8 Conclusion 8.1 Ways to Increase Team Cohesion 8.2 Potential problems 9 References Team Cohesion Defined One definition of cohesion is “a group property with individual manifestations of feelings of belongingness or attraction to the group” (Lieberman et al., 1973: 337). It is generally accepted that group cohesion and performance are associated. “However, the issue of a cause/effect relationship between group cohesion and performance is not completely resolved. Generally, there tend to be more studies supporting a positive relationship between group cohesion and performance.” [1] With that in mind the following article is an effort to enhance group/team cohesion and as a result help improve group/team performance. The Question What is team cohesiveness and why does it matter to an organization to have cohesiveness within its teams? Team Composition How to promote team cohesion when selecting and identifying diversity within teams In their journal article Beyond Relational Demography: Time and the Effects of Surface- and Deep-Level Diversity on Work Group Cohesion, David A. Harrison, Kenneth H. Price, and Myrtle P. Bell discuss the composition of teams and its effect on cohesiveness. They describe two different categories of diversity, namely surface level and deeper level. Surface-Level Diversity: Surface level attributes are “immutable [and] almost immediately observable.” [2] Such attributes include age, sex, and race/ethnicity. In general, the findings have been fairly inconsistent within and across studies as to how diversity in these areas affect team cohesion. Deep-Level Diversity: Deep-level diversity includes differences among members’ attitudes, beliefs, and values. These attributes are less apparent than surface-level differences and are “learned through extended, individualized interaction and information gathering.” [3] They are communicated differences which are shared through both verbal and nonverbal behavior. There has been less research done in this area with regards to teams in workplace settings, though a number of social psychological studies have been conducted. The findings consistently suggest that “attitudinal similarity [is] associated with higher group cohesiveness.” [4] Diversity also improves communication, reduces personal conflict, attracts friendships, and gives more satisfaction to group members. Summary Overall, the school of thought that is most widely accepted, in regards to team cohesion, is that “surface-level differences are less important and deep-level differences are more important for groups that had interacted more often” [5]. Harrison, Price, and Bell’s study concluded that while homogeneous groups interacted and performed more effectively than heterogeneous groups in the beginning, with time and information, the diverse groups’ performance and processes improved more rapidly and “had grown more effective in identifying problems and generating solutions” [6]. Overall cohesiveness was strengthened in such cases. Hence, for optimum results, teams ought to include deep-level diversity as part of the process for achieving cohesiveness. Internal Environment Factors Needed in Team Cohesion Internally there are several factors that must be present for cohesion to exist within a team. First good and appropriate communication is essential to creating and maintaining cohesion. Communication leads to the second factor, unity of purpose. For a team to work as a cohesive team they must share a common goal and to collectively work towards that goal. And finally, the team must have a high level of commitment understanding that what they do together as a team is better than what they do on their own. Communication In the article “Building Team Cohesion: Becoming “We” Instead of “Me” the authors stress the importance of not losing the “human moment” which they define as “not to lose the powerful impact of face-to-face, immediate interaction in real time and space.” Furthermore, the authors add the following: “It is communication in the “human moment” that most powerfully creates team synergy – the energy that truly makes “the whole greater than the sum of its parts.” It is communication in the “human moment” that also most powerfully creates team cohesion – a strong sense of loyalty and commitment to the team vision as one’s own.” “Providing communication opportunities in real time and space for forensics team members is necessary to build team cohesion. Whether a room or lounge where team members can congregate between classes and the end of the day, practice space for formal and informal coaching sessions, travel time in cars and vans, or social time to enjoy pizza and a movie, both quantity and quality of communication are necessary to build a cohesive team climate of openness and trust…According to Bormann(1990), highly cohesive groups interact in an open climate where individuals are free to ask questions and disagree with one another; even the ability to work through inevitable team conflict in such a constructive climate will only serve to strengthen team cohesion.” In order to build cohesion within any team whether it be a sports team or work team communication is an essential ingredient. Providing opportunities for the team members to interact socially is necessary to help build trust. In addition, a safe environment in which the team can deal with conflict is critical to team cohesion. Unity of Purpose or a Common Goal A critical factor that must be present for groups or teams to experience cohesion is to have a common goal. In SELF-MANAGING WORK TEAMS:An Empirical Study of Group Cohesiveness in “Natural Work Groups” at a Harley-Davidson Motor Company Plant, the authors state: “that highly cohesive groups tend to perform better because they have high commitment to attaining group goals (e.g., Stogdill, 1972), and because the members are more sensitive to others in the group, they are more willing to assist each other (e.g., Schachter, Ellertson, McBride,&Gregory, 1951).” Additional support to the importance of a common goal in building and maintaining a common goal is found in “Buliding Team Cohesion: Becoming “We” Instead of “Me” where the author relates the following: “Since cohesion is believed to be one of the distinguishing characteristics of a high-performance team, what is this powerful team quality and how is it cre-ated? According to Bollen and Hoyle (1979), cohesion is the degree of attraction members feel toward one another and the team; "it is a feeling of deep loyalty, of esprit de corps, the degree to which each individual has made the team's goal his or her own, a sense of belonging, and a feeling of morale" (as cited in Beebe & Masterson, 2000, p. 122). Though cohesion is rooted in the feelings team mem-bers have for one another as well as a common goal, creating, shaping, and strengthening those feelings relies on the use of effective communication. Communication scholars have long agreed that group or team cohesion is as much about the relationships created as the task at hand, and success in both fos-ters the development of team cohesion. (Bormann, 1990). Without a purpose or a common goal a team will eventually splinter into separate individuals working towards their own personal agendas and not together toward a team goal. It is important for team members to see themselves as a part of the group working towards a goal for cohesiveness to exist. Commitment Teams that are not committed to each other or a common goal do not experience cohesion and are much more likely to leave the team or even the organization. In the article "Commitment and the Control of Organizational Behavior and Belief" the author states the following: "Commitment also derives from the relation of an employee's job to those of other in the organization. Some jobs are rather isolated and can be done independently of other jobs in the organization. It has been found that jobs which are not integrated with the work activities of others tend to be associated with less favorable attitudes. (Sheperd, 1973). Gow, Clarkand dossett (1974), for instance find that telephone operators who quit tend to be those who are not integrated into the work group. Work integration can affect commitment by the fact that integrated jobs are likely to be associated with salient demands from others in the organization. If a person has a job which affects the work of others in the organization, it is likely that those other will communicate their expectations for performance of that job. Such expectations can be committing in that the other people implicitly or explicitly hold the person accountable for what he does. Earlier we mentioned that when individuals did not know what was expected of them they tended to be less committed to the organization. One reason an individual will not know what is expected is because no one is telling him. In general, we would expect that anything which contributes to creating definite expectations for a person's behavior would enhance his felt responsibility, and hence commitment." We learn from the above author that for commitment to exist we employees need to know what is expected of them and then to know they will be held accountable either by a manager or other co-workers. Once commitment is present team members are more likely to stay and work towards the team goal. Role of Management in Team Cohesion The roles that management has in a team that they oversee are extremely important. But it is also important for the management to understand the boundaries of what their roles and responsibilities are and what the roles and responsibilities of the team itself are. The manager is often placed in the management position because of their people and technical skills and experience. A team often benefits from the manager’s abilities, skills, attitudes, insights and ideas. But neither the management nor the team should ever forget that it is the team’s responsibility to perform the actual work. So what role should management play in a team that they oversee? How best can they serve the team to ensure they are successful? A critical role that management can and should have is to facilitate and encourage team cohesion. Establish the Team Vision/Goal The first step in creating team cohesion and where management should be involved is in the establishment of the team vision and/or goal. Management must set a clear vision to which the team can jointly work towards together. As Tommy Lasorda, former manager of the LA Dodgers, stated, “My responsibility is to get my 25 guys playing for the name on the front of their shirt and not the one on the back.”[7] Management must “establish a common goal for [the] team – an underlying target that will bind [them] together…”[8] The goal must be as clear as possible for each member of the team. “Goal clarity is critical for team members to have confidence in their direction and to be committed to make it happen.”[9] A clearly defined goal articulated to the team in such a way that they all understand will inspire the team and commit them to the cause. Once the goal has been clearly defined and clearly articulated, management must keep the vision and goal alive. Obstacles, tension, and crises may arise that can distract or discourage away from the common goal. The management must “continually reinforce and renew the team goal.”[10] Being that managements “primary responsibility is to ensure that the team reaches its goal,”[11] management must also facilitate a working environment, set clear expectations and responsibilities, and lastly, let the team do their job. Facilitate a Working Environment Once the team vision and goal has been established, the most important contribution management can make “is to ensure a climate that enables team members to speak up and address the real issues preventing the goal from being achieved.”[12] Such a climate includes creating an environment of trust, communication and openness with each other. As Frank Lafasto describes in his book, openness and supportiveness are “the ability to raise and resolve the real issues standing the way of a team accomplishing its goal. And to do so in a way that brings out the best thinking and attitude of everyone involved. It’s too hard for team members to contribute, much less explore the possibilities, when it is not safe for them to say what’s on their minds. They must be able to speak honestly. They must be able to deal openly with real obstacles, problems, and opportunities in a way that promotes listening, understanding of differing perspectives, and constructively working towards a solution.”[13] The environment and climate in which the team works and operates must be facilitated by the management to ensure that trust is established, collective collaboration is demanded, and openness is welcome. Set Clear Expectations and Responsibilities Management responsibility is also to set clear expectations and responsibilities of the team and individual team members. Patrick Lencioni describes in his book “The Five Dysfunctions of a Team” that a team where there is ambiguity about the direction and priorities fails to commit. Whereas when the expectations, direction and priorities are clear the team is more likely to commit to the cause and each other.[14] Management must establish clear expectations so there is no ambiguity or question of what is expected of the team, whether it is the timeline, product, requirements, etc. Also, management must set clear responsibilities. “There are few behaviors that build confidence as well as personalized expression of belief in an individual. One of the most direct signals of such belief is trusting someone with important and meaningful responsibility.”[15] Clear and meaningful responsibility that allows the team members <｜fim▁hole｜> confidence. And, as Jack Welch, the CEO of General Electric, put it, “giving people self-confidence is by far the most important thing I can do. Because then they will act.”[16] Training and Staffing According to Chansler, Swamidass, & Cammann to get a task completed, “a work team must have the resources to do the job. Specifically, the team needs trained, competent team members. Training is a planned effort by a firm to help employees learn job-related competencies (Noe, 1999). Training is used by companies to gain a competitive advantage over rivals in their respective industries. A company must provide adequate resources to an empowered team to staff and train its members adequately.” It is the responsibility of Management to provide such training. Chansler, Swamidass, & Cammann also suggest management should provide its workers with both “hard” and “soft” skills. “Hard-skills training helps them do their jobs properly so that the plant can produce a quality product cost-effectively. Soft-skills training, on the other hand, teaches the workers to get along better as part of a functioning team; this type of skills training improves interpersonal dynamics and relationships. To effectively and efficiently manufacture quality product, both types of training are needed.” [17] It is therefore the responsibility of management to make sure that group/ team members have the hard and soft skills to perform tasks and maintain cohesion. Get Out of Their Way And lastly, the manager’s role is to get out of the team’s way. Once the team knows what they are working towards, tasks have been clearly defined and delegated, expectations are clearly set and they have the means to build relationships of trust and have open communication, the manager needs to step back and let the team work. The last thing the team needs, not only to reach their goal, but also to build strong cohesion is, as Dr. Travis Bradberry described, a seagull manager; one that swoops in when problems arise “squawking and dumpling advice, only to take off and let others clean up the mess.”[18] Management needs to let the members in the team be smart and informed about key issues and facts related to their tasks and goal. Then management must trust team members by providing sufficient autonomy, which will in turn build confidence. Summary Ultimately, the goal and role of management should be to add value to the team’s effort. This can be done by defining a clear vision and goal, facilitate a working environment, set clear expectations and responsibilities, and provide the team enough autonomy where they can work and do their jobs with full commitment and confidence. Examples of Team Cohesion: The Good A good example of team Cohesion is that of the Harley Davidson Motor Company (HDMC) and its group structure. The well known turnaround of HDMC occurred in the 1980s when it changed from a “command-and-control” culture to that of self-managing work teams (SMWT). This change allowed assembly employees to make important decisions in their work teams [19]. With group work as the foundation of HDMC’s manufacturing cohesion among group members was essential. At its Kansas City Plant HDMC natural work groups (NWG) were organized to make decisions (and build motorcycles). The plant’s employees are made up of local union members. “This partnership allows the shifting of the decision-making and financial responsibilities for the operation of the plant to the assembly floor employees” [20]. The structure of the plant divides workers into NWGs. Each NWG is either assigned to one of four process operations groups (POG) (the Assembly POG, the Fabrication POG, the Paint POG, or a POG dedicated to future programs) or provides “computer, human resources, materials, and so forth, support for the operations NWGs (denoted as RG or Resource Groups). Each of the NWGs is represented by NWG-elected (on a rotating basis) members. The highest level of the circular organization is the lone plant leadership group (PLG), which is cochaired by the plant manager and two local union presidents” [21]. Within this group structure HDMC provides for widespread access to information. “All financial and operations information is available to all team members, which allows them to monitor budgets and production quotas” [22]. This access to information facilitates open communication which in turn leads to greater team cohesion. Cohesion is also furthered by the autonomy of workers within the group. “Each NWG is empowered to make decisions with regard to any aspect of the assembly process as long as it does not cross over its boundary and impede another NWG” [23]. With freedom to make any necessary decisions and freedom from continuous managerial intervention NWGs are free to bend and move as needed in response to any given situation. Interestingly in this structure there are no formal team leaders. “NWGs are collectively led by the members of the group. Traditional leadership duties such as scheduling, safety monitoring, budget balancing, and so forth, are rotated among the NWG members on a regular basis (usually monthly). The NWG controls its own budget, sick pay, overtime, and consumable production materials. Individual performance measures are not maintained. The NWG performance is measured on achievement of plant goals and on the goals that they set for themselves” [24]. This sharing of responsibilities fosters cohesion by aligning the goals of the group, goals each member is included in creating. Examples of Team Cohesion: The Bad The 2010 film “The Social Network” is based on the events and circumstances that lead to the creation and founding of the social networking website “Facebook.” Founder Mark Zuckerberg and his friend, co-founder Eduardo Saverin agree to launch the site and split up ownership of the new company equitably. In the process of developing the company, other individuals and interests come into play that are detrimental to the team cohesion developed by Mark and Eduardo eventually leading to multi-million dollar lawsuits and the end of the original founding team. Several factors that lead to the failure of team cohesion: Team members were unable to work together cooperatively Team goals were not shared by everyone on the team Team members felt that they were not recognized for individual contributions to accomplish team goals Selfish interests were able to infiltrate the team cohesion The fact that team members were unable to work cooperatively together is likely the single biggest factor in the failure of the original “Facebook” leadership team. In the movie, to help advance the growth of the company, Mark brought in a third partner, Sean Parker, the co-founder of the famous music sharing sight “Napster.” Mark was instantly drawn to Sean’s charismatic personality and vision for “Facebook.” At the same time, Eduardo was highly skeptical of Sean and his business history. Immediately Mark began to lean toward the ideas that Sean had developed for “Facebook” and eventually gave Sean a small ownership stake in the company as well as a management position. Upon learning this, Eduardo was very upset that Mark would go ahead and make the decision to include Sean without consulting him first. Mark and Eduardo both had visions of keeping this site exclusive for the elite college institutions around the country and gradually introducing it to other colleges. When Sean was brought into the company he presented Mark with a business plan to expand “Facebook” beyond the college scene and introduce it to the general public. At the same time he was trying to convince Mark that he needed to relocate the business to Palo Alto, CA from Boston, MA. Eduardo was never consulted on these propositions that were made to Mark. Eduardo felt like Sean was trying to push him out of the company and influence many of the decisions made by Mark. As the company grew and others were able to influence decision making, the team goals had clearly changed and not everyone shared the same vision. When “Facebook” was originally started Eduardo was designated as the CFO of the company. In this responsibility he put up the initial seed money to get it off the ground. He was in charge of all finances and bank accounts for the company. While Mark was moving the company headquarters to Palo Alto, Eduardo was spending time in New York working on securing advertising contracts with prominent advertising firms. When Eduardo goes to visit the team in Palo Alto he begins to tell Mark all about the progress he has made with the advertisers but instead he is told all about the work that Sean and Mark had accomplished and is essentially told that his time and work in New York will not be needed. Eduardo felt like his contributions to the company and goals were not being recognized. This drives Eduardo further and further from the team. Throughout the life of the original leadership team there were many occasions where selfish interests were able to infiltrate team cohesion. Sean was the worst offender of this. Sean was one of the founders of “Napster.” “Napster” was eventually forced to shut down and was facing many lawsuits from the record industry. Sean saw an opportunity to work with Mark and Eduardo on “Facebook.” Sean could see the potential that this venture had and also that he could influence the socially introverted Mark by filling him with visions of big pay days and a life style full of privilege. At times he appeared to try and relive his days of “Napster” and treated “Facebook” like it was his own company and he was trying to accomplish the goals there that weren’t achievable at “Napster.” After a party to celebrate the 1 millionth member of “Facebook,” Sean was arrested with several other “Facebook” interns for possession of cocaine and was eventually dismissed from the company. Through these actions, Sean clearly was acting in his own self interest and did not take into account what the effects would be on the group or company. In many ways the selfish actions of Sean drove a wedge between Mark and Eduardo that eventually lead to lawsuits and the end of the original leadership team. [25] Conclusion Ways to Increase Team Cohesion Each group environment is different and will present different challenges. In order to create a cohesive team unit it is important for team members to be aware of this and work towards it. In Joseph Powell Stokes’s research, he found that “risk taking that occurs in a group, attraction to individual members of the group, and the instrumental value of a group are all related to the cohesion of the group”. He proposes that “increasing risk taking, intermember attraction, and the instrumental value of a personal change group might lead to increased cohesion, which in turn might lead to increase benefits for group participants.” [26] As such, groups should attempt to foster an “atmosphere of tolerance and acceptance” so they can assure openness and honesty and hence, increase their risk taking and intermember attraction. They can “[reward] members who make risky self-disclosures or give honest feedback to other group members”. They should make sure group members know that they are expected to “like each other” and can help members “differentiate between not liking other members’ behaviors and not liking the other members themselves”. Group leaders ought to act as examples and make sure that the group composition and expectations of the group members are in line with risk-taking and intermember attraction. “Leaders can maximize the instrumental value of a group for its members by having the group focus explicitly on its goals and by helping redirect the group when members’ needs are not being met”. [27] Potential problems One possible caveat of cohesion is that when there is too much cohesion, groups are prone to groupthink. “Groupthink is a tendency by groups to engage in a concurrence seeking manner. Groupthink occurs when group members give priority to sustaining concordance and internal harmony above critical examination of the issues under consideration”. [28] It is important for all group members to be conscious of this pitfall and to take precautions to prevent such behavior. See Ways to Prevent Groupthink. References ^ Chansler, P. A., Swamidass, P. M., & Cammann, C. (2003). Self-Managing Work Teams : An Empirical Study of Group Cohesiveness in Natural Work Groups at a Harley-Davidson Motor Company Plant. Retrieved November 25, 2010, from Sage Journals Online: http://sgr.sagepub.com/content/34/1/101 ^ Harrison, David A.; Price, Kenneth H.; Bell, Myrtle P. “Beyond Relational Demography: Time and the Effects of Surface- and Deep-Level Diversity on Work Group Cohesion”, The Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 41, No. 1 (Feb., 1998), pp. 96-107 ^ Milliken, F. J., & Martins, L. L. 1996. Searching for common threads: Understanding the multiple effects of diversity in organizational groups. Academy of Management Review, 21: 402-433 ^ Terborg, J. R., Castore, C., & DeNinno, J. A. 1976. A longitudinal field investigation of the impact of group composition on group performance and cohesion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34: 782-790. ^ Friedley, Sheryl A. and Bruce B. Manchester. 2005. Building Team Cohesion: Becoming “We” Instead of “Me”. George Mason University. ^ SELF-MANAGING WORK TEAMS:An Empirical Study of Group Cohesiveness in “Natural Work Groups” at a Harley-Davidson Motor Company Plant.SMALL GROUP RESEARCH, Vol. 34 No. 1, February 2003 101-120 ^ Salancik, Gerald R. Organizational Socialization and Commitment: Commitment and the Control of Organizational Behavior and Belief. pp. 284-290 ^ LaFasto, F., & Larson, C. (2001). When Teams Work Best. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications ^ Lencioni, P. (2002). The Five Dysfunctions of a Team. San Franscisco: Jossey-Bass. ^ Bradberry, T. (2008). Squaqk. New York: HarperCollins Publishers. ^ The Social Network. (2010, 11 21). Retrieved 11 21, 2010, from Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Social_Network ^ Stokes, Joseph Powell. Components of Group Cohesion : Intermember Attraction,Instrumental Value, and Risk Taking. Small Group Research 1983 14: 163 ^ Managing Groups and Teams/Groupthink. (2010, March 23). Retrieved 11 15, 2010, from Wikibooks: http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Managing_Groups_and_Teams/Groupthink <｜fim▁end｜>	to stretch enhances their trust and
<｜fim▁begin｜> Special relativity (SR) (also known as the special theory of relativity or STR) is the physical theory of measurement in inertial frames of reference proposed in 1905 by Albert Einstein (after the considerable and independent contributions of Hendrik Lorentz, Henri Poincaré and others) in the paper "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies". It generalizes Galileo's principle of relativity—that all uniform motion is relative, and that there is no absolute and well-defined state of rest (no privileged reference frames)—from mechanics to all the laws of physics, including both the laws of mechanics and of electrodynamics, whatever they may be. Special relativity incorporates the principle that the speed of light is the same for all inertial observers regardless of the state of motion of the source. This theory has a wide range of consequences which have been experimentally verified, including counter-intuitive ones such as length contraction, time dilation and relativity of simultaneity, contradicting the classical notion that the duration of the time interval between two events is equal for all observers. (On the other hand, it introduces the space-time interval, which is invariant.) Combined with other laws of physics, the two postulates of special relativity predict the equivalence of matter and energy, as expressed in the mass-energy equivalence formula E = mc2 , <｜fim▁hole｜> light in a vacuum. The predictions of special relativity agree well with Newtonian mechanics in their common realm of applicability, specifically in experiments in which all velocities are small compared with the speed of light. Special relativity reveals that c is not just the velocity of a certain phenomenon — namely the propagation of electromagnetic radiation (light)— but rather a fundamental feature of the way space and time are unified as spacetime. One of the consequences of the theory is that it is impossible for any particle that has rest mass to be accelerated to the speed of light. The theory is termed "special" because it applies the principle of relativity only to inertial reference frames, i.e. frames of reference in uniform relative motion with respect to each other. Einstein developed general relativity to apply the principle more generally, that is, to any frame so as to handle general coordinate transformations, and that theory includes the effects of gravity. From the theory of general relativity it follows that special relativity will still apply locally (i.e., to first order), and hence to any relativistic situation where gravity is not a significant factor. Inertial frames should be identified with non-rotating Cartesian coordinate systems constructed around any free falling trajectory as a time axis. <｜fim▁end｜>	where c is the speed of
<｜fim▁begin｜> Linear Algebra ← Representing Linear Maps with Matrices Any Matrix Represents a Linear Map Matrix Operations → The prior subsection shows that the action of a linear map h {\displaystyle h} is described by a matrix H {\displaystyle H} , with respect to appropriate bases, in this way. v → = ( v 1 ⋮ v n ) B ⟼ H h ( h 1 , 1 v 1 + ⋯ + h 1 , n v n ⋮ h m , 1 v 1 + ⋯ + h m , n v n ) D = h ( v → ) {\displaystyle {\vec {v}}={\begin{pmatrix}v_{1}\\\vdots \\v_{n}\end{pmatrix}}_{B}\;{\overset {h}{\underset {H}{\longmapsto }}}\;{\begin{pmatrix}h_{1,1}v_{1}+\dots +h_{1,n}v_{n}\\\vdots \\h_{m,1}v_{1}+\dots +h_{m,n}v_{n}\end{pmatrix}}_{D}=h({\vec {v}})} In this subsection, we will show the converse, that each matrix represents a linear map. Recall that, in the definition of the matrix representation of a linear map, the number of columns of the matrix is the dimension of the map's domain and the number of rows of the matrix is the dimension of the map's codomain. Thus, for instance, a 2 × 3 {\displaystyle 2\!\times \!3} matrix cannot represent a map from R 5 {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{5}} to R 4 {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{4}} . The next result says that, beyond this restriction on the dimensions, there are no other limitations: the 2 × 3 {\displaystyle 2\!\times \!3} matrix represents a map from any three-dimensional space to any two-dimensional space. Theorem 2.1 Any matrix represents a homomorphism between vector spaces of appropriate dimensions, with respect to any pair of bases. Proof For the matrix H = ( h 1 , 1 h 1 , 2 … h 1 , n h 2 , 1 h 2 , 2 … h 2 , n ⋮ h m , 1 h m , 2 … h m , n ) {\displaystyle H=\left({\begin{array}{cccc}h_{1,1}&h_{1,2}&\ldots &h_{1,n}\\h_{2,1}&h_{2,2}&\ldots &h_{2,n}\\&\vdots \\h_{m,1}&h_{m,2}&\ldots &h_{m,n}\end{array}}\right)} fix any n {\displaystyle n} -dimensional domain space V {\displaystyle V} and any m {\displaystyle m} -dimensional codomain space W {\displaystyle W} . Also fix bases B = ⟨ β → 1 , … , β → n ⟩ {\displaystyle B=\langle {\vec {\beta }}_{1},\dots ,{\vec {\beta }}_{n}\rangle } and D = ⟨ δ → 1 , … , δ → m ⟩ {\displaystyle D=\langle {\vec {\delta }}_{1},\dots ,{\vec {\delta }}_{m}\rangle } for those spaces. Define a function h : V → W {\displaystyle h:V\to W} by: where v → {\displaystyle {\vec {v}}} in the domain is represented as R e p B ( v → ) = ( v 1 ⋮ v n ) B {\displaystyle {\rm {Rep}}_{B}({\vec {v}})={\begin{pmatrix}v_{1}\\\vdots \\v_{n}\end{pmatrix}}_{B}} then its image h ( v → ) {\displaystyle h({\vec {v}})} is the member the codomain represented by R e p D ( h ( v → ) ) = ( h 1 , 1 v 1 + ⋯ + h 1 , n v n ⋮ h m , 1 v 1 + ⋯ + h m , n v n ) D {\displaystyle {\rm {Rep}}_{D}(\,h({\vec {v}})\,)={\begin{pmatrix}h_{1,1}v_{1}+\dots +h_{1,n}v_{n}\\\vdots \\h_{m,1}v_{1}+\dots +h_{m,n}v_{n}\end{pmatrix}}_{D}} that is, h ( v → ) = h ( v 1 β → 1 + ⋯ + v n β → n ) {\displaystyle h({\vec {v}})=h(v_{1}{\vec {\beta }}_{1}+\dots +v_{n}{\vec {\beta }}_{n})} is defined to be ( h 1 , 1 v 1 + ⋯ + h 1 , n v n ) ⋅ δ → 1 + ⋯ + ( h m , 1 v 1 + ⋯ + h m , n v n ) ⋅ δ → m {\displaystyle (h_{1,1}v_{1}+\dots +h_{1,n}v_{n})\cdot {\vec {\delta }}_{1}+\dots +(h_{m,1}v_{1}+\dots +h_{m,n}v_{n})\cdot {\vec {\delta }}_{m}} . (This is well-defined by the uniqueness of the representation R e p B ( v → ) {\displaystyle {\rm {Rep}}_{B}({\vec {v}})} .) Observe that h {\displaystyle h} has simply been defined to make it the map that is represented with respect to B , D {\displaystyle B,D} by the matrix H {\displaystyle H} . So to finish, we need only check that h {\displaystyle h} is linear. If v → , u → ∈ V {\displaystyle {\vec {v}},{\vec {u}}\in V} are such that R e p B ( v → ) = ( v 1 ⋮ v n ) and R e p B ( u → ) = ( u 1 ⋮ u n ) {\displaystyle {\rm {Rep}}_{B}({\vec {v}})={\begin{pmatrix}v_{1}\\\vdots \\v_{n}\end{pmatrix}}\quad {\text{and}}\quad {\rm {Rep}}_{B}({\vec {u}})={\begin{pmatrix}u_{1}\\\vdots \\u_{n}\end{pmatrix}}} and c , d ∈ R {\displaystyle c,d\in \mathbb {R} } then the calculation h ( c v → + d u → ) = ( h 1 , 1 ( c v 1 + d u 1 ) + ⋯ + h 1 , n ( c v n + d u n ) ) ⋅ δ → 1 + ⋯ + ( h m , 1 ( c v 1 + d u 1 ) + ⋯ + h m , n ( c v n + d u n ) ) ⋅ δ → m = c ⋅ h ( v → ) + d ⋅ h ( u → ) {\displaystyle {\begin{array}{rl}h(c{\vec {v}}+d{\vec {u}})&={\bigl (}h_{1,1}(cv_{1}+du_{1})+\dots +h_{1,n}(cv_{n}+du_{n}){\bigr )}\cdot {\vec {\delta }}_{1}+\\&\quad \cdots +{\bigl (}h_{m,1}(cv_{1}+du_{1})+\dots +h_{m,n}(cv_{n}+du_{n}){\bigr )}\cdot {\vec {\delta }}_{m}\\&=c\cdot h({\vec {v}})+d\cdot h({\vec {u}})\end{array}}} provides this verification. Example 2.2 Which map the matrix represents depends on which bases are used. If H = ( 1 0 0 0 ) , B 1 = D 1 = ⟨ ( 1 0 ) , ( 0 1 ) ⟩ , and B 2 = D 2 = ⟨ ( 0 1 ) , ( 1 0 ) ⟩ , {\displaystyle H={\begin{pmatrix}1&0\\0&0\end{pmatrix}},\quad B_{1}=D_{1}=\langle {\begin{pmatrix}1\\0\end{pmatrix}},{\begin{pmatrix}0\\1\end{pmatrix}}\rangle ,\quad {\text{and}}\quad B_{2}=D_{2}=\langle {\begin{pmatrix}0\\1\end{pmatrix}},{\begin{pmatrix}1\\0\end{pmatrix}}\rangle ,} then h 1 : R 2 → R 2 {\displaystyle h_{1}:\mathbb {R} ^{2}\to \mathbb {R} ^{2}} represented by H {\displaystyle H} with respect to B 1 , D 1 {\displaystyle B_{1},D_{1}} maps ( c 1 c 2 ) = ( c 1 c 2 ) B 1 ↦ ( c 1 0 ) D 1 = ( c 1 0 ) {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}c_{1}\\c_{2}\end{pmatrix}}={\begin{pmatrix}c_{1}\\c_{2}\end{pmatrix}}_{B_{1}}\quad \mapsto \quad {\begin{pmatrix}c_{1}\\0\end{pmatrix}}_{D_{1}}={\begin{pmatrix}c_{1}\\0\end{pmatrix}}} while h 2 : R 2 → R 2 {\displaystyle h_{2}:\mathbb {R} ^{2}\to \mathbb {R} ^{2}} represented by H {\displaystyle H} with respect to B 2 , D 2 {\displaystyle B_{2},D_{2}} is this map. ( c 1 c 2 ) = ( c 2 c 1 ) B 2 ↦ ( c 2 0 ) D 2 = ( 0 c 2 ) {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}c_{1}\\c_{2}\end{pmatrix}}={\begin{pmatrix}c_{2}\\c_{1}\end{pmatrix}}_{B_{2}}\quad \mapsto \quad {\begin{pmatrix}c_{2}\\0\end{pmatrix}}_{D_{2}}={\begin{pmatrix}0\\c_{2}\end{pmatrix}}} These two are different. The first is projection onto the x {\displaystyle x} axis, while the second is projection onto the y {\displaystyle y} axis. So not only is any linear map described by a matrix but any matrix describes a linear map. This means that we can, when convenient, handle linear maps entirely as matrices, simply doing the computations, without have to worry that a matrix of interest does not represent a linear map on some pair of spaces of interest. (In practice, when we are working with a matrix but no spaces or bases have been specified, we will often take the domain and codomain to be R n {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{n}} and R m {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{m}} and use the standard bases. In this case, because the representation is transparent— the representation with respect to the standard basis of v → {\displaystyle {\vec {v}}} is v → {\displaystyle {\vec {v}}} — the column space of the matrix equals the range of the map. Consequently, the column space of H {\displaystyle H} is often denoted by R ( H ) {\displaystyle {\mathcal {R}}(H)} .) With the theorem, we have characterized linear maps as those maps that act in this matrix way. Each linear map is described by a matrix and each matrix describes a linear map. We finish this section by illustrating how a matrix can be used to tell things about its maps. Theorem 2.3 The rank of a matrix equals the rank of any map that it represents. Proof Suppose that the matrix H {\displaystyle H} is m × n {\displaystyle m\!\times \!n} . Fix domain and codomain spaces V {\displaystyle V} and W {\displaystyle W} of dimension n {\displaystyle n} and m {\displaystyle m} , with bases B = ⟨ β → 1 , … , β → n ⟩ {\displaystyle B=\langle {\vec {\beta }}_{1},\dots ,{\vec {\beta }}_{n}\rangle } and D {\displaystyle D} . Then H {\displaystyle H} represents some linear map h {\displaystyle h} between those spaces with respect to these bases whose rangespace { h ( v → ) \| v → ∈ V } = { h ( c 1 β → 1 + ⋯ + c n β → n ) \| c 1 , … , c n ∈ R } = { c 1 h ( β → 1 ) + ⋯ + c n h ( β → n ) \| c 1 , … , c n ∈ R } {\displaystyle {\begin{array}{rl}\{h({\vec {v}})\,{\big \|}\,{\vec {v}}\in V\}&=\{h(c_{1}{\vec {\beta }}_{1}+\dots +c_{n}{\vec {\beta }}_{n})\,{\big \|}\,c_{1},\dots ,c_{n}\in \mathbb {R} \}\\&=\{c_{1}h({\vec {\beta }}_{1})+\dots +c_{n}h({\vec {\beta }}_{n})\,{\big \|}\,c_{1},\dots ,c_{n}\in \mathbb {R} \}\end{array}}} is the span [ { h ( β → 1 ) , … , h ( β → n ) } ] {\displaystyle [\{h({\vec {\beta }}_{1}),\dots ,h({\vec {\beta }}_{n})\}]} . The rank of h {\displaystyle h} is the dimension of this rangespace. The rank of the matrix is its column rank (or its row rank; the two are equal). This is the dimension of the column space of the matrix, which is the span of the set of column vectors [ { R e p D ( h ( β → 1 ) ) , … , R e p D ( h ( β → n ) ) } ] {\displaystyle [\{{\rm {Rep}}_{D}(h({\vec {\beta }}_{1})),\dots ,{\rm {Rep}}_{D}(h({\vec {\beta }}_{n}))\}]} . To see that the two spans have the same dimension, recall that a representation with respect to a basis gives an isomorphism Rep D : W → R m {\displaystyle {\mbox{Rep}}_{D}:W\to \mathbb {R} ^{m}} . Under this isomorphism, there is a linear relationship among members of the rangespace if and only if the same relationship holds in the column space, e.g, 0 → = c 1 h ( β → 1 ) + ⋯ + c n h ( β → n ) {\displaystyle {\vec {0}}=c_{1}h({\vec {\beta }}_{1})+\dots +c_{n}h({\vec {\beta }}_{n})} if and only if 0 → = c 1 R e p D ( h ( β → 1 ) ) + ⋯ + c n R e p D ( h ( β → n ) ) {\displaystyle {\vec {0}}=c_{1}{\rm {Rep}}_{D}(h({\vec {\beta }}_{1}))+\dots +c_{n}{\rm {Rep}}_{D}(h({\vec {\beta }}_{n}))} . Hence, a subset of the rangespace is linearly independent if and only if the corresponding subset of the column space is linearly independent. This means that the size of the largest linearly independent subset of the rangespace equals the size of the largest linearly independent subset of the column space, and so the two spaces have the same dimension. Example 2.4 Any map represented by ( 1 2 2 1 2 1 0 0 3 0 0 2 ) {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}1&2&2\\1&2&1\\0&0&3\\0&0&2\end{pmatrix}}} must, by definition, be from a three-dimensional domain to a four-dimensional codomain. In addition, because the rank of this matrix is two (we can spot this by eye or get it with Gauss' method), any map represented by this matrix has a two-dimensional rangespace. Corollary 2.5 Let h {\displaystyle h} be a linear map represented by a matrix H {\displaystyle H} . Then h {\displaystyle h} is onto if and only if the rank of H {\displaystyle H} equals the number of its rows, and h {\displaystyle h} is one-to-one if and only if the rank of H {\displaystyle H} equals the number of its columns. Proof For the first half, the dimension of the rangespace of h {\displaystyle h} is the rank of h {\displaystyle h} , which equals the rank of H {\displaystyle H} by the theorem. Since the dimension of the codomain of h {\displaystyle h} is the number of rows in H {\displaystyle H} , if the rank of H {\displaystyle H} equals the number of rows, then the dimension of the rangespace equals the dimension of the codomain. But a subspace with the same <｜fim▁hole｜> equal that superspace (a basis for the rangespace is a linearly independent subset of the codomain, whose size is equal to the dimension of the codomain, and so this set is a basis for the codomain). For the second half, a linear map is one-to-one if and only if it is an isomorphism between its domain and its range, that is, if and only if its domain has the same dimension as its range. But the number of columns in H {\displaystyle H} is the dimension of h {\displaystyle h} 's domain, and by the theorem the rank of H {\displaystyle H} equals the dimension of h {\displaystyle h} 's range. The above results end any confusion caused by our use of the word "rank" to mean apparently different things when applied to matrices and when applied to maps. We can also justify the dual use of "nonsingular". We've defined a matrix to be nonsingular if it is square and is the matrix of coefficients of a linear system with a unique solution, and we've defined a linear map to be nonsingular if it is one-to-one. Corollary 2.6 A square matrix represents nonsingular maps if and only if it is a nonsingular matrix. Thus, a matrix represents an isomorphism if and only if it is square and nonsingular. Proof Immediate from the prior result. Example 2.7 Any map from R 2 {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2}} to P 1 {\displaystyle {\mathcal {P}}_{1}} represented with respect to any pair of bases by ( 1 2 0 3 ) {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}1&2\\0&3\end{pmatrix}}} is nonsingular because this matrix has rank two. Example 2.8 Any map g : V → W {\displaystyle g:V\to W} represented by ( 1 2 3 6 ) {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}1&2\\3&6\end{pmatrix}}} is not nonsingular because this matrix is not nonsingular. We've now seen that the relationship between maps and matrices goes both ways: fixing bases, any linear map is represented by a matrix and any matrix describes a linear map. That is, by fixing spaces and bases we get a correspondence between maps and matrices. In the rest of this chapter we will explore this correspondence. For instance, we've defined for linear maps the operations of addition and scalar multiplication and we shall see what the corresponding matrix operations are. We shall also see the matrix operation that represent the map operation of composition. And, we shall see how to find the matrix that represents a map's inverse. Exercises This exercise is recommended for all readers. Problem 1 Decide if the vector is in the column space of the matrix. ( 2 1 2 5 ) {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}2&1\\2&5\end{pmatrix}}} , ( 1 − 3 ) {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}1\\-3\end{pmatrix}}} ( 4 − 8 2 − 4 ) {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}4&-8\\2&-4\end{pmatrix}}} , ( 0 1 ) {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}0\\1\end{pmatrix}}} ( 1 − 1 1 1 1 − 1 − 1 − 1 1 ) {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}1&-1&1\\1&1&-1\\-1&-1&1\end{pmatrix}}} , ( 2 0 0 ) {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}2\\0\\0\end{pmatrix}}} This exercise is recommended for all readers. Problem 2 Decide if each vector lies in the range of the map from R 3 {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{3}} to R 2 {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2}} represented with respect to the standard bases by the matrix. ( 1 1 3 0 1 4 ) {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}1&1&3\\0&1&4\end{pmatrix}}} , ( 1 3 ) {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}1\\3\end{pmatrix}}} ( 2 0 3 4 0 6 ) {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}2&0&3\\4&0&6\end{pmatrix}}} , ( 1 1 ) {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}1\\1\end{pmatrix}}} This exercise is recommended for all readers. Problem 3 Consider this matrix, representing a transformation of R 2 {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2}} , and these bases for that space. 1 2 ⋅ ( 1 1 − 1 1 ) B = ⟨ ( 0 1 ) , ( 1 0 ) ⟩ D = ⟨ ( 1 1 ) , ( 1 − 1 ) ⟩ {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{2}}\cdot {\begin{pmatrix}1&1\\-1&1\end{pmatrix}}\qquad B=\langle {\begin{pmatrix}0\\1\end{pmatrix}},{\begin{pmatrix}1\\0\end{pmatrix}}\rangle \quad D=\langle {\begin{pmatrix}1\\1\end{pmatrix}},{\begin{pmatrix}1\\-1\end{pmatrix}}\rangle } To what vector in the codomain is the first member of B {\displaystyle B} mapped? The second member? Where is a general vector from the domain (a vector with components x {\displaystyle x} and y {\displaystyle y} ) mapped? That is, what transformation of R 2 {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2}} is represented with respect to B , D {\displaystyle B,D} by this matrix? Problem 4 What transformation of F = { a cos ⁡ θ + b sin ⁡ θ \| a , b ∈ R } {\displaystyle F=\{a\cos \theta +b\sin \theta \,{\big \|}\,a,b\in \mathbb {R} \}} is represented with respect to B = ⟨ cos ⁡ θ − sin ⁡ θ , sin ⁡ θ ⟩ {\displaystyle B=\langle \cos \theta -\sin \theta ,\sin \theta \rangle } and D = ⟨ cos ⁡ θ + sin ⁡ θ , cos ⁡ θ ⟩ {\displaystyle D=\langle \cos \theta +\sin \theta ,\cos \theta \rangle } by this matrix? ( 0 0 1 0 ) {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}0&0\\1&0\end{pmatrix}}} This exercise is recommended for all readers. Problem 5 Decide if 1 + 2 x {\displaystyle 1+2x} is in the range of the map from R 3 {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{3}} to P 2 {\displaystyle {\mathcal {P}}_{2}} represented with respect to E 3 {\displaystyle {\mathcal {E}}_{3}} and ⟨ 1 , 1 + x 2 , x ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle 1,1+x^{2},x\rangle } by this matrix. ( 1 3 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 ) {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}1&3&0\\0&1&0\\1&0&1\end{pmatrix}}} Problem 6 Example 2.8 gives a matrix that is nonsingular, and is therefore associated with maps that are nonsingular. Find the set of column vectors representing the members of the nullspace of any map represented by this matrix. Find the nullity of any such map. Find the set of column vectors representing the members of the rangespace of any map represented by this matrix. Find the rank of any such map. Check that rank plus nullity equals the dimension of the domain. This exercise is recommended for all readers. Problem 7 Because the rank of a matrix equals the rank of any map it represents, if one matrix represents two different maps H = R e p B , D ( h ) = R e p B ^ , D ^ ( h ^ ) {\displaystyle H={\rm {Rep}}_{B,D}(h)={\rm {Rep}}_{{\hat {B}},{\hat {D}}}({\hat {h}})} (where h , h ^ : V → W {\displaystyle h,{\hat {h}}:V\to W} ) then the dimension of the rangespace of h {\displaystyle h} equals the dimension of the rangespace of h ^ {\displaystyle {\hat {h}}} . Must these equal-dimensioned rangespaces actually be the same? This exercise is recommended for all readers. Problem 8 Let V {\displaystyle V} be an n {\displaystyle n} -dimensional space with bases B {\displaystyle B} and D {\displaystyle D} . Consider a map that sends, for v → ∈ V {\displaystyle {\vec {v}}\in V} , the column vector representing v → {\displaystyle {\vec {v}}} with respect to B {\displaystyle B} to the column vector representing v → {\displaystyle {\vec {v}}} with respect to D {\displaystyle D} . Show that is a linear transformation of R n {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{n}} . Problem 9 Example 2.2 shows that changing the pair of bases can change the map that a matrix represents, even though the domain and codomain remain the same. Could the map ever not change? Is there a matrix H {\displaystyle H} , vector spaces V {\displaystyle V} and W {\displaystyle W} , and associated pairs of bases B 1 , D 1 {\displaystyle B_{1},D_{1}} and B 2 , D 2 {\displaystyle B_{2},D_{2}} (with B 1 ≠ B 2 {\displaystyle B_{1}\neq B_{2}} or D 1 ≠ D 2 {\displaystyle D_{1}\neq D_{2}} or both) such that the map represented by H {\displaystyle H} with respect to B 1 , D 1 {\displaystyle B_{1},D_{1}} equals the map represented by H {\displaystyle H} with respect to B 2 , D 2 {\displaystyle B_{2},D_{2}} ? This exercise is recommended for all readers. Problem 10 A square matrix is a diagonal matrix if it is all zeroes except possibly for the entries on its upper-left to lower-right diagonal— its 1 , 1 {\displaystyle 1,1} entry, its 2 , 2 {\displaystyle 2,2} entry, etc. Show that a linear map is an isomorphism if there are bases such that, with respect to those bases, the map is represented by a diagonal matrix with no zeroes on the diagonal. Problem 11 Describe geometrically the action on R 2 {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2}} of the map represented with respect to the standard bases E 2 , E 2 {\displaystyle {\mathcal {E}}_{2},{\mathcal {E}}_{2}} by this matrix. ( 3 0 0 2 ) {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}3&0\\0&2\end{pmatrix}}} Do the same for these. ( 1 0 0 0 ) ( 0 1 1 0 ) ( 1 3 0 1 ) {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}1&0\\0&0\end{pmatrix}}\quad {\begin{pmatrix}0&1\\1&0\end{pmatrix}}\quad {\begin{pmatrix}1&3\\0&1\end{pmatrix}}} Problem 12 The fact that for any linear map the rank plus the nullity equals the dimension of the domain shows that a necessary condition for the existence of a homomorphism between two spaces, onto the second space, is that there be no gain in dimension. That is, where h : V → W {\displaystyle h:V\to W} is onto, the dimension of W {\displaystyle W} must be less than or equal to the dimension of V {\displaystyle V} . Show that this (strong) converse holds: no gain in dimension implies that there is a homomorphism and, further, any matrix with the correct size and correct rank represents such a map. Are there bases for R 3 {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{3}} such that this matrix H = ( 1 0 0 2 0 0 0 1 0 ) {\displaystyle H={\begin{pmatrix}1&0&0\\2&0&0\\0&1&0\end{pmatrix}}} represents a map from R 3 {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{3}} to R 3 {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{3}} whose range is the x y {\displaystyle xy} plane subspace of R 3 {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{3}} ? Problem 13 Let V {\displaystyle V} be an n {\displaystyle n} -dimensional space and suppose that x → ∈ R n {\displaystyle {\vec {x}}\in \mathbb {R} ^{n}} . Fix a basis B {\displaystyle B} for V {\displaystyle V} and consider the map h x → : V → R {\displaystyle h_{\vec {x}}:V\to \mathbb {R} } given v → ↦ x → ⋅ R e p B ( v → ) {\displaystyle {\vec {v}}\mapsto {\vec {x}}\cdot {\rm {Rep}}_{B}({\vec {v}})} by the dot product. Show that this map is linear. Show that for any linear map g : V → R {\displaystyle g:V\to \mathbb {R} } there is an x → ∈ R n {\displaystyle {\vec {x}}\in \mathbb {R} ^{n}} such that g = h x → {\displaystyle g=h_{\vec {x}}} . In the prior item we fixed the basis and varied the x → {\displaystyle {\vec {x}}} to get all possible linear maps. Can we get all possible linear maps by fixing an x → {\displaystyle {\vec {x}}} and varying the basis? Problem 14 Let V , W , X {\displaystyle V,W,X} be vector spaces with bases B , C , D {\displaystyle B,C,D} . Suppose that h : V → W {\displaystyle h:V\to W} is represented with respect to B , C {\displaystyle B,C} by the matrix H {\displaystyle H} . Give the matrix representing the scalar multiple r h {\displaystyle rh} (where r ∈ R {\displaystyle r\in \mathbb {R} } ) with respect to B , C {\displaystyle B,C} by expressing it in terms of H {\displaystyle H} . Suppose that h , g : V → W {\displaystyle h,g:V\to W} are represented with respect to B , C {\displaystyle B,C} by H {\displaystyle H} and G {\displaystyle G} . Give the matrix representing h + g {\displaystyle h+g} with respect to B , C {\displaystyle B,C} by expressing it in terms of H {\displaystyle H} and G {\displaystyle G} . Suppose that h : V → W {\displaystyle h:V\to W} is represented with respect to B , C {\displaystyle B,C} by H {\displaystyle H} and g : W → X {\displaystyle g:W\to X} is represented with respect to C , D {\displaystyle C,D} by G {\displaystyle G} . Give the matrix representing g ∘ h {\displaystyle g\circ h} with respect to B , D {\displaystyle B,D} by expressing it in terms of H {\displaystyle H} and G {\displaystyle G} . Solutions Linear Algebra ← Representing Linear Maps with Matrices Any Matrix Represents a Linear Map Matrix Operations → <｜fim▁end｜>	dimension as its superspace must
<｜fim▁begin｜> A Pippin Atmark console with controller. History Development The console was primarily developed as a joint effort between Apple and Bandai.[1] Apple was in dire straits and unable to dedicate many resources to producing a console, leading Bandai and other partners to handle most aspects of the console not related to it's core Mac architecture.[1] Launch The Pippin was announced in late 1994.[2] The Japanese and American launches occurred in 1995.[3] The Apple Pippin cost $599.[4][5] Discontinuation 42,000 Apple Pippins were sold.[5] The Apple Pippin was discontinued in 1997 when Steve Jobs came back to Apple.[4][6] Technology Compute The Pippin used a 66MHz PowerPC Processor.[7] Video and System Memory was a combined 6MB.[7] Storage 128 Kilobytes of SRAM resided on the system for saving games and settings[7], with a modified Mac OS 7 operating system residing on each game disk to avoid compatibility and optimization issues.[5][4][6] The Pippin had a 4x speed CD-ROM drive.[7] Notable games Gadget: Invention, Travel, & Adventure Gundam Tactics: Mobility Fleet 0079 Super Marathon Gallery Bandai Apple Pippin Katz Media Player 2000 Applejack Controller IO The IO on the rear of the console. This console was made in Japan. Pippin modem Controller plug Internals Bandai Apple <｜fim▁hole｜> more There is a Wikibook on the History of Apple Inc. References Wikipedia has related information at Apple Pippin Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Apple Pippin Parts of this page are based on materials from: Wikipedia: the free encyclopedia. ↑ a b Staff, Ars (24 March 2018). "The Mac gaming console that time forgot" (in en-us). Ars Technica. https://arstechnica.com/gaming/2018/03/the-mac-gaming-console-time-has-forgot/. ↑ "The Cutting Edge: COMPUTING / TECHNOLOGY / INNOVATION : Apple's Pippin Plays Video Games, Plugs Into TV Set". Los Angeles Times. 14 December 1994. https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1994-12-14-fi-8786-story.html. Retrieved 24 October 2020. ↑ Frank, Allegra (8 September 2015). "Before gaming on iOS and Apple TV, there was Pippin" (in en). Polygon. https://www.polygon.com/2015/9/8/9277273/what-is-pippin-apple-tv. Retrieved 24 October 2020. ↑ a b c "The Most Unusual Video Game Consoles" (in en). PCMAG. https://www.pcmag.com/news/the-most-unusual-video-game-consoles. Retrieved 24 October 2020. ↑ a b c Villas-Boas, Antonio. "Apple made a game console back in 1996, and it was terrible". Business Insider. https://www.businessinsider.com/apple-made-a-games-console-called-pippin-in-1996-2017-6. Retrieved 24 October 2020. ↑ a b Johnston, Casey (25 August 2011). "For the good of the company? Five Apple products Steve Jobs killed" (in en-us). https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2011/08/five-apple-products-steve-jobs-killed-for-the-good-of-the-company/. Retrieved 24 October 2020. ↑ a b c d "PIPPIN TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS". 29 January 1997. https://web.archive.org/web/19970129095719/http://www.pippin.apple.com/TechSpecs.html. Retrieved 24 October 2020. <｜fim▁end｜>	Pippin Motherboard Pippin Bios Read
<｜fim▁begin｜> \|VVEchêkum\|} `The Sea.' \|Kìtthan.\| } \|Paumpágussit.\| `The Sea-God', or, that name which they give that Deitie or Godhead which they conceive to be in the Sea. {Obs.} \|Mishoòn\| an {Indian} Boat, or Canow made of a Pine or Oake, or Chestnut-tree: I have seene a Native goe into the woods with his hatchet, carrying onely a Basket of Corne with <109/r.107> <{Of the Sea}, ctc.> with him, & stones to strike fire when he had feld his tree (being a {chesnut}) he made him a little House or shed of the bark of it, he puts fire and followes the burning of it with fire, in the midst in many places: his corne he boyles and hath the Brook by him, and sometimes angles for a little fish; but so hee continues burning and hewing untill he hath within ten or twelve dayes (lying there at his worke alone) finished, and (getting hands,) lanched his Boate; with which afterward hee ventures out to fish in the Ocean. \|Mishoonémese.\| `A little Canow.' Some of them will not well carry above three or foure: but some of them twenty, thirty, forty men. \|Wunnauanoúnuck.\| `A Shallop.' \|Wunnauanounuckquèse.\|- `A Skiffe.' {Obs.} Although themselves have neither, yet they give them such names, which in their Language signifieth carrying Vessells. \|Kitônuck.\| `A Ship.' \|Kitónuckquese.\| `A little ship.' \|Mishìttouwand.\| `A great Canow.' \|Peewàsu.\| `A little one.' \|Paugautemissaúnd.\| `An Oake Canow.' Kowwow <110/r.108> <Of {the} Sea, {&c}.> \|Kowawwaúnd.\| `A pine Canow.' \|Wompmissaúnd.\| `A chesnut Canow.' \|Ogwhan.\| `A boat adrift.' \|Wuskon-tógwhan.\| `It will goe a drift.' \|Cuttunnamìinnea.\| `Help me to launch.' \|Cuttunnummútta.\| `Let us launch.' \|Cuttúnnamoke.\| `Launch.' \|Cuttánnummous.\| `I will help you.' \|Wútkunck.\| `A paddle or Oare.' \|Namacóuhe cómishoon.\|- `Lend me your Boate.' \|Paútousnenótehunck\| `Bring hither my paddle.' \|Comishoónhom?\| `Goe you by water?' \|Chémosh-chémeck.\| `Paddle or row.' \|Maumìnikish\| {&} \|Maumanetepweéas.\| `Pull up, or row lustily.' \|Sepâkehig.\| `A Sayle.' \|Sepagehommaúta.\| `Let us saile.' \|Wunnâgehan.\| `We have a faire wind.' {Obs.} Their owne reason hath taught them, to pull of a Coat or two and set it up on a small pole, with which they will saile before a wind ten, or twenty mile, &c. \|Wauaúpunish.\| `Hoyse up.' \|Wuttáutnish.\| `Pull to you.' \|Nókanish.\| `Take it downe.' \|Pakétenish.\| `Let goe or let flie.' \|Nikkoshkowwaúmen.\| `We shall be drown'd.' Nquawup <111/r.109> <Of {the} Sea, {&c}.> \|Nquawu pshâwmen.\| `We overset.' \|Wussaúme pechepaúsha.\|- `The Sea comes in too fast upon us.' \|Maumaneeteántass.\| `Be of good courage.' {Obs.} It is wonderfull to see how they will venture in those Canoes, and how (being oft overset as I have my selfe been with them) they will swim a mile, yea two or more safe to Land: I having been necessitated to passe waters diverse times with them, it hath pleased God to make them many times the instruments of my preservation: and when sometimes in great danger I have questioned safety, they have said to me: Feare not, if we be overset I will carry you safe to Land. \|Paupaútuckquash.\| `Hold water.' \|Kìnnequass.\| `Steere.' \|Tiáckomme kìnniquass.\|- `Steere right.' \|Kunnósnep.\| `A Killick, or Anchor.' \|Chowwophómmin.\| `To cast over-boord.' \|Chouwóphash.\| `Cast over-board' \|Touwopskhómmke.\| `Cast anchor.' \|Mishittáshin.\| `It is a storme.' \|Awêpesha.\| `It caulmes.' \|Awêpu.\| `A calme.' \|Nanoúwashin.\| `A great caulme.' \|Tamóccon.\| `Floud.' <112/r.110> <Of {the Sea}.> \|Nanashowetamóccon\| `Halfe Floud.' \|Keesaqúshin.\| `High water.' \|Taumacoks.\| `Vpon the Floud.' \|Mishittommóckon.\| `A great Floud.' \|Maúchetan\| {&} \|skàt.\| `Ebb.' \|Mittâeskat.\| `A low Ebb.' \|Awánick Paúdhuck?\| `Who comes there?' {Obs.} I have knowne thirty or forty of their Canowes fill'd with men, and neere as many more of their enemies in a Sea-fight. \|Caupau~shess.\| `Goe ashoare.' \|Caupaushâuta.\| `Let us goe ashoare.' \|Wusséheposh.\| `Heave out the water.' \|Asképunish.\| `Make fast the Boat.' \|Kspúnsh\| {&} \|Kspúnemoke.\|- `Tie it fast.' \|Maumìnikish.\| `Tie it hard.' \|Neene Cuthómwock.\| `Now they goe off.' \|Kekuthomwushánnick.\|- `They are gone already.' {Generall} Observations {of the Sea}. How unsearchable are the depth of the Wisedome and Power of God in separating from {Europe}, {Asia} and {Africa} such a mightie vast continent as {America} is? and that for so many <113/r.111> <Of {Fish} and {Fish}.> many ages? as also, by such a Westerne Ocean of about three thousand of {English} miles breadth in passage over? More particular: {They see Gods wonders that are call'd Through dread full Seas to passe, In tearing winds and roaring seas, And calmes as smooth as glasse. I have in} Europes {ships, oft been In King of terrours hand; When all have cri'd}, Now, now we sinck, {Yet God bronght safe to land. Alone 'mongst} Indians {in Canoes, Sometimes o're-turn'd, I have been Halfe inch from death, in Ocean deepe, Gods wonders I have seene. CHAP. XIX. Of {Fish} and {Fishing}. \|NAmaùs,-suck.\| `Fish, Fishes.' \|Pauganaùt, tamwock.\|- `Cod, Which is the first that comes a little before the Spring.' Qunna <114/r.112> <{Of the} Sea, {&c}.> \|Qunnamáug-suck.\| `Lampries.' The first that come in the Spring <｜fim▁hole｜> \|Aumsúog\|, {&} \|Munnawhatteaúg.\|- `A Fish somewhat like a Herring.' \|Missúckeke-kéquock.\| `Basse.' The {Indians} (and the {English} too) make a daintie dish of the \|Uppaquóntup\|, or head of this Fish; and well they may, the braines and fat of it being very much, and sweet as marrow. \|Kaúposh-shaúog.\| `Sturgeon.' {Obs.} Divers part of the Countrey abound with this Fish; yet the Natives for the goodnesse and greatnesse of it, much prize it and will neither furnish the {English} with so many, nor so cheape, that any great trade is like to be made of it, untill the {English} themselves are fit to follow the fishing. The Natives venture one or two in a Canow, and with an harping Iron, or such like Instrument sticke this fish, and so hale it into their Canow; sometimes they take them by their nets, which they make strong of Hemp. \|Ashòp.\| `Their Nets.' Which they will set thwart some little River or Cove wherein they kil Basse (at the fall of the water) with their arrows, or sharp sticks, especially if headed with Iron, gotten from the {Engish}, &c. Aucup. <105/r.113> <Of {their nakednesse and clothing}.> \|Aucùp.\| A little Cove or Creeke. \|Aucppâwese.\| `A very little one.' \|Wawwhunnekesúog.\| `Mackrell.` \|Mishquammauquock.\| `Red fish, Salmon.' \|O[s]acontuck.\| `A fat sweet fish, something like a Haddock.' \|Mishcùp-paúog\| `Breame.' \|Sequanamauquock.\| {Obs.} Of this fish there is abundance which the Natives drie in the Sunne and smoake; and some {English} begin to salt, both wayes they keepe all the yeere; and it is hoped it may be as well accepted as Cod at a Market, and better, if once knowne. \|Taut-auog.\| `Sheeps-heads.' \|Neeshau~og\| } \|Sassammau~quock\| } `Eeles.' \|Nquittéconnauog.\|} \|Tatackommmâu~og.\| `Porpuses.' \|Pótop-pauog.\| `Whales': Which in some places are often cast up; I have seene some of them, but not above sixtie foot long: The {Natives} cut them out in severall parcells, and give and send farre and neere for an acceptable present, or dish. \|Missêsu.\| `The whole.' \|Poquêsu.\| `The halfe.' \|Waskèke.\| `The Whalebone.' Wussúck <106/r.114> <Of {Fishes}.> \|Wussúckqun.\| `A taile.' \|Aumau~og.\| `They are fiishing.' \|Ntaúmen.\| `I am fishing.' \|Kuttau~men?\| `Doe you fish?' \|Nnattuckqunnu~wem.\| `I goe afishing.' \|Aumáchick,\| } \|Natuckqunnuwâchick.\|-} `Fishes.' \|Aumaúi.\| `He is gone to fish.' \|Awácenick kukkattineanaúmen?\|- `What doe you fish for?' \|Ashau~nt-teau~g.\| `Lobsters.' \|Opponenau~hock.\| `Oysters.' \|Sickíssuog.\| `Clams.' {Obs.} This is a sweet kind of shelfish, which all {Indians} generally over the Countrey, Winter and Summer delight in; and at low water the women dig for them: this fish, and the naturall liquor of it, they boile, and it makes their broth and their \|Nasau~mp\| (which is a kind of thickned broth) and their bread seasonable and savory, instead of Salt: and for that the {English} Swine dig and root these Clams wheresoever they come, and watch the low water (as the {Indian} women do) therefore of all the {Euglish} Cattell, the Swine (as also because of their filthy disposition) are most <107/r.115> <{Of Fishes}.> most hatefull to all Natives, and they call them filthy cut throats &c. \|Séqunnock.\| `A Horse-fish.' \|Poquaúhock.\| {Obs.} This the English call Hens, a little thick shel-fiish, which the Indians wade deepe and dive for, and after they have eaten the meat there (in those which are good) they breake out of the shell, about halfe an inch of a blacke part of it, of which they make their \|Suckau~hock\|, or black money, which is to them pretious. \|Meteaúhock.\| `The Periwinckle.' Of which they make their \|Wómpam\|, or white money, of halfe the value of their \|Suckáwhock\|, or blacke money, of which more in the Chapter of their Coyne. \|Cumménakiss,\| \|Cummenakìssamen\| `Have you taken store?' \|Cummuchickinneanâwmen?\|- \|Numménakiss.\| `I have taken store.' \|Nummuchikineanâwmen.\|- `I have killed many.' \|Machàge.\| `I have caught none.' \|Aúmanep,\| `A fishing-line.' \|Aumanápeash.\| `Lines.' The <108/r.116> <Of {Fish},&c.> The Natives take exceeding great paines in their fishing, especially in watching their seasons by night; so that frequently they lay their naked bodies many a cold night on the cold shoare about a fire of two or three sticks, and oft in the night search their Nets; and sometimes goe in and stay longer in frozen water. \|Hoquaùn aúnash.\| `Hooke, hookes.' \|Peewâsicks.\| `Little hookes.' \|Maúmacocks.\| `Great hookes.' \|Nponamouôog.\| `I set nets for them.' \|Npunnouwaúmen.\| `I goe to search my nets.' \|Mihtúckquashep.\| `An Eele-pot.' \|Kunnagqunneúteg.\| `A greater sort.' \|Onawangónnakaun.\| `A baite.' \|Yo onawangónnatees\| `Baite with this.' \|Moamitteau~g.\| `A little sort of fish', halfe as big as Sprats, plentifull in Winter. \|Paponaumsu~og.\| `A winter fish', which comes up in the brookes and rivulets; some call them Frost fish, from their comming up from the Sea into fresh Brookes, in times of frost and snow. \|Qunôsuog.\| `A fresh fish'; which the {Indians} break the Ice in fresh ponds, when they take also many other sorts: for, to my knowledge the Country yeelds many sorts of other fish, which I mention not. <｜fim▁end｜>	into the fresh Rivers.
<｜fim▁begin｜> Assumptions Definition from sequences Term-by-term operations on sequences The limit of a geometric sequence Proof 0.999 … = lim n → ∞ 0. 99 … 9 ⏟ n = lim n → ∞ ∑ k = 1 n 9 10 k <｜fim▁hole｜> ∞ ( 1 − 1 10 n ) = 1 − lim n → ∞ 1 10 n = 1. {\displaystyle 0.999\ldots =\lim _{n\to \infty }0.\underbrace {99\ldots 9} _{n}=\lim _{n\to \infty }\sum _{k=1}^{n}{\frac {9}{10^{k}}}=\lim _{n\to \infty }\left(1-{\frac {1}{10^{n}}}\right)=1-\lim _{n\to \infty }{\frac {1}{10^{n}}}=1.\,} <｜fim▁end｜>	= lim n →
<｜fim▁begin｜> Introduction to Heat Transfer This book deals with heat transfer in the engineering context, particularly for chemical and mechanical engineers. It includes the basic physics and technology which is used for heating and cooling in industry. Of course, the principles may be applied in other fields if appropriate, and engineers may deal with new technology quite unlike traditional ones. It is intended as a beginning text for first or second year engineering degree students. If you add to or amend this (and you are most welcome) please do so either by careful reference to an authoritative textbook, or on the basis of your trustworthy professional experience, if you have this. Here is a quick run through some basics, which will be covered in more detail in subsequent chapters. Contents 1 Basic Concepts 2 Temperature 3 Enthalpy 4 Heat capacity or specific heat 4.1 A simple calculation 5 Heat Transfer Mechanisms 5.1 Conduction 5.2 Convection 5.3 Radiation Basic Concepts Heat transfer in engineering consists of the transfer of enthalpy(Rate of movement) because of a temperature difference(Difference in potential between two points of movement). Enthalpy is the name for heat energy, to distinguish it from other sorts, such as kinetic energy, pressure energy, useful work. There has to be a temperature difference, or no heat transfer occurs. (If we insist on a change in enthalpy from a cold body to a warm one, we will have to do more work, as in the case of a refrigerator(We are moving up or against the current[defined as natural flow]). This invariably involves some other process, such as mechanical work via outside forces, and cooling by expansion of gases/internal forces, but within the overall activity heat transfer always goes from the warmer to the cooler.) The temperature difference is called the driving force. Other things being equal, a greater temperature difference will give a greater rate of heat transfer. Enthalpy - The Rate of Movement within a system System - Defined as a Vector between two separate Forces Force - Defined as a Basic non-functional unit Non-Functional Unit - Heat or Cold Enthalpy thus defines Heat as a Non-Functional Unit within a System, its location, and intensity Temperature Temperature is an intensive property: that is it does not depend on the amount of substance. On the Atomic Level, Heat is completely dependent upon the Volume of an Atom, thus: As the volume of an atom increases, so does its capacity to hold heat, as a function of the same as mass can hold cold(the inverse of Enthalpy). Thus one kilogram of copper at 80 °C and 12 kg of copper at 80 °C both have the same Enthalpy. Note that unless we are dealing with radiated heat, it is not normally necessary to change these values to the Absolute Temperature scale. The Celsius temperature is simply defined as the number of kelvin above 273.15 K. If we wish to calculate heat transfer from these blocks of copper to water at 20 °C, it is quite adequate to say the temperature difference is 80 °C - 20 °C = 60 K. We get the same answer with more effort by saying it is 353 – 293 = 60 K. (As I am working to the nearest degree, I have omitted the 0.15 K). Temperatures may be given on the Absolute or Celsius temperature scales, but temperature differences should be given in Kelvin. Temperature is also defined as the degree of hotness. It plays an important role in the subject of thermodynamics and heat transfer (i.e.in Thermal energy). Temperature in Algebra can be defined on the number line as the difference in potential between positive and negative infinity, with infinity itself being related to Zero Kelvin, thus it is understood why concepts such as Negative Kelvin, SuperConductors, and other phenomena are able to exist in the Universe. Hence we are also able to infer why Zero Kelvin and SuperConductors, often go hand in hand. (Further reading on Wetting, Cohesiveness, and Adhesiveness in Chemistry and NanoSciences) Enthalpy Enthalpy is a measure of the total energy(or the Rate of Movement) stored in a thermodynamic(^needs to be defined) system. It includes the internal energy, which is a function of temperature, and it's inverse, which is the amount of energy required to make room for it by displacing the environment and establishing its respective volume and pressure(see Partial Gas Pressure, Partial Volume). example: V x = V t o t × p x p t o t = V t o t × n x n t o t {\displaystyle V_{x}=V_{tot}\times {\frac {p_{x}}{p_{tot}}}=V_{tot}\times {\frac {n_{x}}{n_{tot}}}} (1.3) Enthalpy is the preferred expression of a System of measurement as energy changes in many chemical, biological, and physical ways, because it tends to simplify certain descriptions of energy transfer. This is because a change in Enthalpy takes account of energy transferred to the environment through the expansion of an observed System. Enthalpy is a State Property: the Enthalpy of a System depends upon measurable properties(Completeness) of the system, but not on the incompleteness of the system. Enthalpy is an extensive property: it depends on the amount of material. Thus 12 kg of copper at 80 °C will have 12 times the enthalpy of one kilogram of the same substance at the same temperature. However, we generally express enthalpy (more properly specific enthalpy) per unit mass. The unit of measurement for enthalpy in the International System of Units (SI) is the joule, but other historical, conventional units are still in use, such as the British thermal unit and the calorie. The specific enthalpy hence has units of J/kg, or BTU/lb. Enthalpy is theorized to be based entirely upon the volumetric structure of an atom. At such a scale, vacuum of course is present within an the System we would call an Atom, where Kinetic Energy, and other Laws of Physics will of course apply. At this Level of Existence (LOG), Radiation, and other forms of Electromagnetic Radiation, such as Heat, can either be contained or expelled based on the structure of an Atom, which is determined by the most simple equation, E=mv. The Rate of Mass to Volume, will determine the behavior of an atom, while the amount of Mass will determine the radioactivity (due to the ability of a mass to control objects in movement around it (Enthalpy)). If Equillibrium in an atom is lost, then we will observe a Heat Transfer from the internal structure of an Atom, to the External World (Our world). This is due to the Event Horizon of an Atom, and the amount of Total Heat within the Atom. As the Total Heat reaches Equillibrium, and past it (Meaning it spills out the atom quite literally), the Atom will change in Shape and Structure, as a function of the same. The total enthalpy, H, of a system cannot be measured directly. Thus, Change in Enthalpy, ΔH, is a more useful quantity than its absolute value. ΔH of a system is equal to the sum total of all non-mechanical work done on it and the heat supplied to it. If a body passes from a thermodynamic state A to a thermodynamic state B at the same pressure as A, the heat transferred to the environment B (and thus it's pressure as well) is given by: Q = Δ H = H e n d − H s t a r t {\displaystyle Q=\Delta H=H_{end}-H_{start}} Coupled systems, where heat transfer produces changes in pressure or volume (and vice versa) will be treated later in the text. Tables and graphs are available listing the specific enthalpy of many materials at various thermodynamic states. For each table, a reference state is chosen. The given Enthalpy can be understood as the amount of energy which would have to be put into the system to raise it from a reference temperature (more precisely, a reference state). For water, a common reference state is 0 °C, atmospheric pressure, with all the water in the liquid phase. A more precise reference state will refer to the neutral state of an atom. Zero Kelvin, Zero Pressure, Equal amounts of Mass and Volume. The standard state for copper is solid. The standard state for oxygen is gas. As a guide, the standard state is the phase the material would have at normal laboratory conditions of temperature and pressure. However, various engineering disciplines have their own conventions. This of course is changing as we are approaching the Interstellar Era, where most programs will begin to be conducted during Flight, where atmospheric pressures are less of an issue. At 80 °C, water (at atmospheric pressure) has a specific enthalpy of 391.7 kJ/kg. Therefore one kilogram of liquid water at 80 °C would have an enthalpy of 391.7 kJ, and 7.3 kg would have an enthalpy of 7.3 x 391.7 = 2584 kJ. There are two components to enthalpy, one due to the temperature, another to the phase. For example, from the above table, liquid water at 100 °C has a specific enthalpy of 419.1 kJ/kg, but steam at 100 °C has a specific enthalpy of 2675.4 kJ/kg – quite a lot more! The difference, 2257.9 kJ/kg is the enthalpy which has to be put into water to change it from a liquid to a vapour. This quantity is called the enthalpy of vaporization of water, or the latent heat of steam. “Latent” means hidden, because the steam is not hotter than the water, but has all this hidden internal energy which spills out from the inside of the atom to the outside. Thus determining the Event Horizon(or the point at which internal becomes external) of an atom would be based upon the Enthalpy of Vaporization as a function of space, possibly volume, while it's mass would be based upon the amount of movement of the whole system of the atom itself in space. Essentially how far an atom moves in space, versus it's change in state and the Enthalpy required to achieve such a physical reaction. This equation is difficult to reproduce however since particle wave behavior and it's conversion to number theory is still incorrect. Numbers would have to be understood in terms of Quantum Behavior before such an equation could be solved. (Note - The relationship between ration and irrational numbers where everything before the decimal point is rational and everything after is irrational meaning that rational numbers represent particles and irrational numbers represent waves, where the rational number in quantity exceeds the quality of the irrational numbers a state change could occur) Note that this phenomenon is not restricted to boiling. Water at a temperature of 37 °C has a specific enthalpy of vaporization of 2414 kJ/kg: this heat is taken up if it evaporates at that temperature, which is why sweating cools you down. A heat exchange occurs similar to gases and liquids (refer to equation 1.3) where gases within a liquid are free to ionize into a gaseous state, after which an equilibrium is reached, then begin to return to a non-ionized and soluble state as a solid once more. With Enthalpy, the heat is transferred into the liquid, (presumably from a solid form of water, possible within a cell, specifically the nucleus) after which point it reaches its radioactive state(heat when outside of an atom), whereafter an equilibrium is reached, then begins to return back to its non-radioactive or internal state from an external environment. Similarly, when ice at 0 °C melts to water at 0 °C it requires the input of heat to match its latent heat of melting, or enthalpy of crystallization. Thus (according to this convention) liquid water at 0 °C has zero enthalpy. Ice at the same temperature has a negative enthalpy. Other tables may give enthalpy relative to Absolute Zero, 0.0 K, or to a laboratory temperature of 298 K. In terms of Radiation, Enthalpy would technically still be present within an atom until it again reaches a gaseous state after becoming a solid[meaning it was <｜fim▁hole｜> second])This would only be possible if a perfect lattice of the atomic structure were to form, and would be dependent upon the surroundings of the material in question). Chemical engineers sometimes use the ambient temperature (i.e. the temperature of the surroundings) as a reference condition – perhaps 10 °C in a cold country, 30 °C in a hot country. This means that all material stored or added to a system at ambient temperature has zero enthalpy and they only have to worry about things that are hotter or colder. This can simplify the energy balance. This is only useful on Earth of course. Any program of Mars would require a complete overhaul of this past system. Atoms since their natural state is always preserved despite the external world which we live in,(meaning essentially an atom's internal enthalpy and entropy remain constant despite outside influences [unless somehow it is radioactive]) it would be much more intelligent to use such a system as the new system of constants for measuring enthalpy, and other useful tidbits which will definitely be required in Space Flight and on Mars. Heat capacity or specific heat If we have to heat something up (without a phase change), for example 12 kg of copper from 20 °C to 80 °C, the amount of enthalpy we have to put in depends on three things. (1) The temperature difference to be achieved, in this case 60 K. (2) The mass, in this case 12 kg. (3) A property of the substance called specific heat capacity, which is a measure of how much energy is required to raise the temperature of 1 kg by 1 K. So, we have: H = m c p Δ T {\displaystyle H=mc_{p}\Delta T} The subscript p {\displaystyle _{p}} remembers that the value of specific heat capacity is valid only if the transformation takes place at constant pressure. In practice, only for gases there's a relevant difference between constant-pressure specific heat and specific heat for other transformations (e.g. constant volume, polythropics...). Solids and liquids have only one value of specific heat capacity. For example, copper has a specific heat capacity of 0.383 kilojoules per kilogram per kelvin (0.383 kJ kg-1 K-1). Therefore we have to put in 0.383 x 12 x 60 = 276 kJ. If on the other hand, we had to heat up 12 kg of water from 20 °C to 80 °C, we would use the specific heat capacity of water, 4.184 kJ kg-1 K-1, and our calculation would be: 4.184 x 12 x 60 = 3012 kJ. Note that these terms tend to be used loosely. What is properly the specific heat capacity is often referred to as the specific heat or the heat capacity. If in doubt, look at the units. Technically the heat capacity refers to the whole body, the specific heat capacity to a mass – in the SI system one kilogram. In thermodynamic tables, data is sometimes given per mole or kilomole instead of per kilogram, especially for gases. You may also come across older data in which the obsolete unit the calorie (= 4.184 J) is used and the mass is one gram. Sorry, but you will have to convert. Always look at the units. The definition of specific heat capacity allows to write, for a pressure-constant transformation: Q = Δ H = m c p Δ T {\displaystyle Q=\Delta H=mc_{p}\Delta T} Pressure-constant transformations in heat transfer problems, are often heat exchanges between a fluid and other fluids or solids, e.g. in a heat exchanger. In these cases, mass m {\displaystyle m} is not constant, because it's flowing. So, we have to refer not to mass, but to mass flow rate m ˙ {\displaystyle {\dot {m}}} , and not to energy Q {\displaystyle Q} but to power Q ˙ {\displaystyle {\dot {Q}}} . Hence: Q ˙ = m ˙ c p Δ T {\displaystyle {\dot {Q}}={\dot {m}}c_{p}\Delta T} A simple calculation Suppose 15 kg of cu at 80 °C is put into a bath of 25 kg of water at 20 °C, and there are no heat losses to the surrounding. What will be the final condition? Answer Both the copper and the water will have the same temperature, somewhere between 20 °C and 80 °C. The total enthalpy will be unchanged. Let us take the reference condition as 20 °C. Thus the water has zero enthalpy, and the copper has 15 x (80-20) x 0.383 = 344.7 kJ. This is the enthalpy of the system. Now the total heat capacity of the system is (mass x specific heat capacity of copper) + (mass x specific heat capacity of water) = (15 x 0.383) + (25 x 4.184) = 5.75 + 104.6 = 110.4 kJ K-1 In other words, it would take 110.4 kJ of enthalpy to raise the temperature of the whole system by 1 K (= 1°C). Therefore adding 344.7 kJ of enthalpy would raise the temperature of the system by 344.7 ÷ 110.4 = 3.1 K, so the final temperature would be 23.1 °C. Looking at this a different way, we can see that the specific heat capacity of water is 4.184 ÷ 0.383 = 10.92 times greater. Thus 15 kg of copper has the heat capacity of only 15 ÷ 10.92 = 1.37 kg of water. Thus adding this amount of water to 25 kg would dilute the 60 K temperature difference as 60 x 1.37 ÷ 26.37 = 3.1 K. Heat Transfer Mechanisms There are three modes of Heat Transfer: Conduction, Convection, and Radiation. Conduction is concerned with the transfer of thermal energy through a material without bulk motion of the material. This phenomenon is fundamentally a diffusion process that occurs at the microscopic level. Convection is concerned with the transfer of thermal energy in a moving fluid (liquid or gas). Convection is characterized by two physical principles, conduction (diffusion) and bulk fluid motion (advection). The bulk fluid motion can be caused by an external force, for example, a fan, or may be due to buoyancy effects. Finally, Radiation is the transfer of thermal energy through electro-magnetic waves (or photons). It is interesting to note that Radiation requires no medium. Conduction Conduction is the diffusion of thermal energy, i.e., the movement of thermal energy from regions of higher temperature to regions of lower temperature. On a microscopic level, this occurs due to the passing energy through molecular vibrations. The reason diffusion occurs is due to the nature of equilibrium. Heat contains energy and as it progresses towards equilibrium, especially in excess amounts, it then continues to proceed past equilibrium where it now considered to be a Joule. In other words, it is like throwing a ball into the ocean, it has excess energy, and as it it goes into the water the excess energy is delivered to the water, and as soon as all this energy has dissipated (or rather reached a specific quantity or heat you could say), then it again begins to rise to the surface of the water, again towards equilibrium (in this case the difference between the water and air). Rate of Heat transfer is denoted as Q ˙ {\displaystyle {\dot {Q}}} . The units of heat transfer rate are watts. It should be noted that heat transfer rate is a vector quantity. It is often convenient to describe heat transfer rate in terms of the geometry being studied. Thus we define Q ˙ ′ {\displaystyle {\dot {Q}}'} , Q ˙ ″ {\displaystyle {\dot {Q}}''} , and Q ˙ ‴ {\displaystyle {\dot {Q}}'''} as the heat transfer rate per unit length, area (a.k.a. heat flux), and volume, respectively. It is useful to note that different conventions are often used with notation, and heat flux (heat transfer rate per unit area) is often denoted by q ˙ {\displaystyle {\dot {q}}} . The governing rate equation for conduction is given by Fourier's Law. For one dimension, Fourier's law is expressed as: q ˙ = − k d T d x {\displaystyle {\dot {q}}=-k{\frac {dT}{dx}}} or Q ˙ = − k A d T d x {\displaystyle {\dot {Q}}=-kA{\frac {dT}{dx}}} Where x is the direction of interest, A is the cross-sectional area normal to x, k is a proportionality constant known as thermal conductivity and d T d x {\displaystyle {\frac {dT}{dx}}} is the temperature gradient at the location of interest. The negative sign indicates that heat is transferred in the direction of decreasing temperature. The thermal conductivity is a measure of how readily a material conducts heat. Materials with high conductivity, such as metals, will readily conduct heat even at low temperature gradients. Materials with low conductivity, such as asbestos, will resist heat transfer and are often referred to as insulators. Convection Convection is the transfer of thermal energy between a solid and a moving fluid(sometimes magnetism). If the fluid is not in motion (its Nusselt number is 1), the problem can be classified as Conduction. Convection is governed by two phenomena: the movement of energy due to molecular vibrations within an object and the large-scale motion of fluid particles. In general, Convection is of two types, Forced Convection and Free Convection. Forced Convection occurs when a fluid is forced to flow. For example, a fan blowing air over a heat exchanger is an example of Forced Convection. In Free Convection, the bulk fluid motion is due to buoyancy effects. For example, a vertical heated plate surrounded by quiescent air causes the air surrounding it to be heated. Because hot air has a lower density than cold air, the hot air rises. The void is filled by cold air and the cycle continues. In terms of Electromagnetic Convection of a Solid, it is the attempt of a solid to form a perfect lattice, thus we are able to understand why a solid melts under convection via a high voltage coil. Thus the convection of a gas can yield a liquid. Very useful for Chemical Engineers. The governing rate equation for Convection is given by Newton's Law of Cooling: Q ˙ = h A ( T s − T ∞ ) , {\displaystyle {\dot {Q}}=hA(T_{s}-T_{\infty }),} where h {\displaystyle h} is the heat transfer co-efficient, T s {\displaystyle T_{s}} is the surface temperature of the solid, A {\displaystyle A} is the area and T ∞ {\displaystyle T_{\infty }} is the temperature of the fluid far from the surface. This expression, in spite of its name, is not law. Rather, it is an empirical expression of proportionality of the heat flux and the temperature difference between the solid and the fluid. The heat transfer coefficient is typically determined by experiment. Correlations for heat transfer coefficient for various kinds of flows have been determined and are documented in literature. Radiation Radiation is the transfer of thermal energy between two objects through electromagnetic waves. Unlike conduction and convection, radiation does not require a medium; in other words, radiation heat transfer occurs between two bodies without contact between them. In general, gasses do not take part in radiation heat transfer. Radiation is based on the fact that all objects of finite temperature, i.e. not absolute zero, emit radiation in the form of electro-magnetic waves. These waves travel until they impinge another object. The second object in turn either absorbs, reflects, or transmits the energy. It should be noted that if the second object is of a finite temperature, it is also emitting radiation. A basic fact of radiation is that the heat of radiation is proportional to the fourth power of the temperature of the radiating source. The heat loss is related to the emissivity ε of the material by the equation: Q ˙ = A ϵ σ T 4 {\displaystyle {\dot {Q}}=A\epsilon \sigma T^{4}} An idealized material called a black body has an emissivity of 1. A is the surface area of the radiating object and sigma, σ, is known as the Stefan-Boltzmann constant 5.670 ⋅ 10 − 8 W / ( m 2 K 4 ) {\displaystyle 5.670\cdot 10^{-8}W/(m^{2}K^{4})} <｜fim▁end｜>	a plasma for a split
<｜fim▁begin｜> We learnt from E1 that the three main internal processes are folding, faulting and vulcanicity. How do they shape Hong Kong's landscape? Contents 1 Folding 2 Faulting 3 Vulcanicity 3.1 Intrusive 3.1.1 Batholiths 3.1.2 Dykes 3.2 Extrusive Folding Large-scale fold mountains are absent in Hong Kong. Only small folds bent by internal forces are found. We can find all five fold types in Hong Kong (symmetrical, assymetric, overfold, recunbent, overthrust) because of differences in the strength of compressional forces. Most of the folds are found around Tolo Channel, including Lai Chi Chong, Bluff HHead and Ma Shi Chau. A larger fold is found in Yuen Long. They are found in older sedimentary rocks deformed by gravity during sedimentation and lithification. Faulting Faults are common in Hong Kong. They were oriented according to the general trend of Guangdong's fault system, i.e. the Lianhuashan Fault System, and are thus aligned from northeast to southwest. Others are perpendicular to this direction, and go from northwest to southeast. The three main faults are: Tolo Channel Fault, which runs from Tolo Channel through Sha Tin to Western Kowloon Sha Tau Kok Fault, which runs from Sha Tau Kok through Tsing Lung Tau to Pui O on Lantau Island Tai Lam Fault, which runs from Sha Tau Kok to southern Lantau In addition to the above faults, there are also numerous smaller-scale faults in Hong Kong, such as normal faults found on Lai Chi Chong, Tung Ping Chau and Crooked Island. There are also reverse faults on Port Island and Tai Mo Shan, amongst others. Faults shape the landscape of Hong Kong as they affect external processes. Faults are more vulnerable to weathering and erosion than neighbouring rocks. Therefore, denudation is concentrated along faults. Major spurs, valleys, ridges, headlands, bays and water inlets are positioned and oriented according to faults. Tolo Channel is an important example. It is a water inlet formed along the Tolo Channel Fault, with ridges on both sides. It was originally a valley formed by weathering and erosion before submergence. The valley at Tai Lam Chung is controlled by the Tai Lam Fault. Like Tolo Channel, it was created by weathering and erosion along the fault. The rectangular fault pattern of the area created a rectangular drainage pattern. Vulcanicity Both intrusive and extrusive vulcanicity have shaped Hong Kong's landscape in the past. Vulcanicity is roughly divided into four periods (y.a. stands for years ago): Phase 1 (162-159 million y.a.): <｜fim▁hole｜> southeastern Lantau, northern Lamma and most of the New Territories (such as Tai Lam Chung and Ma Wan) Phase 2 (146 million y.a.): Vulcanicity was found along the Tolo Channel Fault, including at Tsing Yi Phase 3 (142 million y.a.): Vulcanicity was found on Cheung Chau and southeastern Lantau, southern Hong Kong Island, Sai Kung and eastern Tai Po Phase 4 (140 million y.a.): Vulcanicity was found around Victoria Harbour and in Sai Kung (Po Pin Chau, East Dam of High Island Reservoir); this includes the hexagonal columns Intrusive Batholiths Exposed batholiths cover a third of Hong Kong's land area, and include the eastern part of Lantau Island, Castle Peak, Tai Lam Chung, the two sides of Victoria Harbour, including the Stonecutter's. The overlying rocks were removed by denudation to expose the batholiths. As we have discussed in the previous chapter, these rocks produce lower hills because of their lower resistance. Dykes Dykes are also common in Hong Kong. The range from a few centimetres to metres in width, and up to several kilometres in length. They are easy to identify as these intrusions are always darker than the surrounding rocks. They intrude into batholiths, lava flows and older sedimentary rocks. Dykes appear in swarms in the southwest. They cover and extended area and are roughly parallel. They are found in eastern Lantau and Lamma Island, as well as Tsing Yi and Ma Wan. Dykes affect the landscape. Resistant dykes form spurs and waterfalls on Lantau Island. Less resistant dykes form narrow coastal inlets like on Cheung Chau. Extrusive Volcanic eruptions produce large amounts of solidified volcanic ash and lava. They survive to this day and are evidence of prehistoric vulcanicity. Extrusive vulcanicity in Hong Kong Solidified ash layers on Lantau Island The hexagonal columns at Po Pin Chau near East Dam of High Island Reservoir Flow bands in Clear Water Bay Peninsula For the effects of extrusive vulcanicity on the landscape, see the previous chapter. v • d • e HKDSE Geography : Elective 1 - Dynamic Earth: The Building of Hong KongRock Cycle Igneous Rocks · Sedimentary Rocks · Metamorphic Rocks · Physical Weathering · Chemical Weathering · Mass MovementHong Kong's Landscape Rock Type and the Landscape · Internal Processes and the Landscape · External Processes and the Landscape · Human Activities and the Landscape · Geological MapsGeological Resources Mining · Reclamation Materials · Geological Tourism and EducationGeological Hazards Causes of Landslides · Solutions to Landslides <｜fim▁end｜>	Vulcanicity was found on
<｜fim▁begin｜> << Prohibited invasive plants at the SCA Contents 1 Rosa multiflora (multiflora rose) 2 Invasiveness ranking for Rosa multiflora (multiflora rose) 2.1 Ecological impact 2.2 Biological characteristics and dispersal ability 2.3 Ecological amplitude and distribution 2.4 Difficulty of control 2.5 References used for ranking 3 Observations of Rosa multiflora at the SCA Rosa multiflora (multiflora rose) Multiflora rose (also known as rambler rose) is arguably the most annoying invasive plant for trail maintainers as well as hikers. It is native to eastern China, Japan and Korea and was introduced to North America from Japan in the mid-19th century as rootstock for grafted ornamental rose cultivars. By the mid-20th century it was commonly distributed for conservation planting but is now banned by many states. Invasiveness ranking for Rosa multiflora (multiflora rose) Multiflora rose is ranked with a relative maximum score of 89% (very high).[1] Ecological impact Large dense thickets significantly reduce light availability. Species grows as vine, shrub, and various forms in between, allowing it to impact herbaceous and understory shrub layers, plus increase density of shrub layer by itself. In some situations it will not only create a new layer but eradicate all layers below it forming a impenetrable thicket.[2] Substantially increases woody plant layers, outcompeting native woody and herbaceous species.[3] Biological characteristics and dispersal ability Ecological amplitude and distribution Multiflora rose inhabits forested wetlands, cultivated fields, grasslands, old fields, shrublands, forests, woodlands, and roadsides. It is present in all New York State PRISMs.[1] Large stands have been observed in areas with few other invasive species. It was promoted by the U.S. Soil Conservation Service in the 1930s and 1940s for erosion control and wildlife habitat. It shows widespread dispersal as a result of fleshy fruits and vegetative propagation.[4] Difficulty of <｜fim▁hole｜> to pull up, even with a weed wrench, because the stems often crush and break off right at ground level. Some individuals at the SCA have been observed with symptoms similar to those of rose-rosette disease (witches’ brooms and small reddish leaves and shoots), which would have been caused by mites. References used for ranking ↑ a b M.J. Jordan, G. Moore & T.W. Weldy (2008). Invasiveness ranking system for non-native plants of New York. Unpublished. The Nature Conservancy, Cold Spring Harbor, NY; Brooklyn Botanic Garden, Brooklyn, NY; The Nature Conservancy, Albany, NY. Rosa multiflora assessed by Jinshuang Ma, Gerry Moore, Jan. 21, 2009. ↑ David J. Robertson, Mary C. Robertson & Thomas Tague (1994). "Colonization Dynamics of Four Exotic Plants (Lonicera japonica, Ampelopsis brevipedunculata, Celastrus orbiculatus, Rosa multiflora) in a Northern Piedmont Natural Area." Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, 121(2): 107–118. ↑ Nancy Eckardt (1987). Element Stewardship abstract for Rosa multiflora. The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, VA. ↑ Marjorie R. Lundgren, Christine J. Small & Glenn D. Dreyer. (2004) "Influence of Land Use and Site Characteristics on Invasive Plant Abundance in the Quinebaug Highlands of Southern New England." Northeastern Naturalist, 11(3): 313–332. Observations of Rosa multiflora at the SCA The following photographs and corresponding iNaturalist observations of Rosa multiflora were made at or very near the Skaneateles Conservation Area. Click on images to enlarge and read details on Wikimedia Commons or on the "iNat obs" links to view the corresponding observations at iNaturalist. Rosa multiflora in old field south of transfer station hard-fill area, 19 Aug 2012. iNat Obs Rosa multiflora up the hill from the fishing pond, 11 Sep 2015. iNat Obs Rosa multiflora at the east corner of the beaver pond near the dam, 8 Nov 2018. iNat Obs <｜fim▁end｜>	control Multiflora rose is usually difficult
<｜fim▁begin｜> Introduction \| Contributors \| Textual Introduction The Devonshire Manuscript Bibliography A-M \| Bibliography N-Z \| Encoded Materials ←Pacyence tho I have not My lute awake performe the last labor→ The Devonshire Manuscript facsimile 14r f. [14r]1 3 ys yt possyble2 that{{th}+t+} so hye debate3 so sharpe so sore & off suche rate4 shuld end so sone & was begone so late5 is it possyble16 ys yt possyble7 so cruell intent8 so hasty hete & so sone spent9 ffrom love to hate & thens ffor to Rele [] nt10 is it possyble11 ys yt possyble12 that{{th}+t+} eny may fynde13 {v'} {w+t+} within on hert so dyverse mynd14 to change or torne as wether & wynd15 is it possyble16 is it possyble17 to spye yt in an yIe18 that{{th}+t+} tornys as oft as chance on dy19 the trothe wheroff can eny try20 is it possyble21 it is possyble22 ffor to torne so oft23 to bryng that{{th}+t+} lowyste that{{th}+t+} wasse2 most Alofft24 & to fall hyest yet to lyght sofft325 <｜fim▁hole｜> ys possyble27 Who so lyst beleve28 trust therfore fyrst & after preve529 as men wedd ladyes by lycence & leve30 all ys possyblefynys quod{q+d+} Wyatt s Notes & Glosses 1. Note the regular alternation of the spellings of "ys yt" and "is it." 2. Note the unusual spelling of "wasse." It may be phonetic or musical. 3. This may be a contemporary allusion. 4. Note that the indentation gradually increases. 5. This wording and theme connects to "In faythe methynkes yt ys no Ryght" (22r). Commentary Attributed to Sir Thomas Wyatt,[1], this poem was entered by H2. This poem's curious system of spelling, capitalization, spacing, and indentation supports a visual movement from oscillation (or vacillation) to stabilization and linearization, enforcing the poem's thematic content. One example of this gradual movement occurs in the scribe's uses of variant spellings: specifically, he alternates "ys yt" and "is it" and gradually indents the final lines. Works Cited ↑ R.A. Rebholz, ed., Sir Thomas Wyatt: The Complete Poems (London: Penguin, 1978), 181. <｜fim▁end｜>	it is possyble426 All
<｜fim▁begin｜> A central element to the Pokémon RPGs is the concept of the Pokémon battle. A Pokémon battle is contested between two teams of Pokémon. There may or may not be restrictions on the size or makeup of these teams. Each battle is essentially a tag-team match, the objective of which is to knock out (or faint) all the members of the other team. To do so, the hit points of the opposing Pokémon must be reduced to zero through attacks. A battle consists of several rounds. In each round, each side will choose an attack for their active Pokémon. Then, barring special effects from attacks, the faster Pokémon will attack first. If the slower Pokémon remains standing, then it will attack (again, barring special effects from attacks). In some battles, trainers are also permitted to switch Pokémon. As switching is done before any attacks are made, this will allow the other Pokémon to get in a free attack. In the RPGs, a trainer, when battling against a CPU opponent, may also use items that can heal (or otherwise alter the statistics of) Pokémon during a battle. Again, this will allow the opposing Pokémon to get in a free attack. When fighting wild Pokémon, you may also attempt to catch it using a Pokéball. If the catch succeeds, the battle immediately ends, and you acquire a new Pokémon. If the catch fails, the wild Pokémon will attack. So what is the point of battling? Battling will allow Pokémon to gain effort and experience, both of which contribute to increased overall statistics. Battling is also a method of getting Pokémon to learn new attacks or evolve. Type Affinity Type ChartThere are 18 types of Pokémon in the RPGs (15 in the first generation of games, and 17 in games before X and Y), with each type having weaknesses, resistances, and immunities to certain types of attacks. If a Pokémon has a weakness to a certain type of attack, the attack is said to be super-effective, and the damage dealt is doubled. If a Pokémon is resistant to a certain type of attack, the attack is said to be not very effective, and the damage dealt is halved. A Pokémon immune to a certain type of attack, of course, receives no damage. These effects are multiplicative, for Pokémon of more than one type. This can mean that a weakness and a resistance will cancel each other out. It can also mean that a Pokémon is doubly-weak or doubly-resistant to a certain type of attack. Because of the fact that only the type of the attack and the type of the defending Pokémon are considered, it is often a good idea to find the combination of attacks that will allow the Pokémon to do super-effective attacks against every type of Pokémon. There are also attacks that can alter type affinities. For example, attacks such as Foresight remove the immunity of Normal- and Fighting-typed attacks from opposing Ghost Pokémon. In the third generation of games, certain Pokémon may also have abilities that may affect type affinity. Type affinities for each Pokémon can be found in their Pokédex entry. However, this does not mean that the type of the attacking Pokémon is a non-factor. If the type of the attack matches any of the types of the Pokémon, then the attack will receive the same-type attack bonus, or STAB, which increases the amount of damage by 10% (50% in the third generation of games). In the second and third generation of games, there are also items that will increase the power of certain attacks. There are also attacks that may have effects on other attacks. Beware, though, that type affinity is not everything. The statistics of a Pokémon will often determine the strategy to fight with or against it. For example, a Pokémon weak on defense will fall easily to a high-power attack, even if the Pokémon is doubly-resistant to it (or conversely, a weak attacker would have very little chance of taking down a strong defender, even when the defender has a double weakness). Furthermore, the type of the attack will determine which statistics are used in determining the amount of damage inflicted. Dark, Dragon, Electric, Fire, Grass, Ice, Psychic, and Water attacks are considered special attacks, and will use their special attack and special defense statistics to determine the amount of damage done (in the first generation, the special statistic is used for both attacking and defending). All other types of attacks are physical attacks, and will use the physical attack and defense statistics. Thus, a Pokémon may not benefit from high-power attacks when the relevant statistics are very low. Attacks There are three main types of moves: normal attacks, calculated attacks, and non-attacks. Normal attacks use the statics of <｜fim▁hole｜> inflict damage, and is subject to weakness, resistance, STAB, and, in some cases, abilities. Calculated attacks, on the other hand, deal a fixed amount of damage, or damage independent of these factors (but dependent on others). Non-attacks are just that: they deal no damage, but provide some other effect. Each Pokémon may only have up to four moves at a time, and when a fifth one can be learned, it must take the place of one of the four (alternately, the new attack may be skipped). Each attack has a certain amount of power points or PP, which determines the amount of times a move can be used. Normally, when a move is made, one PP is used, but when facing Pokémon with the Pressure ability, two PP are consumed. High-power attacks tend to have fewer PP, while lower-power attacks will have more. In the case where all of a Pokémon's PP are exausted, the Pokémon begins to struggle. Each turn it remains as the active Pokémon, it will do an attack of fixed power with recoil. This attack (Struggle) has no type (rather than Normal), to prevent a match between struggling Ghost Pokémon from going at it forever. Attacks may also be classified by their effect on Pokémon: some attacks will raise or lower a Pokémon's statistics, while others may inflict status effects. Still, other attacks may have other effects. They can be classified as follows: Critical Attacks - these attacks have a higher probability of getting critical hits (see below). Statistic Modifiers - these attacks raise or lower a Pokémon's statistics temporarily (for the purposes of battling). Status Effect Attacks - these attacks inflict a status effect on a Pokémon, some of which may have consequences outside of battle. Two-turn Attacks - these attacks take two turns to execute, and typically hit on the second turn. Some attacks which hit on the second turn give the Pokémon immunity from being hit (except by some attacks) during the first turn. Multiple Attacks - these attacks hits as if multiple attacks are made in one turn. Recoil Attacks - these attacks deals damage to both the user and opponent. Recovery Attacks - these attacks allow Pokémon to recover lost health. Switching Attacks - these attacks allow you to either switch opposing Pokémon, or run away from battles against wild Pokémon. Suicide Attacks - these attacks knock out your Pokémon. Quick/Slow Attacks - these attacks will be performed first (or last), overriding the speed statistics of the Pokémon involved. If two Pokémon use the same type of attack, then the speed statistics are used to determine which attack is performed first. Restrictive Attacks - these attacks will trap opponents for several turns, during which the opponent cannot switch (in some cases, attack). In double battles, introduced with the third generation of games, an attack can also be classified by the Pokémon they hit: some moves attack a specified opponent, some a random opponent, and some may hit both opponents, however, the attack power of the move is cut in half. Some attacks may even hit the Pokémon's partner along with opposing Pokémon. Critical Hits When a Pokémon attacks with a damaging non-calculated attack, there is a chance that the attack becomes a critical hit. In that case, the amount of damage is doubled, however, any stat reductions/increases are ignored in the third-generation games. The probability of getting a critical hit as follows: In the first generation of games, the probability of getting a critical hit is dependent on the Pokémon's base speed statistic. It is determined using this formula: probability = base speed / 2 * critical modifier / 256 * 100 where integer division is used throughout. The critical modifier is determined as follows: Start with 1. Multiply by 4 if a critical attack is used. Divide by 4 if Focus Energy has been previously used for RBY (yes, this is a bug) Multiply by 4 if Focus Energy has been previously used for Stadium If a random number from 0 to 255 is less than this probability, the attack critical hits. In the second and third generation of games, the probability of getting a critical hit works on a sliding scale. It works as follows: Start at Level 0. Move up one level if Focus Energy has been previously used. Move up two levels if a critical attack is used. Move up one level if Scope Lens is equipped onto the Pokémon. Go to Level 2 if Chansey is equipped with Lucky Punch, or if Farfetch'd is equipped with the Stick. Then, if a random number between 0 and 255 is chosen below the value associated with the level, the move critical hits. Level Probability 0 17 1 32 2 64 3 85 4 128 <｜fim▁end｜>	the Pokémon involved to
<｜fim▁begin｜> Companies in Atlas Shrugged, the Ayn Rand novel, generally, are divided into two groups, these that are operated by sympathetic characters are given the name of the owner, while companies operated by evil or incompetent characters are given generic names. In Atlas Shrugged men who give their names to their companies all become Strikers in due time. Contents 1 Amalgamated Switch and Signal 2 Associated Steel 3 Ayers Music Publishing Company 4 Barton and Jones 5 d'Anconia Copper 6 Hammond Motors 7 Incorporated Tool 8 Phoenix-Durango 9 Rearden Coal 10 Rearden Limestone 11 Rearden Ore 12 Rearden Steel 13 Summit Casting 14 Taggart Transcontinental 15 United Locomotive Works 16 Wyatt Oil Amalgamated Switch and Signal A company run by Mr. Mowen and located in Connecticut. They have supplied Taggart Transcontinental for generations. Dagny Taggart orders Rearden Metal switches from them. Amalgamated Switch and Signal appears in section 171. Associated Steel Associated Steel is the company owned by Orren Boyle. The company was started with just a few hundred-thousand dollars of Boyle's own money, and hundreds of millions of dollars in government grants. Boyle used this money to buy out his competitors, and now relies on influence peddling and political favors to run his business. Associated Steel is mentioned in sections 111, 114, 131 and 171. Ayers Music Publishing Company Ayers Music Publishing Company is the publisher of the music of Richard Halley. Dagny Taggart contacts Mr. Ayers to inquire as to the existence of Halley's Fifth Concerto. Ayers Music Publishing Company is mentioned in section 114. Barton and Jones The company, located in Denver, that supplies food for the workers rebuilding the Rio Norte Line. They go bankrupt in the middle of the project. Barton and Jones is mentioned in section 171. d'Anconia Copper A copper and mining company founded by Sebastian d'Anconia in Argentina during the time of the Inquisition. Each man who ran the company saw it grow by 10% in his lifetime, so by the time Francisco d'Anconia heads the company it is the largest in the world. His dream, from childhood, is to increase the size of the company by 100%. d'Anconia Copper is mentioned in sections 152 and 171. Hammond Motors A car company in Colorado. They make the best cars on the market until the founder disappears. Hank Rearden buys a Hammond on his trip to Colorado in section 171. Incorporated Tool A company that is contracted to deliver drill heads to Taggart Transcontinental but who fail to do this. It is mentioned in section 171. Phoenix-Durango The Phoenix-Durango is an old, small railroad located in the Southwest run by Dan Conway that has been insignificant for most of its existence. However, the Phoenix-Durango grows rapidly when Ellis Wyatt revives the economy of Colorado and Taggart Transcontinental's Rio Norte Line fails to service Wyatt adequately. Later, James Taggart conspires to get the Phoenix-Durango driven out of Colorado with the Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule. The Phoenix-Durango is mentioned in sections 111, 114, 131 (alluded to), 132, 145, 146, 147 and 152. The Phoenix-Durango is the only company run by a sympathetic character that is not named after <｜fim▁hole｜> founded by Hank Rearden prior to the founding of Rearden Steel. It is mentioned in section 121. Rearden Limestone A business founded by Hank Rearden prior to the founding of Rearden Steel. It is mentioned in section 121. Rearden Ore The first business founded by Hank Rearden. It is mentioned in section 121. Rearden Steel A company founded by Hank Rearden about ten years prior to the start of the story in the novel. Rearden bought an abandoned steel mill in Philadelphia at a time when all the experts thought that such a venture would be hopeless. He turned it into the most reliable and profitable steel company in the country. As Dagny Taggart struggles to save Taggart Transcontinental, she becomes increasingly dependent on Rearden Steel. Rearden Steel is mentioned in sections 111, 114, 121, 131 (alluded to), 161 and 162. Summit Casting A company in Illinois under contract to deliver rail spikes to Taggart Transcontinental. They go bankrupt before they can deliver, prompting Dagny Taggart to fly to Chicago and buy the company to get it started again. Summit Casting is mentioned in section 171. Taggart Transcontinental The fictional railroad run by Dagny Taggart. Her commitment to the railroad creates one of the book's major conflicts. Taggart Transcontinental was founded by Nathaniel Taggart who lived three generations (or so) prior to Dagny's generation. It was built without any grants, loans, or favors from the government; it thus differs profoundly from the transcontinental railroads of our history, which financed themselves with their extensive land grants. It was the last railroad that was still owned and controlled by its founder's descendants. Its motto is, From Ocean to Ocean. The 'flagship' of Taggart Transcontinental is the Taggart Comet which runs from New York to San Francisco, and which has never been late. United Locomotive Works An incompetent company that is supposed to deliver Diesel engines to Taggart Transcontinental. The order is delayed in perpetuity, and the president of the company refuses to ever give a straight answer as to why this is so. The United Locomotive Works is mentioned in sections 133 and 141. Wyatt Oil The oil company run by Ellis Wyatt. Wyatt's father had squeezed a living out of the oil fields in Colorado, but when Ellis Wyatt took over the business took off. He discovered a technique for extracting oil from wells that had been abandoned as dried up. The success of Wyatt Oil that followed this discovery suddenly and unexpectedly turned Colorado into the leading economy in the country. Wyatt Oil traditionally relied on Taggart Transcontinental's Rio Norte Line to ship its oil. But when that company could not grow fast enough to keep up with the booming Colorado economy, Wyatt started using the small but well-managed Phoenix-Durango instead. This prompted James Taggart to make deals with his friends to drive the Phoenix-Durango out of Colorado. Afterwards, Dagny Taggart has to rebuild the Rio Norte Line so it can supply transportation to Wyatt Oil - if she fails, the economy of Colorado, and of the whole country, could collapse. Wyatt Oil is mentioned in sections 111, 132 and 171. <｜fim▁end｜>	the founder. Rearden Coal A business
<｜fim▁begin｜> TOC Chapters Home Configuration Design Content Development Miscellaneous Some browsers, among those Internet Explorer, doesn't show transparency on transparent png-images. Instead, a grey colour is shown. This fixes the problem, but only for Internet Explorer (Win). NB! This problem doesn't affect Firefox, Opera and Netscape. Contents 1 Why png? 2 How to solve the problem 2.1 Adding code to the relevant page 2.2 Fixing the images themselves Why png? Many people say that one can use gif images - both Internet Explorer, Firefox, Opera and all major browsers support transparency in gif images. The thing is that transparency is pretty bad and lossy in quality compared to png images. Regular transparency with hard edges are no problem, but shadow and transparent gradients are no good with gif. Png can do this without problems, tough, only that Internet Explorer (Win) doesn't support it (IE for Mac does). How to solve the problem Adding code to the <｜fim▁hole｜> simple modification that needs to be done with the template(s) the site is using. This can be done from mambo, as long as the appropriate files are writable. Log in to the backend. Choose "Site > Template Manager > Site templates". Choose the template that should be modified (naturally the standard template) and choose "edit" in the toolbar. On the top of this document, add this line: <?php require_once("includes/ie_png.php"); ?> Then upload the "ie_png.php"-file in the "includes" folder of your mambo installation. Fixing the images themselves Internet Explorer (Win) can actually render some png-files - those with 256 colors. These images can contain any color in the HEX color scheme, but not more than 256 colors all together within the image. This is more than enough for most cases. Save/render the png images with this attribute, and Internet Explorer will actually render transparency. There are some problems with transparent gradients, as fading shadows etc. <｜fim▁end｜>	relevant page There is a
<｜fim▁begin｜> Contents 1 Secrets 1.1 Privacy versus secrecy 1.2 Personal secrets 1.3 Commercial or economical secrets 1.4 State secrets Secrets There is no good moral reason for keeping secrets, a secret is simply a restricted type of lie, a lie by intended omission. Secrets, like all lies are born of necessity and mistrust. They are often the first reaction to the need for protection against a disclosure of fragilities or insufficiencies. Born from the necessity to prevent others reacting in an informed way, to remove from others the power to reach an educated conclusion and so guarantee a form of superiority. "Secrecy is the badge of fraud." – John, Sir Chadwick, (b. 1941), British judge. Independent (London, July 26, 1990) Also like any lie, secrets have a recursive property that forces not only a continued effort so that they can be maintained but an increasingly taxing one, and more often than not there is a continued aggravation of the initial breach of trust by compounding offenses and misdeeds. Secrets are also a liability that third parties can use to compromise one's position, even permitting the aggravation of a disclosure, since it implies a loss of control over the timing and form of presentation. Unlike common lies, secrets are also an existential liability, knowing that there are secrets tends to create distrust and suspicion. It even can be said to force others to work toward creating their own secrets in response, in an attempt to balance power. There is nothing more frightening than the unknown. Secrets also depend not only on the number of entities that share the information but on the number of entities that it must be kept away from. The more people share a secret the harder (costs and effort) it is to prevent a break and the more interested parties there are the more damaging any leak can be. Sadly we live in an increasingly competitive world that is more focused on short term selfish benefits than long term generalized improvement to the human condition, and even if lies and <｜fim▁hole｜> their use is restricted in large part by human nature. This is not so when dealing with states and middle to large size corporations; they share what we would classify as a psychopathic view of the world and society, very few will have a moral restricted view and even fewer will have altruistic goals, since that would undermine their ultimate competitive nature. In this set-up those values only exist as propaganda and as a result of calculated gestures or image preservation and public relations. If we then speak of nations, we can even observe, the continued loss of what before World War I was a citizen's shared pride and respect about national image and history, not that it was always a source of good, but it imposed a popular constraint in the choices of governance, a sentiment that could have evolved into increased collaboration in global affairs has devolved into an apathy toward the national policies (unless they infringe personal interests, especially those of power groups) or has been simply propagandistically subverted as to create ever increasing divides. This is a sad state of affair and a loss of opportunity especially since globalization has increased our chances to communicate and so reach agreements and compromises. To do:Categorize and define "secrets" pursued or kept by the various agencies. Privacy versus secrecy Personal secrets To do:Complete, shame, guilt, leverage, entrapment Commercial or economical secrets To do:Information is power and power controls the flow of money, to big to fail, special sectors (communications, electricity, ports, -rails, air space and borders) State secrets To do:national security (and interests) "Truth becomes treason when you point out [state] lies." – Ron Paul, in an interview to RT on 11 October 2014. A part of what would be classified as state secrets is the non-publicly accessible information regarding state security forces. In this section the intelligence agency itself would be included, its operations and operatives, methodologies and assets. There are even state secrets that require protection simply because the information could aid the competition in circumventing intelligence gathering activities. <｜fim▁end｜>	secrets are accepted in social interactions
<｜fim▁begin｜> < Standard curriculapurge this page's server cache Curricula by continent Books here deal with curricula and assessments implemented in various geographic areas. Completed books Category:Shelf:Curricula by continentCategory:Completed booksCategory:Book:Wikibooks Stacks/Shelves In subsections: Category:Shelf:Curricula by continent/all booksCategory:Completed booksCategory:Shelf:Curricula by continentCategory:Book:Wikibooks Stacks/Shelves Books nearing completion Category:Shelf:Curricula by continentCategory:Books nearing completionCategory:Book:Wikibooks Stacks/Shelves In subsections: FHSST Physics Category:Shelf:Curricula by continent/all booksCategory:Books nearing completionCategory:Shelf:Curricula by continentCategory:Book:Wikibooks Stacks/Shelves Half-finished books Category:Shelf:Curricula by continentCategory:Half-finished booksCategory:Book:Wikibooks Stacks/Shelves In subsections: Applied Science BTEC Nationals GCSE Business Studies GCSE Science HSC Extension 1 and 2 Mathematics SA NC Doing Investigations SAASTE Technology Category:Shelf:Curricula by continent/all booksCategory:Half-finished booksCategory:Shelf:Curricula by continentCategory:Book:Wikibooks Stacks/Shelves Partly developed books Category:Shelf:Curricula by continentCategory:Partly developed booksCategory:Book:Wikibooks Stacks/Shelves In subsections: ACT Study Guide AP Biology AP Chemistry AP Computer Science FHSST Biology GCSE Computer Science GCSE Mathematics GCSE Modern History HSC Information Processing and Technology Informatics Practices for Class XI (CBSE) NCEA Level 1 Science SAASTE Science VCE Specialist Mathematics Category:Shelf:Curricula by continent/all booksCategory:Partly developed booksCategory:Shelf:Curricula by continentCategory:Book:Wikibooks Stacks/Shelves Freshly started books Category:Shelf:Curricula by continentCategory:Freshly started booksCategory:Book:Wikibooks Stacks/Shelves In subsections: <｜fim▁hole｜> States History AVCE Information and Communication Technology Cambridge English: First CLEP CLEP College Algebra DSST FHSST Computer Literacy GCSE Computing GCSE Computing — AQA GCSE French GCSE Geography GCSE ICT GED Curriculum Hong Kong Senior Secondary Liberal Studies HSC Biology HSC Geography HSC Physics Human Geography AP IGCSE Science IGNOU Question Paper Solutions KS3 Computing Leaving Certificate Mathematics LSAT Prep Guide NCEA Level 1 Economics NZ Level 8: Biological sciences Past LSAT Explained Regents Earth Science (High School) SAT II Physics SAT Study Guide SATs Study Guide Solved Question Papers - IIT JEE Understanding the National Certificate of Educational Achievement VCE Chemistry VCE History Revolutions VCE Mathematical Methods VCE Physics WJEC GCSE Biology Category:Shelf:Curricula by continent/all booksCategory:Freshly started booksCategory:Shelf:Curricula by continentCategory:Book:Wikibooks Stacks/Shelves Unknown completion Category:Shelf:Curricula by continentCategory:Books by completion status/all booksCategory:Book:Wikibooks Stacks/Shelves In subsections: 9-1 Chemistry Category:Shelf:Curricula by continent/all booksCategory:Shelf:Curricula by continentCategory:Books by completion status/all booksCategory:Book:Wikibooks Stacks/Shelves Subsections Shelf:African curricula Shelf:Asian curricula Shelf:European curricula Shelf:North American curricula Shelf:Oceanic curricula Category:Shelf:Curricula by continentCategory:Book:Wikibooks Stacks/Shelves Featured Books Category:Shelf:Curricula by continent/all booksCategory:Featured booksCategory:Book:Wikibooks Stacks/Shelves <｜fim▁end｜>	9-1 History 9-1 Physics AP United
<｜fim▁begin｜> The basic idea of simulating fluid dynamics with cellular automata is implementing particle dynamics as cellular automata rules and fluid dynamics would emerge as mean properties of Differential equation model for incompressible fluids We are interested in the flow velocity u {\displaystyle u} that is defined by two differential equations Navier-Stokes equation ∂ u ∂ t + ( u ∇ ) u = − ∇ P + ν ∇ <｜fim▁hole｜> u}{\partial t}}+(u\nabla )u=-\nabla P+\nu \nabla ^{2}u} continuity equation ∇ ⋅ u = 0 {\displaystyle \nabla \cdot u=0} P = p / ρ 0 {\displaystyle P=p/\rho _{0}} is the kinematic pressure, p {\displaystyle p} is the pressure, ρ 0 {\displaystyle \rho _{0}} constant mass density and ν {\displaystyle \nu } is the kinematic share viscosity. References Dieter A. Wolf-Gladrow, Lattice-Gas Cellular Automata and Lattice Boltzmann Models An Introduction, Springer 2000 <｜fim▁end｜>	2 u {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial
<｜fim▁begin｜> Algebra ← Word Problems Interval Notation Inequalities → Interval notation and the Number Line The real numbers can be represented on a number line, a line theoretically extending infinitely in two opposite directions as shown here: The arrowheads at the opposite ends of the drawing of the number line mean that line in concept extends infinitely in those directions, even though the drawing of the line cannot be extended forever in those directions. Note that the right side of the number line stretches to positive infinity and the left side stretches to negative infinity. Numbers in a set can be shown as dots on (or near) a number line. For example, the above set of natural numbers from 1 to 8 would be shown as follows: Often, a series of numbers will go on infinitely in one or both directions. For example, the set of natural numbers, consisting of numbers one naturally counts with, starts with 1, 2, 3, 4, and goes on to infinity. The indefinite continuation of an infinite set of numbers (or similar elements) can be written as several dots (called an ellipsis) after some numbers or elements listed showing the initial trend. Thus, the set of natural numbers can be represented as follows: { 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10... } {\displaystyle \lbrace 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10...\rbrace \,} where the three dots represent the continuing trend of an infinite set of elements The set of integers can be represented as follows: { . . . , − 8 , − 7 , − 6 , − 5 , − 4 , − 3 , − 2 , − 1 , 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , . . . } {\displaystyle \lbrace ...,-8,-7,-6,-5,-4,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,...\rbrace \,} There is no particular requirement that the listing of an infinite set of elements stop at 10 or 8 or any particular number, as long as a clear, understandable trend is given. Intuitively we can the set of natural numbers is a subset of the set of integers when we find the number 1 in the integers and see that the set continues to count upward forever. So far, we have discussed discrete numbers. Discrete means consisting of one or more isolated, individual numbers or points; or not having a continuous range (interval) of numbers or points. Between every two integers, there are an infinite number of fractional, or rational numbers. Furthermore, between any two fractional numbers, there are an infinite number of other fractional numbers, and so on. This characteristic is sometimes referred to as continuity. Such a continuous set of numbers is represented as a bold line segment on (or near) the number line, similar to the way a continuous set of points is represented by a line segment in geometry. A continuous set of numbers which includes all the numbers between two given numbers is often called an interval. The two numbers that the continuous set of numbers are between are the endpoints of the line segment. One, both, or neither of the numbers at the endpoints of the interval may be included with the set of numbers in the interval. If the number at the endpoint is included, that endpoint is a closed endpoint and is represented by a solid dot. If the number at the endpoint is not included, that endpoint is a open endpoint and is represented by a hollow dot (a tiny hollow circle). As an example, shown below on a number line is the interval between 1 and 8 which includes 1 (is closed at 1) but does not include 8 (is open at 8): To save ourselves time describing these intervals we often represent them with two types of parentheses, [ ] and ( ). The square brackets, [ ], mean an inclusive interval- that is, the numbers inside the brackets are included, much like a solid point on our number <｜fim▁hole｜> brackets, ( ), mean an exclusive interval- that is, the numbers inside the brackets are excluded from the interval, much like the hollow point on the number line. We can also use the symbol ≥ {\displaystyle \geq } to show that a statement is inclusive on the left and the symbol ≤ {\displaystyle \leq } to show it is inclusive on the right. The symbols > {\displaystyle >} and < {\displaystyle <} show that the interval is exclusive. Consider these examples where we let X represent any number on the interval: [ 4 , 9 ] = 4 ≤ X ≤ 9 {\displaystyle [4,9]=4\leq X\leq 9\,} or all numbers from 4 to 9. ( 4 , 9 ) = 4 < X < 9 {\displaystyle (4,9)=4<X<9\,} or all numbers between 4 and 9. [ 4 , 9 ) = 4 ≤ X < 9 {\displaystyle [4,9)=4\leq X<9\,} or all numbers between 4 and 9 including 4. As with the third example, we can use combinations of the two types of parentheses to display any interval on the real numbers. A set of continuous numbers can also be defined which starts (or ends) at one number and extends infinitely in either the positive direction or the negative direction. Geometrically, such a set is represented by a ray on the number line, where the continuous set of numbers is shown as a bolder part of the line. If the endpoint is included in the set, the endpoint is closed and represented by a solid dot. If the endpoint is not included in the set, the endpoint is open and represented by a hollow dot. As an example, a set of numbers greater than or equal to 1, is shown on a number line below: This is equivalent to the interval [ 1 , ∞ ] {\displaystyle [1,\infty ]} . In another example, a set of numbers less than 8, [ − ∞ , 8 ) {\displaystyle [-\infty ,8)} , is shown on a number line below: A set which contains all the solutions to an algebraic equation is called that equation's solution set, i.e. all the numbers that if substituted for an "unknown" variable in that equation would make it true. A formula is a math "process" that finds an answer to different unknown variables by using other variables and numbers. An example of a formula is Einstein's formula: E = M c 2 {\displaystyle E=Mc^{2}} ; if you know the mass of an object, M, and you multiply it by the speed of light squared ( c 2 {\displaystyle c^{2}} ), you get its energy, E. Formulae like these can be rearranged to find the values of different variables, too. Practice Problems Name whether each expression would be represented by a number line, line segment, or ray. If the answer is a line segment or ray, identify each end of the segment and whether the non-infinite ends would be represented by a filled or hollow dot. 1 > 8 line line segment ray 2 The ? bound is equal to 8. lower upper 3 The dot would be filled hollow 4 < 5 > line line segment ray 5 < -4 line line segment ray 6 The ? bound is equal to -4. lower upper 7 The dot would be filled hollow 8 > 2 < 7 line line segment ray 9 The ? bound is equal to 2. lower upper 10 The dot would be filled hollow 11 The ? bound is equal to 7. lower upper 12 The dot would be filled hollow Identify a probable next value in the set, given the values shown. 13 { , 1, 2, 3, } 14 {3/4, 4/4, 5/4, } 15 { , -2, 0, 2} How would you represent the following number sets, assuming that sides of the number set which aren't explicitly closed continue forever? (use < for < and > for >) 16 {..., 9, 10, 11} 17 {9, 10, 11, ...} 18 {8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13} , <｜fim▁end｜>	line interval. The rounded
<｜fim▁begin｜> Systems theory or general systems theory or systemics is an interdisciplinary field which studies systems as a whole. Systems theory was founded by Ludwig von Bertalanffy, William Ross Ashby and others between the 1940s and the 1970s on principles from physics, biology and engineering and later grew into numerous fields including philosophy, sociology, organizational theory, management, psychotherapy (within family systems therapy) and economics among others. Cybernetics is a closely related field. In recent times complex systems has increasingly been used as a synonym. Contents 1 Overview 2 History 2.1 Timeline 3 References 4 See also 5 External links 5.1 Un-annotated external links Overview Systems theory focuses on complexity and interdependence. A system is composed of regularly interacting or interdependent groups of activities/parts that form whole. Part of systems theory, system dynamics is a method for understanding the dynamic behavior of complex systems. The basis of the method is the recognition that the structure of any system -- the many circular, interlocking, sometimes time-delayed relationships among its components -- is often just as important in determining its behavior as the individual components themselves. Examples are chaos theory and social dynamics. Systems theory has also been developed within sociology. The most notable scientist in this area is Niklas Luhmann (see Luhmann 1994). The systems framework is also fundamental to organizational theory as organizations are dynamic living entities that are goal-oriented. The systems approach to organizations relies heavily upon achieving negative entropy through openness and feedback. In recent years, the field of systems thinking has been developed to provide techniques for studying systems in holistic ways to supplement more traditional reductionistic methods. In this more recent tradition, systems theory is considered by some as a humanistic counterpart to the natural sciences. History Subjects like complexity, self-organization, connectionism and adaptive systems had already been studied in the 1940s and 1950s, in fields like cybernetics through researchers like Norbert Wiener, William Ross Ashby, John von Neumann and Heinz Von Foerster. They only lacked the right tools, and tackled complex systems with mathematics, pencil and paper. John von Neumann discovered cellular automata and self-reproducing systems without computers, with only pencil and paper. Aleksandr Lyapunov and Jules Henri Poincaré worked on the foundations of chaos theory without any computer at all. All of the "C"-Theories below - cybernetics, catastrophe theory, chaos theory,... - <｜fim▁hole｜> explain complex systems which consist of a large number of mutually interacting and interwoven parts. Cellular automata (CA), neural networks (NN), artificial intelligence (AI), and artificial life (ALife) are related fields, but they do not try to describe general complex systems. The best context to compare the different "C"-Theories about complex systems is historical, which emphasizes different tools and methodologies, from pure mathematics in the beginning to pure computer science now. Since the beginning of chaos theory when Edward Lorenz accidentally discovered a strange attractor with his computer, computers have become an indispensable source of information. One could not imagine the study of complex systems without computers today. Timeline 1960 cybernetics (W. Ross Ashby, Norbert Wiener) Mathematical theory of the communication and control of systems through regulatory feedback. Closely related: "control theory" and "general systems theory" founded by Ludwig von Bertalanffy and W. Ross Ashby 1970 catastrophe theory (René Thom, E.C. Zeeman) Branch of mathematics that deals with bifurcations in dynamical systems, classifies phenomena characterized by sudden shifts in behavior arising from small changes in circumstances. 1980 chaos theory (David Ruelle, Edward Lorenz, Mitchell Feigenbaum, Steve Smale, James A. Yorke....) Mathematical theory of nonlinear dynamical systems that describes bifurcations, strange attractors, and chaotic motions. 1990 complex adaptive systems (CAS) (John H. Holland, Murray Gell-Mann, Harold Morowitz, W. Brian Arthur,..) The "new" science of complexity which describes emergence, adaptation and self-organization was established mainly by researchers of the SFI and is based on agents and computer simulations and includes multi-agent systems (MAS) which have become an important tool to study social and complex systems. CAS are still an active field of research. References Daniel Durand (1979) La systémique, Presses Universitaires de France Ludwig von Bertalanffy (1968). General System Theory: Foundations, Development, Applications New York: George Braziller Gerald M. Weinberg (1975) An Introduction to General Systems Thinking (1975 ed., Wiley-Interscience) (2001 ed. Dorset House). Niklas Luhmann Soziale Systeme. Grundriss einer allgemeinen Theorie, Frankfurt, Suhrkamp, 1994 Herman Kahn, Techniques of System Analysis See also William Ross Ashby autopoiesis cybernetics Buckminster Fuller system systems theory in archaeology systems thinking systemantics Important publications in systems theory Tectology Hierarchical system theory External links Principia Cybernetica Web International Society for the System Sciences Autopoiesis at the ACM website Systems theory Le Village Systémique Un-annotated external links http://mvhs1.mbhs.edu/mvhsproj/project2.html http://www.geom.umn.edu/education/math5337/ds/ http://www.albany.edu/cpr/sds/ http://www.uni-klu.ac.at/users/gossimit/links/bookmksd.htm http://www.wkap.nl/journalhome.htm/0924-6703 http://www.wkap.nl/jrnltoc.htm/0924-6703 <｜fim▁end｜>	have the common goal to
<｜fim▁begin｜> Ba Zi \| Heavenly Stems \| Earthly Branches \| Hsia Calendar (Xia Calendar) \| Hour Pillar \| Luck Pillar \| Life Cycle \| Hidden Stems \| Seasonal Cycle \| Symbolic Stars \| Aspects Of Life \| Date Selection \| List Of Ba Zi Year 2049 The Heavenly Stems (HS) and Earthly Branches (EB) of the Year, Month and Day of 2049 in the Hsia Calendar, from January to December. January S/N Year Month Day HS of Year EB of Year HS of Month EB of Month HS of Day EB of Day Season 1 2049 1 1, (pGC-ye10) 5, [GA-DE5] 5 1, (pGH-me12) 1, [Establish] 3 1 11 2 2049 1 2, (pGC-ye1) 5, [GA-DE2] 5 1, (pGH-me12) 1, [Remove] 4 2 11 3 2049 1 3, (pGC-ye10) 5, [GA-DE5] 5 1, (pGH-me12) 1, [Full] 5 3 11 4 2049 1 4, (pGC-ye10) 5, [GA-DE5] 5 1, (pGH-me12) 1, [Balance] 6 4 11 5 2049 1 5, (pGC-ye10) 5, [GA-DE5] 5 2, (pGH-me1) 2, [Balance] 7 5, [X4-Metal] 12 6 2049 1 6, (pGC-ye10) 5, [GA-DE5] 5, [X3-Water] 2, (pGH-me1) 2, [Stable] 8, [GPS-DE6] 6 12 7 2049 1 7, (pGC-ye10) 5, [GA-DE5] 5, [X3-Water] 2, (pGH-me1) 2, [Initiate] 9 7 12 8 2049 1 8, (pGC-ye10) 5, [GA-DE5] 5, [X3-Water] 2, (pGH-me1) 2, [XM-DE8], [Destruction] 10 8 12 9 2049 1 9, (pGC-ye10) 5, [GA-DE5] 5 2, (pGH-me1) 2, [Danger] 1 9 12 10 2049 1 10, (pGC-ye10) 5, [GA-DE5] 5 2, (pGH-me1) 2, [Success] 2 10 12 11 2049 1 11, (pGC-ye10) 5, [GA-DE5] 5, [XY-DE11] 2, (pGH-me1) 2, [Receive] 3 11 12 12 2049 1 12, (pGC-ye10) 5, [GA-DE5] 5 2, (pGH-me1) 2, [Open] 4 12 12 13 2049 1 13, (pGC-ye10) 5, [GA-DE5] 5 2, (pGH-me1) 2, [Close] 5 1 12 14 2049 1 14, (pGC-ye1) 5, [GA-DE2] 5 2, (pGH-me1) 2, [Establish] 6 2 12 15 2049 1 15, (pGC-ye10) 5, [GA-DE5] <｜fim▁hole｜> 5, [X4-Metal] 12 16 2049 1 16, (pGC-ye10) 5, [GA-DE5] 5 2, (pGH-me1) 2, [Full] 8 5, [X4-Metal] 12 17 2049 1 17, (pGC-ye10) 5, [GA-DE5] 5 2, (pGH-me1) 2, [Balance] 9 5, [X4-Metal] 12 18 2049 1 18, (pGC-ye10) 5, [GA-DE5] 5, [X3-Water] 2, (pGH-me1) 2, [Stable] 10, [GPS-DE6] 6 12 19 2049 1 19, (pGC-ye10) 5, [GA-DE5] 5, [X3-Water] 2, (pGH-me1) 2, [Initiate] 1 7 12 20 2049 1 20, (pGC-ye10) 5, [GA-DE5] 5, [X3-Water] 2, (pGH-me1) 2, [XM-DE8], [Destruction] 2 8 12 21 2049 1 21, (pGC-ye10) 5, [GA-DE5] 5 2, (pGH-me1) 2, [Danger] 3 9 12 22 2049 1 22, (pGC-ye10) 5, [GA-DE5] 5 2, (pGH-me1) 2, [Success] 4 10 12 23 2049 1 23, (pGC-ye10) 5, [GA-DE5] 5, [XY-DE11] 2, (pGH-me1) 2, [Receive] 5 11 12 24 2049 1 24, (pGC-ye10) 5, [GA-DE5] 5 2, (pGH-me1) 2, [Open] 6 12 12 25 2049 1 25, (pGC-ye10) 5, [GA-DE5] 5 2, (pGH-me1) 2, [Close] 7 1 12 26 2049 1 26, (pGC-ye1) 5, [GA-DE2] 5 2, (pGH-me1) 2, [Establish] 8 2 12 27 2049 1 27, (pGC-ye10) 5, [GA-DE5] 5 2, (pGH-me1) 2, [Remove] 9 5, [X4-Metal] 12 28 2049 1 28, (pGC-ye10) 5, [GA-DE5] 5 2, (pGH-me1) 2, [Full] 10 5, [X4-Metal] 12 29 2049 1 29, (pGC-ye10) 5, [GA-DE5] 5 2, (pGH-me1) 2, [Balance] 1 5, [X4-Metal] 12 30 2049 1 30, (pGC-ye10) 5, [GA-DE5] 5, [X3-Water] 2, (pGH-me1) 2, [Stable] 2, [GPS-DE6] 6 12 31 2049 1 31, (pGC-ye10) 5, [GA-DE5] 5, [X3-Water] 2, (pGH-me1) 2, [Initiate] 3 7 12 February S/N Year Month Day HS of Year EB of Year HS of Month EB of Month HS of Day EB of Day Season 32 2049 2 1, (pGC-ye10) 5, [GA-DE5] 5, [X3-Water] 2, (pGH-me1) 2, [XM-DE8], [Destruction] 4 8 12 33 2049 2 2, (pGC-ye10) 5, [GA-DE5] 5 2, (pGH-me1) 2, [Danger] 5 9 12 back to : Date Selection <｜fim▁end｜>	5 2, (pGH-me1) 2, [Remove] 7
<｜fim▁begin｜> War of the Worlds original cover This is an introduction to the genre of science fiction, its history, its place in literature, and its current practice. We will define the genre, mention many of the subgenres, and provide an overview of the history of science fiction. We will focus especially on the authors whose work staked out the territory, those who have become masters in the field, and we will work to cover authors who are currently writing in the genre and expanding its frontiers today. Throughout, please bear in mind that many works are written in more than one subgenre at a time, so the lines can be blurry. For example, an author writing for young adults can also be writing in the Lost Worlds genre too. There is a large quantity of good science fiction being written by authors in languages other than English. With the exception of Jules Verne, most English speakers would be challenged to name even one of these other authors. Since this is intended as textbook, we will include discussion questions, and suggest exercises to help the student and teacher, master the material. We will also include suggestions for further reading. Table of Contents Pluck and Luck Dime Novel Pulp Magazine- The Search for King Solomon's Mines Introduction and Historical Overview The History of Science Fiction The Early Stories Penny Dreadfuls, Dime Novels, and the rise of the Pulps The Death of the Pulps The Triumph of Science Fiction The Lost World by Conan Doyle The Land That Time Forgot by Rice Burroughs Subgenres of Science <｜fim▁hole｜> Lost Worlds (Cadwal Chronicles, Dragonriders of Pern, Pax / Astra) Military SF (Berserkers, Ender Wiggins, Hammers Slammers, Honor Harrington, Northworld) Soldiers of Fortune (John Grimes, Matador) New Frontiers (Cluster, the Ship series) Planetary Exploration and Colonization (Engines of God, Gaea, the Grand Tour, the Mars Trilogy) Space Opera (Dune, Foundation, Lensmen series, Star Trek, Star Wars, Vorkosigan Saga) New Space Opera (The Culture series, Xeelee, Viriconium, Revalation Space, Night's Dawn trilogy) Alien Beings First Contact Alien Societies (Cheela, Mission Earth, Helliconia) Interspecies Relations (Exiles saga, Sector General) Alien Invasion and Occupation (Colonization series, Dahak) Anthropology / Sociology (Neanderthal Parallax Trilogy) Alternate History (Guns of the South, Worldwar/Colonization series) Bleak Futures and Dystopias Ecological Disasters (Earth Abides, Battle Circle, Jenny Casey trilogy, Jerry Cornelius, Obernewtyn Chronicles) Nuclear / Post-Apocolypse (A Canticle for Leibowitz, Xenogenesis, Endworld) Hard Science (Spiderworld) Technology (Chobits, Legacy of the Aldenata, Instrumentality) Science Fantasy (John Carter of Mars, Jules Verne’s stories) Humor (Stainless Steel Rat, Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy) Love and Romance (Tower and the Hive) Mystery and Detectives (Elijah Bailey, Greg Mandel, In Death, Ukiah Oregon) Social Criticism (Transmetropolitan) Sex and Gender Roles (Uglies, The Left Hand of Darkness) Political (The Man in the High Castle) Religion (Left Behind, Hyperion) Species Evolution (Amber series, Beggars trilogy, Wildcards) World Versions (Eon) Young Adult / Children's (Witch World, Ember) National and World Literatures Soviet / Russian French Scandinavian Japanese German East European Spanish speaking China Other World SF literature Venues for Publication of Science Fiction Literature and Future Trends Professional Magazines and Publishers Fanzines and Amateur Publications Recognition and Awards <｜fim▁end｜>	Fiction (Titles are examples only) Adventure
<｜fim▁begin｜> Operators BlitzMax supports the following operators. Operators are grouped into levels of precedence, starting with the highest precedence operators: Operator Syntax Sub expression ( Expression ) New object New Typename Literal Value Identifier Value Self object Self Super object Super Null value Null Pi Pi True True False False Minimum Min ( Expression1 , Expression2 ) Maximum Max ( Expression1 , Expression2 ) Member Expression . Identifier Index Expression [ IndexExpressions ] Call Expression ( Parameters ) Negate - Expression Posate + Expression Bitwise complement ~ Expression Boolean not Not Expression Absolute value Abs Expression Sign Sgn Expression Value byte size SizeOf Expression Variable address Varptr Variable Convert type expression Type Expression Power Expression ^ Expression Multiply Expression * Expression Divide Expression / Expression Remainder Expression Mod Expression Bitwise shift left Expression Shl Expression Bitwise shift right Expression Shr Expression Arithmetic shift right Expression Sar Expression Add Expression + Expression Subtract Expression - Expression Bitwise and Expression & Expression Bitwise or Expression \| Expression Bitwise exclusive or Expression ~ Expression Equal Expression = Expression Not equal Expression <> Expression Less than Expression < Expression Greater than Expression > Expression Less than or equal Expression <= Expression Greater than or equal Expression >= Expression Conditional and Expression And Expression Conditional or Expression Or Expression In addition, the following built in functions are also supported: Function Syntax Character code Asc ( Expression ) Character Chr ( Expression ) Value length Len ( Expression ) Null returns 0, an <｜fim▁hole｜> the null object or a pointer to 0 depending on context. True and False are integer constants with the values 1 and 0, respectively. The index operator can be used on either arrays or strings. If used on an array, the element at the specified index is returned. If used on a string, the character code of the character at the specified index is returned. The Not operator 'inverts' the logic of a boolean expression. If the expression evaluates to true, Not returns false and vice versa. Asc returns the character value of the first character of a string, or -1 if the length of the string is 0. Chr constructs a 1 character string with the specified character value. Len can be used with either a string or array. When used with a string, Len returns the number of characters in the string. When used with an array, Len returns the number of elements in the array. In the case of multidimensional arrays, Len returns the total number of elements. Boolean expressions It is frequently necessary to consider an expression as 'true' or 'false', for example, for use with an If statement. The rules for determining whether an expression is true or false are: Expression Type Truth condition Numeric True if value is not equal to 0 Object True if object is not equal to Null String True if length is not equal to 0 Array True if length is not equal to 0 <｜fim▁end｜>	empty string, an empty array,
<｜fim▁begin｜> Contents 1 GC 1.1 Tuning the GC 1.2 Conservative 1.3 Tunning Jruby's GC. 1.4 How to avoid performance penalty GC Ruby does automatic Garbage Collection. Tuning the GC MRI's GC is a "full mark and sweep" and is run whenever it runs out of memory slots (i.e. before adding more memory, it will sweep the existing to see if it can free up some first--if not it adds more memory). It also is triggered after GC_MALLOC_LIMIT of bytes has been allocated by extensions. Unfortunately this causes a traversal of all memory, which is typically slow. See a good description. The GC is known to typically take 10% of cpu, but if you have a large RAM load, it could take much more. GC can be tuned at "compile time" (MRI/KRI's < 1.9) http://blog.evanweaver.com/articles/2009/04/09/ruby-gc-tuning or can be tuned by using environment variables (REE, MRI/KRI's >= 1.9). Some tips: You can set the compiler variable GC_MALLOC_LIMIT to be a very high value, which causes your program to use more RAM but to traverse it much less frequently. Good for large apps, like rails. You can use jruby/rubinius which use more sophisticated GC's. You can use "native" libraries which store the values away so that Ruby doesn't have to keep track of them and collect them. Examples: "NArray" gem and "google_hash" gem. To turn it off: @GC.disable@ To force it to run once: @GC.start@ Conservative Ruby's (MRI's) GC is mark and sweep, which means it is conservative. To accomplish this, it traverses the stack, looking for any section of memory which "looks" like a reference to an existing ruby object, and marks them as live. This can lead to false positives, even when there are no references to an object remaining. This problem is especially bad in the 1.8.x series, when they don't have the MBARI patches applied (most don't, REE does). This is because, when you use threads, it actually allocates a full copy of the stack to each thread, and as the threads are run, their stack is copied to the "real" stack, and they can pick up ghost references that belong to other threads, and also because the 1.8 MRI interpreter contains huge switch <｜fim▁hole｜> memory on the stack untouched, so it can continue to contain references to "ghost" references in error. This all means that if you call a GC.start, it's not guaranteed to collect anything. Some hints around this: If you call your code from within a method, and come out of that method, it might collect it more readily. You can do something of your own GC by using an ensure block, like a = SomeClass.new begin ... ensure a.cleanup end If you write a "whole lot more" memory it might clear the stack of its old references. Tunning Jruby's GC. "here":http://blade.nagaokaut.ac.jp/cgi-bin/scat.rb/ruby/ruby-core/27550 is an example of how to tune Jruby's GC. The G1GC is theoretically a "never pause" GC, though in reality most of them are pretty good at being speedy. For long running apps you'll probably want to run in server mode (--server), for increased performance, though decreased startup time. Rubinius is also said to have a better GC. How to avoid performance penalty Since MRI's GC is basically O(N) as it grows, you get a performance penalty when GC's occur and you are using a lot of RAM in your app (and MRI almost never gives its RAM back to the system). Workarounds: use less RAM by allocating fewer objects do work in a forked "child process" which returns back the values desired. The child will die, freeing up its memory. use Jruby et al (jruby has an excellent GC which doesn't slow things down much, even with larger apps). use a gem that allows for native types, like NArray or the RubyGoogle Hash. use REE instead of 1.8.6 (since it incorporates the MBARI patches which make the GC much more efficient). use 1.9.x instead of 1.8.6 (since it uses true threads there is much less reference ghosting on the stack, thus making the GC more efficient). set your app to restart periodically (passenger can do this). create multiple apps, one designed to be large and slow, the others nimble (run your GC intensive all in the large one). call GC.start yourself, or mix it with GC.disable use memprof gem to see where the leaks are occurring (or the dike gem or the like). <｜fim▁end｜>	statements, which leave a lot of
<｜fim▁begin｜> The following is a critique of the scientific report Acute physical activity enhances executive functions in children with ADHD, published in the Journal of Scientific Reports, 2018.[1] Contents 1 What is the background to this research? 2 Where is the research from? 3 What kind of research was this? 4 What did the research involve? 5 What were the basic results? 6 What conclusions can we take from this research? 7 Practical advice 8 Further information/resources 9 References What is the background to this research? Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder(ADHD) is the most prevalent neurobehavioral disorder globally, with 7.2% children under 18 diagnosed.[2] ADHD is characterised by symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity and impulsiveness.[3] ADHD’s symptomology is also associated with executive function (higher-order cognitive function) deficiencies, which are responsible for self-regulation and behaviour. [4] ADHD can lead to serious individual problems including academic performance, poor social relationships, and lower occupational status.[3] It also causes family stress and has serious economic implications. [5] Studies have found exercise interventions to have a positive effect on executive functions in healthy children, however, the research is limited and contradictory for children with ADHD. [6] The aim of this particular study was to investigate whether acute physical activity selectively affects three core executive functions (EF) – inhibition, switching and working memory – in children with ADHD. Where is the research from? The research was authored by Valentin Benzing, Mirko Schimidt and Dr. Yu-Kai Chang, who have published 11, 44 and 137 articles respectively, in relation to exercise psychology. Benzing, a PhD fellow, is a researcher at the Institute of Sport Science (ISPW), University of Bern, Switzerland, where Schimidt is an assistant professor. Chang is a professor in the Department of Physical Education at National Taiwan Normal University, and VP of the Society for Sport and Exercise Psychology of Taiwan. The research was funded by the Suzanne and Hans Biäsch Foundation for the Promotion of Applied Psychology. The study was conducted in the canton of Bern, Switzerland, and the study protocol was approved by the cantonal ethics committee. All authors declared they had no competing interests. What kind of research was this? This research was conducted using a randomised controlled trail (RCT). RCT’s randomly assign participants into either an experimental group which receives the intervention being tested, or a control group which receives a placebo, standard or no intervention. RCT’s are therefore able to determine whether a cause-effect relationship exists between the intervention and outcome.[7] RCT’s are considered the gold standard of research designs. They have the highest quality of evidence. The randomisation of patients’ group selection eliminates selection bias and balances confounding factors between both groups. [8] In this study, information about patient assignment was concealed from participants and researchers (blinding) to further reduce bias. Participants were also blinded with regard to the study aims and conditions.[8] What did the research involve? 46 participants (ages 8-12), diagnosed with ADHD under the International Classification of Disease, were randomly split into two groups – 24 into the Exergaming group (EG) and 22 into the control group (CG). Each participant was assessed twice. The sessions followed the routines below: EG CG Pre-test (15 min) Modified Flanker Task – (inhibition/switching) Modified Color Span Backwards Task – (working memory) Acute Intervention (15 mins w/1 min break after 7 mins) Exergaming condition – Shape Up (game) – moderate-vigorous intensity Watched documentary – Mountain Running Post-test (15 min) Modified Flanker Task – (inhibition/switching) Modified Color Span Backwards Task – (working memory) Despite using an RCT, there were limitations with the design. Sample Size – The small sample size did not allow analysis of sub-groups – ADHD symptoms, social economic status, pubertal development status, etc. Sample Diversity – 82.6% of the sample population were boys, therefore there was insufficient statistical power to confirm the results are true for girls. Heart Rate Estimations – The study used the formula 208-(0.7 x age) which only provides a rough estimate of participants maximal heart rate and used that estimation to set heart rate cut-offs for exercise intensity. Medication – 79.2% of the EG and 77.3% of the CG were on medication so the effects of the acute exercise alone is inconclusive. Physical Activity Modality – The exergaming condition required non-automated movements making it cognitively challenging, therefore the EF results could be due to the physical activity or the cognitive activity or a combination. EF Assessment – The aim was to separately assess all three core EF’s however the modified flanker test was used to assess both inhibition and switching. What were the basic results? The results showed that the Exergaming Group displayed significantly shorter reaction times than the Control Group in post-tests for inhibition and switching, but no significant difference in accuracy scores or working memory. Results Summary: EG Pre-test – M (SD) EG Post-test – M (SD) CG Pre-test – M (SD) CG Post-test – M (SD) P-value Modified Flanker Test – Reaction times (ms) Inhibition 981 (263) 842 (162)* 1013 (319) 959 (266) 0.022 Switching 1031 (276) 909 (200)* 1083 (303) 1066 (327) 0.024 Modified Flanker Test – Accuracy (% of correct responses) Inhibition 90 89 90 <｜fim▁hole｜> 90 0.616 Modified Color Span Backwards Test – sum of correct responses Working Memory 14 (2.84) 14 (3.84) 14 (4.14) 14 (3.71) 0.995 M = mean, (SD) = Standard deviation, * indicates significant differences (p<0.05) The authors suggest that acute cognitively engaging exercise at moderate to vigorous intensity for 14-15 minutes enhances inhibition and switching reaction times. The authors proposed that the mechanism responsible for these improvements is neuroelectric adjustments. The authors also believe the reason there was no improved accuracy was due to the increased catecholamine concentrations in the brain which might have different sensitivities for speed of processing and accuracy. What conclusions can we take from this research? This study provides evidence supporting that following cognitively challenging acute physical activity at moderate to vigorous intensity for 14 minutes, ADHD diagnosed children can see significant beneficial improvements in inhibition and switching reaction times, but not in accuracy or working memory performance. The results for this study were consistent with findings from similar studies that found that acute moderate intensity exercise bouts led to increased inhibition reaction time and processes [9] and no significant effect on working memory in ADHD children. [6] One contradictory study conducted by Piepmeier et al. found similar exercise to have no significant effect on switching. [10] This suggests that the effect of exercise on inhibition is stronger than on switching, which is supported by this present study. Therefore, although the authors claim that the evidence suggests that physical activity may have specific beneficial effects on ADHD children, further research investigating acute exercise and cognitive challenging games (without exercise) in isolation is required to determine which is the cause for these EF benefits. Practical advice Current literature and reports from parents, teachers and scholars suggests that single bouts of exercise at moderate to vigorous intensity produces the most optimal results. [11] Although the duration-exercise relationship is unknown, Chang et al. found short bouts of 20-minute exercise conditions to exhibit the greatest EF performance. [12] Exercise has also been shown to improve social, emotional, and motor development and behaviour as well as EF and cognitive performance in ADHD children.[13] In terms of frequency, the National Association for Sport and Physical Education states that short bouts of exercise should be incorporated during the school day (recess, lunch, P.E class).[11] Most ADHD diagnosed children consider conventional physical activity programs tiring and boring, so it is important to use complex activities that challenge their cognition as well as body. Exercise modalities such as exergaming, rock climbing, gymnastics, martial arts, mountain biking have all shown greater positive impacts and higher arousal ratings than autonomous exercises.[14] ADHD children should be pre-screened to ensure they are fit for acute bouts of exercise. Further information/resources https://www.helpguide.org/articles/add-adhd/attention-deficit-disorder-adhd-in-children.htm https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/adhd/symptoms-causes/syc-20350889#:~:text=The%20primary%20features%20of%20ADHD,they%20may%20continue%20into%20adulthood. https://childmind.org/article/adhd-and-exercise/#:~:text=The%20notion%20that%20physical%20activity,as%20a%20treatment%20for%20ADHD. https://adhd-institute.com/disease-management/non-pharmacological-therapy/exercise-and-diet/ https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/adhd/treatment.html#:~:text=For%20children%206%20years%20of,of%20the%20treatment%20as%20well. References ↑ Benzing V, Chang YK, Schmidt M. Acute physical activity enhances executive functions in children with ADHD. Scientific reports. 2018 Aug 17;8(1):1-0. ↑ Davidovitch M, Koren G, Fund N, Shrem M, Porath A. Challenges in defining the rates of ADHD diagnosis and treatment: trends over the last decade. BMC pediatrics. 2017 Dec 1;17(1):218. ↑ a b Faraone SV, Sergeant J, Gillberg C, Biederman J. The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: is it an American condition?. World psychiatry. 2003 Jun;2(2):104. ↑ Chang YK, Liu S, Yu HH, Lee YH. Effect of acute exercise on executive function in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Archives of clinical neuropsychology. 2012 Mar 1;27(2):225-37. ↑ Matza LS, Paramore C, Prasad M. A review of the economic burden of ADHD. Cost effectiveness and resource allocation. 2005 Dec;3(1):1-9. ↑ a b Ziereis S, Jansen P. Effects of physical activity on executive function and motor performance in children with ADHD. Research in developmental disabilities. 2015 Mar 1;38:181-91. ↑ Kendall J. Designing a research project: randomised controlled trials and their principles. Emergency medicine journal: EMJ. 2003 Mar;20(2):164. ↑ a b Brighton B, Bhandari M, Tornetta P, Felson DT. Hierarchy of evidence: from case reports to randomized controlled trials. Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research®. 2003 Aug 1;413:19-24. ↑ Pontifex MB, Saliba BJ, Raine LB, Picchietti DL, Hillman CH. Exercise improves behavioral, neurocognitive, and scholastic performance in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. The Journal of pediatrics. 2013 Mar 1;162(3):543-51. ↑ Piepmeier AT, Shih CH, Whedon M, Williams LM, Davis ME, Henning DA, Park S, Calkins SD, Etnier JL. The effect of acute exercise on cognitive performance in children with and without ADHD. Journal of sport and Health science. 2015 Mar 1;4(1):97-104. ↑ a b Pontifex MB, Saliba BJ, Raine LB, Picchietti DL, Hillman CH. Exercise improves behavioral, neurocognitive, and scholastic performance in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. The Journal of pediatrics. 2013 Mar 1;162(3):543-51. ↑ Chang YK, Chu CH, Wang CC, Wang YC, Song TF, Tsai CL, Etnier JL. Dose–response relation between exercise duration and cognition. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 2015 Jan 1;47(1):159-65. ↑ Neudecker C, Mewes N, Reimers AK, Woll A. Exercise interventions in children and adolescents with ADHD: a systematic review. Journal of attention disorders. 2019 Feb;23(4):307-24. ↑ Cooper EK. Information & strategies for martial arts instructors: working with children diagnosed with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Asian Martial Arts. 2006 Dec 22;15(4):20-30. <｜fim▁end｜>	90 0.770 Switching 90 90 91
<｜fim▁begin｜> Chenopodium album (Lamb's quarters) Lamb's Quarters (Chenopodium album) is an annual invasive weed most commonly found in dry, nitrogen-rich soils. The alternate, somewhat "kite-shaped" leaves have a dusty appearance. Stems are stout, longitudinally ridged, and also whitish. Roots consist of large taproots with numerous laterals. Pulling and grubbing is relatively easy, since the root and shoot are strongly connected. This plant is safe to compost in cold piles before the flowers appear in summer. Flowers are <｜fim▁hole｜> in Mid-atlantic gardens, the culinary grain Quinoa (C. quinoa) is almost indistinguishable from the weed species, so maintenance crews should always be advised if that species is being grown in the garden. Epazote, or Wormseed (Dysphania ambrosioides) is somewhat similar when in flower, but the foliage is markedly different from Lamb's Quarters. young plant flowerbuds flowers Wikiversity is collecting bloom time data for Chenopodium album on the Bloom Clock Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Chenopodium album <｜fim▁end｜>	greenish terminal spikes. While rarely seen
<｜fim▁begin｜> Contents 1 Motility 1.1 Smooth muscle Characteristics 1.1.1 Mechanics of contraction 1.1.2 Physiology of contraction 1.2 Tonic sustained contractions 1.3 Peristalsis & Segmental Contractions 1.4 Motility through out the GI System 1.4.1 Mastication 1.4.2 Swallowing 1.4.3 Esophagus 1.4.4 Stomach 1.4.5 Control of Stomach Emptying 1.4.6 Small bowel 1.4.7 Ileocaecal valve 1.4.8 Large Bowel and Defecation 1.5 Coordination of motility Motility Ingestion of food is controlled by hunger and appetite. In health the body controls the rate at which ingested food moves through the GI system, so that digestion and absorption are optimised. The first residue from a meal will pass through the GI system in 7–10 hours, but some may take up to 5 or six days to pass through. Smooth muscle Characteristics Smooth, also called involuntary or un-striated muscle is usually found in the walls of hollow organs, and have many unique characteristics. Contraction of these cells is dependent on the influx of Ca++ ions. In the gut three types of contraction are seen: Tonic sustained contractions, such as occur in sphincters Peristaltic contractions Segmental contractions By a variety of these contractions, food and chyme is moved through the bowel. Mechanics of contraction Smooth or un-striated muscle cells contract by altering their shape. They contain numerous actin-myosin bundles. Some of the actin Strands attach to the cell, they are all anchored to dense bodies in the cytoplasm of the cell. On activation the actin strands slide over the myosin causing shortening of the actin-myosin bundle: This causes overall bulging and shortening of the cell: Physiology of contraction Muscle cells in the intestine communicate with each other through gap junctions, causing a series of function syncitial units. Thus an action potential in one cell will spread to other cells in the unit. Contraction can be initiated by action potentials or by chemicals and hormones. Contraction caused by the former are known as myogenic potentials, the later is known as pharmacomechanical coupling. Some of the smooth muscle cells have a spontaneous cycle of depolarization, and these are known as pacemaker cells. They are said to have slow wave depolarization. When the level of depolarization reaches a certain threshold, an action potential is triggered. The strength of contraction depends on the number of action potential triggered. Some pace maker cells will trigger an action potential with every slow wave, others with only occasional slow waves. The following illustration shows the electrical pattern of slow waves with occasional action potentials and 'pacemaker' potentials where every wave generates action potentials. Each slow cycle lasts 7–12 seconds. The following illustration demonstrates the effect on two agents, A & B on Muscle Tension in pharmacomechanical coupling. Note that there is no change in the membrane potential. Action Potentials cause an influx of Ca++ ions which release more Ca++ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Because the supply of Calcium in the sarcoplasmic reticulum is limited it must be replaced by Calium ions from outside the cell. The membrane potential is restored by an efflux of Na+ ions. Tonic sustained contractions One characteristic of smooth muscle cells is their ability to maintained tonic sustained contractions. Muscle that has this is said to have or maintain tone. This allows sphincters to maintain their tonicity, and to open by 'relaxing' their tone. As an example of the tone in the gut, the length of the small intestine is about 24 ft. in death, but is only half this length in life due to the tone in the longitudinal muscle bundles. Peristalsis & Segmental Contractions Segmental contractions are used for mixing food or chyme. The circular muscles in adjacent segments of the intestine undergo alternate contraction and relaxation. The effect of this is not to move food along the lumen, but to churn it and mix it, especially with the digestive juices. Segmental contractions also bring the chyme into contact with the epithelial cells for absorption. Peristaltic contractions move food and chyme down the lumen of the bowel. Circular muscles contract behind a bolus of food, the muscles in front of the bolus relax and this wave of contraction proceeds down the bowel propelling the bolus of food forward. Motility through out the GI System The passage of food through the gut, its conversion to chyme, and finally feces is all under involuntary control. Only the first part - ingestion and swallowing, and the last part - defecation are under voluntary control. Mastication Chewing is extremely important part of the digestive process especially for fruits and vegetables as these have indigestible cellulose coats which must be physically broken down. Also digestive enzymes only work on the surfaces of food particles, so the smaller the particle, the mre efficient the digestive process. Swallowing Swallowing is coordinated by the swallowing or deglutition center loated in the upper medullar and lower pons. Impulses are carried by the Trigeminal, Glossopharangeal, and Vagus nerves. The tongue pushes a bolus of food against the soft palate triggering the swallowing reflex. The soft palate is pulled upwards preventing reflux of food into the nasal cavities The vocal cords are strongly approximated The larynx is pulled upwards, closing the epiglottis, preventing food entering into the trachea. The esophageal sphincter relaxes. The muscular wall of the pharynx contracts beginning superiorly, pushing the food into the esophagus Peristaltic waves assisted by gravity push the food down the esophagus. Esophagus Food is carried down <｜fim▁hole｜> these are insufficient to move all the food, stronger secondary peristaltic waves develop. These are intiated by both the myenteric plexus and centrally. The muscle at the lower end of the esophagus thickens and is called the lower esophageal sphincter. This is usually tonically contracted, but relaxes when the peristaltic wave reaches it, allowing passage of food into the stomach. Stomach Food entering the stomach passes into the fundus of the stomach where it is stored. Weak peristaltic waves, known as mixing waves originate in the upper stomach and pass down to the antrum. These waves become stronger as they approach the antrum, and as they push the food against a closed pylorus they also act as mixing waves. Food in the antrum of the stomach is also thoroughly mixed with segmental contractions. The mixed fluid contents are called chyme, and small amounts of this are pushed through the pylorus into the duodenum with the stronger peristaltic contractions. Control of Stomach Emptying The rate of emptying of the stomach is controlled by various factors originating in the duodenum and stomach, of which the duodenal factors are the most important. Gastric factors include increased volume of food in the stomach and stretching of the stomach wall. The hormone Gastrin also appears to promote stomach emptying. Duodenal factors serve mainly to inhibit entering, thereby ensuring that the small intestine is not overwhelmed by a sudden influx of acidic chyme. They include nervous reflexes and hormones. The nerve reflexes are transmitted both by the enteric nervous system and through extrinsic nerves via the pre-vertebral sympathetic ganglia. Factors that inhibit emptying include: Distension of the duodenum The degree of acidity of the duodenal chyme The osmolarity of the chyme Irritation of the duodenum The reflexes are particularly sensitive to acidity and irritation which case rapid inhibition of stomach entering. Hormones that inhibit emptying include cholecystokinin, secretin, and Gastric Inhibitory Peptide (GIP). Secretin is secreted in response to acidity in the duodenum, Cholecystokinin and GIP in response to the presence of fats in the chyme. All these factors ensure that the rate of stomach emptying is limited to what the small intestine can process. Small bowel In the small intestine mixing with segmental contractions continues and the food is slowly passed through the intestine, finally passing through the ileocaecal sphincter to the large intestine. to a large extent the separation of segmental contractions from peristaltic contractions is artificial as both serve to move chyme forward, and both add to mixing. Chyme moves down the small intestine at the rate of about 1 cm/min, so will reach the ileocaecal junction in 3–5 hours. It often stays there til the next meal the gastroileal reflex intensifies peristalsis in the distal ileum forcing chyme through the ileocaecal valve. Intensity of peristalsis is controlled by both neuronal reflexes and hormones. Neuronal factors include distension of the intestine wall, but also distension of the stomach will also cause increased small intestine peristalsis. Both of these reflexes are mediated by the myenteric plexus. Hormonal factors increasing peristalsis include gastrin, CCK, insulin, motulin and seretonin. Glucagon and secretin inhibit peristalsis Ileocaecal valve The prime function of the ileocaecal valve is to prevent reflux of fecal contents into the small intestine. As can be seen from the illustration, the valve protrudes into the caecum, thus increased caecal preasure will cause occlusion. Furthermore, the muscle is thickened for a few centimeters from the distal end of the ileum, and this acts as a functional sphincter. Increased preasure or irritation in the distal ileum will cause relaxation of this sphincter; increased caecal preasure or irritation will cause constriction. Large Bowel and Defecation The principal function of the large intestine is to remove water and electrolytes from the chyme, and to store the resultant faeces until it can be eliminated. In the colon the longitudinal muscle coat is condensed into three narrow bands called the taenia coli. Thus mixing movements of the circular muscle coat, so called haustrations predominate in the Large intestine. These will also slowly move the contents towards the rectum. Much of the forward movement comes from these 'haustrations, but there is a third type of contraction called the mass movement which sends substantial amounts of material forward. These typically occur 2-3 times a day, usually after a meal - the so-called gastrocolic reflex, and last for about 20 minutes. They are responsible for the final formation of the faeces and the filling of the rectum. Filling of the rectum is a signal for the relaxation of the Internal anal sphincter. However the External anal sphincter is under voluntary control. Although the myenteric defecation signal only weakly relaxes the Internal anal sphincter, the stronger signal comes from parasympathetic reflexes synapsing in the sacral cord. These can be inhibited centrally, and when time to defecate is convenient, the inhibition is released, and the external anal sphincter, under voluntary control is relaxed. The sequence of defecation is often initiated voluntarily; the epiglottis is closed a deep breath, and contraction of the abdominal muscles increase intra-abdominal pressure. Coordination of motility All these actions are coordinated, and are under control of hormones, and the autonomic nervous system as well as the enteric nervous system, the result is that in health food products and chyme are moved forward at the optimal rate to allow for efficient digestion and absorption. <｜fim▁end｜>	the esaphagus by peristaltic contractions. If
<｜fim▁begin｜> Contents 1 DATE$ function 1.1 DATE$ 1.1.1 Function 1.1.2 Syntax 1.1.3 Description 1.1.3.1 Example 1.1.3.2 Note 1.1.4 See Also DATE$ function DATE$ Function ✔ Appearance ✔ Standard ✔ Console Syntax dateString$ = DATE$ Description The DATE$ function reads the system clock and returns the current date as a string in the format: MM/DD/YY (that is, the string returned contains two digit numerals each for month, day and year, separated by slash marks). You can use the Toolbox routine IUDATESTRING to get a date string that is formatted according to the international specifications set in the "Date & <｜fim▁hole｜> sample program IUDATESTRING.BAS to see how this is done. Example res/cd.gif image CD Example: IUDATESTRING.BAS Note The DATE$ function only returns the last two digits of the year. To get the complete 4-digit year value, you can use the SECONDSTODATE Toolbox function (previously SECS2DATE - both are supported in FutureBasic), as follows: DIM dateRec AS DateTimeRec DIM secs& DIM theMonth%,theDay%,theYear%,theWeekday% CALL GETDATETIME( secs& ) CALL SECONDSTODATE(secs&,dateRec) theMonth% = dateRec.month theDay% = dateRec.day theYear% = dateRec.year 'Full 4 digits theWeekday% = dateRec.dayOfWeek '1=Sunday, 7=Saturday PRINT theMonth% PRINT theDay% PRINT theYear% PRINT theWeekday% See Also TIME$; TIMER statement <｜fim▁end｜>	Time" control panel. See the
<｜fim▁begin｜> Part I: Rescue Strago To complete this sidequest you must first have completed Relm's sidequest and possibly the first part of Shadow's sidequest as well if you didn't save Shadow in the world of balance. Take Relm with you in your party to the Fanatics tower. For reference, the Fanatics tower is on the left side of the large U-shaped continent near the middle of the world map, and is in the middle of a mountain range in the middle of the left side of that giant U. Simply have your party talk to Strago and he'll join you. If you want to know how to defeat the fanatics tower see Fanatic's Tower Part II: Defeat Hidon To make the entrance to Hidon's cave in Ebot's rock available, you'll need to witness a sequence in Thamasa involving Strago and Relm. Head into Thamasa with both of them to witness a scene with Gungho. For reference, Thamasa is on the bottom right corner of the world map. Ebot's rock will appear after you complete the scene, on a little islet directly to the north of town. Pick Strago and any other three characters you would like. Traveling through Ebot's rock is mostly random, you'll step onto a teleporter and be zapped around from room to room. Pick <｜fim▁hole｜> treasure chests whenever you can and feed them to the talking treasure chest when you have enough. It will get dragged into the room behind it with Hidon and walk to the end of the room to see the big green monster himself. Hidon will eventually cast GrandTrain, which is Strago's most powerful Lore, so it may be worth waiting to defeat him all the way until you receive that. Hidon is weak against fire and pearl and accompanied by a slew of Hidonites. Use your best multi-enemy attacks at first then your strongest fire spells or pearl, it should fall eventually. If you miss learning the GrandTrain Lore or you wish to go back and steal some powerful equipment from Hidon or just earn some experience points, you can repeat the quest by just going to Thamasa and talking to Gungho until he says Hidon has appeared at Ebot's rock. Just go back and re-enter Ebot's rock and work your way up to Hidon again. There should also be a monster in Kefka's tower that uses all of Strago's lores, including Grand Train if you wait long enough in one of your random battles with it, so it really isn't necessary to worry too much about your battle with Hidon or fight him multiple times. <｜fim▁end｜>	up pieces of coral from
<｜fim▁begin｜> Contents 1 Description 2 Input 3 Output 4 Parameters 4.1 Max. particles 4.2 Max. distance 4.3 Output Parameters 4.4 Color 1 and 2 4.5 Threshold R, G and B (for color 1 and 2) 4.6 Selection by area (for color 1 and 2) 4.7 Min. blob size (for color 1 and 2) 4.8 Max. blob size (for color 1 and 2) 4.9 Selection by compactness (for color 1 and 2) 4.10 Min. compactness (for color 1 and 2) 4.11 Max. compactness (for color 1 and 2) Description This component detects markers consisting of two blobs (of different color) on a color image. The particle position is the point between the two blob centers, while the particle orientation is pointing towards color 1. For both colors, the algorithm first selects all pixels falling in to the following cube in RGB color space: \| r − c r \| < t r {\displaystyle \|r-c_{r}\|<t_{r}} \| g − c g \| < t g {\displaystyle \|g-c_{g}\|<t_{g}} \| b − c b \| < t b {\displaystyle \|b-c_{b}\|<t_{b}} where ( c r , c g , c b ) {\displaystyle (c_{r},c_{g},c_{b})} denotes the reference color, and t r {\displaystyle t_{r}} , t g {\displaystyle t_{g}} and t b {\displaystyle t_{b}} the thresholds for the respective channels. In a second step, the algorithm applies blob detection on the thresholded image. Both the color subtracted image and the thresholded image can be visualized. Once the blobs of both colors have been extracted, close lying blobs of different color are combined to particles. Input File:SwisTrack TwoColorBlobs.png A color image with markers consisting of two blobs of different color. Both colors need to be sufficiently different from any color appearing in the background. (A background subtraction component or a mask component may be useful to get rid of unwanted areas.) Output File:SwisTrack TwoColorParticles.png Particles, with the center being between the two blobs, and the orientation pointing <｜fim▁hole｜> Parameters Max. particles Maximum number of particles to detect. Note that the algorithm first detects this many red and green blobs, and then matches them. Hence, if there are stray red or green areas in your image (not part of a marker), you should choose a number of particles that is slightly higher than the number of markers you deploy. Max. distance The maximum distance between the center of the red blob and the center of the green blob. Blobs that are farther away from each other are considered not being part of the same marker. This distance is also used to eliminate stray blobs in the neighborhood of red or green blobs. More precisely, within any disk of this diameter (not radius), only the biggest red (resp. green) blob is detected. Output Parameters The parameters of the output blobs can be choosen as the parameters of the first colored blob, the second one, or the combination of those (i.e. area added, centers averaged etc.) Color 1 and 2 The reference color ( c r , c g , c b {\displaystyle c_{r},c_{g},c_{b}} , see description above). Threshold R, G and B (for color 1 and 2) The thresholds t r {\displaystyle t_{r}} , t g {\displaystyle t_{g}} and t b {\displaystyle t_{b}} (see description above). Selection by area (for color 1 and 2) Check this to base blob selection on the blob area. Min. blob size (for color 1 and 2) Minimum area in pixels of a blob to select. Max. blob size (for color 1 and 2) Maximum area in pixels of a blob to select. Selection by compactness (for color 1 and 2) Check this to base blobs section on the compactness of the blob. Min. compactness (for color 1 and 2) Minimum compactness (0..1) of a blob to select. Max. compactness (for color 1 and 2) Maximum compactness (0..1) of a blob to select. <｜fim▁end｜>	towards the blob of color 1.
<｜fim▁begin｜> This is the print version of Computers for BeginnersYou won't see this message or any elements not part of the book's content when you print or preview this page. Computers for Beginners is a book for people with little or no prior computer knowledge. It will teach basics moving slowly toward more advanced topics. The primary learning technique will be tutorial examples since they facilitate learning more effectively. There will be adequate theory prior to and explaining the examples so the user learns what the computer is doing instead of just memorizing keystrokes and mouse clicks. A printable version of Computers for Beginners is available. (edit it) A PDF version is available. (info) The initial writing of this book will use mostly examples from Windows XP. However, the theories in the book are applicable to any modern operating system (ex: Linux, MacOS, etc); these operating systems will not be explained separately right now unless there are fundamental differences. Table of Contents Introduction Buying A Computer Where to Buy Processor Etc. Flat Out Basics Setting Up and Turning on the Computer Free Software Proprietary Software Choosing my system - Priority "freedom" Moving the Mouse Familiarizing yourself with the keyboard Launching and Working with Programs and Windows Gooey GUI More Basics Files Installing Programs Uninstalling Programs Customizing Security Malware Firewall Office Programs Internet The Basics What is the Internet? The Internet and the World Wide Web Web Browsing Choosing a Password Bad Passwords Good Passwords Searching: Getting Here from There E-mail Choosing a username and password Utilizing the options Web-based E-mail Programs E-mail through a specialist program Multimedia Games Playing Games Modding/Making Games Images File Types Viewing Editing Music File Types Listening Editing Video Media Types File Types Watching Editing Networking Setting Up a Home Network Different Uses of Networks Sharing Internet Connections Sharing Files and Printer Playing Multi-Player Games Tips&Tricks Truly Removing Log Off User Kill the Passport Balloon Kill the Animated Search Character Keeping your PC running Smoothly Programming Glossary Author(s) Please add {{alphabetical}} only to book title pages. Contents 1 Table of Contents 2 Introduction 3 What is a Computer? 4 Buying A Computer 4.1 Selecting Basics 4.1.1 Desktop v. Laptop 4.1.2 Essentials and Extras 4.1.3 Service 4.2 Selecting Specs 4.2.1 Storage Drives 4.2.2 CPU (Processor) 4.2.3 RAM (Memory) 4.2.4 Operating System 4.2.5 Virus Protection 4.2.6 Video Card 4.3 Assembling 5 Flat Out Basics 6 What is a computer? 6.1 Brief History 7 Hardware/Software 7.1 The Insides 7.1.1 CPU 7.1.2 Memory 7.1.3 Hard Drive 7.1.4 SSD 7.2 The Peripherals 7.2.1 Keyboard and Mouse 7.2.1.1 Keyboard 7.2.1.2 Mouse 7.2.2 Media Devices (Floppy, CD-ROM, DVD, USB) 7.2.3 Monitor 7.2.4 Printer 8 Software 8.1 What is Software? 8.1.1 Types of Softwares 8.1.2 Nature, or domain of execution 8.1.3 Programming tools 9 Setup and Boot 10 Operating Systems 11 Basic Operating Tasks 11.1 Moving the Mouse 11.2 Keyboard 11.3 GUI (Gooey) 12 Windows XP 12.1 Booting for the first time 12.2 Running Windows XP 12.2.1 Some useful keyboard shortcuts in Windows 12.3 Launching and Working with Programs and Windows 12.3.1 Background Information 12.3.2 Opening a Window 12.3.3 Modifying the Window 12.3.4 Moving a Window 12.3.5 Working with Multiple Windows 12.3.6 Task Bar 12.4 Windows Gooey GUI 12.4.1 Menu Bar 12.4.1.1 Common Menu Bar Features 12.4.2 Scroll Bar 13 Linux 13.1 Installing an operating system 13.2 Gnome 13.3 K Desktop (KDE) 14 More Basics 14.1 Files 14.1.1 Background Information 14.1.2 File Naming 14.1.3 Organizing and Creating Files 14.1.4 Moving Files with the Cut, Copy, and Paste 14.1.5 Searching For Files 14.1.6 Shortcuts 14.1.7 Compression 14.1.7.1 Extracting 14.1.7.2 Compressing 14.2 Types of Applications 14.3 Installing Applications in Linux 14.3.1 Arch/Chakra Linux 14.3.2 Fedora/Red Hat Linux 14.3.3 Ubuntu 14.4 Installing Applications in Windows 14.5 Uninstalling Applications 14.5.1 Windows 14.5.2 Linux 14.6 Customizing 14.6.1 Start Menu 14.6.1.1 Contents 14.6.1.1.1 Dragging, Dropping, and Right Clicking 14.6.2 Taskbar 14.6.2.1 Auto-Hide the Taskbar 14.6.2.2 Show Quick Launch 14.6.3 Screen Size (Resolution) 15 Security 16 Why Security Matters 16.1 Protect Others on the Internet 16.2 Malware can cause trouble with your computer 16.3 Protect Your Privacy 16.4 Criminal Intentions of Crackers 17 Updating 18 User Privileges 19 Physical Access 20 Malware 20.1 Anti-Virus 20.1.1 Worms 20.2 Spyware and Adware Blocker 20.3 Common Spyware Infestation Methods and Prevention 20.3.1 Internet Explorer/ActiveX Exploits 20.3.2 P2P Apps and other Freeware 21 Firewall 21.1 NAT Firewall 21.2 Software Firewall 22 Office Programs 23 Internet 23.1 The Basics 23.1.1 Where is the Internet? 23.1.2 The Internet and the World Wide Web 23.2 Web Browsing 23.3 Choosing a password 23.3.1 Bad passwords 23.3.2 Good passwords 23.4 Searching: getting here from there 23.5 Email 23.6 Web-based email 23.7 E-mail through a specialist program 23.7.1 E-mail hygiene: viruses 23.8 Online Scams 23.9 Links 24 Multimedia 24.1 Introduction to Multimedia 24.2 Games 24.2.1 Playing Games 24.2.2 Making and Modifying Games 24.3 Images 24.3.1 File Types 24.3.1.1 Compressed Formats 24.3.1.2 Uncompressed Formats 24.3.1.3 Vector 24.3.2 Popular image viewing software 24.3.2.1 Google Picasa 24.3.2.2 Windows Media Player 24.4 Music 24.4.1 File Types 24.4.1.1 Lossy Formats 24.4.1.2 Uncompressed Formats 24.4.1.3 Lossless Compressed Formats 24.4.2 Listening 24.5 Video 24.5.1 Media Types 24.5.2 File Types and Codecs 24.5.2.1 Codecs 24.5.2.2 File Types 24.5.3 Watching 24.6 Glossary 24.7 Links 25 Networking 25.1 Setting Up A Home Network 25.2 Different Uses of Networks 25.2.1 Sharing Internet Connection 25.2.2 Files Sharing 25.2.3 Print Sharing 25.3 Sources 26 Tips&Tricks 26.1 Strange errors 27 Keeping your PC running Smoothly = 27.1 Do Some Research 27.2 Update Everything 27.3 Keep your passwords safe 28 Programming 28.1 Taking your first step into the world of programming 28.2 Types of programming languages 28.3 How programs work 29 Authors 29.1 EuropracBHIT 29.2 Deviance99 Introduction What is a Computer? History of Computers What can a computer do for me? The computer's original function was calculation. A computer is incredibly fast at mathematical accounting - what would take a human hours to complete can be done in seconds. It is wonderful for keeping track of a budget, planning a savings account or performing thousands of other tasks. A computer can improve efficiency, streamline productivity, and facilitate communication as well as entertain. In the work environment, a computer is used to perform a plethora of tasks. A primary function is word processing. A word processor is considered to be a virtual pen and paper; it saves the document on a computer and allows instant editing. It also includes tools to review your grammar and to check your spelling, ensuring higher quality written work! Another productivity use for computers is creating databases. These databases are easily created and can store information for quick access and retrieval. For example, if you have a large address book and want to get a person's address to send them a letter, you can use an address book application. This application uses a directory, or database, to store the contact information of the people you input into it. Then you can use a search feature that lets you look for a person's name (or part of their name) to quickly find their address, instead of flipping through endless pages of an actual address book. Computers also be great entertainers. Computers can view photos, play video games and music. In addition, if you have a decent Internet connection, you can watch one of the many TV shows and movies available online for your viewing pleasure. One of the most utilized features of computers is the gateway it provides to communication. Even a slow Internet connection will make communication easier. You can e-mail friends and family. Electronic-mail, unlike regular mail, provides instant delivery to the recipient. Also, if both of you are simultaneously connected to the Internet, some programs will allow instant messaging. This is a means of communicating in real time. This can help save on phone bills. Many communication programs allow phone and video calls over the Internet as well, and most of them are free! A computer also provides a gateway to the web. A huge library filled with billions of pages that are packed with knowledge and games! NEXT>> Computers for beginners/buying a computer Buying A Computer Selecting Basics When you choose a computer, it is suggested to think about what you want to do with it. If all you plan to do is surf the web, send a few e-mails and perform basic business tasks, any new computer you find for sale will work well. Currently available computers have more than enough processing power for the tasks most people use. The more expensive models provide extra performance or software that you may or may not use. You can save a bundle by buying a refurbished or used computer from a big company or from a small, local reseller. Most people spend more than they need. What you need to get is determined by what you plan to do with your computer. If you don't plan to play high end games, you don't need a $500 video card, a $1000 top of the line processor, and a $400 solid state drive. If you are typing letters to your grandkids there is no way you can type faster than even the slowest new computers. Consider what you plan to do, how much you want to spend and choose your computer from there. There are a few choices you have to make, as described below: Desktop v. Laptop It comes down to a choice between size and price. Desktop computers (those which must remain stationary while in use) offer better value for money. They are usually cheaper and faster than laptops. Laptops, on the other hand, are easy to carry from place to place and can be set-up on any table or your lap. Laptops offer mobility and are somewhat easier to start using since the set up process is typically limited to a single power cable compared to any number of cables required on a desktop. Of course once a desktop is set up, you typically do not need to mess with cabling again, while laptop owners must consistently keep track of a charging cable or dock. If mobility is a must, or in other words you would like to be able to take your computer for serious use with you anywhere you go, consider spending extra to get a laptop. Consider if you would use your laptop for things you already can do on your smartphone if you have one. An important factor to consider with laptops is that, due to their mobility, you are more likely to put them in areas where they could be accidentally fall down or otherwise break - laptops are much harder to repair than desktops. If you just plan to use your computer at your desk at home, save a few bucks and get a desktop. For computer gaming, desktops are generally considered greatly superior, as laptops manufacturers are forced to cram lots of hardware into a small chassis. Most laptops are oriented for business use. The term "Netbook" refers to an increasingly common subgroup of laptops, small-sized devices which are approximately the size of a small book and so highly portable and easy to carry, able to connect to a network and make use of the Internet. In general, they are significantly less powerful than most computers, CPU wise even the average normal size laptop. For an idea of how big the difference typically is, a laptop will generally cost 20-30% more than a comparable desktop. Essentials and Extras If you are buying a desktop, the desktop may come as a complete system, including a keyboard, mouse, and screen. In this case you do not need to make an additional purchase, aside from perhaps some AA batteries if the mouse and keyboard are wireless. However some desktops are sold as the computer only, and you will not be able to use them without buying a keyboard, mouse, and screen separately. Laptops nearly universally include a screen, keyboard, speakers, and touchpad (Mouse). Some will go farther and include a microphone and webcam. Some items are nice to have, but not required for the computer to operate. These include printers, scanners, and speakers. Items such as these are almost never sold in the same box as the computer. There are general office supplies you may wish to consider as well, such as a surge protector to plug everything into and a mousepad. Service If you are a first time computer user, it is worth considering if your purchase includes technical support, installation, or other benefits. Most computers by major manufacturers do come with a basic warranty and phone tech support included, so consider purchasing additional service only if you need additional assistance in person. Remember that many libraries and non profits have staff help with computer literacy. Some salespeople can be very pushy, though some are genuinely helpful and will correctly point out missing required accessories. If you are unsure which applies in your case, consider asking a local techie for help. Selecting Specs Though not strictly needed, knowledge of computer specifications (specs) can help you make a more informed purchase. Storage Drives Storage drives are like big filing cabinets for your computer. Although they are all the same physical size (except in desktop v. laptop comparison), hard drives come in different capacities. When it comes to hard drives, bigger is better, within reason. Photos and videos often take up a large part of the space on our hard drives. You can always add an external drive or use cloud storage if you run out of space. Most computers use solid state drives (Commonly abbreviated as SSD), though some computers use higher capacity but slower hard disk drives (Commonly abbreviated as HDD). Both are fine choices for beginners, though if all else is equal you should go with a solid state drive for their increased speed and reliability. CPU (Processor) The processor is the brains of the computer; it does all the calculating. Simply put, faster is better. However, faster is generally more expensive, produces more heat and uses more energy. Unless you plan on playing the latest games, or doing a lot of video editing, buy a middle of the pack processor. You can save some money by going with a slower processor, or spend a few extra for a little more speed. This book recommends that you stay away from the very high end as you spend a lot more money for only a small increase in performance. For instance, it is possible to buy a processor which adds $1,000 to the price of the chip for only about a 10% speed increase - Not worth it for the average or even most enthusiast users. There are two main CPU manufacturers, Intel and AMD. Competition keeps them fairly evenly matched. Intel offers the high-end Core i7's and the low-end Core i3's processors while AMD has the high-end and mid-range Ryzen, and the low-range Athlon, respectively. The low-end processors (i3 and Athlon) tend to are still perfectly adequate for most basic computer use. RAM (Memory) RAM (Random Access Memory), is memory that is not on your hard drive that your computer uses to store things you have not saved, such as a web page, a document that you are typing, or as data from an application. RAM is much faster than a storage drive. As with most things computer-related, more is better. This book suggests getting a minimum of 4GB (gigabyte) - 8GB (gigabyte) of RAM. If you have a little extra money, you may want to go with 8GB or 16GB. Unless you are going to be doing lots of video editing, anything over that is a little excessive. In any case, the amount of memory you will need will be dictated by the applications you will be using. For example, games or graphics-heavy applications such as Adobe Photoshop will demand considerably more RAM than text-based software such as email programs and word processors. Operating System Without instructions, a computer will do nothing. An Operating System is like a manager for your computer. You tell it what to do, and it in turn tells the computer components what to do. That way you only have to learn one general interface to make the most of your computer. Fortunately most computers are shipped with an operating system ready to go. If you are feeling overwhelmed, you can generally ignore the specifics of this point. Just confirm with the salesperson that the operating system is the latest version available and you'll be set. If you want to dig in deeper to decide which operating system is best for you, that's great! Microsoft Windows is a very common operating system, often seen both at home and in the office. Although Windows is the most popular operating system, this does not necessarily make it the best. One may also consider an Apple Macintosh system, which places focus on a better user interface, or Linux, which intends to be more free and privacy focused. As always, one should take a look at all available options, and choose the most useful interface. Virus Protection If you are new to using computers, virus protection is recommended. Most of them are paid products that require a subscription such as Norton or McAfee, but there are free products or with free personal licenses (non-commercial uses) like AVG, Malwarebytes or Avast!. Linux and Mac have not received too many recent viruses being small segments of the market (a smaller target), but it is still possible for them to be infected if you ignore their built in safety systems. You, Yourself must be very careful on what you download. Until you become more technically savvy, you should avoid installing any program not from an official app store without a technically minded friend to guide you. The authors of malware prey on those without experience, as well as those who let their guard down. Be cautious and skeptical of things you find on the internet - bad malware can lock your computer up and demand a ransom, or worse. Video Card Computers aren't very useful if you can't see anything, unless you build a server or other form of distributed workstation. A video card allows the computer to 'talk to' the monitor. If you only want to surf the web, write documents, send and receive email, then "integrated graphics" are fine and cost much less. Most low-end computers come with what is known as integrated graphics—very basic graphics built right into the motherboard, suitable for business applications. If you plan to do serious gaming , you need a graphics card. There are two main companies who produce graphics card chipsets: AMD and Nvidia. Both make good graphics cards in all price and performance ranges and you should do more research before choosing a specific card. Basically, the more expensive cards allow you to play fancier games. Video cards have their own onboard RAM and have their own processor known as a Graphics Processing Unit (or GPU). Assembling See also How To Assemble A Desktop PC Building a computer is not as difficult as it sounds. It is not recommended for absolute beginners, but if you have toyed with computers for some time, it might be a good idea, especially if you plan on playing games. It can save you a bundle on hardware. There is a separate WikiBook on this, as well as some other resources online. Flat Out Basics What is a computer? A computer is an electronic device that accepts data as input, processes data into information, stores information for future uses, and outputs the information whenever it is needed. Brief History A large computer used in the 1940s. Computers, by a wider definition, have been around for thousands of years. One of the earliest computers was the abacus, series of beads arranged on metal rods. Beads could be slid back and forth to operate on numbers. This was a very rudimentary device and is not commonly thought of as a computer in modern times. Our idea of computers involves electricity and electronics. Electricity makes computers much more efficient. The first computers used an incredible amount of electricity, which changed voltages in vacuum tubes to operate the computer. These computers were given instructions using punch cards, and were behemoths, taking up entire floors of buildings. Only the more privileged universities and government facilities had access to them. In the 1960s, the vacuum tube was replaced by the integrated circuit and transistor. These greatly reduced the size and power consumption of computers. They were still very large by today's standards, but more institutions had access to computing power than ever before. At the end of the decade, the microchip was invented, which reduced the size of the computer even more. By the end of the 1970s, computers were widespread in businesses. Using a computer involved typing on a terminal (a keyboard and monitor connected to a large central computer). Soon, parts became small enough to allow many users to have a computer at their home. Thus the Personal Computer, or PC, was born. Since then, personal computers have become tremendously more efficient. They are much smaller, and yet have seen extreme performance gains. In addition to these improvements, computers have become affordable enough for many families worldwide. Hardware/Software Hardware is the stuff you can touch, as opposed to software which is abstract and exists only in a virtual world as computer code. Hardware is made of materials found in the universe and are subject to the laws of physics. Contrary to the former, software is bound only by the creator's imagination and the user's willingness to use the software. The Insides Inside the computer case are various components that allow the computer to run. CPU Several CPU microchips. The Central Processing Unit, or CPU, does nearly all the calculating. It is the main microchip in the computer that distributes tasks to all other parts of the computer. When most people talk about the processor, or chip, it is actually the CPU they are referring to. Memory RAM (Random Access Memory), commonly called just memory, holds computer code that needs to be operated on quickly. This allows information held in memory to quickly interact with the CPU. The amount of RAM available is limited and therefore needs to be constantly cleared and refilled (don't worry; all computers do this automatically). RAM is just one part of the computer that determines your speed. RAM is referred to as "volatile" memory because the information stored in it disappears when the power is turned off. Hard drives and flash drives, on the other hand, contain non-volatile memory, which is like paper: it can be destroyed or erased, but when properly taken care of, can last forever. RAM is plugged into special slots on the motherboard. There is a large link (known as a bus) from the memory to the CPU. Each motherboard has a fixed number of slots for RAM - often 2 or 4 slots. Only certain types of RAM and sizes of RAM can be used with any motherboard. So before buying, check your motherboard details. Hard Drive A partially dismantled hard drive, showing the disc inside. The hard drive is the main storage area in the computer. It is usually where you put your data to be stored permanently (until you choose to erase it). It keeps data after the power is turned off. The official name for a hard disk is hard disk drive (HDD), but is almost always referred to as hard drive. Virtually all of your data is stored on your hard drive. A hard drive is composed of disk(s), where the data is recorded magnetically onto the surface, similar to records, CDs, and DVDs. The size of the hard drive (today's are usually in gigabytes) is determined by how dense (small) the recording is. Many of today's major programs (such as games and media creating and editing programs like Photoshop) and files (such as pictures, music, or video) use a considerable amount of space. Most low-end computers, as of 2011, are shipped with a 160GB (gigabyte) or larger hard drive. In 2019, it is common to find desktop computers and laptops with 1000 GB (1 terabyte) hard drive or more. As an example, an average .mp3 file takes between 7.5 and 15 MB (megabytes) of space. A megabyte is 1/1024 of a gigabyte, thus allowing most new computers to store thousands of such files. Users who wish to store a lot of media on a computer will want a larger hard drive. As will users who want to store numerous large programs, like modern games, or videos, which both require a lot of space. A full size film is over 4 gigabytes. Video games today are commonly downloaded but used to be distributed via DVD discs that store data, called DVD-ROM (read only memory, which can be read off the disk, but not modified). A DVD can be anywhere from 4.7 GB for a single layer disk to 8.5 GB for a double layered disk... and many large programs are already taking up more than one disk. Another concern for users who want higher performance is hard drive speed, measured in RPM (rotations per minute). Most desktop hard drives today are 7200 RPM models. Lower end 4200 RPM models are not commonly seen in new systems (other than laptops). Higher end 10,000 RPM hard drives are generally seen only in gaming and other extremely high performance computers due to their cost. For example, a 1 TB 7200 RPM drive costs around $50 (as of January, 2017), while a 1 TB 10,000 RPM drive costs $120 or more (as of January 2017). A 1 TB SSD starts at about $250. Hard drives are constantly increasing in size, both because technology allows, and because of demand for more storage space. For example, an Apple iMac in the late nineties shipped with a 4 GB hard drive, and sold for $1,300 US (although it should be noted that the cost alone is not indicative of the hard drive, or vice versa). A modern iMac sells for $1000 US and carries a 1 TB hard drive with a 21-inch screen and faster processor (January 2017). Compare to the original IBM PC, which carried only a 10 MB hard drive, or 10/1024 of a GB. The largest HDD in 2016 was more than 15 TB. Many computers already have more than 2 terabytes, and within decades petabytes (thousands of terabytes) and even exobytes (thousands of petabytes) will not be unheard of. SSD The SSD, or otherwise known as a Solid State Drive, is a storage device using RAM modules instead of a spinning disk. It is like a Hard Disk Drive, but these storage devices are much faster than traditional Hard Disk Drives (HDDs) because they don't have to spin up. The SSD can have transfer speeds up to 10x as fast because of this. They are quieter and more expensive than HDDs The Peripherals Peripherals are hardware attached to a computer, but external to the main case that houses the CPU, Hard drives, and other such equipment. They are basically devices that allow people to communicate to the computer. It is generally a good idea, although not as important as it used to be, to add and remove hardware from the computer while it is turned off. Things such as USB storage devices and keyboards/mice can generally be inserted and removed at a whim with no consequence, however more advanced things such as printers should be installed according to the manufacturer's instructions, which may include shutting down your computer. Keyboard and Mouse The keyboard and mouse are basic input devices. Keyboard A keyboard with a QWERTY layout. The keyboard has keys that, when pressed, send information to the computer. The keyboard is the most widely used device for interacting with a desktop computer. However, the touchscreen is the most common input for phones, tablets and some laptops. The most commonly used keyboard, by far, is the QWERTY layout, which almost all keyboards sold use. This is the same layout as most typewriters sold within the last century. The second most common, but a very distant follower, is the Dvorak Simplified Keyboard. While this is technically better, the industry and consumer market as a whole has mostly rejected it. The QWERTY keyboard was designed to prevent typewriters from jamming while keys were being pushed at a fast rate. It did this by keeping keys as far apart as possible. The Dvorak keyboard layout was designed for computers, where this is obviously not a problem, and thus places the most commonly used keys where they are easy to reach, and because of that, quicker. However, because of the popularity QWERTY had, the Dvorak keyboard layout never became popular. It is generally advised that you use a QWERTY keyboard, as even though Dvorak users gain significantly faster typing speeds, the rarity of the layout makes it hard for people who use Dvorak to use most other computers. Keyboards vary in appearance. Those attached to a desktop computer are frequently large with an additional number pad built in on the right side, while laptop keyboards are attached to the computer and are often much smaller. Some keyboards also offer special buttons to play music, open common programs such as the web browser or email program. These multimedia keys tend to be put above the F keys and make the keyboard bigger as a result. Smaller keyboards combine keys or shrink the keys. They are commonly used as an accessory for a laptop - a small size makes them easier to travel with. There are wired and wireless keyboards (and mice). Wired keyboards usually plug into a USB slot. Older style keyboards use the PS2 socket at the back of a desktop. (PS2 to USB adapters are available). Wireless keyboards work by Bluetooth, Infrared (IR) or Radio frequency (RF). Bluetooth is built into most laptops so a Bluetooth keyboard or mouse can connect with no extra equipment. Most desktops do not have bluetooth built in but a USB Bluetooth key can be used to add it. RF keyboards and mice need a receiver plugged into the computer, the transmitter is usually built into the keyboard or mouse. Mouse A three button mouse. The mouse is an input device which is primarily used by physically moving the device across a surface. This causes a pointer symbol, called a "cursor", to move across the screen. The other input comes from pressing a button while the cursor is over an object on the monitor, or "clicking". All mice have at least one button, with the most common layout having three. Gaming mice may have 7 buttons. One button mice: The Apple mighty mouse is the only mouse known to most people which uses a single button. This button is usually activated by pushing on the front of the mouse, or pushing the entire mouse down. The "right-click" is done by pressing a "control" or "Ctrl" key on the keyboard while pressing the main button. These are only used with Macintosh OS, such as Mac OS X. Two button mice: The second most common layout, more common in older computers, which has a button on the left and right, usually for the index and middle finger. While less useful than a three-button mouse, they are, when teamed with a standard keyboard, capable of performing almost all computer tasks. Three-button mice: The most common layout, Fundamentally the same as a two button mice, but with a third button, the middle button, added between the "left" and "right" click buttons. While the mouse technically has three buttons,this may be confusing to some users, as the "middle"/"center" click button is also a scroll wheel. This design allows the user to scroll through documents, make selections, and do other tasks by moving a finger. The other way to is to press an arrow key or "Page up/Page down" key on a keyboard. The center button can also be press inwards to create a "middle click" button. The middle click is used in some programs to perform a simple function, such as the Firefox web browser, which uses the middle click to open a link in a new tab. Four (or more) button mice: Usually seen only on gaming and multimedia specialization mice. The extra buttons generally do not serve any native purpose, and rather are assigned a function to perform by the user. For example, a user who uses the mouse to play games might assign the additional buttons to switch between weapons in a shooter, or cast spells in a fantasy game. There are two other major differences in mice, which is Optical/Laser mice, and Ball mice. This is how the mouse tells where it is, with the laser measuring the distance it crosses when it is moved, and the ball measuring how it rotates. The laser is generally more accurate and less of a hassle to use, and can be used on more surfaces, but the ball mouse is cheaper. Ball mice are rarely seen today. The last important consideration when buying a mouse is size. You should always try to put your hand on a mouse and move it around, to see how well it feels in your hand. If it feels awkward, small, big, long, or short, look for something better! Not only will your hands thank you, but you will be more efficient. Mice can be wired or wireless - see the above section on keyboards. A trackball is very similar to a mouse but has a ball instead of the middle button. This ball allows you to move the mouse up, down or side to side. There are usually 2 or more buttons as well. Many users find they cause less pain than a traditional mouse. A Touchpad is often found on a laptop instead of a mouse. This pad is found under the keyboard in most laptops i.e. closer to the body than the actual keys. Moving a finger across it moves the pointer. Multiple fingers can be used to send other commands e.g. two finger prolonged press opens up a page in a new tab. Media Devices (Floppy, CD-ROM, DVD, USB) These devices carry data, in the same way that a hard drive does, but are much more portable. They are the primary method of storing data outside of a computer, and the main method of transferring information between computers without the use of a network, such as the Internet. There are three main types of these in use today: CD-ROM: mostly read only memory unless labeled "rewritable" - Capable of storing 700MB of data, CDs have been the most common method of storing data for most of the last decade or so. They are being largely replaced by DVDs and USB drives (see below). DVD: Capable of storing 4.7GB of data in their single layer form and 8.5GB in their double layer form, they are the most common method today for most store-bought programs, as well as videos. USB/Flash: While not usually used by commercial software, USB 'sticks' and Flash 'cards' have become popular ways of storing data because of their ease of use and low cost. While sizes range from 2GB on old units to 256GB on larger, more expensive modern units, the average stick today is 4 or 8GB, with an average 4GB USB stick costing about $15 US. The floppy disk has been phased out. Monitor The monitor is the main method for the computer to produce output, in the same way a book has pages. A book filled with letters, but in a way you can't possibly understand or even see is of no use to you, and the same is true for a computer. While older monitors, CRTs, were rather bulky like TVs, newer monitors, or LCDs, are much more compact, and can be easily lifted. For much of the history of computers, the most common monitors were CRTs, short for Cathode Ray Tubes. They work on the same principle as a television. They were generally heavy, had a lower image quality, and were in general less reliable than an LCD. They come in two forms, the normal version, which has a curved monitor, and "Flat Screen", where the display is completely level (although it still has the bulky back end). It is suggested that if you plan to remove a CRT, it is better for the environment to safely dispose of it (not just into a bin, an electronic waste bin), as CRT's contain high levels of toxic chemicals. The most common type of monitor today is an LCD, or Liquid Crystal Display, which is much lighter, although slightly more expensive. They have a smaller form, a higher image quality, and are overall better than CRT monitors. Tip: To take proper care of your monitor, always be sure that the screen is not left on a static image for long periods of time. This can "burn" the image into the monitor, meaning that it will have a ghosting effect, even when that image is not displayed. This can not only be highly annoying, but in some cases, make it so the monitor needs to be replaced. To avoid this, either set a moving screensaver, which will trigger after a set amount of time, or simply turn the monitor off Printer If you have a printer attached to your computer you can print your information and keep a physical copy of data. Depending on what type of printer you have, you can print in color, double-sided or book form. The output quality of some printers goes from draft (to save ink) all the way to photo quality. Printers come in all price ranges and in many types. The most common for home use are ink jets (bubble jets) and laser. There are specialized printers for data plotting (mapping), photos only, labels and more. A lot of printers are "all-in-ones" which simply means they combine more than one function. They can be any combination of printer, copier, fax and scanner. If you are looking to buy an all-in-one make sure it has all the features you are looking for. You don't want to get it home and find out you still need a separate fax machine or scanner that you thought was included! Software What is Software? Computer software, or simply software, also known as computer programs, is the non-tangible component of computers. Computer software contrasts with computer hardware, which is the physical component of computers. Computer hardware and software require each other and neither can be realistically used without the other. Computer software includes all computer programs regardless of their architecture; for example, executable files, libraries and scripts are computer software. Yet, it shares their mutual properties: software consists of clearly-defined instructions that upon execution, instructs hardware to perform the tasks for which it is designed. Software is stored in computer memory and cannot be touched, just as a 3D model shown in an illustration cannot be touched. At the lowest level, executable code consists of machine language instructions specific to an individual processor – typically a central processing unit (CPU). A machine language consists of groups of binary values signifying processor instructions that change the state of the computer from its preceding state. For example, an instruction may change the value stored in a particular storage location inside the computer – an effect that is not directly observable to the user. An instruction may also (indirectly) cause something to appear on a display of the computer system – a state change which should be visible to the user. The processor carries out the instructions in the order they are provided, unless it is instructed to "jump" to a different instruction, or interrupted. Software is usually written in high-level programming languages that are easier and more efficient for humans to use (closer to natural language) than machine language. High-level languages are compiled or interpreted into machine language object code. Software may also be written in a low-level assembly language, essentially, a vaguely mnemonic representation of a machine language using a natural language alphabet. Assembly language is converted into object code via an assembler. Types of Softwares Application software uses the computer system to perform useful work or provide entertainment functions beyond the basic operation of the computer itself. System software is designed to operate the computer hardware, to provide basic functionality, and to provide a platform for running application software. System software includes: Operating system, an essential collection of computer programs that manages resources and provides common services for other software. Supervisory programs, boot loaders, shells and window systems are core parts of operating systems. In practice, an operating system comes bundled with additional software (including application software) so that a user can potentially do some work with a computer that only has an operating system. Device driver, a computer program that operates or controls a particular type of device that is attached to a computer. Each device needs at least one corresponding device driver; thus a computer needs more than one device driver. Utilities, software designed to assist users in maintenance and care of their computers. Malicious software or malware, computer software developed to harm and disrupt computers. As such, malware is undesirable. Malware is closely associated with computer-related crimes, though some malicious programs may have been designed as practical jokes. Nature, or domain of execution Desktop applications such as web browsers and Microsoft Office, as well as smartphone and tablet applications (called "apps"). Server software Scripts, such as JavaScript scripts are pieces of software traditionally embedded in web pages that are run directly inside the web browser when a web page is loaded, without the need for a web browser plugin. Software written in other programming languages can also be run within the web browser if the software is either translated into JavaScript, or if a web browser plugin that supports that language is installed; the most common example of the latter is ActionScript scripts, which are supported by the Adobe Flash plugin. Web applications usually run on the web server and output dynamically-generated web pages to web browsers, using e.g. PHP, Java or ASP.NET, or even JavaScript that runs on the server; in modern times they commonly include some JavaScript to be run in the web browser as well, in which case they typically run partly on the server, partly in the web browser. Plugins and extensions are software that extends or modifies the functionality of another piece of software, and require that software be used in order to function; Embedded software resides as firmware within embedded systems, devices dedicated to a single use or a few uses such as cars and televisions (although some embedded devices such as wireless chipsets can themselves be part of an ordinary, non-embedded computer system such as a PC or smartphone). In the embedded system context there is sometimes no clear distinction between the system software and the application software. However, some embedded systems run embedded operating systems, and these systems do retain the distinction between system software and application software (although typically there will only be one, fixed, application which is always ran). Microcode is a special, relatively obscure type of embedded software which tells the processor itself how to execute machine code, so it is actually a lower level than machine code. It is typically proprietary to the processor manufacturer, and any necessary correctional microcode software updates are supplied by them to users (which is much cheaper than shipping replacement processor hardware). Thus an ordinary programmer would not expect to ever have to deal with it. Programming tools Programming tools are software in the form of programs or applications that software developers (also known as programmers, coders, hackers or software engineers) use to create, debug, maintain (i.e. improve or fix), or otherwise support software. Software is written in one or more programming languages; there are many programming languages in existence, and each has at least one implementation, each of which consists of its own set of programming tools. These tools may be relatively self-contained programs such as compilers, debuggers, interpreters, linkers, and text editors, that can be combined together to accomplish a task, much as one might use multiple hand tools to fix a physical object, or they may be an integrated development environment (IDE), which combines much or all of the functionality of such self-contained tools. An IDE may do this either by invoking the relevant individual tools on behalf of the programmer, or by reimplementing their functionality in a new way. Almost all programming language implementations (a notable exception being Smalltalk) provide the option of using individual tools rather than an IDE, because some programmers prefer not to use IDEs for various reasons, and IDEs usually take longer to be developed to an "acceptable" standard than individual tools - indeed, initially, new programming languages (which are created every year) would not typically have IDEs available for them. Setup and Boot The first thing to do after taking your computer out of the box is to set it up. While many stores offer at home installation, this is generally unneeded for anyone able to operate a computer, as a computer can be hooked up with about the same effort as a television and components. The basic parts are: The Case: Also known as the 'tower', or incorrectly as the 'CPU', the case is what stores all of the brains of the computer- the graphics card, processor, hard drives, etc. This is the most important and expensive part of your setup, and technically the 'computer' itself. The monitor The keyboard/mouse You may want Speakers, microphones and webcams to be able to hear sound, input sound or input film clips. Simply place the case wherever you wish to have it, plug the monitor's cable into the appropriate slot on the back of the computer (should have a monitor picture on the slot), place the monitor where you wish to have it, plug the monitor's cable into the monitor (the ends are usually a white (DVI-D) or blue (VGA, being phased out), plug the keyboard and mouse into the appropriate slots on your computer (USB), and lastly plug the power cable into the power supply on the back of the computer, and into a standard wall outlet. You should consider using a surge protector to protect the delicate electronics inside a computer from any power surge, or loss. You may also consider using a power backup, which will allow you time to shut your computer down safely during a blackout, or even continue to use it until the power is restored, in some cases. You may have a laptop/notebook computer, which all of the components are integrated into a single compact source that you can carry in a briefcase/backpack. In that case you need only plug in your battery and power cord. Follow the instructions provided by the manufacturer of the computer for putting the battery in the laptop/notebook and plugging in the power cord. Some additional models differ from the above two designs. For example, the iMac series of Apple computers have the internals and monitor housed in one case, with only the keyboard and mouse separate. Please refer to your instruction manual for setup instructions (Apple usually has very clear instructions). Note: Many of the instructions in this Wikibook require a Windows computer. After everything is assembled, proceed to turn on your computer and your peripherals. It is important to turn the monitor and speakers on first so that you can hear and see any error sounds or messages. You should also pay attention to your computer, and be ready to turn the power off immediately if there are any problems, such as the fans not starting. Though you should be careful, as computer fans can be extremely quiet, if the fans do not start, immediately turn the computer off to prevent the CPU and other delicate components from overheating. Operating Systems The major software application on a computer is called the operating system. The operating system is like the driver of a car. While it might seem like it's only telling the car (computer) what to do, it is in fact also interfacing with the different parts of it, as well as taking any new input (say, a map, or instructions on where to go- which equates to other software) and performing these tasks to the best of its ability. Although many things are compatible across platforms, more involved programs, such as photo editing tools and games, will not work across all platforms, in the same way that if you started giving your cab driver directions in French, he'd probably tell you to get out, unless you were of course, in France! An operating system, aka "OS", is the middleman between you and the computer. It creates an environment where the user can interact with the computer in an efficient manner. There are three major OS that you should consider using for your first desktop/notebook PC. Windows: The most recent edition of Windows is Windows 10 previous versions are Windows 8, Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP, and so on. Mac: The second most common OS in desktop systems, Mac OS X is comparatively compared to Windows, although its market share is increasing. Macs have been designed to be very easy for people to use, and are thus a good choice for a first system, as long as you don't mind not having as many software and games options as Windows users. Many Mac users are extremely loyal to the OS, due to the popularity of the iPod MP3 device, and various other Apple iDevices. Linux: While it is also rare compared to Windows, Linux does have its advantages. Linux is open source, which means that anyone can change the code around and redistribute it as they want, resulting in many different versions. Though it can be daunting, a Google search can help the average person decide which version of the OS would be best for them. There is a wide range of versions, called distros, ranging from one that's meant to fit on a 50MB business card sized CD to ones that are meant to be easier to use than Windows! Linux can be harder to use than Windows at times, especially because it is almost required that you use the command line occasionally, however users who are willing to put in the effort to search for a solution (usually quick and easy) and copy/paste the answer into the command line will generally appreciate it, with some being as devoted or more so than the aforementioned Mac users! Linux suffers many of the same downfalls as Mac, however, including a lack of commercial software, especially games. This is slightly remedied by the large amount of free, open source Linux games, and the WINE program, which can run many Windows programs, including games, under Linux, without having to emulate the Windows OS. While many 'hardcore' gamers are disappointed by the lack of games, even compared to the Mac, there are many games which are either native to Linux, or work well enough under WINE that most casual gamers will not have a problem. The most popular Linux distro, Ubuntu, has a clean interface and a thorough help system. Basic Operating Tasks Moving the Mouse The mouse controls the movement of an on-screen pointer, called the cursor, that often appears as a small white arrow. When you move the mouse, the on-screen pointer moves too, usually in the same direction as the mouse. In other words, move the mouse toward you to move the on-screen pointer toward the bottom of the screen. Move the mouse away from you and the arrow moves to the top, and so on. You indicate to the computer what parts of the screen you want to interact with by placing the pointer over those areas on the screen. Keyboard The keyboard is used for inputting text into the computer. It is designed so that users can type all the letters of the alphabet without moving their hands. Many programs from word processors to media players utilize the keyboard. The numbers at the right of the keyboard can work in two ways. While in normal mode, the keys will function as another set of arrow keys, in num lock mode, they will instead be an alternate way of inputting numbers. This is mainly useful when putting in more than a few digits at a time, when using the numbers over the letters becomes more of a hassle than a time saving method. The keys labeled F1, F2, F3 ... at the top of the keyboard are the "function keys". F1 is usually assigned as a "help" key, which will open a help dialog when pressed. If you are having trouble with a program, or just want tips, reading these files can often be useful or insightful. "Ctrl" and "Alt" at the bottom means "control" and "alternative". These keys are normally used to type special symbols or for shortcuts. More on that below. GUI (Gooey) Almost all programs that you will be working with will have a GUI or Graphical User Interface. The GUI is the 'pretty' part of a computer ― the windows, buttons, scroll bars, and task trays. The GUI is really just a front for the command line, which is what does the actual process and such. While almost all Windows and Mac users do not need to worry about this, it is important for users of Linux to know, as they will use the command line for tasks which either cannot be done or are more efficient to do through the command line terminal. Windows XP Booting for the first time Turn on the computer as described above. The boring process of booting up will begin. Booting is just starting up the computer. (Remember to turn on peripherals first!). This may take a few minutes, so be patient. Your computer is testing itself and running a bunch of internal functions that you'll probably never have to worry about. You don't care what's happening inside when you turn on your TV. You just want it on. It's the same with the computer. Just let it do its thing! If it is the first time booting up the computer running XP operating system, a prompt asking you to choose a user name and password will appear; you may enter up to five different users. Note: if you want the computer to just boot up straight into Windows XP every time you use it, you should create only one user and not enter a password. In Windows XP Home edition, different users have the same programs installed, but may choose different backgrounds for their desktop (more on this later), and have different program icons on it as well; if you have Windows XP Professional, the differences are much fewer. Passwords should be secure, but not as secure as if it were an online password, as you only need to prevent people accessing the actual computer itself- make sure if you choose a password you can remember and write it down, as this is one password you simply cannot afford to lose. DON'T ever tape your password to a keyboard or other part of your system. That's the first place everyone looks! There will be some questions that show up on the screen. Answer them the best you can and if you're not sure, use the default. You may be asked to activate your software if the installer has not done so. Microsoft requires you to activate XP. If you don't activate it will quit working and you'll have to install it all over. Activation is usually done over the Internet but can also be done by phone. The number will appear on the screen. Register it ASAP! Running Windows XP Now Windows XP has booted up, hopefully, and is running. You should now be looking at a rolling green hillside with a blue sky and clouds. This view is called the desktop, which makes sense. The rolling green hillside is called the background and can be changed to a variety of pictures installed with Windows XP, or to one you yourself load onto your computer. You'll probably notice a couple of pictures with words like "AOL Free Trial" or "Shortcut to...something" beneath them (don't panic if these particular ones aren't present). These are called icons and are linked to specific actions, usually opening a program (see below). You can create your own icons, as well as delete ones you do not want. Don't worry, this will be explained later. The blue bar at the bottom of the screen is called the taskbar. If you have a program open, it will be represented with a little icon and a name here. On the far left of the taskbar is a large green button which says START; this is logically known as the Start menu. If you left click (hereafter simply referred to as "click") it with your mouse, you will open a menu which contains links to almost everything in your computer (the first time you ever start Windows XP, the Start menu will automatically be displayed). On the far right of the taskbar, you will see a notification area known as the system tray. It contains both temporary and constant notification icons. Right now, it probably has only the clock and a button with a message, asking you to click it if you want to take the Windows XP tour. If you are unfamiliar with computers, it is highly recommended that you take the tour. If you wish to wait, you can take it later by clicking on the Start menu, clicking All Programs, clicking Accessories, and clicking Tour Windows XP (this type of menu action will from here on be represented as START -> All Programs -> Accessories -> Tour Windows XP). Some useful keyboard shortcuts in Windows The following keyboard shortcuts are used for frequently performed tasks and will speed up your computing. They normally work on all major platforms (Windows, Linux, Mac). (NOTE: When you are asked to press multiple buttons at once, you can first press the buttons Ctrl, Alt and Shift, and while keeping them pressed, press the remaining button. For example, to press Alt+Tab you first press and hold down Alt, then momentarily press tab, and then let go of the Alt key.) When filling out a form or a dialogue, enter the text, then press "tab" to get to the next text box or button. To go backwards, press Shift-Tab. Press "enter" to press a button. This will save you from taking your hands off the keyboard to use the mouse. To copy a selected text, or a selected file or folder, press "Ctrl+C" To paste the text or file into a new location, press "Ctrl+V" To select all the text (or items) press "Ctrl+A" To switch between open windows press "Alt-Tab" To log off from you session or to shut down the computer press "Ctrl-Alt-Delete" To select a piece of text or a list of files or folders, click the left mouse button on the starting position, then press and hold "Shift", then click on the end position, then release "Shift" To select text, files, or folders that are not contiguous (side-by-side or together), select the first item by clicking; next press and hold the "Ctrl" (control), click the next item, release the "Ctrl", repeat if necessary. Launching and Working with Programs and Windows Background Information A program does something. Programs can process words, play music, and much much more. One simple program is called Notepad, and it is on many computers. Microsoft Word is a program, AbiWord is a program, and Mozilla Firefox is a program. They will be explained later. Opening a Window Now it is time for a tutorial. Left click on the Start Menu. It is in the lower left corner of the screen. Put the mouse over the words that say "All Programs" or "Programs" (This depends on if you have the classical start menu or not which will be discussed in a chapter about customization) More menus will come out of the arrow. Bring the mouse up to accessories and let it expand. Click on Notepad. Another way to say steps 1-3 in a simple fashion is Start -> All Programs -> Accessories -> Notepad. Modifying the Window After doing this, many things happen. First of all, a window appears on the screen. Notice that there are three boxes in the upper right hand corner of the window. Here is what they do: Click the first box going from left to right. Oh no! It's gone! Don't be startled because Notepad hasn't been lost in oblivion. It's just been minimized. To get it back, look at the bottom of the screen. You will see a rectangular box that says "Untitled - Notepad". Almost every program will have this little box located in the task bar. When it is gone, the program's not running. Now, click on the box to see Notepad again. Click the middle square. Notepad now takes up most of the screen. This is called maximizing. Look at the icon that you just clicked. It has changed. To get it back to normal, click the same button. That is called restoring. Click the last square (with a big X on it) to close the window. It is gone for good and will never come back (until you do what you did in step one of Opening a Window again). This button is called the "X" button. If someone wanted someone else to press this, they could say "X it out." Moving a Window Now it's time to learn how to move windows. To begin, open Notepad again with your new skills. The place in the border where the three buttons are located is called the title bar. Click anywhere on the title bar except the boxes and hold the mouse button down. While still holding the button, move the mouse pointer. This is called "dragging". The window will follow the mouse and become an extension of your hand. When the window is in that perfect location, let go of the button. Working with Multiple Windows The great thing about computers is that they allow for multi-tasking. You can listen to your favorite tunes, write a book, get work done, chat with your friends, and check your e-mail all at the same time. This can be done with much ease if learned correctly. Time to get busy. Open Notepad again. Open Wordpad, which is located in Start -> Programs -> Accessories -> Wordpad. There should now be two windows on the screen. The Wordpad window is the active window. We know this because its titlebar is brighter than Notepad's. Also, Wordpad's taskbar rectangle is a different color than Notepad's. When a program is active, keyboard and mouse input will go to that program. Type "Hello." The text is in Wordpad's window because this is the active one. (If nothing shows up, then click in the part where you would type in the Wordpad program). To make Notepad active, click on its titlebar. If it is covered by Wordpad, move it out of the way (by dragging it). Notepad will come on top of Wordpad once it is activated. To make Wordpad active again, click its rectangle in the taskbar. Play with the two programs until you get the hang of working with multiple windows. Use the maximize and minimize buttons. Don't really click any of the buttons on the programs yet. You'll learn that soon enough... Task Bar There are a few more things you should know that you can do with the task bar to customize its appearance and behavior: You can lock it (preventing other alterations listed below) To check if the task bar is locked, hover the mouse over some part of the task bar not occupied by an icon, then click the right mouse button. A pop-up menu will appear, with an item "Lock the Taskbar" on it (among others). It can either have a checkmark next to it on the left, or not. If there is a check mark, the task bar is locked. If not, then it's not locked. To change the locked state of the task bar, click on the "Lock the Taskbar" menu item, and the state will change to its opposite - if it was locked before, clicking unlocks it; if it was not locked, clicking locks it. You can resize it (made larger, smaller, or even concealed, vertically) To do this, the task bar must be unlocked (see immediately above) Click and hold the thin border immediately above the task bar (you should see the cursor change to an up-and-down arrow), and "drag" it upward. You'll see that the task bar becomes fatter, giving it more room for program and quick-launch icons. Dragging it downward does the opposite. If you drag it all the way to the bottom of the screen, the task bar vanishes (except for its sizing border, which you can drag upward again to bring back the task bar.) You can also move it to the top, right, or left edge of the screen To do this, hover the mouse over some part of the task bar with no icon, then click the left mouse button and hold it down. Then move the mouse up, to the left, or to the right, and observe that the task bar will vanish from the bottom of the screen and reappear at the left, top, or right (according to which direction you dragged it.) When you release the mouse, the task bar will stay where you placed it. You can select which of its component tool bars are displayed on it (how-to goes here) You can resize (horizontally) the visible tool bars (how-to goes here) You can set other properties of the task bar, such as whether the clock appears on it, or whether the task bar auto-hides itself (how-to goes here) Windows Gooey GUI Menu Bar Open Notepad. Right under the titlebar, there will be a menu bar. There will be File, Edit, Help, and more. Put your mouse over the word File and click. A menu will pop up under the word and some choices will appear. Click Open. This will open up a dialog to open an existing text file. You don't have to open anything yet but you may if you want. Click Exit. This will close the program. It's another way of pressing X. Open up Notepad and explore the menus. Nothing will break. If you see something confusing, press cancel. Remember that a great way to learn about the computer is to do stuff on your own. Try opening up other programs from the menu and see what they do. Just try to get comfortable with using the computer. Common Menu Bar Features Most programs share at least some similar menu bar items. Below is an overview of basic buttons found in the menu bar. It is broken down the same way that the menu bar is. Try these out. File - Basic tasks like saving, opening, printing, and quitting are in the File menu. Edit - The Edit menu can do a number of things: Cut, Copy, Paste - This is the same thing as right clicking where the curser is and pressing cut, copy, or paste. That means also that it's the same thing as Ctrl-x, Ctrl-c, and Ctrl-v, respectively. To learn more about cutting, copying, and pasting, click here. Undo/Redo - If you ever make a mistake that's hard to fix, like deleting your 10 page paper, a great thing to try is Undo. Most of the time, programs will let you undo numerous times. Redo redoes what you undid with the Undo button. It's like pressing Back and Forward in a web browser. Also, Ctrl-z and Ctrl-y are for Undo and Redo. Find/Replace - Find and Replace are very useful tools, and they are incorporated into many programs. One example below will show how to use find, and the other will show how to use replace. Let's say that a woman is on a webpage about muffins, but the only thing that she cares about are blueberry muffins. In order to save time, she goes to Edit -> Find. Then, she types "blueberry". The computer shows her every time that the word "blueberry" is on the page. This also works on other things such as word processors. Another person writes a 5-page essay that was supposed to be in third-person. However, he has a whole bunch of "you"s in his paper. In order to fix that, the person goes to Edit -> Find/Replace. In Find What, he puts "you" (without quotes), and in Replace With, he puts "one" (without quotes). After clicking "find" and "replace" enough, all the instances of "you" were changed to "one", and whoever wrote the essay got an A+. View - Options in here can change the appearance of a program. Most of it depends on the program you're using. Toolbars - This lets you decide what toolbars to display if the program has a lot of them. An example of a toolbar is the one with the Save, Open, and New buttons. Help If you are wondering how to do something in a program, a good place to look is in Help. After opening the Help menu, you can find help by choosing "Contents" or "Help Contents" or "Online Help". About - A general description of the program you are using is in here. Another useful thing found in here is the version number of the program. Preferences Many options for customizing a program can be found in Preferences. It is a window that comes up and is usually organized with tabs. Preferences can usually be found in Edit -> Preferences or Tools -> Options. Scroll Bar When there is too much stuff in a program to be displayed on the screen, a scroll bar appears in the right hand side of the window. Using this scroll bar, one can go up or down through the text or whatever needs scrolling. Scroll bars can also appear on the bottom of a window to scroll left and right. You scroll by using the following methods: Click the squares with the arrow icons. Up is for up, and down is for down. Every time you click the arrows, the bar between them (known as the "scroll bar") goes up or down automatically. Click and hold the scroll bar and drag it. Dragging it down scrolls down the text, and dragging up scrolls up. Release the mouse when finished. There may be a small wheel on your mouse. This is called a "scroll wheel". It will most likely be between the two mouse buttons. You can use this to scroll up and down. The Page Up and Page Down buttons on the keyboard will scroll up and down in large increments. The arrow keys on your keyboard can sometimes be used for scrolling. On some occasions, there will be scroll bars inside of scroll bars. This may be confusing, but you'll get the hang of it. Linux Linux is an operating system, much like Windows is. The word "Linux" comes from the name of its kernel, which was originally created by Linus Torvalds, while he was still in college. There are other important parts which define the operating system (at least in the sense of the term in which user’s programs are part of an operating system), so you may find other names for the same thing: "GNU/Linux" and "GNU". In its early stages, it had a command interface (that's where you HAVE to type exactly what you want the computer to do), but has now grown into fully featured OS used by enterprises, developers, and power-users at home. Known worldwide as the core of the Open Source world, Linux is "free" (as in "freedom") by allowing the average user to observe and make changes to the source code of Linux as needed. That means if YOU want some kind of special functionality, YOU can implement it. You can also make copies of GNU/Linux and other free (as in freedom) programs, and give them to other people, while sharing a copy of Windows or Mac OS X is illegal in some countries. For that reason, Linux is as diverse as the humans that inhabit the Earth. Unlike Windows, where there are only a few choices of the OS, there exist literally hundreds of variations of Linux, each of which is created and maintained to perform a specific function for a community of users. Installing an operating system A computer needs an operating system to start running, like a car needs an engine to start moving. But installing an operating system is not for beginners, like installing a car engine is not for beginners. Many excellent car drivers have never installed a car engine. Recent versions of Linux are widely considered the easiest-to-install operating system so far—some people say "a chicken could install Linux". However, installing any operating system is not recommended for beginners, and so is outside the scope of this book. After you finish this book, you may be ready to go on to a book that discusses booting a LiveCD or even installing an operating system, for example A Neutral Look at Operating Systems/Linux#Live CDs. Gnome K Desktop (KDE) A Wikibookian has nominated this page for cleanup.You can help make it better. Please review any relevant discussion. A Wikibookian has nominated this page for cleanup.You can help make it better. Please review any relevant discussion. KDE is a Desktop Environment which basically is a style of your GUI for your open source operating system. The project was founded on the 14th of October 1996. It has many, many tools such as K3B, Koffice, and Kile. KDE is very user friendly. Some snapshots of KDE and some of its applications: KDE Snapshot Snapshot of Kapman, a Pacman clone Snapshot of the Dolphin File Manager More Basics Files Background Information Any information that is stored on the computer for later use is saved in a file. If there was music on your computer, it might be saved in an mp3 or ogg vorbis file. If one acquired a picture of a monkey and wanted to save if for later use, they might save it as a jpg or png file. File Naming When there is a file on the computer, it is saved on the storage drive with a name. This name can be whatever you may desire, but it will have an extension at the end. For example, the picture of a monkey might be called monkey.png. There may be spaces, dashes, and underscores in file names. Using any other special characters such as parenthesis and @ symbols is generally a bad idea. Capital Letters can also be used. If you had a band with the name of Green Pickles and a song called Soup, the name for this song on the computer could be GreenPickles-Soup.mp3, Green Pickles - Soup.mp3, green_pickles-soup.mp3, or whatever you want. There will also be times when files don't have an extension. Those are mostly text files or executable files which will be explained. Organizing and Creating Files Hard drives are very big these days, and people have a whole bunch of files. To organize all of these files, a method that can be thought of as a brief case can be used. To look at files, humans use a file manager. Clicking on My Computer from the desktop or start menu will do. Try this: Click on My Computer on the Desktop or Windows Explorer (Start -> Accessories -> Windows Explorer). Go to Tools -> Folder Options... and click on the File Types tab. If "Hide extensions for known file types" is checked, uncheck it by clicking in the checkbox. The previous two steps are not necessary but very useful. Go to the c: drive (pronounced "c drive") by double clicking on it. You have just dived into your hard drive. This is where most of your files are stored. a is the floppy drive, d is usually the cd-rom or dvd-rom drive, and other peripherals like usb drives are the next letters. Scroll up and down. You should see quite a few folders. One will be called "Program Files" and another one will be called "Windows." There will also be more. The first thing you need is a place to put all of your personal documents. Luckily, Windows has these folders already pre-made. There are folders called My Documents in Windows. When you are in the c drive, right click in empty space and click New -> Folder. You can also do this by going to File -> New -> Folder. Give the folder your name by typing it, and press Enter on the keyboard when your finished. Now, go into that folder by double clicking on it. If you want, make a few more folders inside of that one for more organization. For example, have one for pictures, one for school/work, one for music, and whatever you can think of. You can also make those folders as you go along. Close the window when finished. Now we are going to make a simple file. Open Notepad. Type "Hello, I am practicing my computer skills" or whatever you want to type. Click on File -> Save As Navigate to C:\YourName\ and call the text file practice.txt. Open My Computer or Windows Explorer. Go to C:\YourName\ You will see that there is a file called practice.txt. Double click on it. practice.txt was just opened by Notepad! Close Notepad. Moving Files with the Cut, Copy, and Paste You will now learn how to move files. Open up My Computer or Windows Explorer Make a new folder in your folder called computer-practice. For example, it could be C:\YourName\computer-practice\. Go to C:\YourName\, right click on practice.txt, and press copy. Go to C:\YourName\computer-practice\ Right click in empty space and choose paste. Go to C:\YourName\, right click on practice.txt, and press delete. When the file is deleted, it is not gone forever. To remove it more, read about the <recycle bin>. To save time, cut could have been used instead of copy. The difference is that when you paste after pressing cut, the file is deleted from its original location. You shouldn't use this too much just in case something goes wrong. Moving one file at a time is fun, but sometimes we need to move a whole bunch at a time. Go to C:\YourName\computer-practice\ Copy practice.txt Press paste lots of times. (Hold ctrl and keep pressing v) The new files will be renamed to something like "copy of practice.txt" There are two ways to select all of the files in this folder. Press Ctrl-A or Edit -> Select All Click the one on the top, hold shift, and click the one on the bottom. When they are all highlighted, right click on one of them and press copy. As usual, the same thing can be done with Edit -> Copy or Ctrl-v Go to C:\YourName\ Paste the files Delete all the text files that you just made in C:\YourName\ Sometimes, you only want to select some of the files in a folder Go to C:\YourName\computer-practice\ Click on the first file. Hold shift down and click on another one towards the middle. The files you clicked on and everything in between has been selected. Click in empty space so everything is deselected. Click on the first file again. Hold ctrl and click another file. The files you clicked are the only ones that are selected. Hold ctrl and click yet another file. Searching For Files Knowing the name of a file, but not the location, can be very aggravating. Who wants to spend hours searching through an endless amount of folders? The answer is not very many people and that is what file searching is for. Let's say that someone has a file called important.zip. This person lost it, so they are now going to find it quickly. Here's what the person would do. Right click Start -> Search. Type in the file name, select where the file may be located [i.e. My Documents, My Computer.] There are other things to be done with the find utility. One feature is using . The means that anything can be there. For example, searching for .ogg would find any file that had a .ogg at the end. Searching for report* would find anything that had the word report in the file name. Shortcuts A shortcut is a file that leads to another file or a website. There main use <｜fim▁hole｜> (The screen behind all the windows. Icons are on the desktop). Here is one way to use a shortcut. Right click on the desktop. Click New -> Shortcut A wizard will come up. Make the shortcut name "Notepad" and the link location C:\WINDOWS\system32\notepad.exe. With this shortcut, you can open Notepad in the click of a button. You may now delete this shortcut if you think you'll never use it by right clicking on it. Here is one way to use an Internet shortcut. Open up My Computer or Windows Explorer Go to C:\YourName\computer-practice\ Do the same thing that you would do to make a folder, but click shortcut instead. A wizard will come up. Make the shortcut name "Never Used A Computer" and the link location http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Never_Used_A_Computer/. With this shortcut, you can go to this book's website when you are in the computer-practice folder. You may now delete this shortcut because you'll probably never use it. Compression When a file or more than one file is too big, compression can be used. Compression is used on the internet a lot because it is better to download smaller files. If you've ever seen a file with a .zip extension, then you have witnessed the most common type of compression in Windows. There are also compression formats with a .gz, .bz2, or .rar extension. Extracting "I got a .zip file from the Internet, now what?" is a common question. The answer is actually quite simple starting with Windows XP. All you have to do is right click on it in My Computer or Windows Explorer and choose "Extract All..." A wizard will come up and it is pretty straightforward. When you click next, it will ask you where to put the files. The default folder is usually good, but you can change it if necessary. Also, if the file has a password, click the Password... button and type it in. When you click Next, the files will be extracted to the directory, and one more thing will come up. It'll be a check box that says "Show extracted files". It is a good idea to make this unchecked because it'll open up a new window if you don't, which is annoying. If you have an older version of Windows or want to be able to extract files other than zip files, a great option is 7-zip. It works basically the same way as the first method, or you can use their 7-zip File Manager which should be in the Start Menu. Compressing Just like files can be uncompressed, it is also possible to make your own .zip files. The easiest way to do this is to do these steps. Open up My Computer or Windows Explorer Right click on a file or folder that you want to be compressed. Choose Send To -> Compressed (zipped) Folder A .zip file with the same name as the original file for folder will be created in the same directory as the original file or folder. For example, if there was a file called C:\Ronald\Bacon\BaconBenefits.doc, and you compressed it, there would now be a file called C:\Ronald\Bacon\BaconBenefits.zip. BaconBenefits.doc is still there. If you want to add to the archive, right click the .zip file and click Open. You can add more files by copying and pasting them in the new window that opens up. The same can be done in other applications such as 7-zip, WinZip, and WinRar. Types of Applications There are a few types of applications Open Source - Free software where the source code, the language programmers use to make computers do their jobs, is available to everyone. Anyone can change the code and see how it works. Freeware - This is free software that you may acquire legally without any fees. Shareware - This is free software that you may acquire legally without any fees. However, there may be some restrictions (e.g. more advanced features may require a payment.) Commercial - This software is normally sold in boxed packages. Free-Trial - This software allows a period of time where the software can be used without cost, but extended use requires a small payment. Installing Applications in Linux Most Linux-based operating systems come with a package manager, a tool that simplifies the process of installing and removing programs, and automatically updates installed software. A list of how to install application in major distributions follows (application= name of application you want to install): Arch/Chakra Linux pacman -S application Fedora/Red Hat Linux dnf install application Ubuntu apt install application Installing Applications in Windows Your computer probably came with some software already on it, but what if you need to do something fancy? For almost every task you could think of doing with a computer, there is a software program to let your computer do it. There are a few ways to install applications Install from the internet Install a program from the Microsoft store application. This simplifies the install, and handles updates for you. You download a file, extract it if it's compressed (.zip, .bz2, .gz, etc.), click on the file with a .exe extension, and follow instructions. On a very rare occasion you have to compile a program from source. This can be tough, but the program will probably have a file called INSTALL that should be read. Install from a CD or DVD - You put the disc in the drive and follow instructions. The defaults will usually work fine. Learning is fun, so here's some more useful info. An executable file has either no extension at all or a .exe extension. When a file is executable, you can run it and it will do something. For example, the executable for Notepad is C:\WINDOWS\system32\notepad.exe. When you click on Start -> Accessories -> Notepad, it is really the same thing as going to notepad.exe in Windows Explorer and double-clicking it. Uninstalling Applications Windows Sometimes a application is installed, but you don't want it anymore. Removing unwanted applications is like eating pie, easy. Go to Start -> Control Panel -> Add or Remove Highlight what you want to remove by clicking on it. Press Remove or Change/Remove Follow the instructions. They will most likely be pretty straight forward. Linux Customizing This chapter will not explain every secret and tweak in Windows. What it will do is describe things that everyone should know in terms of customizing their computing experience to suite their needs. Start Menu Contents Applications usually put themselves in the Start Menu automatically, but you may find that there is something that needs to be added or tweaked. There are two ways to edit what is inside of the start menu. Try the first one, and if that doesn't work, the second method will work. Dragging, Dropping, and Right Clicking Taskbar Auto-Hide the Taskbar Have you ever seen someone's desktop and noticed that there is no taskbar, but then when they put their mouse at the bottom of the screen, it appears? That is called auto-hiding the taskbar. This is the kind of thing where some people love it and some people hate it. Here's how to do it. Right click on the taskbar. Click Properties. Check Auto-hide the taskbar. Press OK or Apply. (Apply won't close the window) To make it normal again, do the same thing but this time uncheck the box. Show Quick Launch Do the first two steps as Auto-Hide the Taskbar. Right click on the taskbar. Click Properties. Check Show Quick Launch. To deactivate it, do the same thing but this time uncheck the box. Screen Size (Resolution) There are two factors in determining the size of an image on the monitor. The first one is obvious, the physical size of the monitor. These would be values like 22", 24", 28", etc. Of course, this can't be changed without buying a new monitor. The other thing that can determine the size of images on the screen is the resolution. To understand it, you have to know a little bit about how monitors work. It's not much. A pixel is dot on the screen that has exactly one color. When all of those dots are combined, they make up what you see on the monitor. The resolution is how many dots are on the screen. When people describe resolution, they are talking about how many rows and columns of pixels there are, like a chess board. For example, a resolution of 1920x1080 means that there are 1920 pixels going from the left to the right of the screen in one row, and there are 1080 pixels going from the top to the bottom of the screen in one column. Changing the resolution is very simple in Windows. First right click on the desktop, the area in the screen where the icons are, and click properties. You can also do the same thing by going in Start -> Control Panel -> Display. After that, go to the Settings tab. Click and hold the slider under Screen Resolution. Let go when you are at a suitable resolution. 1920x1080 is a good choice. If your monitor can go higher, then do that if the text isn't too small. Press Apply. If the screen looks really weird and gets all funky, don't panic. If you don't press Ok to the dialog that comes up, it will automatically change back to where it was in a few seconds. Security Why Security Matters Why should you spend effort to keep your computer secure? There are many reasons why someone would want to do so. Protect Others on the Internet Failure to properly secure your computer could mean that your computer will be used by criminals to send spam messages or be part of an attack against web sites or it may harm your computer hardware and crash your computer. Malware can cause trouble with your computer Malware, viruses, worms and Trojan horses all can affect your computer and attempt to steal personal information from you or make your computer unresponsive, necessitating you to reinstall Windows Protect Your Privacy Many spyware apps may collect information on stuff like your web browsing habits and sell them so ads will be targeted to your tastes. Criminal Intentions of Crackers Many crackers intend to hack to get a hold of credit card numbers, passwords, and other items that they can use for making a profit. Updating Updating is the process of updating certain elements of a program to close vulnerabilities in a certain scenario. This will mean that your computer will be protected against future threats from a certain scenario. In Windows, updates are regularly done around once a month on Tuesdays. User Privileges The administrator account should not be used for anything but administration purposes, or for programs that require administrative privileges. This is because it is too easy for your computer to become victim of malware, Trojan horses and viruses while logged onto an administrators account. This is especially important when performing your normal tasks like browsing the web, checking your e-mail, or word processing. This is because many of the programs that hackers use in an attempt to infect your computer require that you be an administrator to execute. They require writing files to certain directories, and registry keys, that "normal" user do not have access too. These programs are often hidden within webpages, IM chat windows, word processing documents, and e-mails. It is a very good idea to create a new user without administrative privileges to use on a normal basis. In Windows, a problem often arises when a program needs to have administrative privileges to run. In this case, you can run the program as administrator. In windows operating systems, this is done by right clicking the program to run, selecting 'run as administrator account, and typing in the administrator account's information. If that doesn't work, you can always login to the administrators account to run the program, but be wary of running any other programs while in that account, especially programs that access the Internet like web browsers, chat programs, or e-mail programs. Sometimes, damaging programs can infect non-administrator accounts. If this happens, these programs are usually limited to the that specific user account. Deleting that user account usually solves the problem. There are viruses sophisticated enough to infect the entire computer from a non-administrator account; however, if you keep your computer up to date with Windows Update and always download the signatures for your Anti-Virus software vulnerabilities in your computer will be closed and the virus cannot damage the system. You wouldn't hand out a key that could open everything in your house to anyone who asked, so why would you hand out administrative account to anyone? If you really want to protect your data, do not give out your administrator password or account to untrusted people. If other people want to use your computer, it is a good idea to create a general guest account without administrative privileges for them to use. If they use it often, creating a new user for them is also an option. Physical Access If a person has physical access to the computer, there are a few measures that can be taken to prevent damage to the computer. First, change the settings in your computers BIOS so that it boots first to the hard drive. Booting from the hard drive first ensures that a person cannot boot from a bootable media such as a CD-ROM or floppy disk. Often bootable media contains programs that can crack Windows and change the administrators password. As well, operating system (ex: Windows XP, Linux) installation disks are bootable and often have tools that allow users to erase all the information on the computer. NOTE: Do not EVER go into BIOS if you are not 100% sure of what you are doing. Ask someone who has extensive knowledge to help you. Next, make it so a user needs a password to change the BIOS settings, this prevents someone from changing the boot order and thus booting from a CD-ROM or floppy disk drive. Last, put a lock on the computer case preventing someone from opening the computer case and resetting the jumper on the motherboard that clears the BIOS boot password. Malware Malware is a class of software, which usually does harm to a computer, and is unwanted on the computer by its owner. Malware includes viruses, spyware, adware, and trojan horses. Anti-Virus There are some people who spend their free time writing viruses, programs that do bad things to computers. The threat of getting a virus is high in the digital age of today especially if you are using the Windows operating system. In order to protect your files and everything on your computer, an anti-virus program should be obtained. Anti-virus software is dependent on definitions. Worms can spread through the Internet faster than anti-virus makers can make definitions for them, so you should not protect your self with only anti-virus software. Here are some good ones: Kaspersky Antivirus Kaspersky is good anti-virus program Available in world. But this is a Commercial Anti virus program. AVG Antivirus - This is an outstanding free anti-virus program. It is free for personal use only. A more advanced, professional version is available for purchase as well. Avast Antivirus - This is a popular and Anti-virus program Norton Anti-Virus - This is probably the most popular commercial anti-virus. A good choice. McAfee VirusScan - A competitor to Norton Anti-Virus. This one is also a good choice. NOD32 - This is one of the top anti-virus scanners based on tests conducted by ISCA Labs. Although it isn't as well known as Norton and McAfee, it still provides an excellent degree of protection along with a faster scanning rate than most other Anti-Virus applications. TrendMicro PC-Cillin - This is also a good choice and has been around for many years. Make sure that you set up your anti-virus program to update its virus definitions at least every week, or you'll get lost in the dust. If possible set up your anti-virus program to update every day because new viruses are always emerging. To get an idea of how quickly things change you can look at any of the sites listed above and they will list the current top virus threats. Worms Worms are a type of virus that spread automatically through the internet, through exploits in a running service. Examples are Nimda and Msblaster. These can easily be blocked using a firewall, or making sure the services and your Operating System are up-to-date. Doing these can be especially important, because worms can spread faster than anti-virus software can be created, and often don't need any use interaction in order to install. Spyware and Adware Blocker Much of the free software available is not able to remove all spyware and adware. Spyware and Adware are similar to viruses, except that they don't spread on their own, but can be installed without your knowledge. They are more annoying and can be just as harmful. Spyware's main motive is to get personal information of whoever is using the computer and send it to a company. Adware is enhanced spyware. It uses the information that it collects to show you advertisements on your computer screen. Adware can be received the same ways as spyware. There are some good free spyware and adware blockers. Spybot - Search & Destroy Ad-Aware Windows Defender Together, these make a good defense against evil programs. There are also commercial spyware and adware blockers. The major companies that make anti-virus software have been including spyware/adware detection with their products in recent years. Common Spyware Infestation Methods and Prevention A lot of spyware can be prevented. A few simple steps can save you from a lot of nightmares later. Internet Explorer/ActiveX Exploits A common avenue is for spyware to install through ActiveX or an exploit in IE, known as a drive by download. These usually affect IE shells like Avant. To prevent this type of installation, tighten up your IE settings, or use an alternative browser like Firefox. If you don't like Firefox we suggest Javacool's Spyware Blocker as an alterative. P2P Apps and other Freeware Another way to get spyware is by downloading free programs that are bundled with it. Almost every open source program, however, is spyware and adware free. Avoid programs that are known to contain spyware, especially proprietary file-sharing apps, and instead use one on the second list. Filesharing apps known to contain spyware: Kazaa Bearshare Morpheus Filesharing apps known not to contain spyware: Ares Azureus BitTorrent (watch out for "rigged" distributions however) eMule Limewire (older versions contained some spyware/adware; make sure you have the latest version to avoid this) Shareaza Firewall A firewall protects your computer by blocking certain network packets. They come in different flavors. Even if you are sent a packet that contains an exploit that is unpatched, a firewall can block the packet. NAT Firewall A NAT Firewall is used in routers. It maps one public IP address to multiple private IP addresses. This will make your whole network appear to be one computer. By default, unsolicited (inbound) packets are dropped, giving you basic firewall protection. Many routers offer more advanced firewall features. By default, any servers run behind the NAT (Network Address Translation) will only be accessible from your LAN (Local Area Network). Port forwarding can be used so that a server can be accessed from the Internet. Software Firewall A software firewall runs on the client computer. They're also known as personal firewalls. (This can refer to any firewall that only protects one computer like the firewall built into some nForce chipsets.) Because it runs on your computer, it can block or allow traffic depending on the application. For this reason, many people run software firewalls in addition to a hardware firewall. Hardware firewalls are harder to configure for new computer users so software firewalls are more common. However, software firewalls take up resources on the host computer. Windows XP and above comes with a basic firewall that prevents inbound attacks, while allowing other programs to access the Internet. Office Programs Office programs can accomplish many daily home office tasks, and are one of the most commonly used programs of average computer people. There are several programs in the Microsoft Office suite, the most common being Word, a word processor Excel, a spreadsheet program PowerPoint, a presentation program Office suites are not made only by Microsoft. Some companies have taken their own stab at making these handy bundles of programming, and many have succeeded. If you don't want to shell out serious cash (hundreds of US dollars) for the latest version of Microsoft Office, you should take a look at LibreOffice, a free, open-source office suite which offers almost all the features of Microsoft Office and then some. Several online services like Google Docs also let you create and edit office programs. Once you learn how to use one office program, you can figure out the basics of the other ones without much effort. Internet The Basics Where is the Internet? In the 21st century the Internet is a pervasive presence in our lives, shaping them both for good and evil. It should not be surprising that the Internet may have motivated you to buy and use a computer to its maximum potential. So, people "connect" to the Internet. Where is the Internet? The short answer is nowhere and everywhere. The nature of the Internet is not centralized, there is no specific place where the Internet exists. What we call "the Internet" is the ever-changing collection of computers that are all connected together and configured so that they can "talk" to each other. Your computer becomes part of the Internet every time you connect to it, and you usually connect to it through your internet service provider (ISP), and they are permanently connected. The Internet is what you and others make it by creating a web page and uploading it onto a server. Your web page has now become a part of the Internet. To define the term, the internet is a collection of many, many computers, including servers and desktop PCs, linked together to send and receive information. The Internet and the World Wide Web Another point that may need clarification is the difference between the Internet and the World Wide Web. People tend to use those terms interchangeably, but there is a difference. The Internet can provide a wide range of services, like web-pages, email, file transfers, instant messages — the list never ends. The World Wide Web (or just "Web"), refers to the collection of inter-linked web-pages, and web-browsing refers to the exploration of those web-pages. Web Browsing Web browsing is probably the most accessible beginners' Internet activity. It is the act of viewing textual or image-based content using the World-Wide Web over the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). You are doing this as you read this text. All recent versions of Windows come with a version of Internet Explorer, and most of them are inextricably integrated with the operating system. The current version, bundled with Windows Vista , is Internet Explorer 8. Windows 98 ships with version 4, and Me or 2000 are integrated with 5.0 or 5.5 (the difference being that 5.5 has support for more advanced security measures). Internet Explorer is not the only browser, and not necessarily the best. Although it's still by far the most common, many people point out that it's difficult to use and may expose your computer to security risks. If you plan to use the World Wide Web, it's highly recommended that you at least try out one of the alternatives: Mozilla Firefox is simple and reliable, and one of the most popular alternative browsers. Google Chrome Mozilla Suite (includes e-mail support) Opera Netscape Linux users sometimes want to use command-line, or textual, browsers such as Lynx or Links2 where a graphical user interface is unavailable, for instance when installing, but most browsers are graphical. When learning to use a browser (graphical or textual) most efficiently, it can be useful to learn keyboard commands, as well as the discrete uses of the Left and Right mouse button. If your mouse has a wheel in the middle, it can be useful to scroll, or for browsers with tabbed browsing support, opening a new tab. Check your settings so you can get the best use of this tool. The vast majority of Web browsing is done among sites you might already know. The first one that you may have seen is your home page. When the browser is out of the box, it may direct to the company (Microsoft for Internet Explorer, Netscape for Netscape and allied products), or it will direct to your Internet Service Provider (the people who manage your connection). You can also have a home page of your choosing. If you are surfing at school or work, your school or work will have a page, as will the library or the Internet cafe. Choosing a password Many web services, such as email, internet shopping or online banking require the user to "log in" by entering a username and password. It is important to choose a good password, that is, a password that cannot be easily cracked by a third party who could potentially gain access to your email account or finances. Bad passwords The following types of passwords should never be used. They can easily be cracked by modern password breaking tools and offer little or no protection in case of an attack. Dictionary words, common phrases and names in any language, even if combined with numbers. For example: webmail, merci, London, clare, beermonster, install, Sony, honey888, password3, fluffy, bahnhof, MichaelJackson, mount_everest, jesuschrist, linux7, venividivici, ... Passwords shorter than 7 characters. For example: fG4ir5, bmw, cat, foo, cng56, girl9, ... Passwords containing a modified version of the user name. (e.g. if the user name is "martin88", a password such as "martmart" or "nitram") Passwords containing personal information about the user or the user's family such as dates of birth, social security numbers, number plates, pet names and addresses. For example: 12021967, 12_2_1967, 12Feb67, y67d12m2, abbeyRoad, ... Patterns or repetitive sequences qwerty, 9876789, g3g3g3g3, aeiou... Contains only digits or letters. For example: wiki, 9876543... ... Good passwords Good passwords should: be at least 8 characters long contain upper and lowercase characters, as well as numbers in a random sequence. be easy to remember FQr7erfn5, QWd3fTr6U, rgi82eJiFF0, GI$87d90%nj, kEirt4Pw, ... A convenient way of creating a password is thinking of a "pass phrase" and then abbreviating it into a password. This procedure usually results in a password that is both safe and easy to remember. For example: "Roses are red, violets are blue, I'm a bad poet, so are you" becomes "RarVabIabp5ay", where the first word of each line is represented by a capital and "S" becomes a "5" because both characters look similar. "I use this website to buy cheap flights from Stanstead airport" becomes "IutwtbcffSa" Using special characters such as *&^%$ also improves a password's safety. However, some applications and websites don't allow passwords to contain special characters. If in doubt, leave them out and make the password longer. Another convenient way to creating a good password is to change the letters to numbers or symbols in a short phrase. For example, if I wanted to use the phrase "Pepsi Man", I could simply change a few letters to numbers or symbols and get "P3p$1_m4n" an good and easy to use password that is accepted by most websites. Searching: getting here from there A very useful idea for a home page can be a search engine. In a search engine, you can type in words or phrases in regard to a site or topic you may know something or nothing about. There have been many search engines developed over time. Since 1998, the most popular search engine is Google. The principles to use all search engines are the same. Search engines differ in how much, how widely and how deeply they cover the Internet. The Internet is not just the World Wide Web, it can be Telnet, Usenet, Tymnet, Gopher and File Transfer Protocol. So keep that in mind! So when looking for a website that we already know, we type in http://www into the box at the top below the menus. Or we would go to Open Location and press Control+L (all demonstrations from this point are conducted in Firefox 1.0.1). When we want to go to Google, we type in http://www.google.com Once you are in Google type in the box "Windows XP For Beginners". Then press Enter/Return or click on Google Search. The button next to it, I'm Feeling Lucky, will take you to the first site that google finds such as "BBC" will take you to "http://www.bbc.co.uk". When we 'felt lucky', we clicked on this site: http://northville.lib.mi.us/tech/tutor/welcome.htm, which will reinforce many of the concepts we have gone through and learnt. Many sites have come up. We want to evaluate the ones which give us the most information about what we want to know. Google gives us the name of the website (written out in full, so you can recall it later; if you can't put your mouse over the link's name), the first few words of the website we want to go to (usually 2 lines long), how big the file is (measured in kilobytes and useful for downloading, especially if you have limited time and resources), and two links called 'Cached' (which shows past versions of the website in the event the present version may not work) and 'Similar Pages' which will give similar pages. In the case of our 'Never Used a Computer Before' search, we found 30 sites similar to the 'I Feel Lucky' site, which incidentally is the first one. Many people, when they search and research, click on the first 10 files they see and gain information that way. This is not always the best thing to do, because most search engines have some form of ranking. Some of this ranking is sorted out by the user patterns of human beings, and others by the vagaries of servers. Some of this is sorted out by advertising. Google is a popular search engine for the reason it is not influenced by advertising. How do we narrow down the search? On the right, there is a small link called Advanced Search. Advanced Search, as implied, is very powerful. It is something like a similar feature in your word processor or database programme and even in your operating system. Advanced Search is here (if you are not located in the United States replace '.com' with '.com.au', '.co.uk', '.de', '.fr' or some other domain suffix.) http://www.google.com/advanced_search?hl=en and then you can play around. The first four text boxes are to do with restricting the terms of the search with words or phrases - adding, delimiting or deleting. You may well be familiar with this from your word processor's Find and Replace function. Web pages are in many different languages, file formats, dates and domains. To protect yourself and other people, you may want to use SafeSearch. Most things searched on the Web are 'sex' and 'porn(ography)' in all their forms, so for work and study, SafeSearch would be recommended. Otherwise, no filtering will do the trick. Google is able to limit all these things. If you need more help then you can look at Advanced Search Tips: http://www.google.com/help/refinesearch.html You might also like to find similar or linked pages to your page. There are also technology-related searches for Macintosh, Microsoft and Linux (for example). Email E-mail (commonly referred to as email - either spelling is acceptable) is a method of sending messages with a computer. Sending email costs nothing extra over your Internet connection. You send email either with an email client such as Microsoft Outlook , Mozilla Thunderbird or with a web-based email system. The basic principle is the same for both: The email is written and sent to a server with an email address attached. The server looks at the domain name of the email (the section following the @) and sends the email on its way through the internet. The receiving server receives the email. It looks at the username of the email (the section preceding the @) and stores the email in an appropriate folder on its hard disc. The recipient connects to the Internet and logs into their mail client or webmail site. The receiving server then allows the message to be downloaded by the recipient. All this often happens in a second or less. The speed depends on the speed of the two previously mentioned servers and all the ISP servers in between, the amount of internet traffic, and the distance between the two servers. Web-based email Web-based email is very convenient compared to email accessed via a client, but almost never has the featureset of clients. Here is how to sign up for a Yahoo! Mail account. Yahoo! was one of the very first web-based email companies. Having got to the Yahoo site! (the American one), find 'Sign up'. The splash screen shows us three choices: Yahoo Mail, Yahoo Mail Plus and Personal Yahoo. The one that will be easiest for our purposes will be Yahoo Mail. It is always a good idea to read the Privacy Policy [1], and Terms of Service [2]. Look at everything marked with an asterisk and read the Terms of Service very very carefully. (Even print them out if you can't read them: there is a printable version). The most important thing is to have a user name and password: For this demonstration we'll type in neverusedacomputer@yahoo.com where the pattern is username@provider.com. You can make up your own password Follow the tips and hints. Hopefully you won't forget your password, but 'If You Forget Your Password' is next. Now that you have remembered your password, you will have to look at Captcha to verify your registration or account. It will be different every time. If you can see it, type it. Now you have your Yahoo account and you can sign in. Many of these principles and practices apply to any Internet Service Provider or free service. It is interesting to compare similarities and differences. The basis of getting 'free' e-mail can and will change over time, especially if you intend to keep your address for longer than a month and will use it for many different things. Most people do keep their e-mail addresses for life or as long as is practicable, and will try to maintain continuity over the services they most frequently use. However, there is a danger of forgetfulness or apathy in regard to less frequently used or one-time only services. Ideally, a portal such as Yahoo or Hotmail will provide a very functional and neat e-mail address and many safe explorations on the information superhighway, like message boards, chat and directory links. E-mail through a specialist program There are many programs designed for reading e-mail. A good one is Mozilla Thunderbird and it is meant to work alongside Mozilla Firefox. There are also Outlook and Outlook Express, Eudora and others. Those programs do not need a browser, they are capable of downloading and reading email on their own — they are stand-alone. 1. In your browser, go to Tools -> Read Mail. 2. If you want to write a new message, then go to Tools -> New Message or press Control+M. E-mail hygiene: viruses One of the main ways that computer viruses propagate is via e-mail. This is usually done by attachments — files that are attached to the e-mail message sent to you. If you don't know the person sending you the email, it's advisable to be careful and not open the attachment that accompanies the e-mail (if any). The types of files that can be infected by viruses are files whose filenames end with .exe (executable programs), .bat, .vbs, .doc (Microsoft Word documents), .xls (Microsoft Excel files), .ppt (Microsoft PowerPoint presentations) and others. Even if you do know the person sending you the e-mail message, they might not know that their computer is infected with a virus and they may unknowingly be sending you infected files, so it's always a good idea to have virus-scanning software. Finally, watch out for files that have names like file.jpg.bat. The .jpg part of the filename is there to fool you into believing this is a picture file, but it is almost certainly something nasty (due to the .bat ending). One final point you should be careful about: many graphical e-mail programs have a "preview mode" as the default mode for reading email messages. In this mode, the contents of the email are presented to you immediately when you click on the message title in the list of messages. In the past years, we have seen viruses that infect your system immediately when you just view the email message that carries them. It's advisable to disable the preview mode so that you have more control on which messages you want to view: that would give you the chance of deleting the emails you think look suspicious before even viewing their contents (yes, you can often judge from their titles). Online Scams Common sense in the real world applies online. If an offer sounds too good to be true, it probably is. A good idea is to research an offer before you accept it. A typical scam letter expresses an urgent need for a person to do them a favor. This usually involves some type of inheritance. These scammers are very good, and their letters sound sincere and legitimate. They are not. They also will target anyone who they think has money. There are even reports of religious figures being scammed. One occurred with a Pastor who was scammed into thinking that a Nigerian man had an inheritance of a few million dollars. However, a stipulation was placed on the inheritance that he had to give half of it away to charity but he didn't have the initial money to get to the location of the money in order for it to be released. The Pastor trusted him and in exchange for fronting the $10,000 or so USD, the scammer was to give him a few million for his church for the trouble. Unfortunately, the Pastor was scammed, he never received the money and was out $10,000. Phishing is another way that crackers will try to obtain your personal information. They send emails claiming to be from reputable companies like Amazon.com or PayPal. The emails claim that they need information from you, like your credit card information or password, for some reason or another. Common excuses are technical glitches and software upgrades. These emails look legitimate at first glance—complete with company logos and professional formatting. They may ask you give you information via phone, through a reply, or through a website, which is also masked as the website of the company that they are trying to imitate. If you ever get an email like this, always treat it like it is evil as most companies would never ask for personal information through email. If anything, call the company and verify that they sent you the email. Also, both Mozilla Firefox and Internet Explorer will detect many phishing sites and warn users that they are malicious. Links Multimedia Introduction to Multimedia Multimedia is a process of putting many media together. Even people who have never used a computer before have encountered images, music, videos and games. Some of this media is highly similar to their non-computer form, and others are highly unique. Multimedia files, like other files, are stored on the computer and cannot do anything by themselves. They need programmes to open them, and programmers, designers and you to edit them. Games A game, on the other hand, is an executable file or an application. This means that it is usually (on Windows) an .exe, .com, or .bat file. Games come from the manufacturer. Some operating system versions, like Windows 3.1, had games that come on floppy disks or CD-ROMS. Many of those games were created in Visual Basic or other programming languages or game engines. Many games can also be downloaded from the Internet and are often played there. Games in the computer world are often as variable as those in the non-computer world. Many games have systems of artificial intelligence to make them more interesting. Many games get much harder as the player goes on, and some users like to cheat or modify the game. There are two sorts of modifications: cosmetic and fundamental. Playing Games In most games, it is a case of installing and loading the particular game from the Setup file. The Setup file will ask you where to save the game. It will either have its own folder, or be installed in Program Files. Program Files is slightly easier, and having games on the desktop is easiest of all. Before playing the game, you might like to read the Terms of Service and disclaimers. Most game developers and publishers who release games on a commercial basis are very strict on this. With shareware and freeware, it is desirable, though not required, to acknowledge the developer by paying a nominal amount of money or sending them a postcard. If your game happens to be limited to a certain amount of play, like 10 days or 28 days, respect that and delete it when you've got your use out of it. Some games will have a limited amount of plays, rather than time. Wikipedia has a list of freeware games and some links to shareware outlets, which will cover a wide range of the twenty-five year history of personal computing. Each archive has its own procedures and rules, such as limits on how much a user can download at a time. Games are considered to be a relatively heavy use of bandwidth, so use common sense and discretion in regard to where and when you load them on your Internet Service Provider. In the end, it's all an issue of personal preference-what educates and entertains you. Many successful games immerse their users into another world where they can learn computer-and other-skills. Games also use images, sounds and often videos-either pre-recorded, or in real time. Making and Modifying Games As you become more experienced and confident at a particular game (or game principles in general), you might like to know how to modify your favourite game. Many platform-type games, for instance, have various modifications, like how many or how few obstacles are present in a particular level. Text-based adventure games can be modified by changing the foreground and background colours, changing the grammar of commands or by unlocking a certain cheat. Often a user can find extra information in the manual or on a website about the game. Often, too, other people who play games like to share their modifications in public. Thus we have skins (clothes) from the Sims and Sims 2. Simulation games, like the ones from Maxis/Electronic Arts, are often customisable across a wide range of functions. The simplest way to modify a game is if the developer puts in an editor with the game. This is common with puzzle games, where users like to create their own levels. The editor runs more or less separately from gameplay, so you can load, save and modify features of the game to your heart's content. A useful thing which editors can do is test your created scenarios to see whether and how they are feasible in the context of the game. It might be fun to make the player-character invincible, as can happen in Pacman, and in some roleplaying games. Conversely, the player character can be put in extreme situations like heat, cold, gravity and natural disasters. It is not just the players and their capacities which can be modified; non-playing characters and the environment can be modified too. The second easiest way to modify a game is to go to the game's menu and look for preferences or options. Each game, and each game-playing experience, is different! How do you actually create a game? Programmes like Klik & Play (available in a free version on the Internet, but you might like to ask your computer shop to order it) or a graphic user interface engine would make programming easier. They generally create genre-games. Many fan-games-often very sophisticated-have been created through a Klik & Play interface or similar. A presentation programme like PowerPoint or Impress (part of the OpenOffice.org suite) might be another option which does not involve buying specialist software. These programmes offer 'click on me' interaction and forms. Something of the same kind of idea was available on almost every Macintosh in the form of HyperCard Player. Windows has similar applications like SuperCard and ToolBook. It is worthwhile to spend a few hours with tutorials. If you want your game to have splash screens and animations, spend time in your graphics programme and then use a client-side language like Flash. If you want to create a hypertext game, then HTML is a good choice. Perl and Python make clean code. Again, if you can't see and preview what the game is doing, it is not likely to be very successful. Get some of your family members to be beta testers or at least to look at your proposed concept. It can be good to get it on paper, like a storyboard, before putting it to Flash. It's true that with making a game, you need first to try and then to try again. You might also like to read books on these concepts and techniques to bolster your own practice, and also theses. One example of a good book is Chris Crawford's The Art of Computer Game Design [3], and a thesis which describes the processes a class of gifted Queensland students used to create a transgressive computer game for the education market is Doing Serious Work of Just Playing: Computer Games in Subject English by Donna Lynette McGrath of the Queensland University of Technology. Chapter Four is especially relevant [4], as well as the appendices and tables [5]. Both sources introduce the idea of a strong narrative or story to a game. Wikipedia also has many links to tools that will help us make and modify games. Type in particular concepts or genres into your search engine, or bookmark relevant sites in open directories and archives. Another good way to program a game is to use a Logo-type piece of software. This is particularly used in educational settings, and has a moderate balance between graphics and instructions with a learning curve similar but slightly more difficult than KlikPlay. If you're really ambitious, you can use 3D or Virtual Reality. However, please remember these games need graphics cards and are not available to the majority. The same is true of games like Active Worlds and Second Life. Much graphic fun can be created with sprites. Create squares, circles and isometric images first! Images Looking at pictures is fun. They spice up time at the computer and make boring text fresh and exciting. But before you view pictures, you should know what you're looking at. File Types Compressed Formats jpg or jpeg - Most realistic photos are in this format. Almost every digital camera uses the jpeg format for their pictures. It has great compression and supports enough colors to suit most people's needs. The only draw back is that it uses lossy compression, which means that pictures saved in jpeg loose quality. Line art looks really bad in jpeg, but there are other formats for that. gif - An easy and common format for creating animated images on web site. Commonly, used for advertisements. It only supports 256 different colors in any given image, thus it often looks grainy. Gif images have a lossless compression, so pictures saved in this format do not lose quality unless they have more than 256 colors. png - Another popular image type on the Internet. It was created to be an open source replacement for gif's, but it doesn't support animation. This format like jpeg's allows for enough colors to create a realistic photo. mng - An image format that has potential, but isn't used frequently. Mng has a lot in common with png and is made by most of the same people. The advantage of mng is that it also supports animation like gif's. Uncompressed Formats Images that aren't compressed get really big. The most popular format is bmp. Vector Every picture format described so far are raster. This means that they are drawn using different colored dots, or pixels. Vector images are different because they are drawn with mathematical or vector images. For example, a circle is described using a mathematical equation instead of a whole bunch of dots that are placed to look like a circle. Because of this, you can zoom in forever and the vector circle would not lose quality. Most clip art is some sort of vector format. The main one is that if there was a circle, diagonal line, or something similar, one could zoom in forever and the picture wouldn't Here are some popular vector formats: swf - A proprietary format used by Macromedia Flash. Most animated movies on the internet use the swf. svg - A basic and widely used format. It's not used for animations with sound. Popular image viewing software Some of the popular image viewers are: Google Picasa This viewer has a good user interface and is easy to use. Besides being free of cost, it provides good basic image editing features also. Windows Media Player This comes in built with all Microsoft Windows OS. Although not so rich as the Google Picasa, it is a good alternative. Music Music is a great way to change the mood while working on the computer. With music on your computer, you can make customize CDs, create your own jukebox, and listen to a wide variety of radio stations from all around the world. File Types Lossy Formats Lossy compress music, discarding data in order to compress the file to something much smaller than lossless compression and the original PCM stream. The resulting file will sound inferior to the original. Lossy formats can be compressed to varying sizes, with smaller file sized having lower quality. MP3 -The most popular lossy compression format, and the one that is synonymous with digital music. It is supported by all major DAPs and multimedia players. OGG Vorbis - A higher quality codec than MP3, it is also free, but with limted support from DAPs. It is supported by the Rio Karma and most iRiver DAPs. WMA - AAC - The format used by iTunes, but with FairPlay DRM. The iPod is the only major DAP to support it. Real Audio - Uncompressed Formats Uncompressed formats store music in the PCM format, the same used by the Red Book audio CD format. For 2 Channel, 44.1 kHz 16 bit audio, this takes up 1378Kbp/s compared to 192Kbp/s for lossy formats like MP3. AIFF - WAV - Lossless Compressed Formats Lossless compression shrinks a music file, without a loss of any sound, and can be decompressed back into the original file. However, at around 75% of the original file, they take up more room than lossy compression formats. FLAC - A patent free format by the Xiph.org Foundation, who made Ogg Vorbis. Apple Lossless (MP4) - Shorten (SHN) - A lossless file format written by Tony Robinson. Windows Media Audio 9 Lossless (WMA) - Listening There is a wide variety of audio players available for free off of the Internet. They usually support Audio CDs and MP3s. Often they also support proprietary formats as well. iTunes - Apple's popular audio player which supports listening to CDs, converting audio CDs into a jukebox, making custom CDs, downloading songs off of Apple's iTune store, and listening to streaming radio stations. iTunes also supports listening to music off other computers running iTunes through a local area network (LAN) and uploading songs to popular MP3 players including Apple's iPod. Musicmatch - Musicmatch similar audio CD features as iTunes. Plus, it has its own Music store. One unique feature it supports is the ability to stream any song in the Musicmatch library for a monthly fee. RealPlayer - Winamp - Compared to the jukebox style music players, Winamp's GUI is simple and takes up very little screen space. Windows Media Player - Video Media Types A media type is how one would store video if they wanted to share it with other people. For example, a DVD is what most new movies are stored on. DVD-Video - The popular format that replaced VHS as the standard for hollywood production movies. This standard is only produced by manufactures of large movie companies. Home users can not produce this format of video. Video is encoded in MPEG2. Audio can be encoded in PCM, MPEG2 Audio, Dolby Digital, and DTS. However, the DVD spec requires that a DVD contain a PCM or Dolby Digital sound track. Up to 8 audio channels may be used. DVD-R and DVD+R - A popular format for home made DVD movies. These disc play in most standalone DVD players. These disc can be single layer or dual layer. The single layer are relatively inexpensive and can hold 4.7 GB. The dual layer are very expensive and can hold roughly twice the information. DVD-RW and DVD+RW - A similar format to DVD-R and DVD+R expect it is rewritable. DVD-RAM - A format that requires a special drive and isn't real popular. It can support single layer 4.7 GB disc and 9.4 dual layer disc. Like DVD-RW and DVD+RW, it is rewriteable. VCD - A low quality video disc contraining 1374Mb/s MPEG1 video, the same bitrate as audio CDs. VCDs can be burned onto regular CD-Rs and CD-RWs with a CD burner. SVCD - Similar to VCD but with slightly higher quality at the cost of not being able to store as much video. File Types and Codecs A file type is the video itself. For example, if someone had a .mpg file on their computer, that would be the file type. When they put in on a DVD-R disk, they are using DVD-R as the media type. Uncompressed video is very large. Because of that, many compression formats have been developed. Every file type here is a compressed format. Better yet, every file type here uses lossy compression. This means that in order to make the file smaller, quality is lost. Because of this, it is not a good idea to convert from one format to another because more quality will be lost. Codecs MPEG-1: Used for Video CDs, and also sometimes for online video. The quality is generally less than that of VHS. Includes the MP3 standard. Stored in a MPEG file. MPEG-2: Used on DVD and in another form for SVCD. When used on a standard DVD, it offers great picture quality and supports widescreen. When used on SVCD, it is not as good but is certainly better than VCD. Unfortunately, SVCD will only fit around 40 minutes of video on a CD, VCD will fit an hour. Stored in a MPEG file. Windows Media Video (WMV): Microsoft's proprietary format. It can do anything from low resolution video for dial up internet users to High Definition video to view on an HD TV. files can be burnt to CD and DVD or output to any number of devices. It is also useful for Media Centre PCs. Stored in a .wmv. RealVideo: Developed by Real Networks. A popular codec in the earlier days of internet when bandwidth was scarce. Now less popular because the required player adds all kinds of unnecessary extras, and monitors usage behavior. Sorenson 3: A popular codec used by Apple's QuickTime. Many of the Movie trailers found on the web use this codec. Cinepak: A very early codec used by Apple's QuickTime. MPEG4: The latest MPEG codec can be used for internet and on disc like WMV. DivX & Xvid: Types of MPEG 4. Usually stored in an AVI or OGM file. File Types A player that can play a certain file type will not be able to play that type of file with a codec it can not play. AVI: Used with many different codecs. Can also store uncompressed video. Uses the .avi extension. OGM: A file format similar to AVI supporting soft subtitles. Uses the .ogm extension. MPEG: A file format used to store various versions of the MPEG codec. Uses the .mpeg or .mpg extension. QuickTime: Strickly speaking QuickTime is not a codec, but a file format, API set, and media player developed by Apple. It supports many popular codecs. Some of the more popular include Cinepack, Sorenson 3, and MPEG-4 Video. QuickTime also supports a plug-in architecture that allows other popular codecs such as MPEG 2 and DivX to be added by the user. Uses the .mov extension. And one more product developed by Apple. That is iTune. Used for Downloading MP3 Musics from Various sites. it can easily access to Download Musics Easily. Watching Media Player Classic - QuickTime - RealPlayer - VLC media player (VLC) - A free cross-platform multimedia player than plays almost anything you give it, including DVDs. Windows Media Player - Glossary Links Networking Setting Up A Home Network First let's understand the basic pieces of a home network. We all know what a network is, right? A network is a set of hardware and software technologies that allow all the PCs in the home to connect to each other and to the Internet. One example of a network that most PCs connect to is the internet. The internet is generally easy to join, but slow, open, and unsecured. How is the home network built? A network is built by connecting one or more operating systems together allowing for communication between the two. Usually this is done using hardware devices which move the data from computer to computer, and software programs that convert the sent data and read the received data. A home network is easily built by using a broadband router which acts as a server to create the network for your home. In addition, routers connect to the larger internet and thus allow the home network computers to all connect to the internet simultaneously. To get onto the internet through a router, you need broadband internet. Broadband internet is commonly provided by cable and phone companies in the form of cable internet and DSL respectively. They require special modems to connect to their service, called broadband modems. A broadband modem is a device that allows you to quickly send and receive information from the Internet. DSL modems and cable modems are the two popular types of broadband modem. For the most part, cable modems are easier to configure and use, requiring only plugging in the cable line to the modem and the Ethernet cord to the router. The DSL modem requires users to log on to the ISP in order to get Internet access working. The broadband router is usually a small box - popular companies that make them are Linksys, Netgear, and DLink. One of the router's functions is to share a single Internet account with all the PCs and other devices in the home that want access to the Internet. Usually your Internet Service Provider (ISP) gives you one IP address. An IP address is a unique number for your computer's network card in a particular network (In the case of the ISP, it gives an IP address for the internet). The router works by splitting the single IP address given by your ISP into routable units that go to each computer within your home network, using special numbers that are read by the router. The router then sends the appropriate data to the appropriate IP address of the computer in the home network Network Address Translation (NAT). Let's look at the typical router. You will see a series of Ethernet ports (which look like enlarged telephone line plugs), with one usually not grouped with the others or labeled differently (oftentimes labeled WAN). This port is used to connect to the cable or DSL modem using a CAT5 cable. The other Ethernet (Local Area Network) ports, which are used to attach the home PCs' Ethernet cards. Some routers have the capability to provide wireless networking. A wireless router will also sport one or two antennae, for the purpose of providing a wireless connection to computers with wireless network cards. Different Uses of Networks Sharing Internet Connection As the setting up section explains. One of the most basic features of home networking is sharing Internet access between two computers. This can be done with DSL, cable modem, or dial-up. Files Sharing Print Sharing There are two major ways to share a printer across the network. The first requires a stand-alone printer, the other is using a printer that is connected to a computer. A stand-alone printer is a printer that does not require being attached to a computer to use. Common examples are large office printers. They each have their own network card that allows them to connect directly into the network. These printers then can be assigned a network address, or a host name that allows other computers on the network to find them. In order to set these up please refer to your printer's administration manual. Most modern printers also have a web-administration guide. A web administration guide shows options that can be set for the printer using a web-based interface. To get to it, you simply open your web browser and put the host name of the printer or the IP address. This will usually ask you for an administrator's account and password to change settings. This will be found in the administration manual, or you may have set it when setting up the printer's IP address. Next, you will have to install the printer drivers and software on each computer that you want to have use of the printer. In Windows XP: Click on the start menu Choose Run Type in: Control Panel and press enter Click Printers and Other Hardware Choose Printers and Faxes Under Printer Tasks, choose Add Printer Click Next, Choose Network Printer, Click Next Choose the bottom option to "Connect to this printer (or browse for a printer...)" In the text box, type in the host name or the IP address of the printer It will ask you if you would like to install the printer, connect yes It will then install the printer and tell that it has been installed! The second option is to install a printer that is connected to another computer. First, you need to install the printer according to the instructions provided by the manufacturer on the computer. Next, you will need to get the computer's network name. This is done in Windows XP by: Click on the start menu Choose run type cmd and press enter type in ipconfig /all and press enter write down the host name Next, go to the computer that you want to connect to the printer. In Windows XP: Click on the start menu Choose Run Type in: Control Panel and press enter Click Printers and Other Hardware Choose Printers and Faxes Under Printer Tasks, choose Add Printer Click Next, Choose Network Printer, Click Next Choose the bottom option to browse for printer Click Next, this should bring up a list of computers on the network Find the host name of the computer that the printer is attached to and double click it. (You may have to left-click on the network name before you see the computer). It will then show the computer and the attached printer. Choose the attached printer and click next. It will ask you if you would like to install the printer, connect yes It will then install the printer and tell that it has been installed! To ensure complete installation, reboot the computer. Sources How to Take the First Steps in Home Networking Tips&Tricks Strange errors From time to time, you will encounter some persistent errors or issues. The best way to resolve them is to try searching for that error on a search engine. More often than not, you may encounter the result on the first link (especially if you search by the error message), or otherwise have enough information to find the correct path. While contacting the local computer expert may seem tempting, remember that they want to do work as well. As always, search before asking. Keeping your PC running Smoothly = Do Some Research Is that demo looking tempting enough to download? Or how about that brand new piece of hardware? Well before you do, perhaps you should do some research on it first. By doing your research you can avoid future potential problems by at least being aware of bugs, compatibility issues, security vulnerabilities, and undesirable inclusions like spyware & adware. You can research: Reviews & Ratings Frequently Asked Questions Release Notes Press Releases Version History System Requirements Update Everything Applications, operating systems, drivers... Nearly everything on your PC can be updated. Updates are often released to remove bugs, fix exploits, improve compatibility, optimize performance, add features, refresh databases, and enhance experiemce. However you should be aware that some updates are purely optional and may be require certain conditions to be applicable, especially firmware updates. While you should avoid interrupting software updates, you should never interrupt a firmware update. You should update your: Anti-Virus Anti-Spyware / Anti-Adware Personal Firewall Operating System Internet Browsers Communications Software (E-Mail, IM, and Chat Clients) Productivity Suites Favorite Applications Device Drivers Firmware You should run: Anti-Virus scans Disk - defragmentation tool Disk Cleanup wizard A useful tutorial on a sequence for managing your computer's health is available at [6] under the WORKSHOP NOTES heading Clean your PC Keep your passwords safe Your passwords protect your files, your user accounts, and your online accounts, so don't you think you should protect your password? General Guidelines: Avoid using personal data as passwords—you shouldn't use your birthday, your national insurance/social security number, or proper names as passwords. Include capital letters, numbers, and symbols. If you can, avoid using any word in the dictionary in your password, or any proper names. Crackers (criminal hackers) have lists of nearly all words in English, as well as other languages, and by using a special program, can test thousands of words per second against your password. Ideally, a password should be at least 8 characters (letters/numbers) long, and contain letters and numbers interspersed throughout its length; for example "9hyl8rn25g"; do not use this example as your password! Use multiple passwords. In general, don't EVER give your password to others, even other family members. There are normally ways they can obtain their own user accounts and passwords. Any person who knows a secret doubles the likelihood that secret will be revealed, at the very least. If someone you don't personally know asks you for your password, including individuals from the "phone company", the "cable company", the "ISP", the "bank", the "police", the "government", from "corporate", from "IT" or "MIS", or any individual purporting to hold a position of authority, generally assume that the request is malicious in nature, unless: 1. They ask you in person—not by phone, by email, or instant messenger; 2. You ask for and they show a tamper-proof photo identification card—merely wearing a uniform is insufficient; 3. You call where they came from, verify that they are actually who they say they are, and verify that in their job, they normally ask people for their passwords. Verify where you enter your password, especially on the Web. There are fake sites that look like real ones which are designed to trick you into giving out your password. When in doubt, change your password. Keep the system free from all junk files: Remove all the files in the Temp Folder, Temporary Internet files Folder, History Folder and the recent document Folder. you can do this by doing the Disk Cleanup. Programming Taking your first step into the world of programming Computer programming (often simply programming) is the craft of implementing one or more interrelated abstract algorithms using a particular programming language to produce a concrete computer program. Programming has elements of art, science, mathematics, and engineering. The first step to programming is understanding the problem you are trying to solve by writing your program. Programming is usually done by writing human-readable code into a text editor and then compiling that code into a form the computer understands, called a binary executable file. Types of programming languages There are many types of programming languages based on the code or syntax they use. The difference between them is on the way we write their code and the different types of solutions they allow us to implement. For example, Assembly is a low-level language where the user writes code which is almost identical to the one computers understand (see below for more info). High-level programming languages uses a more natural and human-readable syntax which makes it easier for humans to understand and write. Today, most programmers use some sort of a high-level language, because it is much easier to learn and understand and often requires much less work. Low level Assembler code A typical example of a low-level programming language is Assembly. Assembly offers the lowest level of programming experience, meaning that one has absolute control over everything the machine will do. Although this offers programmers the most power, it is very hard to learn and even the most basic task can require a painful amount of work on the part of the programmer. Once compiled, assembly programs usually offer the fastest execution and most precise processor control possible. Assembly is often used for smaller, speed critical, projects such as writing a device driver, but due to its hard to understand syntax and complexity, today it is being replaced by high-level languages. The big difference between low-level and high-level languages is how the code is compiled into the binary form. Compiler used for compiling Assembly code is named assembler and as programmers say, the code written is assembled into binary form, not compiled (see under compilers for more details). There are also many Assembly languages, often specific for a processor platform. Although they are extremely hard to use, they are a very good learning tool, because an Assembly programmer is required to understand how the machine works (mainly CPU and RAM) in order to write code. MASM (Microsoft's Macro Assembler) is a popular assembler for the 80x86 (Pentium/Athlon) platform for Windows, others popular assemblers are TASM (Borland's Turbo Assembler) and the opensource FASM (Flat Assembler). NASM (The Nationwide Assembler), is currently the most versatile and popular compiler in existence. Randall Hyde has also written a popular assembler for the 80x86 platform, called HLA (High Level Assembly) which is an attempt to simplify learning Assembly with a high-level syntax. Although one can use the high-level syntax, Randall Hyde has repeatedly stressed that a programmer can still code using a series of CMP's and Jcc's, instead of .IF for example. This is an Assembly code snippet of a program written in MASM which loads two numbers (in the registers eax, and ebx) adds them and stores the result (in the register ecx). .model small, C .586 .data mov eax,5 mov ebx,10 add eax,ebx mov ecx,eax end High level languages Due to the fact that the complexity of Assembly language programming is extremely hard to learn, and written programs are hard to maintain, low-level languages often cannot be ported to another platform, because they use platform, or, rather, CPU specific instructions, thus written Assembly code for the PC isn't portable to another platform (such as the Mac for example) without the complete rewrite of the program. Programmers were in a need for a language that could be easily understood and be portable, therefore high-level languages were created. The major difference between high-level and low-level languages is the way they are written and compiled. While Assembly code is assembled into binary without any modifications than converting the syntax into CPU instructions, high-level languages use a compiler which also converts code into binary form, but instead of using a syntax which symbolizes CPU instructions, it used a readable, human-understandable code, thus making it easier and quicker to write, learn and maintain. The downfall is that the compiler is responsible for converting the code and often it produces a slower running binary then Assembly would. Compilers are extremely good at optimizing code and most of the time produce a binary with the same running speed Assembly would if used correctly. They are also smart enough to tell us if there's a problem in our code and sometimes even fix it by themselves. Today, where speed is not as important as it was many years ago, high-level languages are most programmer's choice. Although we already know two types of languages, there are also low-level and high-level languages in high level languages. A programming language may even be high-level and low-level at the same time. A typical example of this would be C or C++. Both offer low-level operations (even manipulating the smallest forms known to a computer - bits), but they also offer a natural and easy to use syntax. A typical example of a fully high-level language would be C# or Java which don't offer any low-level operations and are thus even easier to learn and write. The difference between programming language levels is speed - the higher level the language, the slower the binary and the quicker the learning curve. Below is the code written in C which (as the previous Assembly example) adds two numbers and stores the result. int main() { // assign to the variable result the value of 5 + 10 int result = 5 + 10; return 0; } The mathematical 'equals' operator ('=') has a different meaning in C so let me explain what this program does. It takes two numbers, 5 and 10, adds them and stores them in a local variable (which is stored in RAM) we called 'result'. Another popular high-level programming language is Microsoft's Visual Basic. It is often used for learning programming, because of its ease of use and understanding. All programming languages require some basic knowledge of mathematics (mainly Algebra) and the basics of how computers work. Also every programming language serves its purpose. For example, PHP is used for programming dynamic web pages while C# is used for programming Windows applications and Java is used for programming platform independent applications. How programs work It is very important that you understand at least the very basics of how computers work, because learning any language it is required to know this first. Computers use the processor (CPU) to execute instructions, memory (RAM) to store the running program and hard drive (HDD) to store data and programs that are not running at that time. In order for a program to add two numbers like we did in the previous example, the program must know at compile time and before the program is run, how much memory it should ask for and what it would store there. Computers use variables to do this. Variables are data stored in RAM which can be changed any time while the program is running. In our example, we didn't use variables, but we used constants - plain numbers which can not be changed at runtime. This, you will find, is extremely useless as most of the time we don't know exactly what our program will do. A calculator would be useless without user input and if it could only add numbers that were already given to him at compile time. Therefore, variables are the primary thing you will get to know at programming. When you run the program we wrote in C, the program knows it has two numbers in it and asks the operating system for space in memory for 2 integer numbers. Integer numbers are whole numbers such as 1, 24 and 1497. Not only does the program have to know how much space it has to ask, but even what type of a variable it will store. Will it be an integer or a character string? Whenever one uses a program that asks for user input (a calculator for example) it has already made place in RAM for the number one will type in. When you do type it in, it stores it in that place and marks its type - if you type in 33 it will mark it as an integer, if you typed in 3.14 it will mark it as a real number. Real numbers are numbers with fractions. For example 1.33 is a real number, so is 0.25 and so on. Knowing what type of a variable the program stores, it knows what it can do with it. So if we have real numbers or integers we can multiply them, divide them etc. But we can not do those things with a character string. We can't divide words and letters. The other major thing to know about programming is that computers can't think. Computers are pretty much useless machines without a human to operate it. The computer does exactly what you tell it to do and nothing more. This, as you have probably notice, doesn't seem true all the time, but it is almost never the computer's fault and almost always programmer's. Computers do not understand numbers, words or any other human-readable type. They can only understand two states; true and false. You have probably heard that computers work with 1's and 0's but that is not the case. They work with electricity and nothing more. We made up those 1's and 0's to make it simplier for us to understand them. (1's and 0's represent voltage changes).Computers cannot think or do anything useful without someone programming it. They can only compare numbers and nothing else. It is important to know this, so you start thinking as a computer programmer. Authors EuropracBHIT The last time EuropracBHIT could say she had 'never used a computer' was in 1990, when an IBM-compatible computer running MS-DOS version 3.1 came into her home. She studied Information Technology from 1996 to 2000, which is the sum of her theoretical knowledge, as well as a course in Desktop Publishing in 2003, where she crystallised high skills in PageMaker and Photoshop, versions of which she had been exploring for the previous ten years first on Macintosh and subsequently on Wintel platforms. Practically, she reads all the manuals before she opens a piece of software, and help files and PDF files. And she plays and has fun, ferreting out what a piece of hardware and its comicontant software can do and testing out its limits. Her principal contributions will be in Internet and Multimedia, as she believes these are the most fun and challenging ways of using a computer in the consumer and education arenas for which this book is targeted. She recommends tutorials because they are a form of 'doing as I do': imitating an experienced computer user as opposed to 'doing what I say' which is following the instructions and feeling very foolish. She thinks that people feeling foolish is the greatest reason why they do not learn to use their computers more efficiently and get out their maximum potential with this and other related technology. In the fifteen years she has been using computers, she has had to tutor and help many people of all ages and skill levels. She thinks the best way to meet the computer's 'mind' is to be logical. However, computers, in her view, do stir passions and emotions, and it is important to deal with these positively, critically and constructively. Deviance99 Deviance99 has had a home PC running Microsoft Windows since he was 9 years old. He has been consulting friends, family, and neighbors since age 15. He started dabbling in Q-Basic computer programming at age 12, and started building his own computers at 14, and discovered Linux at age 17 (23 now). He's been designing webpages since his sophomore year in high school, and has had several jobs making websites. He studied Information Technology from 2001-2005 with a speciality in Multimedia Design, and is current the System Administrator of the Physics Department at the local university. Most of his knowledge of computers is self-taught and complimented with theory from the University. He is an expert using Windows, while an advanced user of Linux with experience setting up and maintaining webservers, mail servers, files servers, clusters, active directory, and a network environment. He just bought his first Apple computer and is virgerously learning it. <｜fim▁end｜>	is for the desktop
<｜fim▁begin｜> If the provided shortpath.dll and uigetpath.dll don't work it's probably because they were compiled against a previous version of Matlab. But the source code is included so you can re-compile with your current version of Matlab, first setup mex, at the Matlab prompt type: >> mex -setup and Matlab will say Please choose your compiler for building external interface (MEX) files: Would you like mex to locate installed compilers [y]/n? so choose 'y' Matlab then lists the available compilers: Select a compiler: [1] Lcc-win32 C 2.4.1 in C:\PROGRA~1\MATLAB\R2007a\sys\lcc [2] Microsoft Visual C++ .NET 2003 in C:\Program Files\Microsoft Visual Studio .NET 2003 [0] None Compiler: Note: I have Visual Studio 2003 installed, that's why I have 2 options. If you have Borland installed you would also see it listed above. The compiler used with MinGW and Cygwin (gcc) isn't listed, because it's not registered in Windows the same way that Matlab, Visual Studio etc. are. This is the very reason for using Gnumex to setup <｜fim▁hole｜> to use the compiler provided with Matlab. Now change directories into c:\gnumex\src and compile the .c files: mex shortpath.c -output shortpath.dll mex uigetpath.c -output uigetpath.dll You might get an error like this when compiling uigetpath.c: c:\docume~1\beau\locals~1\temp\mex_c58982ee-6281-4e1f-e2ac-723987a01052\uigetpath.obj .text: undefined reference to '_SHGetMalloc@4' c:\docume~1\beau\locals~1\temp\mex_c58982ee-6281-4e1f-e2ac-723987a01052\uigetpath.obj .text: undefined reference to '_SHBrowseForFolder@4' c:\docume~1\beau\locals~1\temp\mex_c58982ee-6281-4e1f-e2ac-723987a01052\uigetpath.obj .text: undefined reference to '_SHGetPathFromIDList@8' C:\PROGRA~1\MATLAB\R2007A\BIN\MEX.PL: Error: Link of 'uigetpath.dll' failed. ??? Error using ==> mex at 206 Unable to complete successfully. But luckily uigetpath.dll is not crucial to the function of Gnumex. I believe it's only used when a "Browse" button is pushed, to present the user with a browseable folder tree. To avoid using it, just type paths into the text boxes in Gnumex. This error does not occur when I use the Visual Studio compiler most likely because its mexopts.bat file is setup to properly link to Microsoft libraries for the _SH functions listed. Now that you have a working shortpath.dll (and possibly uigetpath.dll) copy it/them to the root Gnumex folder (c:\gnumex). <｜fim▁end｜>	options for gcc. Choose [1]
<｜fim▁begin｜> Steps and Tools Organization (from Greek: Ὄργανον = "instrument, tool, organ) is generally loosely defined as a social entity that has a collective goal. (⇒ Wikipedia). From a formal point of view one can distinguish various types of organizations, including corporations, governments, non-governmental organizations, international organizations, armed forces, charities, not-for-profit corporations, partnerships, cooperatives, and universities. In the development cooperation sector we can classify the organizations mainly as: intergovernmental organizations, governmental organizations, non governmental organizations. Governments at national levels are mainly "donors"; however armed forces and other governmental bodies may have a major role in humanitarian relief works. At local levels governmental institutions may be important actors of development cooperation actions. Non governmental organizations in a general sense include all civil society organizations; however generally this term is given to no-profit organizations working at programmes characteries by the fact that the objectives are not conceived for the benefit of the owners or the workers of these organizations bu for the benefit of the recipients of work activities (see more on Wikipedia about the difficulty in defining the term 'NGO') These kind of organizations are main actors in development cooperation actions. The knowledge resources here shared have been mainly by NGOs development actors that have a specific competence in this sector. Intergovernmental organizations like UNICEF, UNDP, etc. are both Actors and Donors: however it is being increasingly recognized that their "big" and "bureaucratic" status often makes them inefficient, especially at local level; so there is a growing efforts to make them active more at "programming" level, with designing, coordination and monitoring tasks, while the actual project implementation work is better performed by non governmental organizations. However many international NGOS that have been assigned a major role in executing international aid projects have grown so big and their operational capability has <｜fim▁hole｜> have become increasingly "bureaucratized" and the internal personnel relationship have tended to become more and more "state like" or "UN like". So the present effort of making them also act more at "programming" level and less at "field work level". The most forward looking big international NGOS are therefore now increasingly committed to empower local organizations to carry on the actual development cooperation work and they take upon them a role of coordination and support. The problem is that managing development cooperation actions requires specific know-how at the level of project management and communication. If that competence is not transferred also at local level actors, they tend to act as a sort of sub-contractors of the big organizations, whose size make them victim of bureaucratic delays high organizational costs. And this is the main reason for which we have prepared this handbook, to better enable the local organizations to interact adequately with international cooperation consortia. External links Research on Organizations: Bibliography Database and Maps TheTransitioner.org: a site dedicated to collective intelligence and structure of organizations. NGO Search: NGO/IGO google custom search engine built by the Govt Documents Round Table (GODORT) of the American Library Association. Interface journal special issue on NGOs A brief history of Non-Governmental Organizations Historical Database of International NGOs Duke University NGO Library Global Policy Forum: The site includes articles on a wide range of aspects of NGOs. NGOs - Non-Governmental Organizations What is a Non-Governmental Organization? City University, London international association of professional certification, (iaopc) Further reading David Lewis and Nazneen Kanji (2009): Non-Governmental Organizations and Development. New York: Routledge. Issa G. Shivji (2007): Silence in NGO Discourse: The Role and Future of NGOs in Africa. Nairobi: Fahamu. Jens Steffek and Kristina Hahn (2010): Evaluating Transnational NGOs: Legitimacy, Accountability, Representation. New York: Palgrave, Macmillan. <｜fim▁end｜>	expanded so widely that they themselves
<｜fim▁begin｜> A severed body part (amputation) is a series soft and sometimes hard tissue injury that if left untreated may be lethal or become seriously infected. Treatment of this injury takes place during the C part of the primary survey by placing a tourniquet about 20 cm (8 inchs) above the injury and immediately calling EMS for advance treatment and a trip to the ER. There are 2 types of tourniquets: 1. Rubber – a simple role of rubber that makes a good first choice. Just role the tourniquet around The limb so tight that it blocks the main artery and tie it securely. 2. Improvised <｜fim▁hole｜> that can be used at a pinch. For the arm take a long peace of materiel and create a half loop around your hand take the 2 strings and pull them partly through the loop to create a full loop. Place the loop over the arm and tighten by pulling the 2 ends to both sides and tie as tightly as possible then tie on opposite side in a knot. For the leg (only for femoral bleeding) –tie on the outside of the leg once place a long thin object on top and tie once more. Twist tight and tie on the inside securely. <｜fim▁end｜>	– a more complicated kind
<｜fim▁begin｜> Contents 1 Go Back! 2 Student Verb Activities 2.1 Intro 2.1.1 In this supplementary activity, we will discuss verbs and subject pronouns in three sections. 2.1.2 Activity #1 2.1.3 Lets begin with sentences from the book. 2.1.4 For the following sentences, identify the verb used, as well as it's infinitive form. 2.1.5 Activity #2 2.1.6 Use the following verbs to complete the sentences below. Don't worry about correct conjugations for now! Go Back! Student Verb Activities Intro In this supplementary activity, we will discuss verbs and subject pronouns in three sections. 1. First, we will discuss verbs used in their infinitive forms. In English, infinitive verbs that occur without conjugation include 'to' in front of them. Example: The infinitive form of 'go' in 'She goes to the market.' is 'to go' 2. In both English and Spanish, verbs are conjugated (altered) based on the subject they are referring to. In the second section of this practice, we will discuss subject pronouns. 3. In the third section, we will bring together how conjugations are made for regular verbs as they reference different subjects. Activity #1 Lets begin with sentences from the book. Example: Porque no escucha a mami. In this sentence, the verb used is escuche The infinitive form of escuche is escuchar For the <｜fim▁hole｜> as well as it's infinitive form. 1. La sangre cae como una cascada. 2. Mi papa me quita mi casco. 3. Mi papa me abraza. 4. Ella pone su mano plana sobre mi boca. 5. El viento sopla entre mi pelo. 6. La sangre no para. 7. Mi mama corre hacia mi. 8. Mi papá me enseña una palatina reflectante. Activity #2 Use the following verbs to complete the sentences below. Don't worry about correct conjugations for now! jugar mirar dar cantar enseñar caer escuchar abrazar dolor quitar correr parar poner 1. Yo _____________ los niños jugar en el parque. 2. Él _______________ el sombrero antes de entrar la iglesia [church]. 3. Para hacer ejercicio, yo __________________ en el parque. 4. La niña _________________ a música. 5. Los niños ________________ durante recreo [recess]. 6. La plataforma esta muy lizo [slippery], y la mujer _________________. 7. Despúes de caer, el brazo le _________________ mucho. 8. El coche no tiene frenos [brakes], y por eso, no puede _____________________. 9. Yo siempre _________________________ en la ducha [shower], ¡con voz [voice] alto! 10. La maestra [teacher] ___________________ los niños como hacer matématicas. 11. Las manos estuvieran llena [full] hasta que _________________ la caja [box] en la mesa. 12. El padre ________________________ su hijo despúes de se cayo. Go Back! <｜fim▁end｜>	following sentences, identify the verb used,
<｜fim▁begin｜> previous module:"Modeling" • Table of Contents• Glossary next module:"Creating a Light Probe" Applicable Blender version: 2.69. Contents 1 Introduction 2 Definitions 3 Usage 4 Quick Tutorial (for experienced blendies) 5 Step-by-step Tutorial 5.1 Build a simple scene 5.2 Render with HDR (Blender Internal v2.49) 5.3 Render with HDR (Blender Internal v2.69) 5.4 Render with YafRay Introduction You may have heard various people talk about HDR images. (WETA, Lucas, even Tim Sweeny). HDR images are part of a technology called HDRi which stands for "High Dynamic Range (image)". So... what on earth does that mean? Here's a link to Wikipedia's article on the HDR format which I personally give all my credit to Paul Debevec for putting it to use for computer graphics purposes. Anyway, before you start trying to understand the usefulness of HDRi, please read the wikipedia link. Also, visit Paul Debevec's website if you've got some more time to spare. To sum up the excitement of HDR CG, think of it like the hype of the next-generation videogames that are about to come out, except set the stage for 1996 instead of 2006. Paul Debevec pioneered paralax mapping, HDR lighting, image-based modeling, his latest work includes some even more amazing technologies, and for the record he's my hero too. To use HDRi images for 3D rendering, you need something called a light probe... Definitions HDRI HDRI stands for High Dynamic Range Imaging, and is basically an image format that contains from the deepest shadow up to the brightest highlight information. While an 'ordinary' digital image contains only 8 bits of information per color (red, green, blue) which gives you 256 gradations per color, the HDR image format stores the 3 colors with floating point accuracy. Thus the 'depth' from dark to light per color is virtually unlimited. Using HDR images in a 3D environment will result in very realistic and convincing shadows, highlights and reflections. This is very important for realistic emulation of chrome for example. Light Probe A Light Probe is a HDR image containing 360 by 360 degrees (solid angle 4π steradians) image information. In other words : it's a 360 degree spherical panorama image, not only looking around the horizon, but also up and down. Thus a Light Probe image contains all visible information as can be seen from a specific point, wherever you turn your head. Usage Given that a Light Probe image is an 'all around' image with a high dynamic range, it's the perfect solution for your 'world' background, especially for a 3D animation. Quick Tutorial (for experienced blendies) First of all, you'll need an HDR image. There is a whole range at http://debevec.org/Probes/ that you can download for free. (There are even more at http://blenderartists.org/forum/showthread.php?t=24038 ). I will use the St. Peter's Basilica probe, but any other HDR image will do just fine. To apply the HDRI environment to your scene: Go to the shading settings (press F5) and click the World button. Enable "Real" to force the horizon to stay still, as opposed to follow the camera If you're rendering with Blender Internal (ver. 2.49), go to "Ambient Occlusion" tab and activate "Ambient Occlusion", then activate "Sky Texture". Skip this step if you're using external renderers. In the "Texture and Input" tab, click "Add New" and "Angmap". Then go to the "Map To" tab and deactivate "Blend" and activate "Hori". Now go to the Texture settings (press F6) and change the "Texture Type" to "Image". Click the "Load Image" button and locate your HDR image. If you're using YafRay or other external renderers, you need to turn on Global Illumination and to set the <｜fim▁hole｜> than "none". Step-by-step Tutorial Build a simple scene To see the advantage of using a 360 by 360 world image, the simplest example to demonstrate this is a scene with a mirrored sphere. Scene Add a sphere and a cube to your scene and place them in a bit of an interesting position. (note that I added a second lamp to light up the shadow part of the cube) Perhaps give the cube a different color than the default grey. Material setting for a mirror surface and a preview of it Give the sphere a mirrored material : go to the Shading -> Material panel (F5) and find the Mirror Trans buttons. Check that Ray Mirror button is pressed. If it is not, check it. Set the RayMir value to a value of 0.5 or higher. Your preview should show the reflection of the checkboard environment. Render with HDR (Blender Internal v2.49) Download a HDR image (see Paul Debevec's website) Go to the shading settings (press F5) and click the World button. AngMap enabled Go to "Ambient Occlusion" tab and activate "Ambient Occlusion", then make sure "Raytrace" is chosen as gather method, and activate "Sky Texture" Adjust quality settings: Increasing number of samples reduces noise, but increases render times Adaptive QMC is faster, but generates more noise than Constant QMC In the "Texture and Input" tab, click "Add New" and "Angmap" Then go to the "Map To" tab and deactivate "Blend" and activate "Hori". Now go to the Texture settings (press F6) and change the "Texture Type" to "Image". Click the "Load Image" button and locate your HDR image. Render with HDR (Blender Internal v2.69) Download a HDR image (see Paul Debevec's website) Go to Properties tab and click the World button.In the World Section check the "Real Sky" Button (optional)Go to "Ambient Occlusion" section and activate "Ambient Occlusion", then make sure "Raytrace" is chosen as gather method in Gather section" (optional)Adjust quality settings: Increasing number of samples reduces noise, but increases render times Adaptive QMC is faster, but generates more noise than Constant QMC In the Properties tab click Texture button->then click on 'show world texture'->then select type as 'image or movie'->then in mapping section select coordinates as 'Angmap'->then in in influence section uncheck the 'blend' button and check the 'horizon' button. In the Image section click on open button and locate your HDR image and Load it. Render with YafRay Download a HDR image (see Paul Debevec's website). Go to the shading settings (press F5) and click the World button. In the "Texture and Input" tab, click "Add New" and "Angmap". Note that the Angmap button is the important thing to tell Blender that this file is a Light Probe file ! Then go to the "Map To" tab and deactivate "Blend" and activate "Hori". Now go to the Texture settings (press F6) and change the "Texture Type" to "Image". Click the "Load Image" button and locate your HDR image. (optional step, as it was not needed for my setup :) 5. Press F10 and change the "Blender Internal" to "YafRay". You need to turn on Global Illumination and to set the quality to something other than "none". Note that the YafRay renderer does not come standard with the Blender installation. You need to download and install this separately. Your result should look like this: (Rendering: left with Blender, right with YafRay) Click for larger version Note that the reflecting ball reflects the whole interior from every angle, even though we added just a single image to the World settings ! previous module:"Modeling" • Table of Contents• Glossary next module:"Creating a Light Probe" <｜fim▁end｜>	quality to something other
<｜fim▁begin｜> via musopen The term musical form refers to two concepts: the type of composition - a symphony or a concerto the structure of a piece - binary form, sonata form, fugue, etc. Contents 1 Sonata 2 Symphony 3 Concerto 3.1 The Baroque concerto 3.2 The Classical concerto 4 Etude 5 Overture Sonata Sonata form is characterized by tonal movement and consists of an exposition, development and recapitulation section. Sonata form is used in most first movements of sonatas and symphonies. It is considered the most important principle of musical form. In the "Classical" period, the title "sonata" is typically given to a work composed of three or four movements. Often sonata form refers just to the structure of an individual movement. Outline of sonata form Introduction -The introduction increases the weight of the movement, and also permits the composer to begin the exposition with a theme that would be too light to start on its own, as in Haydn's Symphony No. 103 ("Drumroll"). Exposition - The exposition is primarily thematic material for the movement Development -The development generally starts in the same key as the exposition ended, and may move through many different keys during its course. Recapitulation - The Recapitulation is an altered repeat of the exposition. Coda - Codas may be quite brief tailpieces, or they may be very long and elaborate. A famous example of the more extended type is the coda to the first movement of Beethoven's Eroica Symphony (no. 3 in E flat). Sonata sample: Sonata No. 1 in F Minor, Op. 2 No. 1 - I. Allegro Symphony A symphony is a musical composition usually for orchestras. Many symphonies are tonal works in four movements with the first in the sonata form, and this is often described by music theorists as the structure of a "classical" symphony. The word "symphony" is from the Greek word, Συμφωνία, meaning "sounding together". In the 17th century, for most of the Baroque period, the terms symphony and sinfonia were used for a range of different compositions, including instrumental pieces used in operas, sonatas and concertos — usually part of a larger work. The opera sinfonia, or Italian overture had, by the 18th century, a standard structure of three contrasting movements: fast; slow; fast and dance-like. It is this form that is often considered as the direct forerunner of the orchestral symphony. The terms "overture", "symphony" and "sinfonia" were widely regarded as interchangeable for much of the 18th century. Symphony sample: Symphony No. 8 in F Major, Op. 93 - I. Allegro vivace e con brio Concerto The term concerto usually refers to a musical work in which one solo instrument is accompanied by an orchestra. The concerto arose in the Baroque with the concerto grosso, which contrasted a small group of instruments with the rest <｜fim▁hole｜> the concerto grosso is confined to the Baroque period, the solo concerto has continued as a vital musical force to this day. The Baroque concerto In the late 16th century there was often no clear distinction made between a concerto and a sinfonia. Both of these terms were even used throughout the 17th century, in Italy, to describe vocal music with instrumental accompaniment; Giovanni Gabrieli published motets using either of these terms indiscriminately. Starting at about 1675, composers started to write works for divided orchestra, often called concerto grosso. The smaller division, which was effectively a group of soloists, was referred to in these works as the concertino and the accompanying instruments were called the ripieno, while tutti was used to indicate the two groups playing simultaneously. The Classical concerto The concertos of Bach’s sons are the best links between those of the Baroque period and those of Mozart. Bach’s keyboard concertos contain some brilliant soloistic writing. Some of them have movements that run into one another without a break, and there are frequent cross-movement thematic references. Mozart, as a boy, made arrangements for harpsichord and orchestra of three sonata movements by Johann Christian Bach. By the time he was twenty, he was able to write concerto ritornelli that gave the orchestra admirable opportunity for asserting its character in an exposition with some five or six sharply contrasted themes, before the soloist enters to elaborate on the material. He wrote one concerto each for flute, oboe (later rearranged for flute and known as Flute Concerto No. 2), clarinet, and bassoon, four for horn, a Concerto for Flute, Harp and Orchestra, and a Sinfonia Concertante for Violin, Viola and Orchestra. Concerto sample: Concerto in A Minor, Op. 102 'Double Concerto' - I. Allegro Etude An étude (a French word meaning study) is a short musical composition designed to provide practice in the performance of a solo instrument. For example, Frédéric Chopin's étude Op. 25 No. 1 trains pianists to play rapid parallel thirds. The études that are most widely admired are those which transcend their practical function and come to be appreciated simply as music. For example, Chopin's études are considered not just technically difficult, but also musically very powerful and expressive. Etude sample: Étude No. 1 in A Flat Major, WoO Overture An overture (from the French word, ouverture, meaning opening) in music is the instrumental introduction. It is frequently an opening to a larger dramatic work such as an opera. Earlier usage of the word also referred to collections of movements, known as suites. Later works, such as Beethoven's overture Leonora No 3 mark a transition between the concept of overture as introduction to a dramatic entertainment, and musical forms such as the symphonic poem, which are work . Overture sample: The Marriage of Figaro - Overture <｜fim▁end｜>	of the orchestra. While
<｜fim▁begin｜> Contents 1 Learning from the Book 2 Restructuring 3 Lesson Plan 4 moving reorganization here 5 New reorganised lesson plan proposal (bite-sized) 6 merging 7 Some Changes, May 2011 Learning from the Book Well done for creating the book. But unfortunately it is difficult to learn from. I would prefer you to make the lessons shorter. I feel like I have been on lesson one for a week and lesson two gives me quite a mental block. Especially when you show me a vocabulary list as long as the one showing more first conjugation verbs. Long vocab lists are demoralising. I have to resolve to learn the words in threes or fours over quite a period. Secondly, I would prefer you to introduced the whole declension at once. I feel like I'm learning it twice when it is split. But this may be because I've studied Latin. Is it possible to structure the book in a way that allows the student to pick up useful phrases and sentences. The dog bites the man, is an amusing sentence but not entirely useful. Further on in the book is more useful. But I think it would be better to learn how to say hello, how are you? I'm pleased to meet you formally and less formally. Finally a question. Is there a subjunctive mood? I ask this because to me Θέλω να γράφω looks merely like two indicatives separated by να. Once again thanks for the good work.--IKnowNothing 12:50, 24 May 2006 (UTC) Hi -- The idea of breaking the lessons up into shorter ones seems reasonable to me. I disagree that it's a good idea to learn all the cases at once; this is likely to be way too intimidating for English speakers who have never learned a language with a case system before. Although you have a background in Latin, most people don't, and you also have to remember that since Greek uses articles, the number of inflections to be memorized is roughly tripled compared to Latin, e.g., they not only have to learn the -ας in πατερας, they also have to learn that the articles to be used with this form are ο and ενας. Regarding the length of the vocabulary lists, I think breaking up the lessons into smaller ones will probably allow them to be broken up into shorter ones; but in any case please do be careful not to delete words from the lists without checking whether they're there because they're used later on in readings, dialog, or grammatical examples. In any case, people who really want to use a language need a lot of vocabulary; it doesn't do you any good to know how to conjugate a verb in many different tenses if you don't know the verb in the first place. BTW, I'm going to remove the note that says "Note: There is also another wikibook on Modern Greek (see Contents) that is in the process of being merged with this book." I had already merged the content from that one long before the note was added.--Bcrowell 18:41, 31 May 2006 (UTC) Hey I have done a start at restructuring that can be found Modern_Greek/Restructuring. The preliminary work is just an attempt to split up the existing lessons into smaller pieces. The content has not been fundamentally changed. I need comments on my suggested order of the chapters. So that the restructuring actually creates an improvement rather than just a re-presentation.--IKnowNothing 20:16, 5 June 2006 (UTC) Breaking the lessons up into smaller ones isn't a problem for me, although I don't think it would be an improvement. I really don't think it's a good idea to do all the declensions at once, though.--Bcrowell 22:36, 5 June 2006 (UTC) Introducing all the declensions and groups at once would be silly. Look at [1] for instance. There are several groups for each gender. But I suspect you mean all of the genders and cases at once. To do with grouping all the cases together. I do not think that learning eight words at a time is a stretch. You have to learn six at a time to learn a conjugation. Introducing all of them at once has its merits. One of these is being able to explain how all the case relate to English in one go. But this strength can also be seen as a weakness. The explanation lesson becomes more daunting. Declensions are normally tabulated and represented together. But this merely allows for easy comparison. When the other groups for the declension are introduced, all of the cases will be brought in together. So is it necessary to split them up at the beginning? Would you prefer it if articles and nouns were presented separately? It would make it much lighter. I'm happy to do this as it will make the chapter more focussed and less confusing.--IKnowNothing 00:04, 6 June 2006 (UTC) Right, I should have referred to introducing all the cases and genders at once. Would you prefer it if articles and nouns were presented separately? It would make it much lighter. I don't think that would work. You'd hardly be able to form a sentence. I do not think that learning eight words at a time is a stretch. It's actually more like 24 words at once, since for the very first declension you learn, you'd have to learn 8 noun forms, 8 definite articles, and 8 indefinite articles. And then you still wouldn't be able to say much, because you'd only be able to use nouns from that declension. On the other hand, you can say a heck of a lot without using the vocative and genitive cases. When the other groups for the declension are introduced, all of the cases will be brought in together. So is it necessary to split them up at the beginning? It's perfectly natural that you learn one thing at a time, and make running summaries as you go along. People can't learn everything at once. This isn't supposed to be a reference work, it's supposed to be a practical book that people could actually learn the language from. --Bcrowell 00:31, 6 June 2006 (UTC) Fair enough but the appendix needs to have all of that information. But I think this books is meant to be more than just a phrase book after all. A phrase book does not necessarily even have to use the greek alphabet. A list of phrases is available at Wikipedia at [2] or [3]. If it is meant to be practical then that is another reason that some the content needs to ne improved.--IKnowNothing 13:02, 6 June 2006 (UTC) It's not supposed to be a reference book or a phrase book. It's supposed to be a textbook. Fair enough but the appendix needs to have all of that information. The book already does present running summaries. For instance, lesson 2 presents the nominative and accusative. Lesson 3 presents the genitive, and gives a summary of all three cases learned so far. Lesson 4 presents the fourth and final case, the vocative, and gives a summary of all four cases.--Bcrowell 22:02, 15 June 2006 (UTC) Restructuring I simply do not like the structure of the book. It is confusing and demoralising. So this is what I am going to do. Make the lessons shorter Put all the cases together. I think it is easier learn that way. Create a lesson plan. Approximately one concept per lesson. The restructuring will fall on different pages for the time being. This is because the old lessons are the basis for the new ones. IKnowNothing doesn't seem to have done any more on the reorganization, and hasn't responded here to my comments on his plan. (Sorry if I'm assuming the wrong sex.) I've posted on his talk page to ask what his plans are.--Bcrowell 20:51, 2 June 2006 (UTC) Lesson Plan Alphabet, Reading and Pronounciation Genders of nouns and cases Pronouns Basic verbs and First Conjugation Dialog Numbers and Time Days of the week Buying Something The subjunctive and the Aorist and Progressive Second Conjugation Transportation And so on... moving reorganization here It's been a while now, and IKnowNothing hasn't posted in response to my discussion or my message on his talk page. I'm getting the impression that he got enthusiastic about reorganizing the book, worked on it for a day, and then didn't follow through. I'm moving the table of contents of the reorganized version here. If nothing further happens with the reorganization, then these pages should all eventually be marked for deletion.--Bcrowell 15:56, 4 June 2006 (UTC) Lesson 1: Alphabet, Reading and Pronunciation Lesson 2: Gender of nouns and cases Lesson 3: Pronouns Lesson 4: Basic Verbs and the First Conjugation Lesson 5: Dialog Lesson 6: Numbers and Time Lesson 7: Days of the week Lesson 8: Buying Something Lesson 9: The Subjunctive, the Aorist and Progressive Lesson 10: The Second Conjugation Lesson 11: Transportation I have created a page specifically for this purpose and it is available at Modern_Greek/Restructuring.--IKnowNothing 20:24, 5 June 2006 (UTC) I also believe that a restructuring is necessary, though I think that the way the lessons look right now, they still do not meet the criticism of introducing useful words and phrases. Also the plan for lesson 9 makes it look like it will introduce lots of grammar at once again. Maybe this article on a learner-friendly course format will be helpful: Bite-sized language lessons . There is also a Wikibook on creating language courses, which gives some basic didactic hints. My level of Modern Greek is just basic, but I have experience teaching languages, developing curricula and lessons and learning languages myself. I'd be glad to help with the development of Greek lessons if they will be in a better format. Junesun 13:23, 6 June 2006 (UTC) Hi Junesun -- It seems like, in a way, you, Iknownothing, and I are on the same base. We all want to avoid introducing too much grammar all at once. This is why I strongly object to the idea of, e.g., introducing all four cases at the same time. I have no objection to breaking up the lessons into smaller ones; but in order to do that, it would be necessary to write a lot of new dialogs and readings, to give the reader something to sink his teeth into at the end of each lesson. With nothing to practice on, a short lesson isn't any easier to digest. Here we seem to be running into the problem of needing someone who's a fluent Greek speaker, which you, Inknownothing, and I are not. We would need a fluent speaker who can write some good dialogs and select or write some good simple readings. One problem I've been running into as I search for sources of exercises and things to read on the web is that when I look for texts on the web, almost everything that's public domain is ancient Greek, and almost everything that's modern Greek is post-1923, so it's not public domain. My family and I are going to Greece next week, and maybe while I'm there I'll be able to find collect some materials that are public domain, e.g., children's books from before 1923 that could be reworked into dhimotiki.--Bcrowell 22:13, 15 June 2006 (UTC) Hi to everyone! I am a native Greek speaker and I would like to contribute to this wikibook. I could help with a possible reorganization, in creating new dialogs, correcting errors, etc. I've set this discussion page in my watchlist.--Christos 16:12, 20 June 2006 (UTC) New reorganised lesson plan proposal (bite-sized) Ok, if you two are in, here's the beginning of a lesson plan that could work and would be very easy to digest for learners: At the beginning: propadeutic lessons on reading Greek letters, introducing a maximum of 3 letters at a time and relying mostly on recognisable words (see [4] for example) and, when that isn't enough, common Greek vocabulary / phrases. Greetings and "How are you?" conversation. Grammar: είμαι, είσαι and/or είστε; forming questions: yes/no questions and question-word (πως) questions. Introducing yourself: name, nationality, profession... Grammar: the definite article (Nominative only). -ος and -α or -η (not both, to avoid confusion), possibly also -ο, as endings of names, nouns and adjectives. Introducing others / talking about others' situation. Maybe add sentence structure like "Είμαι απο την..." or "Είναι στο ...". the word μου to allow for a more interesting conversation. Grammar: the remaining forms of είμαι. δεν if it hasn't been introduced so far. Plural Nominative of adjectives if unavoidable. Talking about your hobbies or the languages you can speak. Grammar: a maximum of 3 forms of regular present tense, 1st or 2nd conjugation regular active, no Aorist. Talking about the weather. Grammar: the rest of regular present tense Asking for the way. Grammar: υπαρχει, indefinite articles In a cafe. Grammar: Accusative singular, maybe low numbers Shopping for fruit or the like. Grammar: Accusative plural, numbers Asking for / Telling the time. Grammar: numbers to 12 or 30. Regular activities. Days of the week, more about the time, κάθε A day in the life of ... . Grammar: regular reflexive / "mediopassive" verbs Asking somebody out. Grammar: Aorist Writing a post card or a letter home. Grammar: past tense. This is not 100% definite yet, the order may have to be changed or new lessons inserted if there is too much of a jump in vocabulary / grammar from one lesson to the next. Particularly the later lessons are more of a rough estimate of how to use an aspect of grammar in a practical situation than. However, the content of the first few lessons is fairly confirmed and the others can only be confirmed once the previous ones have been written. Junesun 11:18, 21 June 2006 (UTC) What do you think of this? Comments? Suggestions for improvement? If it's ok, Christos could already write some of the dialogues and I'll write vocabulary, grammar explanations etc. based on that. Junesun 09:48, 24 June 2006 (UTC) I think the steps are quite good and have a touristic approach. Someone who wants just to learn some phrases for his days in Greece could use the first steps and if he is more interested he might continue with the next ones. About the first propadeutic lessons should we use IPA or sound files? Christos 12:04, 28 June 2006 (UTC) I believe that a touristic approach can't be wrong for Greek because the vast majority of students in my Greek class are learning Greek because they regularly go to Greece on holidays. Just two are learning Greek because they have <｜fim▁hole｜> learning Greek with the explicit goal of acquiring fluency and reading Greek literature. So while people will probably become fascinated with Greek culture once they know some Greek, tourism is the initial motivation and that's why the first lessons target this audience - with the goal of convincing them that Greek is a beautiful language worth continuing learning even when they know enough Greek to get by as a tourist. Regarding the propadeutic lessons, I created a plan at Modern Greek/Writing lessons plan, where I'm currently thinking about the order in which letters should be introduced in order to enable the student to read lots of familiar words as soon as possible - that being a sign of success for him. I'm also trying to think of words to use for this purpose. Input is very welcome. As for IPA vs. sound files I believe sound files are very important if the student is to acquire a native-like accent. IPA can be very helpful in describing sounds, but it is not very well-known outside universities. So I'd like a three-part description of every sound: English equivalent. French, Spanish or German equivalent (-> commonly studied second languages) if there is no English equivalent. IPA symbol, for those who know IPA. At least one example sound file for each sound. Ideally all words would be linked to sound files: the more examples to imitate, the better. Are there any Greek sound files available through Wikicommons? If not, we'll need to find someone to make new recordings. Thank you so much for your help! Junesun 09:48, 29 June 2006 (UTC) Hi Junesun and Christos, Thanks, Junesun, for e-mailing to let me know about this discussion. I'm actually in Greece right now, and logging in frmo an internet cafe on Santorini. I think the combination of an English speaker with language teaching experience and a native Greek speaker sounds very powerful, and you two should be encouraged to take the ball and run with it. Let me know if there's anything you'd like me to get here in Greece for use in lessons, e.g., business cards that could be scanned, photos of signs, etc. I don't think it's necessary to go quite that slow with learning the alphabet. Many of the letters are exactly the same as in English, so the beginner starts off already knowing quite a few letters. Many are also fairly easy to learn because of the similar shapes, e.g., lowercase gamma looks a lot like a lowercase g. I've only spent a few minutes every day familiarizing my kids with the alphabet. My six-year-old can read easy words now, and my nine-year-old can sound out anything, given a little time. It sounds like you want to add quite a bit of easy material onto the front, which is fine, but I hope the more difficult material won't go away, but just be shifted to later on. Please also keep in mind that many words are introduced early on so that when the student comes to some of the later readings, they'll know the words (or at least they'll ring a bell rather than benig totally unfamiliar). One thing I think we're erally missing is exercises. Here are some ideas for some exercises that have come to mind in the last couple of days: given a cue like "1 kafe," produce "enan kafe," and similarly for the other numbers that change form given a verb form in the imperfect, say, "ε'χανα," produce the corresponding aorist form "ε'χασα," and vice versa I just had to make a phone call, and it occurred to me that it would help to have some information on how to speak on the phone, like the use of words such as εμπρο'ς. Another useful topic for later would be how to phrase requests politely, e.g., me sigxoreite kurie, mhpos xerete pou einai o stathmos leoforiou;, or tha hthela na xrisimopiousa to thlefono, parakalo. I would also like to suggest retaining the current use of the terms "subject" and "object," rather than nominative and accusative. Since modern Greek has almost completely lost the dative, there's really very little point IMO in introducing grammatical terms that will be unfamiliar to most English speakers.--Bcrowell 10:16, 30 June 2006 (UTC) Thank you for your input, Bcrowell. As I understood you did quite a lot of work on the Greek lessons already and of course that won't be lost. I'm just thinking of a way to get more complete beginners to stick with the lessons. Learning a foreign language in self-study is challenging even for people who already know a few foreign languages, mainly because it's easy to lose motivation. For somebody who has little experience learning languages, such as the average English speaker, it's even worse. So I'm looking for a painless way to start learning Greek that will be easy enough not to discourage anybody, with everything introduced slowly, few grammar terms and lots of opportunities for practise. You made a very good point about the use of the terms "subject" and "object" rather than Nominative and Accusative. I have studied Latin, so grammar terms like that are no problem for me, but I also know that for a lot of people already these words are enough to send them running, particularly if they had bad experiences learning German or Latin. Ideally they will be conversational in Greek before they even become aware that Greek grammar is rather complex. The lack of exercises is also a good point. The more exercises, the better, for people who don't grasp concepts quickly or who need to see themselves scoring 100% in order to believe that they have understood things correctly. Unlike in class, a lot of exercises in this course will not cause better students to be bored, since they can just skip the exercises and move on to the next lesson as soon as they feel ready. I would like to see a broad array of exercise types. I will probably create crosswords for the vocabulary for example. Also, being able to express yourself in Greek is more motivating than knowing a part of grammar, so instead of just asking people form "enan kafe" etc. I'd invent a situation where they have to do that: "Imagine you are at a Greek café with your friends and you're the only one who can speak Greek, so you have been elected to order for all of them. Here's what they want: 1 kafe, 1 ouzo, ... Make the order." Of course practical vocabulary like εμπρώς will be introduced and I do plan to introduce all important words eventually, just not so many at a time. Long lists of vocabulary are scary, particularly if they aren't used practically anywhere. Students who really like learning lots of vocabulary very early can always use the "Optional vocabulary" section for that. As for learning the alphabet I changed the Writing lesson plan so that letters that are almost identical to English letters are introduced all at once at the beginning and the rest of the letters are introduced one at a time following that. This works much better. You're right that the Greek alphabet is relatively easy to learn because of these letters, but if you're confronted with e. g. ψ, ζ, ξ ω etc. all at the same time you will still not learn them easily. With plenty of opportunities to practise after every letter, learning them goes so much more smoothly. I can read the Greek, Arabic and Korean alphabets (and a few hundred Chinese characters, but these are a different story) and I know that it's possible to learn them in one day of dedicated study with a divide-and-conquer method like this, whereas if you're given a full list of letters it takes much longer until you can recognise them all - and it's less fun, too. Taking a couple of pictures to use in the lessons is really a good idea. I'm thinking along the lines of: simple signs like "Athens 4 km" for practising to read, a person's card (to be edited) for a lesson on introductions, a plan of arriving trains or flights for a lesson on time, a TV program for the same purpose, price signs of a grocery store for a lesson on shopping, pictures e. g. of a café or a hospital or a famous sight or the like as situational images for other lessons (not that important). Thank you for your help! Junesun 14:29, 4 July 2006 (UTC) P.S.: Even if you don't have the time to contribute a lot to the new lessons, I'd greatly appreciate you checking them to spot mistakes and the like. English isn't my native language and I have studied Greek for less than 2 years, so I do make mistakes. Bcrowell, have you been able to take pictures in Greece? How do you like the writing lessons now? Any new ideas on the actual lessons? Junesun 17:40, 19 August 2006 (UTC) merging It's been a couple of years now, and nobody seems to have followed through on the proposed new version. All that exists is six one-page lessons on the alphabet. I'm going to merge the two versions together.--Bcrowell (talk) 16:03, 14 May 2008 (UTC) Do you see alphabet lessons mixed in with the actual course in any other Wikibook? They are separate from the proposed new A1-level curriculum and can be used with any course. Hi -- I'm not clear on what you mean here. Could you explain more? I was referring to the fact that user IKnowNothing proposed at one time to rewrite the whole course, but never accomplished much, and left the book for two years in a muddled state, with a small amount of new material labeled "new course," while the main body of the book was labeled "original course."--Bcrowell (talk) 05:34, 17 May 2008 (UTC) What I'm saying is that the alphabet lessons should not be confused with the language lessons. The language lessons need to be re-done because they are too difficult, but the alphabet lessons are stand-alone and can be used with any course, just like the script lessons in the Korean or Arabic Wikibook. No other Wikibook tries to merge script lessons into language lessons. Btw the latest re-write effort was initiated by me (see the discussion point "New reorganised lesson plan proposal" on this very page). The reason we don't have a good course yet is that the other contributors, who said they would help, disappeared and I can't do it all alone. However, IKnowNothing came back to this project a few weeks ago and created the first two lessons according to the plan, and I was hoping that this re-writing project might finally go somewhere. Junesun (talk) All I can say to this is: what a disaster. If you didn't notice. I wrote the two lessons that you've plonked in the middle of the book this year. The course you've created by merging them is useless. It is incoherent and directionless. You can't just merge without consulting. The book has to be structured and aimed at a purpose. The new book, which was slowly being written would've been useful. It would've allowed some to reach A1 proficiency. You must see that a language course without direction is not useful. How can someone talk about more complicated things without first being able to greet someone, introduce themself and so on. Language levels are targeted at allowing someone to function in that particular language environment. If someone has A1 proficiency they are able to at least be able to fill in a mini form to get a hotel room. The levels after this build on this proficiency. The internet is a good place to learn anything. But if there is one thing it lacks it is structure. Have you ever trying to level a language by yourself with no book and limited often mismatch material from the internet? It can often feel like you're going nowhere. This is because it is difficult to know what is important and what you need to learn next. This is something that a good book can offer.--IKnowNothing (talk) 13:21, 19 May 2008 (UTC) Bcrowell, please undo the merge. As a major goal of this re-write effort is to make the lessons more structured and standards-compliant, we can't develop better structure while everything is meshed together. We will be sure to include the material from your initial course at the appropriate times. User IKnowNothing and I would like to focus on the A1 proficiency level first though and flesh out the lessons described in the lesson plan. We will both continue to work on this, hoping for Christos to continue to correct any mistakes, and you should feel free to join in as well. I don't think that any other Wikibook has a group of four currently active contributors, we're in a unique position and should take advantage of that to make the Modern Greek Wikibook an exemplary Wikibook in language-teaching. Junesun (talk) 06:43, 22 May 2008 (UTC) Bcrowell, I suppose we're in a stand off on a some sort of philosophical point. But now I don't really have a place to put the two new lessons that I've written for the 'A1' course, in my opinion. When I began writing the lessons, the book had been rearranged to its current form. So I thought it best to write them in word until it was in some sort of form where they would have a place. But unfortunately, nothing has changed and I find that there is no place for the lessons to fall. Would you be kind enough to give us an indication as to whether you would consider changing the book back. I apologise for my tone in my previous comments here, I was just frustrated because I felt that the approach that we were taking was the correct way to proceed with the development of this book and that it was progressing slowly. --IKnowNothing (talk) 09:02, 3 June 2008 (UTC) Looks like an admin just reverted this, for what reason I don't know. Thanks Adrignola! IknowNothing, are you still around? Would you contribute to the A1 course? Junesun (talk) 15:14, 14 August 2009 (UTC) Well, what's going on? There seems to be very good pages (those Lesson xb pages) in the category that are not included in the book! Looks a bit mess now! --Sivullinen (talk) 09:33, 3 March 2010 (UTC) Some Changes, May 2011 Template:Modern Greek should be reviewed (needs to have exercises added) also, I'm not sure about the exercise naming pattern--Danthemango (discuss • contribs) 05:20, 31 May 2011 (UTC) <｜fim▁end｜>	Greek boyfriends and one is
<｜fim▁begin｜> During the early years of the 2000s, the words "open education" were only heard in the context of the broader phrase "open educational resources." This usage pattern unfortunately focused the minds of people almost exclusively on content, subtly nudging them away from considering the broader potential for the application of the principle of openness in education generally. And while OER are a critically important portion of modern educational infrastructure, they are only that - infrastructure. Across a variety of contexts, the development and availability of high quality infrastructure is important for enabling valuable services and facilitating innovation. Education is no different. As OER became more widely available in the mid-2000s, thinking began to extend to open education itself - the practices, policies, and pedagogies that enable the sharing of OER as well as the new practices, policies, and pedagogies enabled by OER. This book describes some of these practices and policies. I hope this book will help bring us to a time when institutional policy and government requirements encourage us to focus on the principle of openness as much as we currently focus on the principle of diversity. I hope this book will encourage people to broaden their thinking about openness and education. But most importantly, I hope this book will help bring people to the understanding that OER and openness are a means only and not an end, and that the only worthy end is a student who has learned something they find valuable. To the degree that applying the principles, practices, and pedagogies suggested by the principle of openness help learners learn things they value, we should all work to make openness a core value of <｜fim▁hole｜> David Wiley David A. Wiley is an Associate Professor of Instructional Psychology & Technology at Brigham Young University [1]. He is originally from Barboursville, West Virginia, where he received his undergraduate degree in vocal performance from Marshall University in 1997. He later earned his doctoral degree in Instructional Psychology and Technology at BYU in 2000.[2] He is also Chief Openness Officer of Flat World Knowledge and founder of the Open High School of Utah[3]. He was previously Associate Professor of Instructional Technology, and Founder and Director of the Center for Open and Sustainable Learning (COSL), at Utah State University[4]. He has received the National Science Foundation's CAREER award and served as a Nonresident Fellow of the Center for Internet and Society at Stanford Law School[5]. Fast Company rated Wiley #78 in a list of the top 100 creative people for 2009[6]. Wiley was also named a Peery Social Entrepreneurship Fellow in the BYU Marriott School of Business in 2012 [7]. (Wikipedia 21 November 2012) References ↑ BYU IPT Faculty Directory ↑ David Wiley Faculty Spotlight ↑ OHSU Founding Board ↑ USU-Based COSL to Host International Conference on "Open Education" ↑ CIS Fellowship Program, 2006 ↑ 100 Most Creative People in Business: #78 David Wiley ↑ New Peery Social Entrepreneurship Research Fellows Announced Contents Preface \| Download or order book \| Introduction \| Foreword \| Cape Town Declaration \| Video: OER at OP \| Literature Review \| Resources and Practices \| Development \| Intellectual Property Policy \| Educational Development \| Models of Open Education \| Measuring Open Education \| Recommendations \| Incentives and Rewards \| A word on ICT \| Libraries are critical \| Marketing \| Responses \| Credits\| Resources <｜fim▁end｜>	our education institutions. David Wiley, 2011
<｜fim▁begin｜> Table of Contents — Chapter 8: Concurrency Management Contents 1 8.1 Overview 2 8.1.1 Pessimistic Concurrency 3 8.1.2 Optimistic Concurrency 4 8.2 Concurrency problem 5 8.2.1 Lost Update Problem 6 8.2.2 Uncommitted dependency 7 8.2.3 Inconsistent Analysis 8 8.3 Locking 9 8.3.1 Serializable transactions 10 8.3.2 Two Phase Locking Protocol 11 8.3.2.1 Conservative 2 PL 12 8.3.2.2 Strict 2 PL 13 8.3.2.3 Rigorous 2 PL 14 8.3.3 Lock Starvation 15 8.3.4 Dead Lock 16 8.3.4.1 Dead Lock Prevention 17 8.3.4.2 Dead Lock Detection 18 8.3.4.3 Timeouts 19 8.4. Isolation Levels 20 8.5 Lock Granularity 21 8.5.1 Granularity Levels in DBMS 22 8.5.2 Intent Locks 23 8.5.2 Lock Escalation 24 8.6 Index and Predicate Locking 25 8.7 Timestamp based concurrency control (TODO:Rephrase whole section) 26 8.7.1 Timestamps 27 8.7.2 Basic Timestamp ordering 28 8.7.3 Strict Timestamp ordering 29 8.8 Multi Version concurrency control 30 8.9 Optimistic concurrency control 31 8.10 Architecture for lock manager 8.1 Overview Concurrency is defined as the ability of multiple processes and threads to access and change the data records at the same time. Lower the contention to access and modify data with more users, better is the concurrency and vice versa. A process that access data prevents other process to change the data. This reduces the concurrency. A process that modifies data prevents other process to access or change the data. This reduces the concurrency. In general, database systems uses two approaches to manage concurrent data access; pessimistic and optimistic. Conflicts cannot be avoided in both the models, it differs only in when the conflicts are dealt. 8.1.1 Pessimistic Concurrency Pessimistic concurrency systems assume that conflict will occur and it avoids conflicts by acquiring locks on data that is being read or modified, so that no other process can modify that data. In this model, readers block writers and writers block readers. 8.1.2 Optimistic Concurrency Optimistic concurrency systems assume that transactions are unlikely to modify data that another transaction is modifying. This is implemented by using versioning technique. This allows readers to see the state of the data before the modification occurs as the system maintains previous version of the data record before it actually attempts to change it. In this model readers do not block writers and writers do not block readers. However writers will block writes which will lead to conflicts. 8.2 Concurrency problem There are some problems that any concurrency control mechanism must address. There are three ways in which things can go wrong. They are lost update problem, uncommitted dependency and Inconsistent Analysis. In all three, individual transactions are right, but when they are interleaved it may produce wrong results. 8.2.1 Lost Update Problem TODO- Define this TODO- Draw diagram Transaction-1 reads tuple1 at time t1 Transaction-2 reads tuple1 at time t2 Transaction-1 updates tuple1 at time t3 Transaction-2 updates tuple1 at time t4 Transaction-1 update on tuple1 at time t3 is lost as Transaction-2 overwrites the update made by Transaction-1 on tuple1 without checking whether it has changed. 8.2.2 Uncommitted dependency This occurs when one transaction is allowed to access or update a tuple that has been updated by another transaction but not yet committed by that transaction. TODO- Draw diagram Transaction-1 updates tuple1 at time t1 Transaction-2 reads tuple1 at time t2 Transaction-1 rolls back the transaction at time t3 In the above sequence, Transaction-2 sees an uncommitted change at time t2, which is undone at time t3. Transaction-2 is operating with wrong value seen at time t2. As a result, transaction-2 might produce incorrect result. If transaction-2 updates instead of reading tuple t1 at t2, the situation is even worse, it will loose its update on tuple t1, once transaction-1 rolls back. 8.2.3 Inconsistent Analysis If one transaction is calculating an aggregate summary function on records, while other transactions are updating some of the records involved in the aggregation, the aggregate function may calculate with some values before they are updated and some values after they are updated. TODO- draw diagram For example, suppose that transaction-1 is calculating the total number of reservations on all the theatres for particular day; meanwhile transaction-2 is reserving 5 seats on that day, then results of transaction-1 will be off by 5 because transaction-1 reads the value of X after 5 seats have been subtracted from it. 8.3 Locking All the above three problems can be solved by using concurrency control technique called locking. The basic idea is to deny access to the data record for all transactions, when a transaction is working on it. A lock is a variable associated with a data item that describes the status of the data item. Generally there is one lock for each data item(record) in DBMS. Locks are used to provide synchronous access to the data items by concurrent transactions. There are two types of locks supported by Unix kind of operating systems pthread mutexes semaphores pthread mutexes work well with multiple threads and semaphores work well with multiple threads as well as multiple process. Pthread mutexes are called binary locks as they have two states (lockState); locked and unlocked. Semaphores can be used as binary locks as well as counting locks. In our case, binary locks will be used to provide synchronized concurrent access to the data items. Two operations, lockItem() and unlockItem() are used with binary locking. A transaction requests access to data item X by first issuing lockItem(X) operation. If lockState(X) is 1, then the transaction is forced to wait till lockState(X) becomes 0. If it is zero, then lockState(X) is set to 1, and the transaction is allowed to access data item X. When the transaction is through with using the data item, it issues an unlockItem(X) operation, which sets lockState(X) to zero, so that other transactions shall access X. Data access protocol for locking method is A read transaction will acquire lock on the data before it reads the data. A write transaction will acquire lock on the data before it writes the data. If lock request is denied, then the transaction goes to wait state and tries for the lock periodically until the lock is released by the transaction that acquired it. In the above locking model, Readers block readers and writers Writers block readers and writers Concurrency shall be slightly improved on the above model by making readers not blocking other readers, as it will not lead to any inconsistencies. This shall be achieved by introducing another type of lock, which shall be shared by all readers. These locks are called as Shared Locks. Another type of lock, exclusive locks are obtained by writers to block all readers and writers from accessing the data. The data access protocol for this locking method is A read transaction will acquire Shared Lock on the data before it reads the data. A write transaction will acquire Exclusive Lock on the data before it writes the data. Lock request is denied for read operation if another transaction has exclusive lock on the data item. Lock request is denied for write operation if another transaction has read or exclusive lock on the data item. If lock request is denied, then the transaction goes to wait state and tries for the lock periodically until the lock is released by the transaction that acquired it. In the above locking model, Readers block writers and allow other readers Writers block readers and writers The above rules shall be summarized as lock compatibility matrix Shared Exclusive No Lock Shared Yes No Yes Exclusive No No Yes No Lock Yes Yes Yes TODO::Above lock compatibility matrix in image Yes -> compatible, no conflict, lock request will be granted. No-> not compatible, there is a conflict, so lock request should be denied. Concurrency problems with locking protocol Lost update problem – transaction-1 waits for exclusive lock forever from time t3 as shared lock is acquired by transaction-1 and transaction-2. Transaction-2 waits for exclusive lock forever from time t4 as shared lock is acquired by transaction-1 and transaction-2. Our lost update problem is solved, but a new problem has occurred. It is called “DeadLock”. We will look into its details later. Uncommitted dependency - Transaction-2 waits for lock when it tries to read tuple1 at time t2 as it is exclusively locked by transaction-1. It waits till transaction-1 either commits or rollbacks. Locking avoids uncommitted dependency issue. Inconsistent Analysis – Transcation-1 waits till transaction-2 releases the exclusive lock on the data record X and then computes the aggregation giving correct results. 8.3.1 Serializable transactions A given set of transactions is considered to be serializable, if it produces the same result, as though these transactions are executed serially one after the other. Individual transactions are correct as they transform a correct state of the database to another correct state Executing transaction one at a time in any serial order is also correct, as individual transactions are independent of each other. An interleaved execution is correct, if it is equivalent to serial execution or if it is serializable. The concept of serializability was first introduced by Eswaran, Gray proved the two-phase locking protocol, which is briefly described as: If all transactions obey the “two-phase locking protocol”, then all possible interleaved schedules are serializable. 8.3.2 Two Phase Locking Protocol After releasing a lock, a transaction must never go on to acquire any more locks. A transaction that obeys this protocol, thus has two phases, a lock acquisition or “Growing” phase and a lock releasing or “Shrinking” phase. Two phase locking may limit the amount of concurrency that can occur in a schedule. This is because a transaction may not be able to release lock on data item after it is through with it. This is the price for guaranteeing serializability of all schedules without having to check the schedules themselves. There are number of variations of two phase locking (2PL). The technique we described above is known as 2 phase locking. 8.3.2.1 Conservative 2 PL This requires a transaction to lock all the item it accesses before the transaction starts, by declaring read-set and write-set. Read-set of a transaction is the set of all items that the transaction reads, and the write-set is the set of all items that it writes. If any of the items in read-set or write-set cannot be locked, it waits for it to be released by other transaction and after acquiring all locks at once, it starts the transaction. Conservative 2 phase locking is deadlock free protocol. However, it is difficult to use in practice because of the need to declare the read-set and write-set, which is not possible practically in most of the situations. Growing phase is before the transaction starts and shrinking phase starts as soon as the transaction ends in case of conservative 2 phase locking. 8.3.2.2 Strict 2 PL The most popular variation of 2-phase locking is strict 2-phase locking. A transaction does not release any of its exclusive locks till the transaction either commits or rollbacks. This guarantees strict schedules, as no other transactions can read or write an item that is written by this transaction unless it is committed. Growing phase starts as soon as the transaction starts and shrinking on write locks happens during either transaction commits or rollbacks. 8.3.2.3 Rigorous 2 PL This is more restrictive version of strict 2-phase locking protocol. A transaction does not release any of its shared and exclusive locks till the transaction either commits or rollbacks. This is the easiest 2-phase locking to implement, but gives less concurrency for reads. Growing phase starts as soon as the transaction starts and shrinking happens during either transaction commit or rollback. 8.3.3 Lock Starvation Lock starvation occurs when a transaction cannot proceed for an indefinite period of time while other transactions in the system continue to run normally. This can occur due to unfair lock scheduling algorithms which implements priority based locking. One solution for starvation is to have fair lock waiting scheme, such as first in first out (FIFO) queue. Starvation can also occur when the deadlock algorithm, selects the same transaction repeatedly for abort, thereby never allowing it to finish. The algorithms shall be modified to use higher priorities for transactions that have been aborted multiple times to avoid this problem. 8.3.4 Dead Lock Deadlock occurs when each transaction in a set of two or more transactions wait for some resource that is locked by some other transaction in the same set. For example transaction T1 acquires Resource R1 and transaction T2 acquires resource R2. After this if T1 waits for R2 and T2 waits for R1. Both will never get the lock, and this situation is termed as deadlock. TODO Diagram with respect to time 8.3.4.1 Dead Lock Prevention There are many prevention protocols, but most of them are practically not possible in case of DBMS. They are conservative 2 phase locking, ordering data record locking, no waiting, cautious waiting, Wait-die and Wound-wait. Conservative two-phase locking protocol is deadlock prevention protocol, in which all locks are acquired before the transaction works on the data records. Ordering of data record locking will also prevent deadlocks. A transaction, which works on several data records, should obtain locks in pre-determined order always. This requires the programmer or DBMS aware of chosen order of the data record locks. This is <｜fim▁hole｜> database systems. No Waiting Algorithm If a transaction is unable to obtain a lock, it is immediately aborted and then restarted after a certain time delay without checking whether a deadlock will actually occur or not. This can cause transactions to abort and restart needlessly. Cautious Waiting Algorithm This is proposed to avoid needless restart in case of no waiting algorithm, If transaction T1 tries to lock an data record R1, but is not able to do so because R1 is locked by some other transaction T2 with a conflicting lock. If T2 is not blocked on some other locked data record, then T1 is blocked and allowed to wait; otherwise abort T1. Wait-Die and Wound-Wait Algorithm The other two techniques, wait-die and wound-wait use transaction timestamps as basis to determine what to do in case of deadlocks. Transaction timestamp in a unique identifier assigned to each transaction. These timestamps are generally running counter which gets incremented for every transaction started. If transaction T1, starts before transaction T2, then TS(T1) < TS(T2) Suppose that transaction T1 tries to lock data record R1, but is not able to lock because R1 is locked by some other transaction T2 with a conflicting lock. Rules followed by these schemes are as follows Wait-Die – If TS (T1) < TS (T2), then T1 is allowed to wait, otherwise abort T1 and restart it later with the same timestamp. Wound-Wait – If TS (T1) < TS (T2), then abort T1 and restart it later with same timestamp; otherwise T1 is allowed to wait In wait-die, older transaction is allowed to wait on younger transaction, whereas a younger transaction requesting lock on record R1 held by an older transaction is aborted and restarted. The wound-wait approach does the opposite; a younger transaction is allowed to wait on an older one, whereas an older transaction requesting lock on record R1 held by an younger transaction preempts the younger transaction by aborting it. Both schemes end up aborting the younger of the two transactions that may be involved in a deadlock. In wait-die, transactions wait only on younger transactions. In wound-wait, transactions wait only on older transactions. So no cycle is created in both of these schemes avoiding deadlocks. 8.3.4.2 Dead Lock Detection Deadlock detection is more practical approach than the deadlock prevention techniques. This first checks whether deadlock state actually exist in the system before taking any actions. A simple way to detect a state of deadlock is for the system to construct and maintain a “wait-for” graph TODO-Diagram and explanation If the system is in a state of deadlock, some of the transactions causing deadlocks must be aborted. Either application or DBMS should select one of the transactions involved in deadlock for rollback to get the system out of deadlock situation. This selection algorithm should consider avoiding transactions that are running for long time and transactions that have performed many updates. The best transactions to be aborted are the SELECT or read only transactions. 8.3.4.3 Timeouts The simplest solution for handling deadlocks is timeouts. In this method, transactions that wait for longer than the system defined timeout period, are assumed to be in deadlock situation and are aborted. 8.4. Isolation Levels TODO 8.5 Lock Granularity The size of the data item is often called the data item granularity. Fine granularity refers to small data item sizes, whereas coarse granularity refers to large item sizes. Larger the data item size, lower the degree of concurrency. For example if the data item size is a ‘Table’ denoted by Table1, a transaction T1 that needs to lock a record X must lock the whole table Table1 that contains record X because the lock is associated with the whole data item, Table1. If another transaction T2 wants to lock a different record Y of Table1, it is forced to wait till T1 releases the lock on Table1. If the data item size is single record, then transaction T2 would be able to proceed, because it would lock different data item. Smaller the data item size, more the number of items in the database. Because every item is associated with a lock, the system will have a larger number of active locks. More lock and unlock operations will be performed, causing a higher overhead. In addition, more storage space is required for storing these locks. For large transactions, which access many records, coarse granularity should be used and for small transactions, which access small number of records, fine granularity should be used. 8.5.1 Granularity Levels in DBMS Granularity levels are listed below ordered from Coarse to fine granularity Database Table Disk Block or Memory Page Record Record Field Since the best granularity size depends on the given transaction, DBMS should support multiple level so granularity and allows the transaction to pick any level it wants. 8.5.2 Intent Locks Let us take an example database DB1, has one table Table1, having 2 pages P1 and P2. P1 has 10 records R1 to R10, and P2 has 10 records R11 to R20. TODO::Draw tree structure denoting above. Scenario 1: Transaction T1 wants to update all records in Table1. It will request for exclusive lock on Table1. This is beneficial for T1 than acquiring 20 locks for each data record. Now suppose, another transaction T2 wants to read record R5 from page P1, then T2 would request a shared record level lock on R5. DBMS will now check for the compatibility of the requested lock with already held locks. One way to verify this is to traverse the tree from leaf R5 to root DB1 and check for conflicting locks. Scenario 2: Transaction T1 wants to read record R5 from page P1, and then T2 would request a shared record level lock on R5. Now suppose, another transaction T2 wants to update all records in Table1, so it will request exclusive lock on Table1. DBMS will now check for the compatibility of the requested lock with already held locks. For this it needs to check all locks at page level and record level to ensure that there are not conflicting locks. For both the above scenarios, traversal-based lock conflict detection is very inefficient and would defeat the purpose of having multiple granularity locking. New types of locks are introduced to make the multiple granularity locking efficient. The idea behind intention locks is for a transaction to indicate, along the path from the root to the desired node, what type of lock it will require from one of the node’s descendants. There are three types of intension locks. Intention Shared (IS) Intention Exclusive (IX) Shared Intention Exclusive (SIX) Intention –Shared Locks Indicates that a shared lock will be requested on some descendant node Intention –Exclusive Locks Indicates that a exclusive lock will be requested on some descendant node Intention –Shared Locks Indicates that this node is locked in shared mode and exclusive lock will be requested on some descendant node Compatibility Table Mode IS IX S SIX X IS Yes Yes Yes Yes No IX Yes Yes No No No S Yes No Yes No No SIX Yes No No No No X No No No No No TODO::diagram for above lock compatibility table Locking protocol The root of the tree must be locked first A node can be locked by transaction in S or IS mode only if the parent node is already locked by transaction in either IS or IX mode A node can be locked by transaction in X, IX or SIX modes only if the parent of the node already locked by transaction in either IX or SIX modes A transaction can unlock a node, only if none of the children of node are currently locked by transaction. Lock compatibility and 2 phase locking should be adhered. TODO::Example illustrating above protocol and compatibility table: Refer 445 of Elmasri 8.5.2 Lock Escalation 8.6 Index and Predicate Locking One solution to phantom record problem is to use index locking. A more general technique, called predicate locking would lock access to all records that satisfy a predicate or where condition. Predicate locks have proved to be difficult to implement effectively. 8.7 Timestamp based concurrency control (TODO:Rephrase whole section) There is another concurrency control technique based on timestamp ordering, which avoids use of locks. As it avoids locks, deadlocks do not occur in this concurrency control mechanism. 8.7.1 Timestamps Timestamp is a unique identifier created by DBMS to identify a transaction. Typically, timestamp values are assigned in the order in which the transactions are submitted to the system. Generally it is the transaction start time and referred as TS (T). These unique identifiers shall be implemented using simple counters, which gets incremented when a transaction is started. As is has a finite maximum value, algorithm should take care of resetting it when it reaches maximum. 8.7.2 Basic Timestamp ordering Each data item X, has two timestamps ReadTS(X) – The read timestamp of data item X; this is the largest timestamp among all the timestamps of the transactions that have successfully read the item X. WriteTS(X) – The write timestamp of data item X; this is the largest timestamp among all the timestamps of the transactions that have successfully modified the item X. Whenever some transaction T tries to issue readItem(X) or writeItem(X), the algorithm should compare the timestamp of T with ReadTS(X) and WriteTS(X) to ensure that the timestamp order of the transaction execution is not violated. If this order is violated, then transaction T is aborted and resubmitted to the system as a new transaction with a new timestamp. If T is aborted, then any transaction T1 that may have used a value written by T must also be aborted. Similarly any transaction T2 that may have used a value written by T1 must also be aborted and so on. This effect is known as cascading rollback and is one of the biggest problems associated with this scheme. The basic timestamp-ordering algorithm is summarized below Transaction T issues writeItem(X) operation: If readTS(X) > TS(T), or writeTS(T) > TS(T), then abort T, else execute writeItem(X) of T and set writeTS(X) to TS(T) Transaction T issues readItem(X) operation: If writeTS(T) > TS(T), then abort T, else execute readItem(X) of T and set readTS(X) to largest of TS(T) and current readTS(X) Whenever the basic timestamp ordering algorithm, detects two conflicting operations that occur in the incorrect order, it rejects the later of the two operations by aborting the transaction that issued it. The schedules produced by this algorithm are guaranteed to be conflict serializable, like the 2 phase locking protocol. 8.7.3 Strict Timestamp ordering Strict Timestamp ordering is a variation of basic timestamp ordering that ensures that the schedules are recoverable and conflict serializable. In this variation, a transaction T, that issues a readItem(X) or writeItem(X) such that TS (T) > writeTS(X) has its read or write operation delayed until the transaction T1 that wrote the value of X has committed or aborted. To implement this algorithm, locking is required. This algorithm does not cause deadlock, since T waits for T1 only if TS(T) > TS(T1). TODO::refer white paper and add more content 8.8 Multi Version concurrency control TODO 8.9 Optimistic concurrency control In both concurrency control techniques, locking and timestamp ordering, certain checks are made before a transaction operates on a data item. In locking, check is done to determine whether the item being accessed is locked. In timestamp ordering, the transaction timestamp is checked against the read and write timestamps of the data item. This imposes an overhead to the transaction execution. In optimistic concurrency control techniques, no checking is done while the transaction is executing. In this scheme, updates in the transaction are not applied directly to the data items until the transaction reaches its end. During transaction execution, all updates are applied to local copies of the data items, which are kept on per transaction basis. At the end of the transaction execution, a validation phase checks whether any of the transaction’s updates violate serializability. If it is not violated, then the transaction is committed and the database is updated from the local copies, otherwise the transaction is aborted and then restarted later. There are three phases in this protocol Read Phase – A transaction can read values of committed data items from the database. However updates are applied only to local copies of the data items kept in transaction workspace. Validation Phase - Checking is performed to ensure that serializability will not be violated if the transaction updates are applied to the database. Write Phase – Transaction updates are applied to the database if the validation phase says that it is serializable. Otherwise the updates are discarded and the transaction is restarted. This protocol suits well incase of minimal interference between transaction on data items. If the interference is more, then transactions will be restarted often. This technique is called ‘optimistic’ because they assume that little interference will occur and hence that there is no need to do checking during transaction execution. TODO::refer white paper and add more content 8.10 Architecture for lock manager Concurrency control in traditional database systems aims to maintain database consistency. Concurrency control in MMDB is difficult due to the conflicting requirements of satisfying timing constraints and maintaining data consistency. <｜fim▁end｜>	also not practical to implement in
<｜fim▁begin｜> Miskitu Aisas! Miskito Language Course Lesson 1 2 Buk ba tibil ra sa > Next Contents The book is on the table Contents 1 In, on and at 2 Plural nouns 3 We, they, these and those 4 Isn't/aren't 5 Vocabulary and review In, on and at Study What do they mean? John is in the room. My father is in the house. The book is on the table. The dog is on the ground. My mother is at the window. The woman is at the door. John rum ra sa. Aisiki utla ra sa. Buk ba tibil ra sa. Yul ba tasba ra sa. Yaptiki windar ra sa. Mairin ba dur ra sa. Practice Combine the two nouns to form a sentence, then say what it means. E.g. Mary / rum -> Mary rum ra sa. (Mary is in the room.) Pedro / utla tibil / rum yul / utla waitna / dur buk / tasba Lucia / windar Answers Pedro utla ra sa. (Pedro is in the house.) Tibil ba rum ra sa. (The table is in the room.) Yul ba utla ra sa. (The dog is in the house.) Waitna ba dur ra sa. (The man is at the door.) Buk ba tasba ra sa. (The book is on the ground.) Lucia windar ra sa. (Lucia is at the window.) The very common word ra is equivalent to several English prepositions, including in, on and at. But it is not placed before but after the word it goes with, e.g. rum ra in the room. Because of its position, such a word is not called a preposition but a "postposition". Sometimes people write ra attached to the preceding word, e.g. tibil ra or tibilra on the table. Plural nouns Study What do they mean? The book is on the table. The books are on the table. This woman is poor. These women are poor. The dogs are in the house. The dogs are in the houses. The dog is an animal. Dogs are animals. This man is an American. These men are Americans. Buk ba tibil ra sa. Buk nani ba tibil ra sa. Mairin na umpira sa. Mairin nani na umpira sa. Yul nani ba utla ra sa. Yul nani ba utla nani ra sa. Yul ba daiwan sa. Yul nani ba daiwan nani sa. Waitna na miriki sa. Waitna nani na miriki nani sa. Practice Translate, then put nani after the word in italics and translate again. Tibil ba rum ra sa. Tibil nani ba rum ra sa. Tuktiki ba miriki sa. Answers (The table is in the room.)Tibil nani ba rum ra sa. (The tables are in the room.) (The tables are in the room.)Tibil nani ba rum nani ra sa. (The tables are in the rooms.) (My child is an American.)Tuktiki nani ba miriki nani sa. (My children are Americans.) Nani placed after a noun makes it plural: buk book, buk nani books. Other words stay the same as in the singular, e.g. na can mean either "this" or "these" (mairin <｜fim▁hole｜> nani na these women) and sa means either "is" or "are" (Buk ba ... sa The book is... vs. Buk nani ba ... sa The books are...). We, they, these and those Study What do they mean? We are young! We are in the room. She/he is poor. They are poor. This is an American. These are Americans. Yawan wahma bara tiara sa! Yawan rum ra sa. Witin umpira sa. Witin nani umpira sa. Naha ba miriki sa. Naha nani ba miriki sa. Practice Translate: Witin utla ra sa. Witin nani rum ra sa. Baha nani ba tuktiki nani sa. Yawan miriki nani sa. Answers She/He is in the house. They are in the room. Those are my children. We are Americans. The only intrinsically plural pronoun in Miskito is yawan meaning we (inclusive), i.e. we in the sense of you and me, we INCLUDING YOU. With yawan the verb form stays the same as for the third person, so Yawan ... sa We are.... To say "they", on the other hand, we must put nani after the third person pronoun witin. Other pronouns, such as naha and baha, are also pluralised by postposing nani. The use of the definite article ba does not always correspond to that of "the" in English. Thus in Miskito we can say naha ba (literally "the this"). Isn't/aren't Study What do they mean? This book is not big. My name is not Pedro. This is not John. The books are not on the table. The table is not in a house. We are not Americans. Buk na tara apia sa. Nini Pedro apia sa. Naha John apia sa. Buk nani ba tibil ra apia sa. Tibil ba utla kum ra apia sa. Yawan miriki nani apia sa. Practice Translate these sentences, then make them negative and translate again. Tibil ba rum ra sa. Answers (The table is in the room.)Tibil ba rum ra apia sa. (The table is not in the room.) The negative of sa is, are is apia sa is not or isn't, are not or aren't. Vocabulary and review Vocabulary Miskito vocabulary · English vocabulary · Abbreviations · Subject index apia not dur n door Miriki n American (from the US) nani plural marker ra post in, on, at rum n room tasba n ground, floor tibil n table utla n house windar n window yawan pron we (inclusive) Say in Miskito Review My children are not in the room. Tuktiki nani (ba) rum ra apia sa. The dog is in the door. Yul ba dur ra sa. The books are on the floor. Buk nani ba tasba ra sa. They are not on the table. Witin nani (ba) tibil ra apia sa. These Americans are in the house. Miriki nani na utla ra sa. Those are not Americans. Baha nani miriki nani apia sa. She is not young. Witin tiara apia sa. We are in the room; they are at the door. Yawan ba rum ra sa; witin nani ba dur ra sa. Lesson 1 > Next Contents <｜fim▁end｜>	na this woman, mairin
<｜fim▁begin｜> Measurement in math is the act of finding the length, width, height etc... of a certain object, different measurement schemes are used for different objects. eg: Centimetres for small shapes, Square centimetres for area Centimetres cubed for volume. There are different ways of measuring geometric shapes, depending on the dimentional qualities of them. For example, measuring a line ----- long, you could count how many dashes there are, and call it 5 dashes long, or you could measure it with a ruler. But for something <｜fim▁hole｜> I I ------- You would first use the formula for Area to get the inside size, or use the formula for perimeter. A=LW for a square, So Area = Length * Width So as 4 ∗ 7 = 28 c m 2 {\displaystyle 47=28cm^{2}} Which is 28cm squared For perimeter in a square, you take each side and add them together. So 4 + 4 + 7 + 7 = 2 ∗ 4 + 2 ∗ 7 = 8 + 14 = 22 {\displaystyle 4+4+7+7=24+2*7=8+14=22} <｜fim▁end｜>	like: ------- I I
<｜fim▁begin｜> Contents 1 Introduction 2 DNA Sample (s.487.05) 3 Blood sample demand (s.254 (3)) 4 DRE Blood sample demand (s.254 (3.4)) 5 Blood sample warrant (s. 256) 6 Body Print Impression Warrant (487.092) 7 See Also Introduction Bodily samples cannot be taken without a warrant where the subject does not consent.[1] There are several methods of obtaining bodily samples: general warrant (s.487); DNA Sample (s.487.05); blood sample demand (s.254(3)); DRE blood sample (s.254(3.4)); blood sample warrant (s.256) A bodily sample can also be obtained by consent.[2] ↑ R. v. Tomaso, (1989), 70 CR (3d) 152 (Ont. CA) ↑ See Canadian Criminal Procedure and Practice/Search and Seizure/Warrantless Searches/Consent Search DNA Sample (s.487.05) Information for warrant to take bodily substances for forensic DNA analysis 487.05 (1) A provincial court judge who on ex parte application made in Form 5.01 is satisfied by information on oath that there are reasonable grounds to believe (a) that a designated offence has been committed, (b) that a bodily substance has been found or obtained (i) at the place where the offence was committed, (ii) on or within the body of the victim of the offence, (iii) on anything worn or carried by the victim at the time when the offence was committed, or (iv) on or within the body of any person or thing or at any place associated with the commission of the offence, (c) that a person was a party to the offence, and (d) that forensic DNA analysis of a bodily substance from the person will provide evidence about whether the bodily substance referred to in paragraph (b) was from that person and who is satisfied that it is in the best interests of the administration of justice to do so may issue a warrant in Form 5.02 authorizing the taking, from that person, for the purpose of forensic DNA analysis, of any number of samples of one or more bodily substances that is reasonably required for that purpose, by means of the investigative procedures described in subsection 487.06(1). Criteria (2) In considering whether to issue the warrant, the provincial court judge shall have regard to all relevant matters, including (a) the nature of the designated offence and the circumstances of its commission; and (b) whether there is (i) a peace officer who is able, by virtue of training or experience, to take samples of bodily substances from the person, by means of the investigative procedures described in subsection 487.06(1), or (ii) another person who is able, by virtue of training or experience, to take, under the direction of a peace officer, samples of bodily substances from the person, by means of those investigative procedures. Telewarrant (3) Where a peace officer believes that it would be impracticable to appear personally before a judge to make an application for a warrant under this section, a warrant may be issued under this section on an information submitted by telephone or other means of telecommunication and, for that purpose, section 487.1 applies, with such modifications as the circumstances require, to the warrant. 1995, c. 27, s. 1; 1997, c. 18, s. 44; 1998, c. 37, s. 16; 2005, c. 25, s. 2(F). – CCC This provision is only one of several ways to seize an item for the purpose of obtaining DNA. An item that contains a bodily substance can likewise be obtained through other means such as a warrant under s.487.[1] This section authorizing the taking of the sample is constitutional. [2] Validity The ITO must contain sufficient details to be valid.[3] Basis for warrant: the applicable designated offence that is being investigated (s.487.04) belief that a bodily substance was found or obtained at the scene belief that accused was party to the offence The warrant must include: appropriate terms and conditions of sampling (s. 487.06(2) special requirements must comply with s. 487.07 Execution of the warrant The sample must be taken by a peace officer with the necessary training to take bodily samples. The peace officers are permitted to use reasonable force to extract the sample if the accused resists or refuses to submit to the taking of the sample. Use of DNA The sample may only be used with respect to the offence under investigation.[s. 487.08] ↑ R. v. Kaba 2008 QCCA 116; R. v. Gettin ,[2003] OJ No. 4758 (Ont. CA.) R. v. Dofer ,[1996] BCJ No. 332 (BCCA). ↑ R. v. Rodgers, 2006 SCC 15, [2006] 1 SCR 554 at para. 5 ↑ R. v. Brighteyes, 1998 3 WWR 276 [1] Blood sample demand (s.254 (3)) 254.... Samples of breath or blood (3) If a peace officer has reasonable grounds to believe that a person is committing, or at any time within the preceding three hours has committed, an offence under section 253 as a result of the consumption of alcohol, the peace officer may, by demand made as soon as practicable, require the person (a) to provide, as soon as practicable, (i) samples of breath that, in a qualified technician’s opinion, will enable a proper analysis to be made to determine the concentration, if any, of alcohol in the person’s blood, or (ii) if the peace officer has reasonable grounds to believe that, because of their physical condition, the person may be incapable of providing a sample of breath or it would be impracticable to obtain a sample of breath, samples of blood that, in the opinion of the qualified medical practitioner or qualified technician taking the samples, will enable a proper analysis to be made to determine the concentration, if any, of alcohol in the person’s blood; and (b) if necessary, to accompany the peace officer for that purpose. ... Condition (4) Samples of blood may be taken from a person under subsection (3) or (3.4) only by or under the direction of a qualified medical practitioner who is satisfied that taking the samples would not endanger the person’s life or health. ... R.S., 1985, c. C-46, s. 254; R.S., 1985, c. 27 (1st Supp.), s. 36, c. 1 (4th Supp.), ss. 14, 18(F), c. 32 (4th Supp.), s. 60; 1999, c. 32, s. 2(Preamble); 2008, c. 6, s. 19. – CCC If the investigating officer has reasonable grounds to believe that the person is impaired by drugs and could be charged for operation or control of a vehicle while impaired, they may make a demand for either <｜fim▁hole｜> blood sample must be done by a medical practitioner.[1] However, a urine or oral fluid sample seems to be taken by any individual. ↑ s. 254(4) DRE Blood sample demand (s.254 (3.4)) s.254... Samples of bodily substances (3.4) If, on completion of the evaluation, the evaluating officer has reasonable grounds to believe, based on the evaluation, that the person’s ability to operate a motor vehicle, a vessel, an aircraft or railway equipment is impaired by a drug or by a combination of alcohol and a drug, the evaluating officer may, by demand made as soon as practicable, require the person to provide, as soon as practicable, (a) a sample of either oral fluid or urine that, in the evaluating officer’s opinion, will enable a proper analysis to be made to determine whether the person has a drug in their body; or (b) samples of blood that, in the opinion of the qualified medical practitioner or qualified technician taking the samples, will enable a proper analysis to be made to determine whether the person has a drug in their body. Condition (4) Samples of blood may be taken from a person under subsection (3) or (3.4) only by or under the direction of a qualified medical practitioner who is satisfied that taking the samples would not endanger the person’s life or health. ... R.S., 1985, c. C-46, s. 254; R.S., 1985, c. 27 (1st Supp.), s. 36, c. 1 (4th Supp.), ss. 14, 18(F), c. 32 (4th Supp.), s. 60; 1999, c. 32, s. 2(Preamble); 2008, c. 6, s. 19. – CCC See also Canadian_Criminal_Law/Offences/Impaired_Driving_and_Over_80/Proof_of_Impairment#Proof_of_Impairment_by_Drugs Blood sample warrant (s. 256) Warrants to obtain blood samples 256. (1) Subject to subsection (2), if a justice is satisfied, on an information on oath in Form 1 or on an information on oath submitted to the justice under section 487.1 by telephone or other means of telecommunication, that there are reasonable grounds to believe that (a) a person has, within the preceding four hours, committed, as a result of the consumption of alcohol or a drug, an offence under section 253 and the person was involved in an accident resulting in the death of another person or in bodily harm to himself or herself or to any other person, and (b) a qualified medical practitioner is of the opinion that (i) by reason of any physical or mental condition of the person that resulted from the consumption of alcohol or a drug, the accident or any other occurrence related to or resulting from the accident, the person is unable to consent to the taking of samples of his or her blood, and (ii) the taking of samples of blood from the person would not endanger the life or health of the person, the justice may issue a warrant authorizing a peace officer to require a qualified medical practitioner to take, or to cause to be taken by a qualified technician under the direction of the qualified medical practitioner, the samples of the blood of the person that in the opinion of the person taking the samples are necessary to enable a proper analysis to be made in order to determine the concentration, if any, of alcohol or drugs in the person’s blood. Form (2) A warrant issued pursuant to subsection (1) may be in Form 5 or 5.1 varied to suit the case. Information on oath (3) Notwithstanding paragraphs 487.1(4)(b) and (c), an information on oath submitted by telephone or other means of telecommunication for the purposes of this section shall include, instead of the statements referred to in those paragraphs, a statement setting out the offence alleged to have been committed and identifying the person from whom blood samples are to be taken. Duration of warrant (4) Samples of blood may be taken from a person pursuant to a warrant issued pursuant to subsection (1) only during such time as a qualified medical practitioner is satisfied that the conditions referred to in subparagraphs (1)(b)(i) and (ii) continue to exist in respect of that person. Copy or facsimile to person (5) When a warrant issued under subsection (1) is executed, the peace officer shall, as soon as practicable, give a copy of it — or, in the case of a warrant issued by telephone or other means of telecommunication, a facsimile — to the person from whom the blood samples are taken. R.S., 1985, c. C-46, s. 256; R.S., 1985, c. 27 (1st Supp.), s. 36; 1992, c. 1, s. 58; 1994, c. 44, s. 13; 2000, c. 25, s. 3; 2008, c. 6, s. 22.CCC This method of obtaining a blood sample requires the following : the application be made to a JP within 4 hours of an offence under s. 253 the offence involved bodily harm or death to the accused or another person a qualified medical practitioner is of the opinion that: the person is unable to consent to the taking of a sample the taking of the sample would not endanger the life or health of the person This method is not frequently seen as the requirements under s. 487 are simpler. Body Print Impression Warrant (487.092) Section 487.092 was enacted on June 16, 1997 through Bill C-17. Information for impression warrant 487.092 (1) A justice may issue a warrant in writing authorizing a peace officer to do any thing, or cause any thing to be done under the direction of the peace officer, described in the warrant in order to obtain any handprint, fingerprint, footprint, foot impression, teeth impression or other print or impression of the body or any part of the body in respect of a person if the justice is satisfied (a) by information on oath in writing that there are reasonable grounds to believe that an offence against this or any other Act of Parliament has been committed and that information concerning the offence will be obtained by the print or impression; and (b) that it is in the best interests of the administration of justice to issue the warrant. Search or seizure to be reasonable (2) A warrant issued under subsection (1) shall contain such terms and conditions as the justice considers advisable to ensure that any search or seizure authorized by the warrant is reasonable in the circumstances. ... 1997, c. 18, s. 45; 1998, c. 37, s. 23. – CCC See Also <｜fim▁end｜>	urine sample or blood sample. A
<｜fim▁begin｜> Contents 1 Introduction 2 Viral Replication 2.1 Lytic Cycle 2.2 Lysogenic Cycle 2.2.1 Retrovirus reproductive cycle 3 Viral Genome 4 Viruses Practice Questions Introduction Viruses are the smallest biological particle (the tiniest are only 20 nm in diameter). However, they are not biological organisms so they are not classified in any kingdom of living things. They do not have any organelles and cannot respire or perform metabolic functions. Viruses are merely strands of DNA or RNA surrounded by a protective protein coat called a capsid. Viruses only come to life when they have invaded a cell. Outside of a host cell, viruses are completely inert. Since first being identified in 1935, viruses have been classified into more than 160 major groups. Viruses are classified based on their shape, replication properties, and the diseases that they cause. Furthermore, the shape of a virus is determined by the type and arrangement of proteins in its capsid. Viruses pathogenic to humans are currently classified into 21 groups. Viruses can also attack bacteria and infect bacterial cells. Such viruses are called bacteriophages. Viral Replication As previously stated, viruses are not a biological life form so they cannot reproduce by themselves. They need to take over a functioning eukaryotic or prokaryotic cell to replicate its DNA or RNA and to make protein coat for new virus particles. In order to enter a cell, a virus must attach to a specific receptor site on the plasma membrane of the host cell. The proteins on the surface of the virus act as keys which fit exactly into a matching glycoprotein on the host cell membrane. In some viruses, the attachment protein is not on the surface of the virus but is in the capsid or in the envelope. There are two forms of viral replication: the lytic cycle and the lysogenic cycle. Lytic Cycle Attachment: The virus binds to specific receptors on the host cell. Entry: There are two ways in which a virus can enter cells. Firstly, the virus can inject its nucleic acid into the host cell. Secondly, if a virus is contained in an envelope, the host cell can phagocytosise the entire virus particle into a vacuole. When the virus breaks out of the vacuole, it then releases its nucleic acid into the cell. Replication: The virus's nucleic acid instructs the host cell to replicate the virus's DNA or RNA. Assembly: New virus particles are assembled. Lysis and Release: The virus directs the production of an enzyme which damages the host cell wall, causing the host cell to swell and burst. The newly formed virus particles are now released. Lysogenic Cycle Attachment: Similar to Lytic Cycle Entry: Similar to Lytic Cycle Incorporation: The viral nucleic acids is not replicated, but instead integrated by genetic combination (crossing over) into the host cell's chromosome. When integrated in a host cell this way, the viral nucleic acid as part of the host cell's chromosome is known as <｜fim▁hole｜> Reproduction: The host cell reproduces normally. Subsequent cell divisions, daughter cells, contain original father cell's chromosome embedded with a prophage. Cycle Induction: Certain factors now determine whether the daughter cell undergoes the lytic or lysogenic cycle. At any time, a cell undergoing the lysogenic cycle can switch to the lytic cycle. The reproduction cycle of viruses with RNA and no DNA is slightly different. A notable example of a RNA-based virus is HIV, a retrovirus. Retrovirus reproductive cycle The retrovirus force RNA into cell, by either one of the two methods of entry (See above). In the retrovirus are reverse transcriptase enzymes, which catalyses the synthesis of a DNA strand complementary to the viral RNA. Reverse transcriptase catalyses a second DNA strand complementary to the first. With these two strands, the double-stranded DNA can be created. DNA is then incorporated into the host cell's chromosomes. Similar to the concept of a prophage, this incorporated DNA is called a provirus. However, the provirus never leaves the host cell, unlike a prophage. The infected host cell undergoes the lytic or lysogenic cycle. Viral Genome The genome of a virus consists of DNA or RNA, whose size and configuration vary. The entire genome can exist as a single nucleic acid molecule or several nucleic acid segments. Also, the DNA or RNA may be single-stranded or double-stranded, and either linear or circular. Not all viruses can reproduce in a host cell by themselves. Since viruses are so small, the size of their genome is limiting. For example, some viruses have coded instructions for only making a few different proteins for the viruses' capsid. On the other hand, the human genome codes for over 30,000 different proteins. Therefore, the lack of coded instructions cause some viruses to need the presence of other viruses to help them reproduce themselves. Such viruses are called replication defective. Lastly, it is worthy to note that 70% of all viruses are RNA viruses. As the process of RNA replication (with enzymes and other organelles of the host cell) is more prone to errors, RNA viruses have much higher mutation rates than do DNA viruses. Viruses Practice Questions As the name implies, the Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus targets tomatoes. Would it be possible for this virus to target other fruits as well? Explain. Many people have had cold sores, which are caused by infection with the herpes simplex virus. One characteristic of cold sores is that after a period of inactivity, they will reappear many times during the course of a person's life. Which cycle would the herpes simplex virus undergo? Chicken pox is a common, non-fatal disease usually acquired in adolescence and caused by the varicella zoster virus. In adulthood, many people suffer from shingles, an altered form of the varicella zoster virus. Which cycle would the varicella zoster virus have undergone? Would an antibiotic work for a person suffering from a cold of flu? Explain. Answers to Viruses Practice Questions <｜fim▁end｜>	a prophage. Host Cell
<｜fim▁begin｜> Teenage Depression and suicide Many teens are not educated about depression which can also lead to suicide. They think when you are depressed you are crazy and you're not , you're actually have a lot in your plate that you feel like just taking a time off from everyone and everything . When you're depressed you have body pains, you often feel sad and cry a lot, you actually distance yourself from your loved ones, at some point you feel like the situation you're in is not gonna get better and you end up being vulnerable and not <｜fim▁hole｜> think about ways to end the mixed emotions you are getting. You may end up wanting to drink to actually cope and you may actually think about committing suicide. Everyone gets suicidal thoughts and its normal. Those thoughts just trigger your mind and make you think you're gonna be at peace . When this happens you should always think about the people who love you . We as young people we should be the one teaching people about it and the most important thing is to talk . You shouldn't bottle things up because they gonna drain your soul <｜fim▁end｜>	paying attention to yourself and you
<｜fim▁begin｜> It is possible to regard openness in different ways. One approach is to contrast 'open access' with 'open participation' or 'open contribution'. Open Education has in the past tended to focus on access, but an argument can be made that open participation and contribution is a more important indicator of openness than access to resources. P2PU offers a course in Designing Collaborative Workshops that explores ideas around open participation. Within the course it defines the following terms: Participatory - Trying to break down the barriers between the student and the teacher. Collaborative - Collaborative processes help us move away from the dominant theory of single author works, or ownership by one organisation/individual of what is created or the tools used to create it. Open participation goes beyond the student-teacher relationship; it arguably can embody the student-student relationship, the student-course relationship and possibly more relaltionships. Open participation can involve many different communities, from established education institutions with a wealth of experience, to commercial companies, and individuals who are new to open practices. The Heartbleed Bug offers a cautionary tale <｜fim▁hole｜> community. It occurred because everyone was using OpenSSL code, but no one was checking the work. Participation is an important part of an open process. The challenge is for Open Education Practitioners and communities to bring in those from outside. Once people recognized that open knowledge can be enriched by individual academic experience they will feel more motivated to know and participate, not just as an audience member but as a protagonist. If Open Education is primarily about access to (open) resources then to some extent the burden and responsibility is placed on those with the technical ability to create resources and share them. The balance of power is uneven, resources continue to be designed from a particular perspective and one could argue that to some extent Open Education becomes a form of socio-cultural colonialism. For example, there are still relatively few people currently taking on the dual role of consumer and developer of open education resources (this is often more pronounced in developing countries). Further resources Open as in oer and open as in MOOC by Pat Lockley <｜fim▁end｜>	for the Open Education
<｜fim▁begin｜> SVV is an object of value: verbose logic! false warn logic! false word-limits block! length: 2 image-stock block! length: 75 vid-feel object! [sensor hot hot-area reset-related-faces check check-radio led button btn icon subicon toggle tog rotary choice choice-iterator drag-off drag slide move-drag scroll scroll-button progress dropdown] icon-image image! size: 48x48 radio.bmp image! size: 13x13 radio-on.bmp image! size: 13x13 vid-colors object! [font body button bevel title field field-select field-font] vid-face object! [type offset size span pane text color image effect data edge font para feel saved-area rate show? options parent-face old-offset old-size line-list changes face-flags action state access style alt-action facets related words colors texts images file var keycode reset styles <｜fim▁hole｜> user-data flags doc] state-flags block! length: 3 vid-words block! length: 17 vid-styles block! length: 120 track function! [blk] error function! [msg spot] warning function! [blk] facet-words block! length: 51 fw-with block! length: 38 fw-feel block! length: 47 spot none! none expand-specs function! [face specs /local here] grow-facets function! [new args /local pairs texts images colors files b... do-facets function! Build block of parameters (and attribute words) wh... next-tab function! [tabs way where] choice-face object! [type offset size span pane text color image effect data edge font para feel saved-area rate show? options parent-face old-offset old-size line-list changes face-flags action way mway iway iter-face item-size evt-func] set-edge function! [face type args] <｜fim▁end｜>	init multi blinker pane-size dirty? help
<｜fim▁begin｜> Ganon exercised his chilling powers by causing the lake in the southwest to freeze and by creating a storm cloud to cover the area with snow. It serves adventurers of this region well to wear gear that will protect them from the elements. Contents 1 Points of interest 1.1 Item Shop 1.2 Storyteller 2 Odds and ends 2.1 Reunion of the Blacksmiths 2.2 The well by the Smithy 2.3 Unlocking a secret 2.4 Disappearing Link 2.5 An impassable situation 2.6 The Ice Lake circle 2.7 The Way to Ice Island 3 Ice Palace 3.1 Floor 1 3.2 Basement 1 3.3 Basement 2 3.4 Basement 3 3.5 Basement 4 3.6 Basement 5 3.7 Basement 6 3.8 Boss: Kholdstare 4 Mixing courage with wisdom Points of interest File:LoZLttP Ice Palace.png The creatures who survived the sudden change of weather are said to be very tough. Zirros and Pikits rule on the land, and a band of Zora's Spawn took over the cold waters of the lake. The subjects of the Golden Land who survived stay in caves and buildings. Item Shop The Item Shop in this region is stocked with the standard goods. Adventurers in need of Potions, Bombs, or a Shield can stock up here. The Potion is especially useful as enemies in this area are dangerous. Storyteller The odd creature in the cave on the northeast shore of the lake will confess to having been a former thief. For a price of 20 Rupees, he will tell visitors the story of another former thief who was an old friend of his that could open locked Treasure Chests with ease. Odds and ends The next crystal that you wish to obtain can be found in the Ice Palace. But before we dive right in, there are a few errands that you can take care of, especially now that you have the Titan's Mitt. Reunion of the Blacksmiths File:Zelda ALttP smithy partner.png Find the partner where the House of Books would be File:Zelda ALttP tempered sword.png You will be well rewarded with this powerful sword From the earliest moments of your quest, you heard about a sad blacksmith near Kakariko Village. The poor fellow has lost his partner and could no longer excel at his craft. Not until you reach that Dark World, however, can you help the blacksmith. During one of your explorations south of the village, you may find a frog trapped by skulls. If you free the frog, you can take it back to the blacksmith. Upon his return to the Light World, the frog will be restored to his former blacksmith self. The two partners will be overjoyed to be reunited after so many years apart. In a display of gratitude, they will take your Master Sword and strengthen it. It will take some time, but you will receive the Tempered Sword in return. The well by the Smithy File:Zelda ALttP well magic.png Getting "cursed" by the well creature Outside the Smith's house near the village is a stake blocking a place where you can jump into a well. Using the Magic Hammer, pound the stake and jump into the well. In the well, sprinkle magic powder on the statue. You will find a strange creature who claims to take away half of your magic power when, in fact, he actually doubles it. Unlocking a secret File:Zelda ALttP locked chest.png Find the locked chest in the shattered house File:Zelda ALttP unlocked chest.png The silent man can unlock the chest The Blacksmith's house in the Dark World is a shattered shell in which a locked trunk sits. The trunk will only appear after you have returned the Dwarf Blacksmith to his partner. When you discover the trunk, you won't find a key to open it with, and whacking the trunk with your sword does nothing. If you spoke to the storyteller near the Ice Palace, you might recall hearing about the thief who is said to be near the desert. Drag the trunk to the sleeping man in the canyon. The man will wake up and open the trunk. Inside, you will find the fourth File:Zelda ALttP item Bottle.png Bottle. Disappearing Link File:Zelda ALttP opening grave.png Dash into the grave to push it open The Graveyard in Hyrule holds deep and hidden secrets. Most mysterious of all the tombstones is the large tombstone blocked off in its own private plot. Once you obtain the Titan's Mitt, you can return to the graveyard and gain access to the large tombstone by lifting the dark rocks. Pushing against the stone won't yield much, but a Dash Bash against it will force the tombstone to slide back, revealing a hidden chamber below. In that chamber, you will find the File:Zelda ALttP item Magic Cape.png Magic Cape, which will render you invisible when you don the cape. (In truth, you do not need to wait until you have the Titan's Mitt. Once you have the Hookshot, you can reach the Ghostly Garden and use the Magic Mirror to warp in to the area around this grave, as you can see in the picture. Then you can perform a very short dash to push the grave open.) An impassable situation Near Death Mountain in the Dark World, you may have come upon a sign promising to reward the person who wears the Cape with a Piece of Heart. In the mountain cave nearby, follow the passage until it is blocked by a bumper. Don the Cape and slip past the bumper to reach the Piece of Heart beyond. The Ice Lake circle Northwest of the Ice Palace lies a circular arrangement of stone which surround a shallow portion of the lake. Just as you learned near the Swamp Palace, there are strong relationships between the Dark World and the Light World. Swim to the shallow section inside the circle and use your Magic Mirror. If you do, you should end up on top of the island in the middle of Lake Hylia that contains another Piece of Heart. The Way to Ice Island No matter how long you battle the dive-bombing Zirros and other creatures of Ice Lake, you will not discover a way to enter the Ice Island dungeon from the outside. Instead, if you visit the central island in Lake Hylia which is in the same location as Ice Island, you may discover the Warp Tile concealed under the dark stone. The Warp Tile will transport you to the inner courtyard of Ice Island. Ice Palace Dark world entrance v • d • e File:Zelda ALttP Ice warp.png Lift this rock to reveal the Warp Tile Since the Ice Palace is a very cold place and populated by creatures who were created by the magic of ice and snow, it only makes sense that a warm weapon will be quite useful. Those explorers who have command of the Fire Rod will find this device to be very useful in the chambers of the Ice Palace. A supply of Potions is also good to have as the enemies are very strong and in large abundance. The villain, Kholdstare, lurks deep in the palace dungeons. Dungeon Tip Close combat on ice can get very frustrating. A good strategy when battling multiple Pentagators is to use Ether Magic, which will freeze all the enemies, then proceed to smash them with your hammer. When doing this, magic refills are more likely to drop allowing you to keep you magic meter full throughout this dungeon. Floor 1 File:LoZLttP Ice Palace F1.png Floor 1 As you enter the Ice Palace, you will see two stone statues and a telepathy stone. However, once you step far enough into the dungeon, what appears to be an ordinary wall sculpture comes to life and attacks you. The monster known as a Tainon is only susceptible to the flames of the Fire Rod, so have it handy as you enter the Palace. Do away with the Tainon and you will be able to enter the room to the left. When you enter the room, you will be greeted with exactly the kind of environment you would expect to find in an Ice Palace: slippery icy floors. This means that positioning yourself accurately takes a little bit more of an effort, but not terribly so. There are three Baris in the room, and one of them possesses a Small Key, so defeat them all (when they're not electric) to find the key and collect it. Use it to unlock the door above and climb down the stairs to the first basement level. Basement 1 File:LoZLttP Ice Palace B1.png Basement 1 Visit 1 When you arrive on this floor, you will be in the simple room on the left. Two green Zols will rise from the floor to attack, but they pose little threat. Walk down to the lower left corner and step on the tile to open the door on the right. Walk through to the next room, and you reach a four way intersection. You can go in any direction but the direction you were moving when you entered the room. Start by pushing the center block right, and traveling south. In this icy room along the bottom, you will meet the Pentagators. Pentagators like to get a bit of momentum going before diving along the ice head first and colliding with whatever gets in their way. Defeat them with your sword or hookshot and open the treasure chest to reveal the Compass. When you're done, return to the room above. Now push the center block up, and head right, stepping on a tile which opens the shutter doors along the way. In this room, you will have to face Pentagators, a Bubble, and a "Bunny Beam" hidden beneath one of the skulls. The other skull hides the switch which you need to step on to open the doors. File:Zelda ALttP bombing switch.png Bomb the Crystal Switch and run to the other side Running into the far right room won't get you anything at this time, so return to the left. As you go to push the center block left, you'll step on that same tile again, and now the door above will be open and available to you. Enter the top room. There are four red Baris to contend with in this room. But the real puzzle in this room has to do with the Crystal Switch. Your goal is to place a bomb in the center of the room and fall into the pit that it creates. Obviously, when you enter, you'll need to hit the switch to lower the blue fence blocks. But in doing so, you'll block the pit with the orange blocks. You need to come up with a method of triggering the Crystal Switch while standing behind the blue blocks…something of a delayed response. One item that you have that has a delayed response is bombs. If you place a bomb near the switch, and run back to the other side, you should clear the blue blocks well before the bomb explodes, causing the blue blocks to rise and the orange blocks to fall, providing you with access to bomb the floor and fall to the floor below. Visit 2 You made it to this little secluded room, and you will be well rewarded. Get the skulls out of your way so that you can open the treasure chest and reveal its contents: the Big Key. Now you're ready to hunt down the large treasure chest of this dungeon. To do that, you need to return to the large sliding spike trap room on the third basement. Push the lower block to the left and the upper block up, and head out to the room on the left. At this point, you must retrace your steps and get back to the third basement floor as you did before, for your third visit there. Basement 2 File:LoZLttP Ice Palace B2.png Basement 2 Visit 1 As you fall to the floor, you will arrive in the center of the room with skulls providing access to the outer sections of it. However, as you step outside, you will encounter the largest Stalfos you have ever seen, the Stalfos Knights. They are strong, but they fall into a heap of bones when you strike them. Unfortunately, they don't stay down; they rise back up to attack again. However, if you can find a way to keep them down permanently, they won't be as much of a threat. The only way to keep them down is to blast their bones to smithereens, and there's no better way to do that than with a well-placed bomb. The bomb must explode before they stand back up, so place it quickly. When both Stalfos Knights are defeated, you are free to enter the room below. The floor in this room moves, so be aware of the danger that the spike traps pose. There are four blue Baris in this room, and one of them is in possession of a Small Key. Defeat them all to find and collect it. In addition to all of this, you must also contend with small black shadowy creatures called Baboos that escape from holes in the wall and scramble across the floor. On your way to unlock the door in the lower left corner, make sure that the Crystal Switch is set in the orange position, as you'll need to cross the orange blocks in the next room to continue. Enter the room to the south and pause a moment to get the timing of the fire bar down. When you're ready, make your way towards the lower left corner of the room, where a switch can be found under the skull that opens the door to the right. Wait again for the timing of the fire bar to permit you to safely run to the right door and enter the next room. In this small room, three green Zols will rise from the floor to attack you. Dispatch them, and enter the stairwell to basement level three. Visit 2 File:Zelda ALttP pulling tongue.png Pull the statue's tongue to escape There's a lot going on in this little room when you return to this floor. First, you'll have to deal with a Stalfos Knight who guards the right side of the room. Take care of him, and use your Magic Hammer to pound down the pegs that block your access to the giant block. Lift the block to expose both a key and a "Bunny Beam" trap. If you're quick, <｜fim▁hole｜> crash into the wall before it reaches you. Collect the key and pound down the pegs on the other side. Another Stalfos Knight will appear to give you trouble. Take care of it, and remove the skulls below to reveal a switch. Stepping on the switch will reveal a treasure chest that contains a Map. If you study the map, you will notice a room to the right, with no apparent means of getting there. Killing the enemies and stepping on the switch didn't do the trick, so there must be something else you can try. The statue in this room may look like a few other statues you've already seen before, but this one is special. Try giving its tongue a tug. You'll notice that you can pull it out like a wall switch, and cause the door on the right to open. Run through it and it will lock behind you again. That's OK, because you've found the ladder that brings you up to the other side of the mysterious chamber in the first basement level. Head up there for visit number 2. Basement 3 File:LoZLttP Ice Palace B3.png Basement 3 Visit 1 You will arrive on this floor in a room with an icy floor and a lot of Pentagators. Because of the way they are situated, they will attack you en masse. You must fight and defeat them all in order to gain access to the room above. When you head north, you'll enter a room with a rather large spike trap that bounces up and down the hall. Your options are somewhat limited. You can't head right because you don't have a key. The room to the left has a very important purpose, but you won't be able to realize it until you have the Big Key. So instead, you must run to the middle corridor, and out of the way of the trap. Wait for the trap to slide back down to the bottom, and make a run for the door at the top. It contains a few skulls and a fire trap, along with a circle of tiles that fall away, forcing you to fall to the floor below. When you're there, you can either try to quickly get around to as many skulls as you can, or simply wait for the floor to open beneath you since you'll have no other choice. Visit 2 In the small U-shaped room on the right, you'll see a skull across the way from a bed of spikes. You can use the Hookshot to pull you safely over to it, then lift or destroy it to reveal a switch underneath. Step on the switch to reveal a treasure chest. Hookshot back over to the chest and open it to reveal a Small Key (do not use this key on the locked door to the left; it's much wiser to save it). Unfortunately now you're on the wrong side of the spikes from where you want to be. Either brave the danger and take the damage or use your Magic Cape to walk across the spikes harmlessly. Take the stairwell up for your second visit to the second basement. Visit 3 Assuming you collected the Big Key from the first basement floor, you're ready to enter the room to the left of the giant spike trap room. When it's safe to do so, run into the doorway on the left. You'll enter a room with an icy floor and a fire bar spinning around. Since getting up to speed on an icy floor requires different timing, you'll have to take that into account if you wish to reach the ladder on the other side of the room without getting nailed by the fire bar. When you reach the ladder, climb down for your second visit to basement level four. Basement 4 File:LoZLttP Ice Palace B4.png Basement 4 Visit 1 When you first fall down to the fourth basement, you'll arrive in a long icy room, with a number of spike traps, fire bars, and some Pentagators. You could run to the bottom, but you'll only find a shut door and a locked door. While a switch near the bottom of the room opens the shut door, when you enter it, you'll only be able to reach a pit that leads to the floor below. Instead, stay up at the top, and enter the door on your right. This room contains four red Baris, which are most easily defeated with your Hookshot. It will also come in handy since you need your Hookshot in order to navigate across the giant pit in this room. When you have a clear path to the block across the pit on the right, fire at it and pull yourself over. Once you're safely on the other side, you can access the door below. The next room contains four giant spike traps, and your goal is to get around the barrier wall to the staircase on the other side. If you happen to possess the Magic Cape, now is a good time to use it since it renders you invulnerable to the spike traps and you can navigate around the room without fear (provided you have plenty of magic). Take the staircase up to your second visit to basement 3. Visit 2 File:Zelda ALttP bomb for bluemail.png Bomb this portion of the floor to reach the Blue Mail When you arrive, you'll be on the other side of the pit that you might have encountered earlier. As you explore the room, a Tainon will attack you from the wall, so have your Fire Rod ready. You'll see a treasure chest in the room, and if you open it, you might be disappointed to find that it only contains Bombs. However, that should serve as a clue to you that the use of bombs is important in this room. You might notice that the floor above the ladder is terribly cracked. If you experiment and drop a bomb on a portion of it, you will blow a hole through the floor. This hole will land you on the opposite side of the room below than the existing hole, so fall down through it. Visit 3 One last trip to this floor places you in the bottom room of the floor. As you walk across the room, green Zols will appear out of the floor, so attack them when they form. When you get close to the locked door at the top, a Tainon will leap out to attack you, so have your Fire Rod ready. Unlock the door, and you'll be in the familiar long icy room. The skull closest to the door through which you arrived hides a switch that you can press to open the door to the left. Run through, and simply drop down the pit in the floor that is immediately in front of you, for your third visit to the fifth basement level. Basement 5 File:LoZLttP Ice Palace B5.png Basement 5 Visit 1 If you've followed the walkthrough, your first visit here should bring you directly to the left side of the left room which contains the large treasure chest. If you explored on your own, it's just as likely that you've ended up on this floor on the other side, or through the bottom room. In accordance with the walkthrough, hopefully you have landed in front of the large treasure chest with the Big Key in your possession. Go ahead and open the chest, and you will receive a much-needed boost in your defense, in the form of the Blue Mail. Once you have it, push any of the blocks out to the right, and escape through the right door. In the next room, a Tainon will attack you. Blast it with the Fire Rod, and then study your surroundings. You don't need to go any direction other than up, and fortunately for you, the orange blocks are down, while the blue blocks protect regular blocks which are positioned around a gap in the floor. All seems well at this point, so proceed through the north door. In the top room, three red Baris and a Stalfos Knight will attack you as you approach the locked door at the top. Defeat them and head down the stairs. Visit 2 When you return after hitting the switch, run back to the pit room. (Actually, when you return to this floor, you might notice that the blue fence blocks which blocked off two pits on either side are now lowered, so you can fall down them if you choose to. If you do, you'll discover a very valuable fairy pond where you can replenish your health and restock your bottles with fairies.) With the orange blocks up and the blue blocks down, you might think that you're all set to solve the pressure plate puzzle. Unfortunately the blocks on the right side are not situated over the pressure plate, so pushing the right one in won't do you any good. And with the orange block up, your access to the left side is blocked. So you'll need to climb up to the floor above and drop down from the other side. So head to the room on the right. This room is loaded with skulls, a fire bar, and streams of Baboos that crawl out continuously from the holes. One skull contains a Small Key, and another hides a switch. Find the switch and step on it to access the room below. In this next room, you must attempt to avoid hitting a fire bar while traversing a slippery floor to the door on the left. You can utilize the Magic Cape to make this experience much easier, but be careful not to slip off any of the edges. In the next room, there are two blue Baris to defeat. The skull in the corner hides a switch which, if stepped on, reveals a treasure chest that contains another Small Key. Collect it and climb the steps to the room above, your third visit to basement level four. Visit 3 Now that you've landed on the "right side" of the orange blocks, which is the left side, head through the door and push the movable block down into the pit. Feel free to tumble in after it, and continue with your second and final visit to basement floor six. Basement 6 File:LoZLttP Ice Palace B6.png Basement 6 Visit 1 A Bubble will be waiting to greet you as you enter the room. If you're in dire need of health, you can sprinkle some Magic Powder on it to transform it into a fairy. Enter the room below. You'll have a bit of a hectic fight ahead of you. The room contains four blue Baris, as well as a Stalfos Knight and a Tainon creature. Take care of the Tainon with your Fire Rod first since they're fast and persistent. Then eliminate the Baris and the Stalfos at your convenience. When you're done, you'll be left with a button that is sadly not a switch, but a pressure plate. Unfortunately, there are no statues for you to put on the plate, so you'll have to think of something else. If you recall, there were some blocks arranged next to the pit immediately above this floor, but the blue fence blocks prevented you from reaching them. It just so happens that in the room to the right, there's a Crystal Switch. So unlock that door, and hit the switch. Doing so will give you access to the contents of the skulls, but it will also make a "Bunny Beam" chase after you. Avoid it or wait for its effects to wear off, then return to the fifth basement level. (Note: If you happen to have collected the Cane of Somaria, the treasure found in the Misery Mire dungeon, you can use the cane to create a block instead that will activate the switch.) Visit 2 File:Zelda ALttP pushing block.png Push the block that landed over the plate Now that the block you've pushed landed very near to the switch, break the skull that covers it, and push the block onto the switch, permanently opening the door to the room below. Pass through the door. There are a variety of interesting things including some visible Baris, and some Baris that are hidden under the right block. The object of interest to you, however, is the block on the left. Unfortunately, it takes a bit of work to reach. First you must remove the skulls in the way. Then you must tug the right statue out of the way so that you can gain access to the bobbing pegs beneath it. Break out your hammer and smash the pegs, and finally lift the giant block over your head. A hole will be revealed, and it leads directly to the dungeon's boss. Boss: Kholdstare File:Zelda ALttP Kholdstare.png Kholdstare breaks into three parts when freed from the ice At first, Kholdstare appears pretty harmless, being stuck in a giant block of ice. Naturally, you can use blasts from the Fire Rod to thaw the ice and release him so that you can ultimately kill him. However, once he breaks free of the ice, you'll soon discover that he is not one enemy, but rather three. And they will each split up and begin to bounce around the room and attack you. While they do this, blocks of ice will drop from the ceiling and shatter into four pieces. Do your best to avoid them while you focus your attack on one Kholdstare at a time. Rely most on your sword for quick successive strikes, but a few blasts from your Fire Rod (if you have magic left) can speed up the process of defeating each one. When you defeat the final remaining Kholdstare, you will be rewarded with a Heart Container. Collect it, and the fifth maiden crystal will be revealed. Mixing courage with wisdom File:Zelda ALttP fifth crystal.png The fifth maiden crystal The fifth maiden informs you that while your ancestors were capable of amazing and mystical things, you of the current generation don't possess the same amount of power, since the bloodline has been diluted over time. But by combining the powers of the descendants of the seven wise men with the descendant of the courageous Knights, you just might stand a chance against Ganon. With that said, your next trial awaits you in Misery Mire. That is… if you can figure out how to reach it. <｜fim▁end｜>	you can cause the beam to
<｜fim▁begin｜> 1. Nf3 Opening a b c d e f g h 8 8 7 7 6 6 5 5 4 4 3 3 2 2 1 1 a b c d e f g h Position in Forsyth-Edwards Notation (FEN) rnbqkbnr/ppp1pppp/8/3p4/8/5N2/PPPPPPPP/RNBQKB1R Contents 1 1. Nf3 Opening 1.1 1...d5 1.2 Statistics 1.3 Theory table 1.4 References 1. Nf3 Opening 1...d5 Black stakes a claim to the center. White has many options now and as so often with 1.Nf3 many transpositions. 2. g3, d4, c4 (Réti), d3, b3 and e3 are quite sensible moves. Statistics To be added Theory table For explanation of theory tables see theory table and for notation see algebraic notation. 1. Nf3 d5 2 3 King's Indian Attack g3Nf6 Bg2c6 O-OBg4 d3Nbd7 Nbd2e5 = Reti Opening c4 = Queen's Gambit d4 = see 1.d4 d5 2.Nf3 When contributing to this Wikibook, please follow the Conventions for organization. Wikipedia has related information at Flank opening References Batsford Chess Openings 2 (1989, 1994). Garry Kasparov, Raymond Keene. ISBN 0-8050-3409-9. v • d • e <｜fim▁hole｜> Game · King's Gambit · Bishop's Opening · Vienna · Petrov · Latvian Gambit · Scotch · Giuoco Piano · Two Knights · Ruy Lopez · Philidor Defence1. e4 c5 Sicilian Defence · Closed Sicilian · Taimanov · Sveshnikov · Kan Sicilian · Sicilian Dragon · Scheveningen · Najdorf · Alapin1. e4 other French Defence · Caro-Kann Defence · Pirc Defence · Alekhine Defence · Modern · Scandinavian · Nimzowitsch 1. d4 Nf6 Indian Defence · King's Indian · Nimzo-Indian · Queen's Indian · Grünfeld · Benoni · Budapest · Catalan1. d4 d5 Closed Game · Queen's Gambit · Queen's Gambit Accepted · Queen's Gambit Declined · Chigorin · Slav · Semi-Slav · Marshall1. d4 other Dutch Defence · Old Benoni Defence · Englund Gambit · English Defence · King's Indian Attack · Réti Opening1. a3 · Na3 · a4 · b3 · b4 · c3 · Nc3 · c4 · d3 · d4 · e3 · e4 · f3 · Nf3 · f4 · g3 · g4 · h3 · Nh3 · h4 <｜fim▁end｜>	Chess Openings1. e4 e5 Open
<｜fim▁begin｜> In an ambitious but successful project, a small group of Wikipedians worked with local people, public bodies and businesses to thoroughly document the Welsh town of Monmouth. They wrote articles and shared digital media relating to its history, buildings, notable people, and even individual objects in local museums. This spawned hundreds of articles and over 1000 uploaded images, resulting in about 400,000 hits on Monmouth-created content in one year. The booklet "How to create a Wikipedia Town" summarises their methods and lessons learned. The motivation for the wiki contributors took many forms. There were competitions to encourage articles and translations, with on-wiki badges and prizes such as t-shirts. While not financially very valuable, the prizes were a tangible sign of appreciation for the volunteers, many of whom were in countries far away. Wikipedia project pages had leaderboards to highlight users who had created or translated particularly large numbers of articles, and examples of the best images submitted. So the opportunities for recognition and competition were there if contributors wanted the elements of <｜fim▁hole｜> not the only motivation. The project’s publicity focused on the historical and political significance of Monmouth, its density of museums and other cultural and educational institutions. It also emphasised the value of free knowledge, of developing skills, and of working online with people from different languages and cultures. The project also showed that everyone in the community could contribute, from the local authority who released digital media under a Wikipedia-compatible licence to individual enthusiasts with computers or cameras. Monmouth also illustrates the value of open and free content in the sustainability of a project. People are presently encouraged to access the local articles through multilingual QR codes that can be read with a mobile phone, but technology will move on. The main achievement of the project is a great amount of freely-available content in a form that can be endlessly remixed and repurposed. When new location-related technologies arrive, Monmouth will be ready for them because so many of its features are described in Wikipedia articles with embedded geographical data. Previous Index Next <｜fim▁end｜>	a game, but visibility was
<｜fim▁begin｜> Nested Classes Java ProgrammingGenerics Aggregate Navigate Classes and Objects topic: ( v • d • e ) Defining classes Inheritance Interfaces Overloading methods and constructors Object Lifecycle Scope Nested classes Generics Java is a strongly typed language, so a field in a class may be typed like this: Code listing 4.34: Repository.java public class Repository { public Integer item; public Integer getItem() { return item; } public void setItem(Integer newItem) { item = newItem; } } This ensures that, only Integer objects can be put in the field and a ClassCastException can't occur at runtime, only compile-time error can occur. Unfortunately, it can be used only with Integer objects. If you want to use the same class in another context with Strings, you have to generalize the type like this: Code listing 4.35: Repository.java public class Repository { public Object item; public Object getItem() { return item; } public void setItem(Integer newItem) { item = newItem; } public void setItem(String newItem) { item = newItem; } } But you will have ClassCastException at runtime again and you can't easily use your field. The solution is to use Generics. Generic class A generic class does not hard code the type of a field, a return value or a parameter. The class only indicates that a generic type should be the same, for a given object instance. The generic type is not specified in the class definition. It is specified during object instantiation. This allows the generic type to be different from an instance to another. So we should write our class this way: Code listing 4.36: Repository.java public class Repository<T> { public T item; public T getItem() { return item; } public void setItem(T newItem) { item = newItem; } } Here, the generic type is defined after the name of the class. Any new identifier can be chosen. Here, we have chosen T, which is the most common choice. The actual type is defined at the object instantiation: Code section 4.35: Instantiation. Repository<Integer> arithmeticRepository = new Repository<Integer>(); arithmeticRepository.setItem(new Integer(1)); Integer number = arithmeticRepository.getItem(); Repository<String> textualRepository = new Repository<String>(); textualRepository.setItem("Hello!"); String message = textualRepository.getItem(); Although each object instance has its own type, each object instance is still strongly typed: Code section 4.36: Compile error. Repository<Integer> arithmeticRepository = new Repository<Integer>(); arithmeticRepository.setItem("Hello!"); A class can define as many generic types as you like. Choose a different identifier for each generic type and separate them by a comma: Code listing 4.37: Repository.java public class Repository<T, U> { public T item; public U anotherItem; public T getItem() { return item; } public void setItem(T newItem) { item = newItem; } public U getAnotherItem() { return anotherItem; } public void setAnotherItem(U newItem) { anotherItem = newItem; } } When a type that is defined with generic (for example, Collection<T>) is not used with generics (for example, Collection) is called a raw type. Generic method A generic type can be defined for just a method: Code section 4.37: Generic method. public <D> D assign(Collection<D> generic, D obj) { generic.add(obj); return obj; } Here a new identifier (D) has been chosen at the beginning of the method declaration. The type is specific to a method call and different types can be used for the same object instance: Code section 4.38: Generic method call. Collection<Integer> numbers = new ArrayList<Integer>(); Integer number = assign(numbers, new Integer(1)); Collection<String> texts = new ArrayList<String>(); String text = assign(texts, "Store it."); The actual type will be defined by the type of the method parameter. Hence, the generic type can't be defined only for the return value as it wouldn't be resolved. See the Class<T> section for a solution. Test your knowledge Question 4.8: Consider the following class. Question 4.8: Question8.java public class Question8<T> { public T item; public T getItem() { return item; } public void setItem(T newItem) { item = newItem; } public static void main(String[] args) { Question8<String> aQuestion = new Question8<String>(); aQuestion.setItem("Open your mind."); aQuestion.display(aQuestion.getItem()); } public void display(String parameter) { System.out.println("Here is the text: " + parameter); } public void display(Integer parameter) { System.out.println("Here is the number: " + parameter); } public void display(Object parameter) { System.out.println("Here is the object: " + parameter); } } What will be displayed on the console? Answer Console for Answer 4.8 Here is the text: Open your mind. aQuestion.getItem() is typed as a string. Wildcard Types As we have seen above, generics give the impression that a new container type is created with each different type parameter. We have also seen that in addition to the normal type checking, the type parameter has to match as well when we assign generics variables. In some cases this is too restrictive. What if we would like to relax this additional checking? What if we would like to define a collection variable that can hold any generic collection, regardless of the parameter type it holds? The wildcard type is represented by the character <?>, and pronounced Unknown, or Any-Type. Any-Type can be expressed also by <? extends Object>. Any-Type includes Interfaces, not only Classes. So now we can define a collection whose element type matches anything. See below: Code section 4.39: Wildcard type. Collection<?> collUnknown; Upper bounded wildcards You can specify a restriction on the types of classes that may be used. For example, <? extends ClassName> only allows objects of class ClassName or a subclass. For example, to create a collection that may only contain "Serializable" objects, specify: Code section 4.40: Collection of serializable subobjects. Collection<String> textColl = new ArrayList<String>(); Collection<? extends Serializable> serColl = textColl; The above code is valid because the String class is serializable. Use of a class that is not serializable would cause a compilation error. The added items can be retrieved as Serializable object. You can call methods of the Serializable interface or cast it to String. The following collection can only contain objects that extend the class Animal. Code listing 4.38: Dog.java class Dog extends Animal { } Code section 4.41: Example of subclass. // Create "Animal Collection" variable Collection<? extends Animal> animalColl = new ArrayList<Dog>(); Lower bounded wildcards <? super ClassName> specifies a restriction on the types of classes that may be used. For example, to declare a Comparator that can compare Dogs, you use: Code section 4.42: Superclass. Comparator<? super Dog> myComparator; Now suppose you define a comparator that can compare Animals: Code section 4.43: Comparator. class AnimalComparator implements Comparator<Animal> { int compare(Animal a, <｜fim▁hole｜> } Since Dogs are Animals, you can use this comparator to compare Dogs also. Comparators for any superclass of Dog can also compare Dog; but comparators for any strict subclass cannot. Code section 4.44: Generic comparator. Comparator<Animal> myAnimalComparator = new AnimalComparator(); static int compareTwoDogs(Comparator<? super Dog> comp, Dog dog1, Dog dog2) { return comp.compare(dog1, dog2); } The above code is valid because the Animal class is a supertype of the Dog class. Use of a class that is not a supertype would cause a compilation error. Unbounded wildcard The advantage of the unbounded wildcard (i.e. <?>) compared to a raw type (i.e. without generic) is to explicitly say that the parameterized type is unknown, not any type. That way, all the operations that implies to know the type are forbidden to avoid unsafe operation. Consider the following code: Code section 4.45: Unsafe operation. public void addAtBottom(Collection anyCollection) { anyCollection.add(new Integer(1)); } This code will compile but this code may corrupt the collection if the collection only contains strings: Code section 4.46: Corruption of list. List<String> col = new ArrayList<String>(); addAtBottom(col); col.get(0).endsWith("."); Console for Code section 4.46 Exception in thread "main" java.lang.ClassCastException: java.lang.Integer incompatible with java.lang.String at Example.main(Example.java:17) This situation could have been avoided if the addAtBottom(Collection) method was defined with an unbounded wildcard: addAtBottom(Collection<?>). With this signature, it is impossible to compile a code that is dependent of the parameterized type. Only independent methods of a collection (clear(), isEmpty(), iterator(), remove(Object o), size(), ...) can be called. For instance, addAtBottom(Collection<?>) could contain the following code: Code section 4.47: Safe operation. public void addAtBottom(Collection<?> anyCollection) { Iterator<?> iterator = anyCollection.iterator(); while (iterator.hasNext()) { System.out.print(iterator.next()); } } Class<T> Since Java 1.5, the class java.lang.Class is generic. It is an interesting example of using generics for something other than a container class. For example, the type of String.class is Class<String>, and the type of Serializable.class is Class<Serializable>. This can be used to improve the type safety of your reflection code. In particular, since the newInstance() method in Class now returns T, you can get more precise types when creating objects reflectively. Now we can use the newInstance() method to return a new object with exact type, without casting. An example with generics: Code section 4.48: Automatic cast. Customer cust = Utility.createAnyObject(Customer.class); // No casting ... public static <T> T createAnyObject(Class<T> cls) { T ret = null; try { ret = cls.newInstance(); } catch (Exception e) { // Exception Handling } return ret; } The same code without generics: Code section 4.49: Former version. Customer cust = (Customer) Utility.createAnyObject(Customer.class); // Casting is needed ... public static Object createAnyObject(Class cls) { Object ret = null; try { ret = cls.newInstance(); } catch (Exception e) { // Exception Handling } return ret; } Motivation Java was long criticized for the need to explicitly type-cast an element when it was taken out of a "container/collection" class. There was no way to enforce that a "collection" class contains only one type of object (e.g., to forbid at compile time that an Integer object is added to a Collection that should only contain Strings). This is possible since Java 1.5. In the first couple of years of Java evolution, Java did not have a real competitor. This has changed by the appearance of Microsoft C#. With Generics Java is better suited to compete against C#. Similar constructs to Java Generics exist in other languages, see Generic programming for more information. Generics were added to the Java language syntax in version 1.5. This means that code using Generics will not compile with Java 1.4 and less. Use of generics is optional. For backwards compatibility with pre-Generics code, it is okay to use generic classes without the generics type specification (<T>). In such a case, when you retrieve an object reference from a generic object, you will have to manually cast it from type Object to the correct type. Note for C++ programmers Java Generics are similar to C++ Templates in that both were added for the same reason. The syntax of Java Generic and C++ Template are also similar. There are some differences however. The C++ template can be seen as a kind of macro, in that a new copy of the code is generated for each generic type referenced. All extra code for templates is generated at compiler time. In contrast, Java Generics are built into the language. The same code is used for each generic type. For example: Code section 4.50: Java generics. Collection<String> collString = new ArrayList<String>(); Collection<Integer> collInteger = new ArrayList<Integer>(); Both these objects appear as the same type at runtime (both ArrayList's). The generic type information is erased during compilation (type erasure). For example: Code section 4.51: Type erasure. public <T> void method(T argument) { T variable; … } is transformed by erasure into: Code section 4.52: Transformation. public void method(Object argument) { Object variable; … } Test your knowledge Question 4.9: Consider the following class. Question 4.9: Question9.java import java.util.ArrayList; import java.util.Collection; public class Question9 { public static void main(String[] args) { Collection<String> collection1 = new ArrayList<String>(); Collection<? extends Object> collection2 = new ArrayList<String>(); Collection<? extends String> collection3 = new ArrayList<String>(); Collection<? extends String> collection4 = new ArrayList<Object>(); Collection<? super Object> collection5 = new ArrayList<String>(); Collection<? super Object> collection6 = new ArrayList<Object>(); Collection<?> collection7 = new ArrayList<String>(); Collection<? extends Object> collection8 = new ArrayList<?>(); Collection<? extends Object> collection9 = new ArrayList<Object>(); Collection<? extends Integer> collection10 = new ArrayList<String>(); Collection<String> collection11 = new ArrayList<? extends String>(); Collection collection12 = new ArrayList<String>(); } } Which lines will generate a compile error? Answer Answer 4.9: Answer9.java import java.util.ArrayList; import java.util.Collection; public class Answer9 { public static void main(String[] args) { Collection<String> collection1 = new ArrayList<String>(); Collection<? extends Object> collection2 = new ArrayList<String>(); Collection<? extends String> collection3 = new ArrayList<String>(); Collection<? extends String> collection4 = new ArrayList<Object>(); Collection<? super Object> collection5 = new ArrayList<String>(); Collection<? super Object> collection6 = new ArrayList<Object>(); Collection<?> collection7 = new ArrayList<String>(); Collection<? extends Object> collection8 = new ArrayList<?>(); Collection<? extends Object> collection9 = new ArrayList<Object>(); Collection<? extends Integer> collection10 = new ArrayList<String>(); Collection<String> collection11 = new ArrayList<? extends String>(); Collection collection12 = new ArrayList<String>(); } } Line 9: Object does not extend String. Line 10: String is not a superclass of Object. Line 13: ArrayList<?> can't be instantiated. Line 15: Integer does not extend String. Line 16: ArrayList<? extends String> can't be instantiated. Nested Classes Java ProgrammingGenerics Aggregate <｜fim▁end｜>	Animal b) { //... }
<｜fim▁begin｜> Cornus florida Flowering Dogwood Binomial:Cornus floridaFamily:CornaceaeType:Small treeLight requirements:Full sun to medium shadeUSDA Hardiness Zone:3-8Disease issues:Some issues are quite severe.Bloom season:Mid-springFruit season:Autumn, sometimes persisting into the winterPollination:InsectsHeight and spread:10 meters tallToxicity and edibility:Berries are edible The Flowering Dogwood (also called American Dogwood, Cornelian Tree, False Box, False Boxwood, Florida Dogwood, Indian Arrowwood, Nature's Mistake or, White Cornel; Cornus florida, syn. Benthamidia florida) is a species of dogwood native to eastern North America, from southern Maine west to southern Ontario and eastern Kansas, and south to northern Florida and eastern Texas, with a disjunct population in eastern Mexico in Nuevo León and Veracruz. Description It is a small deciduous tree growing to 10 m high, with a trunk diameter of up to 30 cm. The leaves are opposite, simple acute oval, 6–13 cm long and 4–6 cm broad, with an apparently entire margin (actually very finely toothed, under a lens); they turn a rich red-brown in fall. The flowers are individually small and inconspicuous, with four greenish-yellow petals 4 mm long. Around 20 flowers are produced in a dense, rounded, cymes 1–2 cm diameter, the flower head surrounded by four conspicuous large white or pink "petals" (actually bracts), each bract 3 cm long and 2.5 cm broad, rounded, and with a distinct notch at the apex. The flowers are bisexual. While most of the wild trees have white bracts, some selected cultivars of this tree also have pink bracts, some even almost a true red. They typically flower in early April in the southern part of their range, to late April or early May in northern and high altitude areas. The similar Kousa Dogwood (Cornus kousa), native to Asia, flowers about a month later. The fruit is a cluster of three to eight 10–15 mm diameter drupes which ripen to a bright red in the fall; they are eaten by birds which distribute the seeds. The berries are edible, often being used to sweeten tea in Mexico. Growing conditions Flowering Dogwood does best when it has shade from the west but good morning sun. It does not do well when exposed to intense heat sources such as adjacent parking lots or air conditioning compressors. It has a low tolerance of salt. In eastern North America, it is cultivated as far north as Toronto and south to central Florida. Farther west, places of cultivation include Boulder, Sacramento and Vancouver. It is sold in other temperate parts of the world, including Sydney, Australia. Varieties Cornus florida subsp. florida. Eastern United States, southeastern Canada (Ontario). Cornus florida subsp. urbiniana (syn. Cornus urbiniana). Eastern Mexico (Nuevo León, Veracruz). 'Autumn Gold' - white bracts; yellow fall color. 'Barton' - large white bracts; blooms at early age; resists mildew. 'Bay Beauty' - double white bracts; resists heat and drought; good for Deep South. 'Cherokee Daybreak' - white bract; vigorous grower with variegated leaves. 'Cherokee Chief' - red bracts; red <｜fim▁hole｜> - purplish-red bracts; variegated foliage. 'Gulf Coast Pink' - best pink flowering dogwood in Florida. 'Hohman's Gold' - white bracts; variegated foliage. 'Plena' - double white bracts; anthracnose-resistant. 'Purple Glory' - red bracts; purple foliage; anthracnose-resistant. var. rubra has pink flowers 'Weaver White' - large white blooms; large leaves; candelabra shape; good in north-central Florida. Uses Maintenance Propagation Cornus florida is easily propagated by seeds, which are sown in the fall into prepared rows of sawdust or sand, and emerge in the spring. Germination rates for good clean seed should be near 100% if seed dormancy is first overcome by cold stratification treatments for 90 to 120 days at 4 °C (39 °F).[4][5] Flowering dogwood demonstrates gametophytic self-incompatibility, meaning that the plants can’t self-fertilize. This is important for breeding programs as it means that it is not necessary to emasculate (remove the anthers from) C. florida flowers before making controlled cross-pollinations. These pollinations should be repeated every other day, as the flowers must be cross-pollinated within one or two days of opening for pollinations to be effective.[6] Softwood cuttings taken in late spring or early summer from new growth can be rooted under mist if treated with 8,000 to 10,000 ppm indole-3-butyric acid (IBA). In cold climates, potted cuttings must be kept in heated cold frames or polyhouses the following winter to maintain temperatures between 0 and 7 °C. Although rooting success can be as high as 50-85%, this technique is not commonly used by commercial growers. Rather, selected cultivars are generally propagated by T-budding in late summer or by whip grafting in the greenhouse in winter onto seedling rootstock.[5][7] Micropropagation of flowering dogwood is now used in breeding programs aiming to incorporate resistance to dogwood anthracnose and powdery mildew into horticulturally and economically important cultivars. Nodal (axillary bud) sections are established in a culture of Woody Plant Medium (WPM) amended with 4.4 μM 6-Benzyladenine (BA) to promote shoot growth.[8] Rooting of up to 83% can be obtained when 5-7 week-old microshoots are then transferred to WPM amended with 4.9 μM IBA.[9] Harvesting Pests and diseases It is very susceptible to dogwood anthracnose, a disease caused by the fungus Discula destructiva. This has killed many wild stocks of Flowering Dogwood; domestic landscape plantings have often been affected to a lesser degree because better air circulation and less humid conditions discourages the fungus, but losses still occur frequently. The Kousa Dogwood (Cornus kousa) is more resistant to this disease, and sometimes planted as a safer alternative. Gallery A Flowering Dogwood cultivar with pink flowers The bark on the tree's trunk A Flowering Dogwood cultivar with white flowers Tree shape, autumn Sapling of Cornus florida 'Appalacian Spring' Leaves of Cornus florida 'Appalacian Spring' Leaf closeup of Cornus florida 'Appalacian Spring' References Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Cornus florida Germplasm Resources Information Network: Cornus florida NRCS: USDA Plants Profile: Cornus florida Missouriplants: Cornus florida <｜fim▁end｜>	new growth. 'Cherokee Sunset'
<｜fim▁begin｜> Contents 1 Finding files with dangerous permissions 1.1 Files that are writable by "other" 1.2 Directories that are writable by "other" 1.3 SUID and SGID executables 2 md5sum 2.1 Finding and Checking SUID and SGID executables Finding files with dangerous permissions Files that are writable by "other" If we search just based on permission, we'll get false hits from things like symbolic links. [user@station user]$ find . -perm +002 -ls 4095 0 lrwxrwxrwx 1 user user 22 Jan 4 08:30 ./rh033 -> rh033-RHEL3-1-20031103 10209 0 lrwxrwxrwx 1 user user 18 Jan 4 09:28 ./.mozilla/default/bgdnw5up.slt/lock -> 192.168.0.254:3311 63259 1 -rw-rw-rw- 1 user user 6 Jan 5 11:58 ./playground/real-problem Instead look for files with other write enabled that are regular files. [user@station user]$ find . -perm +002 -type f -ls 63259 1 -rw-rw-rw- 1 user user 6 Jan 5 11:58 ./playground/real-problem Directories that are writable by "other" When searching for directories that are writeable by other, one should also consider whether the "sticky bit" is set for the directory. In octal, the sticky bit is represented as a 1 in the first position in four digit octal representation (ex: 1777). This is a common setting for temporary directories and is not normally considered a security risk. World writable temporary directories: [user@station user]$ find / -perm -1002 -type d -ls 2>/dev/null 493 0 drwxrwxrwt 2 root root 40 Jan 4 09:25 /dev/shm 2 4 drwxrwxrwt 11 root root 4096 Jan 5 11:42 /tmp 58497 4 drwxrwxrwt 2 xfs xfs 4096 Jan 4 09:26 /tmp/.font-unix 29250 4 drwxrwxrwt 2 root user 4096 Jan 4 09:27 /tmp/.X11-unix 14625 4 drwxrwxrwt 2 user user 4096 Jan 4 09:27 /tmp/.ICE-unix 29252 4 drwxrwxrwt 2 user user 4096 Jan 4 09:28 /tmp/.esd 665189 4 drwxrwxrwt 2 root root 4096 Jan 3 07:51 /var/lib/texmf 97345 4 drwxrwxrwt 2 root root 4096 Jan 4 14:00 /var/tmp 178466 4 drwxrwxrwt 2 root root 4096 Aug 11 2003 /var/spool/vbox 762533 4 drwxrwxrwt 2 root root 4096 Sep 25 2003 /var/spool/samba Finding the real problem directories: [user@station user]$ find / -perm -002 -not -perm -1000 -type d -ls 2>/dev/null 46931 1 drwxrwxrwx 2 user <｜fim▁hole｜> 12:06 /home/kupferer/bad-permissions SUID and SGID executables SUID and SGID executables can present serious security concerns since they allow users to execute programs with permissions of another user. For this reason they should be closely monitored. SUID is represented as 4 in the first position and SGID, by a 2. md5sum The md5sum command produces a checksum for a file that can be used later to check whether the file's contents have changed. [user@station user]$ echo "some content" >a_file [user@station user]$ md5sum a_file eb9c2bf0eb63f3a7bc0ea37ef18aeba5 a_file [user@station user]$ echo "Some content" >a_file [user@station user]$ md5sum a_file 581ab2d89f05c294d4fe69c623bdef83 a_file This is often used when downloading files from possibly untrustworthy mirrors. So long as a trusted checksum can be obtained, it can be used to verify that the data wasn't corrupted whether accidentally or maliciously. Often checksum files are distributed with downloads or kept on secure media to check systems for possible data corruption or intrusion. To create an MD5 checksum file, simply redirect the md5sum output to a file. md5sum -c can then be used to run the check later. [user@station playground]$ for I in $(seq 1 6) > do echo "Content for file-$I" >file-$I > done [user@station user]$ ls file-1 file-2 file-3 file-4 file-5 file-6 [user@station playground]$ md5sum * >files.md5 [user@station playground]$ cat files.md5 37bca4ca3e0aa391ce8676a694940e66 file-1 ab831d920679cd711a85dc72360dbddc file-2 371e1a1c44fac93d8ff0aa87ce623f19 file-3 8472ca817e850d90b2d747254f4ec6d2 file-4 d1c4512228268473f5a7f9e22c20a14c file-5 1c64532d6ba6dd4125be760a1e7f66d3 file-6 [user@station playground]$ echo "different stuff" >file-3 [user@station playground]$ md5sum -c files.md5 file-1: OK file-2: OK file-3: FAILED file-4: OK file-5: OK file-6: OK md5sum: WARNING: 1 of 6 computed checksums did NOT match Finding and Checking SUID and SGID executables [root@station root]# find / -type f -perm +6000 -exec md5sum {} \; >suid.md5 [root@station root]# echo "blah" > /usr/local/bin/new-suid [root@station root]# chmod 4755 /usr/local/bin/new-suid [root@station root]# find / -type f -perm +6000 -exec md5sum {} \; >suid.md5.new [root@station root]# diff suid.md5 suid.md5.new 45a46 > 0d599f0ec05c3bda8c3b8a68c32a1b47 /usr/local/bin/new-suid [root@station root]# mv suid.md5.new suid.md5 mv: overwrite `suid.md5'? y [root@station root]# echo "more" >> /usr/local/bin/new-suid [root@station root]# find / -type f -perm +6000 -exec md5sum {} \; >suid.md5.new [root@station root]# diff suid.md5 suid.md5.new 46c46 < 0d599f0ec05c3bda8c3b8a68c32a1b47 /usr/local/bin/new-suid --- > 9faee5c03d3f99ba4b95be1fc78c847f /usr/local/bin/new-suid <｜fim▁end｜>	user 1024 Jan 5
<｜fim▁begin｜> Level two lessons School Culture Shopping Going out Transportation Everyday life Rural life Food and drink Dining Communication French Lessons · Vocabulary · Grammar · Appendices · Texts Contents 1 Dialogue 2 Culture · Education in France 3 Vocabulary · School and students 4 Grammar · Present perfect with regular verbs 4.1 Meaning 4.2 Basic formation 4.2.1 Auxiliary verb - avoir 4.2.2 Past participle 4.2.3 Avoir + past participle 4.3 Examples 5 Vocabulary · At school · À l'école 6 Vocabulary · Actions 6.1 Supplementary examples 6.2 Supplementary usage notes · Entendre 7 Grammar · To write and to read · Écrire et lire 7.1 Écrire 7.2 Lire 7.3 Examples 8 Supplementary vocabulary · School supplies · Les fournitures scolaires 9 Supplementary vocabulary · School subjects · Les matières d'enseignement 10 Supplementary vocabulary · Classes/grades 11 Text 12 Exercises Dialogue This section is a stub.You can help Wikibooks by expanding it. Culture · Education in France This section is a stub.You can help Wikibooks by expanding it. Vocabulary · School and students (upload audio) l'école (f) /ekɔl/ (help·info) school l'élève (m) /e.lɛv/ (help·info) pupil l'étudiant (m) l'étudiante (f) /etydjɑ̃/ (help·info) /etydjɑ̃t/ (help·info) student le collège (classes 6-4) /kɔ.lɛʒ/ (help·info) jr. high school (grades 6-9) le collégienla collégienne /kɔ.le.ʒjɛ̃/ (help·info) /kɔ.le.ʒjɛn/ (help·info) jr. high school student le lycée (classes 3-terminale) /li.se/ (help·info) high school (grades 10-12) le lycéenla lycéenne /li.se.ɛ̃/ (help·info) /li.se.ɛn/ (help·info) high school student l'université (f) la fac(ulté) /y.ni.vɛʁ.si.te/ (help·info) /fak/ (help·info) /fa.kyl.te/ (help·info) university l'enseignement supérieur higher educationgraduate school Grammar · Present perfect with regular verbs The passé composépresent perfect is a compound tense, and is therefore composed of an auxiliary verb and a past participle. With most verbs, that auxiliary verb is avoir. Meaning In English, verbs conjugated in the passé composé literally mean have/has ____ed. While there is a simple past tense in French, it is almost always only used in formal writing, so verbs conjugated in the passé composé can also be used to mean the English simple tense. For example, the passé composé forms of parlerto speak , [avoir] parlé, literally mean has/have spoken, but also means spoke. Basic formation To conjugate a verb in the passé composé, the helping verb, usually avoir, is conjugated in the present indicative and the past participle is then added. Auxiliary verb - avoir Conjugate avoir in the present indicative. j'ai I have nous avons we have tu as you have vous avez you have il a he has ils ont they have elle a she has elles ont they have Past participle -er verbs: replace -er with é -ir verbs: replace -ir with i -re verbs: replace -re with u irregular verbs: varied; must be memorized Formation of the past participle Verb Group Infinitive Stem Past Participle -er verbs jouer jou joué -ir verbs finir fin fini -re verbs répondre répond répondu Avoir + past participle J'ai joué I have played Nous avons joué We have played Tu as joué You have played Vous avez joué You have played Il a joué He has played Ils ont joué They have played Elle a joué She has played Elles ont joué They have played Please also note: Fem. Subject or Person (Elles, Elle, Nous, On etc.)- Add another e with no aigu or grave to end of word- if a female person is partaking in the group. Plural Subject (On, Nous, Tu, Vous etc.)- Add another "s" to end of word. Finally, some verbs are irregular for the past participle, such as aller (to go), instead of using avoir to form the past participle, they will use être (to be) to form the past participle. Always check the verb's irregularities before using to form past participle. Some "past participle" irregulars are regular verbs when forming other tenses. Examples This section is a stub.You can help Wikibooks by expanding it. Vocabulary · At school · À l'école (upload audio) le professeur[1]la prof /pʁɔ.fɛ.sœʁ/ (help·info) /pʁɔf/ (help·info) teacher, professor la bourse /buʁs/ (help·info) scholarship le diplôme (professionnel) /di.plom/ (help·info) diploma le bac(calauréat) /bak/ (help·info) /bakalɔʀea/ (help·info) high school exit exam la bibliothèque /bi.bli.jɔ.tɛk/ (help·info) library la note /nɔt/ (help·info) grade, mark (as on a test) les cours /kuʁ/ (help·info) classes or courses la classe /klas/ (help·info) grade (e.g. 6th Grade) en cours de [...] in [...] class Pendant les cours le tableau /ta.blɔ/ (help·info) chalkboard la craie /kʁɛ/ (help·info) chalk le pupitre /pypitʁ/ (help·info) school desk l'examen (m) /ɛɡzamɛ̃/ (help·info) exam, test les devoirs /dǝ.vwaʁ/ (help·info) homework la classe /klas/ (help·info) class la cantine /kɑ̃.tin/ (help·info) cafeteria la récréationla cour /ʁe.kʁe.a.sjɔ̃/ (help·info) /kuʁ/ (help·info) recesscourtyard Describing teachers and students intelligent(e) /ɛ̃teliʒɑ̃/ (help·info) /ɛ̃teliʒɑ̃t/ (help·info) intelligent strict(e) /stʁikt/ (help·info) strict ^ The word professeur is considered masculine at all times, even if the teacher is female. The only case when "professeur" can be preceded by feminine determinant is either when contracting it in colloquial language "la prof", or when adding a few words before : "madame/mademoiselle la/le professeur". Vocabulary · Actions (upload audio) passer un examen to take a test étudier /e.ty.dje/ (help·info) to study Il étudie nuit et jour. He studied night and day. écrire /e.kʁiʁ/ (help·info) to write lever (la main) to raise (your hand) poser (une question) to ask (a question) répondre (à) /re.pɔ̃dʁ/ (help·info) to answer, to reply (to) Il a répondu à toutes les questions. He answered all of the questions. parler /paʁle/ (help·info) to speak Ils ont parlé plusieurs heures avant d'aller se coucher. They talked for several hours before bedtime. écouter /ekute/ (help·info) to listen (to) J’écoute la radio. I listen to the radio. entendre /ɑ̃.tɑ̃dʁ/ (help·info) to hear (of) Elle entend des voix. She hears voices. regarder /ʁǝ.ɡaʁ.de/ (help·info) to watch déjeuner /de.ʒœ.ne/ (help·info) to (eat) lunch Déjeunez- vous á onze heure? You (formal) eat lunch at eleven O'clock? In French, you do not "own" body parts. While in English, you would say my hand or your hand, the definite article is almost always used in French: la mainmy hand la jambemy leg le brasmy arm To and of are part of the verbs écouter and entendre respectively. It is not necessary to add a preposition to the verb. Other verbs, such as répondre (à), meaning to respond (to), are almost always followed by a preposition. Supplementary examples (upload audio) C’est un auteur que j’ai peu étudié. He is an author that I <｜fim▁hole｜> ne devient pas savant sans étudier. You do not become learned without studying. Ce pianiste étudie plusieurs heures par jour. This pianist exercises several hours a day. Il étudie l’écriture sainte. He studies scripture. Elle parle couramment le français. She speaks French fluently. Ne parlez pas si haut. Do not talk so loud. Écoutez, j’ai quelque chose à vous dire. Listen, I have something to say to you. J'ai entendu plusieurs fois ce chanteur à la Scala. I heard this singer several times at La Scala. Tu dois répondre aux questions que je te pose. You must answer the questions I ask you. Il répond à toutes les lettres qu’il reçoit. He responds to all the letters that he receives. Supplementary usage notes · Entendre This section is a stub.You can help Wikibooks by expanding it. Grammar · To write and to read · Écrire et lire Écrire Écrire is an irregular French verb, meaning to write. It varies from other -re verbs in the plural conjugation, by adding a v. Its past particple, écrit, is also irregular. écrire /e.kʁiʁ/ to write j'écris /e.kʁi/ I write tu écris /e.kʁi/ you write il écrit /e.kʁi/ he writes nous écrivons /e.kʁi.vɔ̃/) we write vous écrivez /e.kʁi.ve/ you write ils écrivent /e.kʁiv/ they write écrit /e.kʁi/ written The verb coécrireto co-write /ko.e.kʁiʁ/ is conjugated the same way. The nouns écriture /e.kʁi.tyʁ/, meaning writing or handwriting, and écrivain /e.kʁi.vɛ̃/, meaning writer, are derived from écrire. Lire Lire is an irregular French verb, meaning to read. Its plural conjugation adds an s, and its past participle is lu. lire /liʁ/ to read je lis /'li/ I read tu lis /'li/ you read il lit /'li/ he reads nous lisons /li.zɔ̃/ we read vous lisez /li.ze/ you read ils lisent /liz/ they read lu /ly/ read The verbs élireto elect /e.liʁ/ and relireto reread /ʁǝ.liʁ/ are conjugated the same way. The adjective lisible /lizibl/, meaning readable or legible, is derived from lire. Examples This section is a stub.You can help Wikibooks by expanding it. (upload audio) Mon père écrit des poèmes pour ma mère. My father writes poems for my mother. As-tu écrit ce slogan sur le mur ? Have you written that slogan on the wall? Il a une mauvaise écriture. He has bad handwriting. Jean lit très souvent. John reads very often. Il faut lire et relire les auteurs de l’antiquité. You must read and reread the authors of antiquity. On a relu le projet de loi. We have reviewed the bill. Son écriture n’est pas belle, mais elle est lisible. His writing is not beautiful, but it is readable. Supplementary vocabulary · School supplies · Les fournitures scolaires (upload audio) la craie /kʁɛ/ (help·info) chalk J'ai écrit au tableau avec de la craie. I wrote on the blackboard with chalk. le tableau /ta.blɔ/ (help·info) the board le stylo (stylo à bille) /stil.o/ (help·info) (ballpoint) pen le crayon /kʀɛ.jɔ̃/ (help·info) pencil la calculatrice /kal.ky.la.tʁis/ (help·info) calculator le livre /livʁ/ (help·info) book une livre is a pound le bouquin /bu.kɛ̃/ (help·info) book colloquial; also rabbit J'ai commencé un nouveau bouquin hier. I started a new book yesterday. le cahier /ka.je/ (help·info) notebook le papierla feuille de papier /pa.pje/ (help·info) papersheet of paper le bloc-notes /blɔk.nɔt/ (help·info) notepad le sac à dos /sak.a.dɔ/ (help·info) backpack la gomme Fr-gomme.ogg (help·info) eraser la règle /ʁɛɡl/ (help·info) ruler le feutre /føtʁ/ (help·info) marker le cartable backpack Supplementary vocabulary · School subjects · Les matières d'enseignement (upload audio) l'informatique (f) /ɛ̃.fɔʁ.ma.tik/ (help·info) computer science la littérature /li.te.ʁa.tyʁ/ (help·info) literature la musique /myzik/ (help·info) music les langues l'anglais /ɑ̃.ɡlɛ/ (help·info) English le français /fʁɑ̃.sɛ/ (help·info) French Il parle très bien français. He speaks French very well. l'espagnol (m) /ɛs.pa.ɲɔl/ (help·info) Spanish l'allemand (m) /al.mɑ̃/ (help·info) German L’allemand est une langue germanique.Mon stagiaire parle un allemand impeccable. German is a Germanic language.My trainee speaks perfect German. le russe /ʁys/ (help·info) Russian l'italien (m) /i.ta.ljɛ̃/ (help·info) Italian les sciences naturelles la biologie /bjɔ.lo.ʒi/ (help·info) biology la chimie /ʃi.mi/ (help·info) chemistry la physique /fi.zik/ (help·info) physics Ses matières préférées sont la chimie et la physique. His preferred subjects are chemistry and physics. les mathématiques l'algèbre (f) /al.ʒɛbʁ/ (help·info) algebra le calcul /kal.kyl/ (help·info) calculus la géométrie /ʒe.ɔ.me.tʁi/ (help·info) geometry les sciences sociales l'économie (f) /e.kɔ.nɔ.mi/ (help·info) economics la géographie /ʒe.ɔ.ɡʁa.fi/ (help·info) geography l'histoire (f) /is.twaʁ/ (help·info) history Supplementary vocabulary · Classes/grades The way that grades are numbered in France is opposite the way they are in the US. Whereas American grade numbers increase as you approach your senior year, they descend in France. (upload audio) Classe Terminale 12th Grade Age 17-18 1ère (la première classe) 11th Grade Age 16-17 2ème (la deuxième classe) 10th Grade Age 15-16 3ème (la troisième classe) 9th Grade Age 14-15 4ème (la quatrième classe) 8th Grade Age 13-14 5ème (la cinquième classe) 7th Grade Age 12-13 6ème (la sixième classe) 6th Grade Age 11-12 CM2 (CM = cours moyen) 5th Grade Age 10-11 CM1 4th Grade Age 9-10 CE2 (CE = cours élémentaire) 3rd Grade Age 8-9 CE1 2nd Grade Age 7-8 CP1 (CP = cours préparatoire) 1st Grade Age 6-7 Text This section is a stub.You can help Wikibooks by expanding it. Exercises ExercisePresent perfect translation (Highlight or hover over a line to show the answer.) Translate each phrase. I finished. (finir) J'ai fini. I have listened. (écouter) J'ai écouté. We played. (jouer) Nous avons joué. Jacques has waited. (attendre) Jacques a attendu. We finished. (finir) Nous avons fini. He studied. (étudier) Il a étudié. They watched. (regarder) Ils ont regardé. We studied. (étudier) Nous avons étudié. They listened. (écouter) Ils ont écouté. ExercisePresent perfect (Highlight or hover over a line to show the answer.) Rewrite each phrase in the present perfect. Je regarde J'ai regardé Vous jouez Vous avez joué Elle écoute Elle a écouté Elles finissent Elles ont fini Ils regardent Ils ont regardé Nous entendons Nous avons entendu Elle joue Elle a joué Je finis J'ai fini This section is a stub.You can help Wikibooks by expanding it. Culture → Level two lessons · Culture → School · Culture · Shopping · Going out · Transportation · Everyday life · Rural life · Food and drink · Dining · Communication Lessons : Introductory · Level one · Level two · Level three · Level four French : Lessons · Vocabulary · Grammar · Appendices · Texts <｜fim▁end｜>	have little studied. On
<｜fim▁begin｜> High School Mathematics Extensions Supplementary Chapters — Primes and Modular Arithmetic — Logic Mathematical Proofs — Set Theory and Infinite Processes Counting and Generating Functions — Discrete Probability Matrices — Further Modular Arithmetic — Mathematical Programming HSME Content Further Modular Arithmetic Multiplicative Group and Discrete Log Problems & Projects Problem Set Project Solutions Exercises Solutions Problem Set Solutions Misc. Definition Sheet Full Version PDF Version Finding the square root Legendre Symbol .. to be expanded There is actually a simple way to determine whether a is square Let g be a generator of G where G is the multiplicative group mod p. Since all the squares form a group therefore, if a is a square, then a p − 1 2 ≡ 1 {\displaystyle a^{\frac {p-1}{2}}\equiv 1} and if a is not a square then a p − 1 2 ≡ − 1 {\displaystyle a^{\frac {p-1}{2}}\equiv -1} we shall use these facts in the next section. .. to be expanded Finding the square root We aim to describe a way to find a square root in mod m. Let's start with the simplest case, where p is prime. In fact, for square root finding, the simplest case also happens to be the hardest. If p ≡ 3 (mod 4) then it is easy to find a square root. Just note that if a has a square root then ( a p + 1 4 ) 2 ≡ a p + 1 2 ≡ a p − <｜fim▁hole｜> (a^{\frac {p+1}{4}})^{2}\equiv a^{\frac {p+1}{2}}\equiv a^{\frac {p-1}{2}}a\equiv a} So let us consider primes equivalent to 1 mod 4. Suppose we can find the square root of a mod p, and let x 0 2 ≡ a ( mod p ) {\displaystyle x_{0}^{2}\equiv a{\pmod {p}}} With the above information, we can find the square of a mod p2. We let x = x 0 + x 1 p {\displaystyle x=x_{0}+x_{1}p\!} we want x2 ≡ a (mod p2), so x 2 = x 0 2 + 2 x 0 x 1 p + x 1 2 p 2 {\displaystyle x^{2}=x_{0}^{2}+2x_{0}x_{1}p+x_{1}^{2}p^{2}\!} x 2 = a + k p + 2 x 0 x 1 p ( mod p 2 ) {\displaystyle x^{2}=a+kp+2x_{0}x_{1}p{\pmod {p^{2}}}\!} for some k as x 0 2 ≡ a ( mod p ) {\displaystyle x_{0}^{2}\equiv a{\pmod {p}}} so x 0 2 = a + k p {\displaystyle x_{0}^{2}=a+kp} , we see that x 2 = a + p ( k + 2 x 0 x 1 ) ( mod p 2 ) {\displaystyle x^{2}=a+p(k+2x_{0}x_{1}){\pmod {p^{2}}}\!} so if we need to find x 1 {\displaystyle x_{1}} such that k + 2 x 0 x 1 ≡ 0 ( mod p ) {\displaystyle k+2x_{0}x_{1}\equiv 0{\pmod {p}}} , we simply need to make x 1 {\displaystyle x_{1}} the subject x 1 ≡ − k ( 2 x 0 ) − 1 ( mod p ) {\displaystyle x_{1}\equiv -k(2x_{0})^{-1}{\pmod {p}}} . ..generalisation ..example ..method for finding a sqr root mod p <｜fim▁end｜>	1 2 a ≡ a {\displaystyle
<｜fim▁begin｜> This page of the Windows Programming book is a stub. You can help by expanding it. After the original versions of COM were introduced, there became a clear need to expand the functionality of the COM model, and to make some changes to the general framework. Later versions of COM were given various names, such as DCOM and COM+. DCOM DCOM stands for "Distributed COM", and is a protocol for linking COM components from across a local area network (LAN). DCOM allows COM components to be stored on external "COM servers", and used from other computers in the network. COM+ COM plus = COM + MTS .NET When the COM design team tried to create a framework that was more easy to use then COM, more portable, and more universal, they <｜fim▁hole｜> was supposed to be introduced as the next version of COM, but instead Microsoft made it into its own entity. COM development has essentially stopped, to focus more attention on the .NET platform. Because .NET has its roots in COM, it shares many of the guiding principals of COM. First, many different OO languages can be compiled into a single intermediate language. This allows software written in C++, C#, VB.NET, and other .NET languages to be easily interfaced together to create mixed-language programs quickly. In addition, .NET has strong support for distributed computing (a la DCOM). The .NET platform is quickly being standardized, and is available on several different platforms. Therefore, .NET is not strictly a Windows-programming topic, and will likely not be covered much throughout the rest of this book. <｜fim▁end｜>	created the .NET framework. Originally, .NET
<｜fim▁begin｜> Taxation is principal method by which a government gains revenue into its budget. That revenue goes into a vast number of items, from paying debt, deafening the potential for implementing certain policies to paying for public services and welfare benefits and the military, etc. There are many methods by which tax revenue can be gained, and different definitions and structures to taxation which are outlined below. Also, conflicts in choosing methods and forms of taxation occur, pitting priorities such as reducing iniquity of income against maximizing incentive for economic growth. Taxes can also help to structure all sort of economic transactions, in a way that the state can exert influence in all participants even over the currency used. Contents 1 Principles of a Good Tax System 2 Direct and Indirect Taxation 3 Taxation Structure 3.1 Proportional Taxation 3.2 Progressive Taxation 3.3 Regressive Taxation Principles of a Good Tax System Efficient - A tax system should raise enough revenue such that government projects can be adequately sponsored, without burdening the economy too much (not particularly the tax payer), as not to become a disincentive for performance (internal and external investment, work returns and savings). Understandable - The system should not be incomprehensible to the layperson, nor should it appear unjust or unnecessary complex. This is to minimize discontent and costs. Equitable - Taxation should be governed by people's ability to pay, that is, wealthier individuals or firms with greater incomes should pay more in tax while those with lower incomes should pay comparatively less. Benefit Principle - Those that use a publicly provided service (which is funding primarily through taxation) should pay for it! However, conflicts in principle may and often do arise between this and principle 2. Direct and Indirect Taxation Direct taxes are paid by taxation on the income of the wage earner. This form of taxation is avoidable, although tax is collected before the worker collect his/her wages most workers evade tax because not all workers are on payroll system.for instance,a maisons, drivers etc are self employed, therefore they evade direct tax always. public servant and some private institution workers can rarely evade direct tax. Indirect taxation is often unavoidable and is not taken from wages. An example of indirect taxation is VAT (Value Added Tax) or sales tax placed on goods and services.Everyone buys goods and services <｜fim▁hole｜> include an indirect tax, hence,this tax cannot be evaded. The benefits and costs of both forms of taxation are many. Direct taxation reduces the incentive to work, as 'take home' pay is reduced as a result of an increase in income tax compared to unemployment benefits. On the other hand, indirect taxation may result in people with similar incomes and wealth paying different amounts, simply as a result of slightly different circumstance. For example, someone who has to travel 50km to work every day will pay more tax over the year than another who can walk, even though they may earn the same amount and use the same public services, etc... Taxation Structure It is worth knowing some terminology to make understanding easier. The marginal rate of tax (MRT) is the percentage taken in tax of the next (insert currency unit here) earned. So, if your MRT is 10%, every next part of your income you earn will be taxed at 10%. However, this doesn't make your average rate of tax (ART) 10%. Consider the following: Say your income is §10,000. If the first half of your income is taxed at 5%, and the second half at 15%, your MRT is 15%. However, your ART is [(0.05 x 5000) + (0.15 x 5000)]/10000 = 10% Proportional Taxation Proportional taxation means that MRT = ART, so if a low income earner is taxed at 20%, so is a higher income earner. The proportion of tax paid is always the same, though in absolute terms it goes up the higher your income. Progressive Taxation Progressive taxation means that MRT > ART (with MRT and ART > 0). For example, in the UK there are three rates of income tax - 10% 'starting tax', 22% 'standard tax', and 40% high rate of tax.more like 30-40% ART. Thus, higher income earners pay a greater proportion of their income in tax than low earners. Regressive Taxation This is very rarely done intentionally by a government, as it would be extremely unpopular and would be seen as supporting wealthy, high income individuals over more needy households. However, indirect taxation could be said to partly support this. Very high income earners may spend a lower proportion of their income on goods and services, and so pay proportionally a fewer taxes as a percentage of their income. <｜fim▁end｜>	and whatever payment one makes
<｜fim▁begin｜> This book is meant to be a reference for the BASIC dialect BlitzMax, published by Blitz Research Ltd. History Wikipedia has related information at BlitzMax BlitzMax is a BASIC dialect, and the latest Blitz language by Blitz Research Limited. It is the first to run on multiple operating systems; it runs on Mac OS, Linux and Microsoft Windows. The language is converted to assembler, then assembled - allowing it to be somewhat platform agnostic. From a gaming standpoint this is possible because, unlike earlier versions, BlitzMax can use OpenGL for rendering. Other major changes from earlier Blitz products are its object-oriented and modular nature. Compilation BlitzMax code is first converted to a low <｜fim▁hole｜> assembled into object code for the target platform. BlitzMax is capable of compiling for Windows, Linux and Mac OS. Individual files can be linked together through the Import command, thus allowing complex linking structures that can include not only other BlitzMax files (.BMX), but also C source as well as other languages (particularly ObjectiveC on Mac OS). Modules Modules provide the runtime functionality of BlitzMax. They are stored in the mod directory inside the BlitzMax directory, and accessed via the Import and Framework commands. They can include both native BlitzMax code, and code in C or assembler formats. References User Guide Language Modules Brl Pub MaxGUI External links BlitzMax Website BlitzMax Community Forums <｜fim▁end｜>	level assembler format, which is then
<｜fim▁begin｜> Introduction to Paleoanthropology Defining Paleoanthropology Origin of Paleoanthropology Importance of Bones Early Hominid Fossils Phylogeny and Chronology Early Hominid Behavior The Oldowan Period The Acheulean Period Hominids of the Acheulean Technology in the Acheulean Hominids of the Middle Paleolithic Technology of the Middle Paleolithic The Upper Paleolithic Suggested Supplemental Reading Dating Techniques Cultural Evolution Darwinian Thought Genetics Contemporary Primates Humans as Primates Origin of Language From Hunter-Gatherer to Food Producer Variation in Modern Human Populations Edit this box In 1866, German biologist Ernst Haeckel had proposed the generic name "Pithecanthropus" for a hypothetical missing link between apes and humans. In late 19th century, Dutch anatomist Eugene Dubois was on the Indonesian island of Java, searching for human fossils. In the fall of 1891, he encountered the now famous Trinil skull cap. The following year his crew uncovered a femur, a left thigh bone, very similar to that of modern humans. He was convinced he had discovered an erect, apelike transitional form between apes and humans. In 1894, he decided to call his fossil species Pithecanthropus erectus. Dubois found no additional human fossils and he returned to the Netherlands in 1895. Others explored the same deposits on the island of Java, but new human remains appeared only between 1931 and 1933. Dubois's claim for a primitive human species was further reinforced by nearly simultaneous discoveries from near Beijing, China (at the site of Zhoukoudian). Between 1921 and 1937, various scholars undertook fieldwork in one collapsed cave (Locality 1) recovered many fragments of mandibles and skulls. One of them, Davidson Black, a Canadian anatomist, created a new genus and species for these fossils: Sinanthropus pekinensis ("Peking Chinese man"). In 1939, after comparison of the fossils in China and Java, some scholars concluded that they were extremely similar. They even proposed that Pithecanthropus and Sinanthropus were only subspecies of a single species, Homo erectus, though they continued to use the original generic names as labels. From 1950 to 1964, various influential authorities in paleoanthropology agreed that Pithecanthropus and Sinanthropus were too similar to be placed in two different genera; and, by the late 1960s, the concept of Homo erectus was widely accepted. To the East Asian inventory of H. erectus, many authorities would add European and especially African specimens that resembled the Asian fossil forms. In 1976, a team led by Richard Leakey discovered around Lake Turkana (Kenya) an amazingly well-preserved and complete skeleton of a H. erectus boy, called the Turkana Boy (WT-15000). In 1980s and 1990s: new discoveries in Asia (Longgupo, Dmanisi, etc.); in Europe (Atapuerca, Orce, Ceprano); precision in chronology and evolution of H. erectus; understanding and definition of variability of this species and relationship with other contemporary species. Contents 1 Site distribution 1.1 Africa 1.2 Israel 1.3 Republic of Georgia 1.4 China 1.5 Java 1.6 Europe Site distribution Africa Unlike Australopithecines and even Homo habilis, Homo ergaster/erectus was distributed throughout Africa: about 1.5 million years ago, shortly after the emergence of H. ergaster, people more intensively occupied the Eastern Rift Valley; by 1 million years ago, they had extended their range to <｜fim▁hole｜> of Africa. Traditionally, Homo erectus has been credited as being the prehistoric pioneer, a species that left Africa about 1 million years ago and began to disperse throughout Eurasia. But several important discoveries in the 1990s have reopened the question of when our ancestors first journeyed from Africa to other parts of the globe. Recent evidence now indicates that emigrant erectus made a much earlier departure from Africa. Israel Ubeidiyeh Deposits accumulated between 1.4-1.0 million years ago; Stone tools of both an early chopper-core (or Developed Oldowan) industry and crude Acheulean-like handaxes. The artifacts closely resemble contemporaneous pieces from Upper Bed II at Olduvai Gorge; Rare hominid remains attributed to Homo erectus; Ubeidiya might reflect a slight ecological enlargement of Africa more than a true human dispersal. Gesher Benot Yaaqov 800,000 years ago; No hominid remains; Stone tools are of Acheulean tradition and strongly resemble East African industries. Republic of Georgia In 1991, archaeologists excavating a grain-storage pit in the medieval town of Dmanisi uncovered the lower jaw of an adult erectus, along with animal bones and Oldowan stone tools. Different dating techniques (paleomagnetism, potassium-argon) gave a date of 1.8 million years ago, that clearly antedate that of Ubeidiya. Also the evidence from Dmanisi suggests now a true migration from Africa. China Longgupo Cave Dated to 1.8 million years ago Fragments of a lower jaw belonging either to Homo erectus or an unspecified early Homo. Fossils recovered with Oldowan tools. Zhoukoudian Dated between 500,000 and 250,000 years ago. Remarkable site for providing large numbers of fossils, tools and other artifacts. Fossils of Homo erectus discovered in 1920s and 1930s. Java In 1994, report of new dates from sites of Modjokerto and Sangiran where H. erectus had been found in 1891. Geological age for these hominid remains had been estimated at about 1 million years old. Recent redating of these materials gave dates of 1.8 million years ago for the Modjokerto site and 1.6 million years ago for the Sangiran site. These dates remained striking due to the absence of any other firm evidence for early humans in East Asia prior to 1 Myrs ago. Yet the individuals from Modjokerto and Sangiran would have certainly traveled through this part of Asia to reach Java. Europe Did Homo ergaster/erectus only head east into Asia, altogether bypassing Europe? Many paleoanthropologists believed until recently that no early humans entered Europe until 500,000 years ago. But the discovery of new fossils from Spain (Atapuerca, Orce) and Italy (Ceprano) secured a more ancient arrival for early humans in Europe. At Atapuerca, hundreds of flaked stones and roughly eighty human bone fragments were collected from sediments that antedate 780,000 years ago, and an age of about 800,000 years ago is the current best estimate. The artifacts comprise crudely flaked pebbles and simple flakes. The hominid fossils - teeth, jaws, skull fragments - come from several individuals of a new species named Homo antecessor. These craniofacial fragments are striking for derived features that differentiate them from Homo ergaster/erectus, but do not ally them specially with either H. neanderthalensis or H. sapiens. <｜fim▁end｜>	the far northern and southern margins
<｜fim▁begin｜> Photodiode closeup A photodiode A photodiode is a semiconductor diode that functions as a photodetector. Photodiodes are packaged with either a window or optical fiber connection, in order to let in the light to the sensitive part of the device. They may also be used without a window to detect vacuum UV or X-rays. A phototransistor is in essence nothing more than a bipolar transistor that is encased in a transparent case so that light can reach the base-collector junction. The phototransistor works like a photodiode, but with a much higher sensitivity for light, because the electrons that are generated by photons in the base-collector junction are injected into the base, and this current is then amplified by the transistor operation. However, a phototransistor has a slower response time than a photodiode. Contents 1 Operation 2 Materials 3 Features 4 Applications 5 References Operation A photodiode is a p-n junction or p-i-n structure. When light of sufficient photon energy strikes the diode, it excites an electron thereby creating a mobile electron and a positively charged electron hole. If the absorption occurs in the junction's depletion region, or one diffusion length away from it, these carriers are swept from the junction by the built-in field of the depletion region, producing a photocurrent. Photodiodes can be used under either zero bias (photovoltaic mode) or reverse bias (photoconductive mode). In zero bias, light falling on the diode causes a current across the device, leading to forward bias which in turn induces "dark current" in the opposite direction to the photocurrent. This is called the photovoltaic effect, and is the basis for solar cells — in fact, a solar cell is just a large number of big photodiodes. Reverse bias induces only little current (known as saturation or back current) along its direction. But a more important effect of reverse bias is widening of the depletion layer (Therefore expanding the reaction volume) and strengthening the photocurrent. Circuits based on this effect are more sensitive to light than ones based on the photovoltaic effect. Avalanche photodiodes have a similar structure, but they are operated with much higher reverse bias. This allows each photo-generated carrier to be multiplied by avalanche breakdown, resulting in internal gain within the photodiode, which increases the effective responsivity of the device. Materials The material used to make a photodiode is critical to defining its properties, because only photons with sufficient energy to excite an electron across the material's bandgap will produce significant photocurrents. Materials commonly used to produce photodiodes: Material Wavelength range (nm) Silicon 190–1100 Germanium 400–1700 Indium gallium arsenide 800–2600 Lead sulfide <1000-3500 Because of their greater bandgap, silicon-based photodiodes generate less noise than germanium-based photodiodes, but germanium photodiodes must be used for wavelengths longer than approximately 1 µm. Since transistors and ICs are made of semiconductors, and contain P-N junctions, almost every active component is potentially a photodiode. Many components, especially those sensitive to small currents, will not work correctly if illuminated, due to the induced photocurrents. In most components this is not desired, so <｜fim▁hole｜> housing. Since housings are not completely opaque to X-rays or other high energy radiation, these can still cause many ICs to malfunction due to induced photo-currents. Features Critical performance parameters of a photodiode include: responsivity The ratio of generated photocurrent to incident light power, typically expressed in A/W when used in photoconductive mode. The responsivity may also be expressed as a quantum efficiency, or the ratio of the number of photogenerated carriers to incident photons and thus a unitless quantity. dark current The current through the photodiode in the absence of any input optical signal, when it is operated in photoconductive mode. The dark current includes photocurrent generated by background radiation and the saturation current of the semiconductor junction. Dark current must be accounted for by calibration if a photodiode is used to make an accurate optical power measurement, and it is also a source of noise when a photodiode is used in an optical communication system. noise-equivalent power (NEP) The minimum input optical power to generate photocurrent, equal to the rms noise current in a 1 hertz bandwidth. The related characteristic detectivity (D) is the inverse of NEP, 1/NEP; and the specific detectivity ( D ⋆ {\displaystyle D^{\star }} ) is the detectivity normalized to the area (A) of the photodetector, D ⋆ = D A {\displaystyle D^{\star }=D{\sqrt {A}}} . The NEP is roughly the minimum detectable input power of a photodiode. When a photodiode is used in an optical communication system, these parameters contribute to the sensitivity of the optical receiver, which is the minimum input power required for the receiver to achieve a specified bit error ratio. Applications Photodiode schematic symbol P-N photodiodes are used in similar applications to other photodetectors, such as photoconductors, charge-coupled devices, and photomultiplier tubes. Photodiodes are used in consumer electronics devices such as compact disc players, smoke detectors, and the receivers for remote controls in VCRs and televisions. In other consumer items such as camera light meters, clock radios (the ones that dim the display when it's dark) and street lights, photoconductors are often used rather than photodiodes, although in principle either could be used. Photodiodes are often used for accurate measurement of light intensity in science and industry. They generally have a better, more linear response than photoconductors. They are also widely used in various medical applications, such as detectors for Computed tomography (coupled with scintillators) or instruments to analyze samples (immunoassay). They are also used in Blood gas monitors. PIN diodes are much faster and more sensitive than ordinary p-n junction diodes, and hence are often used for optical communications and in lighting regulation. P-N photodiodes are not used to measure extremely low light intensities. Instead, if high sensitivity is needed, avalanche photodiodes, intensified charge-coupled devices or photomultiplier tubes are used for applications such as astronomy, spectroscopy, night-vision equipment and laser range finding. References Portions of this article are adapted from Federal Standard 1037C and from the FAA Glossary of Optical Communications Terms Gowar, John, Optical Communication Systems, 2 ed., Prentice-Hall, Hempstead UK, 1993 ISBN 0-13-638727-6 <｜fim▁end｜>	they are placed in an opaque
<｜fim▁begin｜> g ( t ) = G m s i n ( ω t − ϕ ) {\displaystyle g(t)=G_{m}sin(\omega t-\phi )} g ( t ) = G m c o s ( ω t − ϕ − π 2 ) {\displaystyle g(t)=G_{m}cos(\omega t-\phi -{\frac {\pi }{2}})} g ( t ) = G m Re ⁡ ( e j ( ω t − ϕ − π 2 ) ) {\displaystyle g(t)=G_{m}\operatorname {Re} (e^{j(\omega t-\phi -{\frac {\pi }{2}})})} g ( t ) = G m Re ⁡ ( e j ∗ ( − ϕ − π 2 ) e j ω t ) {\displaystyle g(t)=G_{m}\operatorname {Re} (e^{j(-\phi -{\frac {\pi }{2}})}e^{j\omega t})} g ( t ) = Re ⁡ ( G m e j ∗ ( − ϕ − π 2 ) e j ω t ) {\displaystyle g(t)=\operatorname {Re} (G_{m}e^{j(-\phi -{\frac {\pi }{2}})}e^{j\omega t})} g ( t ) = Re ⁡ ( G e j ω t ) {\displaystyle g(t)=\operatorname {Re} (\mathbb {G} e^{j\omega t})} G = G m e j ∗ ( − ϕ − π 2 ) = G m ( c o s ( − ϕ − π 2 ) <｜fim▁hole｜> n ( − ϕ − π 2 ) ) {\displaystyle \mathbb {G} =G_{m}e^{j(-\phi -{\frac {\pi }{2}})}=G_{m}(cos(-\phi -{\frac {\pi }{2}})+jsin(-\phi -{\frac {\pi }{2}}))} = G m c o s ( − ϕ − π 2 ) + j G m s i n ( − ϕ − π 2 ) {\displaystyle =G_{m}cos(-\phi -{\frac {\pi }{2}})+jG_{m}sin(-\phi -{\frac {\pi }{2}})} = G m ( c o s ( − ϕ ) c o s ( π 2 ) + s i n ( − ϕ ) s i n ( π 2 ) ) + j G m ( s i n ( − ϕ ) c o s ( π 2 ) − c o s ( − ϕ ) s i n ( π 2 ) ) {\displaystyle =G_{m}(cos(-\phi )cos({\frac {\pi }{2}})+sin(-\phi )sin({\frac {\pi }{2}}))+jG_{m}(sin(-\phi )cos({\frac {\pi }{2}})-cos(-\phi )sin({\frac {\pi }{2}}))} = G m s i n ( − ϕ ) − j G m c o s ( − ϕ ) {\displaystyle =G_{m}sin(-\phi )-jG_{m}cos(-\phi )} = − G m s i n ( ϕ ) − j G m c o s ( ϕ ) {\displaystyle =-G_{m}sin(\phi )-jG_{m}cos(\phi )} <｜fim▁end｜>	+ j ∗ s i
<｜fim▁begin｜> GROUP AR: Meter stamps used by the Armed Forces Click here to return to the United States Postage Meter Stamp Catalog Group AR describes commercial format meter stamps used by the military for official business... with some exceptions.In addition to stamps used ONLY for official business this Group includes stamps from post offices serving overseas U.S. military bases. These post offices are available for the general use of troops as well as official business. Such stamps have town marks that contain "APO" (Army Post Office) or "FPO" (Fleet Post Office).Also included are meter stamps that have the name of a U.S. Navy ship in the town mark. These stamps are from meters located aboard ship.Additionally any meter stamp with "NAVY", "ARMY", "AIR FORCE", "MARINE", or an abbreviation such as "P.S.N.Y." (Puget Sound Navy Yard) referencing the armed services is included.NOT INCLUDED are stamps generated at post offices serving domestic U.S. military bases having town marks that include the name of the base and the state, e.g. "CAMP PENDLETON CA" or "FORT MONMOUTH NJ". They are used primarily for the general use of the troops <｜fim▁hole｜> business.Included for the first time are stamps with routine town/state town marks but with slogans indicating military official business. These include official business mail generated by the Army and Air National Guard.There are eight sub-groups based on the branch of the armed services using the meter. Click on those you want to see:• Sub-group AR-NAV – U.S. Navy • Sub-group AR-AAF – U.S. Army & Air Force • Sub-group AR-ARM – U.S. Army • Sub-group AR-AIR – U.S. Air Force • Sub-group AR-MAR – U.S. Marine Corps • Sub-group AR-APO – overseas Army and Air Force Post Offices • Sub-group AR-FPO – overseas Navy and Marine Fleet Post Offices • Sub-group AR-NGD – National GuardThese meters were first used in the early 1940s during World War 2.NOTE: The meter stamps listed here are only a portion of those that exist. A complete list is at Alan Draves' U.S. Meter Stamp Town List, http://www.draves.com/mss/town/statelst.htm. (Click on APO and FPO.) Mr. Draves does not include meter type designations in his lists. The descriptions below include only those town marks that have been verified for type. <｜fim▁end｜>	and employees rather than official
<｜fim▁begin｜> LMIs in Control/LMIs for Controller Synthesis/Stabilizing State-Feedback Controllers with Structured Norm-Bounded Uncertainty Contents 1 The System 2 The Data 3 The LMI: The Lyapunov Inequality 4 Conclusion: 5 Implementation 6 Related LMIs 7 External Links 8 Return to Main Page: The System x ˙ ( t ) = A x ( t ) + B u ( t ) + M p ( t ) , p ( t ) = Δ ( t ) q ( t ) , q ( t ) = N x ( t ) + Q p ( t ) + D 12 u ( t ) , Δ ∈ Δ , \| \| Δ \| \| ≤ 1 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\dot {x}}(t)&=Ax(t)+Bu(t)+Mp(t),&&p(t)=\Delta (t)q(t),\\q(t)&=Nx(t)+Qp(t)+D_{12}u(t),&&\Delta \in {\bf {{\Delta }\;,\|\|\Delta \|\|\leq 1}}\\\end{aligned}}} The Data The matrices A , B , M , N , Q , D 12 {\displaystyle A,B,M,N,Q,D_{12}} . The LMI: The Lyapunov Inequality Find P > 0 , Z : [ A P + B Z + P A T + Z T B T P N T + Z T D 12 T N <｜fim▁hole｜> Z 0 ] + [ M Θ M T M Θ Q T Q Θ M T Q Θ Q T − Θ ] < 0 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\text{Find}}\;&P>0,Z:\\{\begin{bmatrix}AP+BZ+PA^{T}+Z^{T}B^{T}&PN^{T}+Z^{T}D_{12}^{T}\\NP+D_{12}Z&0\end{bmatrix}}+{\begin{bmatrix}M\Theta M^{T}&M\Theta Q^{T}\\Q\Theta M^{T}&Q\Theta Q^{T}-\Theta \end{bmatrix}}<0\\\end{aligned}}} Conclusion: The system is quadratically stable if and only if there exists some Θ ∈ P Θ , P > 0 , and Z such that the above LMI is feasible. Furthermore, there exists a controller with u ( t ) = K x ( t ) where K = Z P − 1 is the quadratically stabilizing controller. {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\text{The system is quadratically stable if and only if there exists some }}\Theta \in P\Theta ,P>0,{\text{ and }}Z{\text{ such that the above LMI is feasible.}}\\{\text{Furthermore, there exists a controller with }}u(t)=Kx(t){\text{ where }}K=ZP^{-1}{\text{ is the quadratically stabilizing controller.}}\end{aligned}}} Implementation https://github.com/mcavorsi/LMI Related LMIs Quadratically Stabilizing Controllers with Parametric Norm-Bounded Uncertainty H-infinity Optimal Quadratically Stabilizing Controllers with Parametric Norm-Bounded Uncertainty Optimal State-Feedback Controllers with Structured Norm-Bounded Uncertainty External Links LMI Methods in Optimal and Robust Control - A course on LMIs in Control by Matthew Peet. Return to Main Page: <｜fim▁end｜>	P + D 12
<｜fim▁begin｜> Translation Method There are several methods aiming at a translation of propositional modal logics into first order predicate logics. The idea is, to transform the semantic conditions for the reachability into logical formulae: One rule for the definition of the semantic was: w ⊨ ◻ A iff for all v ∈ W , ( w , v ) ∉ R or v ⊨ A {\displaystyle w\models \Box A\;\;{\mbox{ iff }}{\mbox{for all }}v\in W,(w,v)\not \in R{\mbox{ or }}v\models A} This can be compiled into a formula by substituting the modal formula ◻ P {\displaystyle \square P} by the first oder formula ∀ y R ( x , y ) → P ′ ( y ) {\displaystyle \forall yR(x,y)\to P'(y)} . Hence we can eliminate all modal operators by introducing the first order translations. The result of such a translation is a classical first order formula, which can be processed by the methods we have seen before. For a modal formula F {\displaystyle F} we define its translation F ∗ {\displaystyle F^{}} : P ∗ = P ( x ) {\displaystyle P^{}=P(x)} , if P {\displaystyle P} is <｜fim▁hole｜> ) ∗ = ¬ ( F ) {\displaystyle (\lnot F)^{}=\lnot (F)} ( F ∧ G ) ∗ = ( F ∗ ∧ G ∗ ) {\displaystyle (F\land G)^{}=(F^{}\land G^{})} ( ◻ F ) ∗ = ( ∀ y ( R ( x , y ) → F ∗ ( x / y ) ) ) {\displaystyle (\square F)^{}=(\forall y(R(x,y)\to F^{}(x/y)))} , where y {\displaystyle y} is a new variable not occurring in F ∗ {\displaystyle F^{}} and F ∗ ( x / y ) {\displaystyle F^{}(x/y)} is the result of replacing all free occurrences of x {\displaystyle x} in F ∗ {\displaystyle F^{}} by y {\displaystyle y} . As a result, we have Theorem 1 F is a valid modal formal in K {\displaystyle K} iff F ∗ {\displaystyle F^{}} is a valid first order formula. Together with the observation that validity in modal logic K {\displaystyle K} (like in many others) is decidable, we hence have a sublogic of first order classical predicate logic which is decidable! Modal logic can be seen as a fragment of 2-variable first-order logic F O 2 {\displaystyle FO^{2}} . <｜fim▁end｜>	a propositional constant ( ¬ F
<｜fim▁begin｜> Metal fatigue was worsened by the design choices used on the de Havilland Comet, eventually leading to catastrophic failure. Modern aircraft must still contend with the issue. Without exception modern airliners rely almost exclusively on metal for their structure. All metals suffer from fatigue to some degree. Fatigue occurs when repeated loading leads to progressive structural damage and the growth of cracks. Once a fatigue crack has started, it will grow slightly with each loading cycle. The crack will continue to grow until it reaches a critical size at which point it will grow rapidly and lead to the complete fracture of the structure. Because of the dangers of fatigue, <｜fim▁hole｜> introduced. A failsafe is a secondary structure that will carry the load if the primary mechanism fails. Unfortunately it is usually weaker than the primary structure and provides only a short window for the failure to be found if disaster is to be avoided. Accidents involving metal fatigue have been happening since the very first jet airliner took to the sky. They all have at least one of the following characteristics: poor design, flawed maintenance or inadequate repairs. Unfortunately the industry as a whole doesn't seem to have learnt and fatigue induced accidents continue with frightening regularity. Therefore vigilant maintenance is the only solution for an aircraft with a metal structure. <｜fim▁end｜>	the concept of a failsafe was
<｜fim▁begin｜> Contents 1 Introduction 2 Responses to Jackass 3 Escalating Violence in Amateur Videos 3.1 Americans Funniest Home Videos 3.2 Jackass 3.3 Tosh.0 4 Explanations of Jackass' Popularity 4.1 Modern Day Heroes 4.2 Affective Economics 4.3 Targeted Marketing 5 Further Research 6 Reference Introduction The Jackass franchise started in 2000 as an MTV Series. The show was followed up by several spin-offs and four major movies: Jackass: The Movie, Jackass Number Two, Jackass 3D, and Jackass Presents: Bad Grandpa. The series depicts a group of professional daredevils, led by Johnny Knoxville, performing dangerous, crude, or humiliating stunts. The franchise has been wildly successful, especially with young men.[1] The movies and spin-offs together grossed over $400 million worldwide.[2] All four movies were #1 weekend box office hits.[3][4][5][6] This success is remarkable considering that two-thirds of the audience for Jackass: The Movie were males, and one-half were males aged 17-24.[7] This page explores the social factors that allowed such extreme movies to rise to popularity. Responses to Jackass The critical response to the Jackass franchise ranges from shock and disgust to enthusiastic approbation. MovieGuide.org, a family friendly movie review site, labels Jackass Presents: Bad Grandpa as "one of the most depraved movies ever released by a major Hollywood studio [which] makes a very disturbing statement on how low a major American company is willing to go to appeal to fans of totally abhorrent and depraved humor."[8] Conversely, Playboy writer Tom Grierson calls the Jackass franchise "the single funniest phenomenon of the 21st century [which hones] in on men's fascination with the pain-pleasure dichotomy of physical comedy."[9] Greirson compares the Jackass crew to performance artist Monica Abramović and renowned comedic actor Buster Keaton. Despite moral outrage from critics such as MovieGuide.org, the Jackass formula undoubtedly works. Another major criticism of the franchise is that it inspires fan to attempt their own stunts: thousands of amateur daredevils have filmed themselves attempting stunts or pranks from the movies, often seriously injuring themselves in the process.[10] [11] The crew of Jackass are almost always injured during filming; Bam Margera broke three ribs, his clavicle, and one of his feet during Jackass 3D alone.[12] Escalating Violence in Amateur Videos Americans Funniest Home Videos The Jackass franchise is part of a trend towards increasingly violent amateur videos, popularized on television and the internet. This trend started with Americas Funniest Home Videos. On November 26th, 1989 the first episode aired on ABC with host Bob Saget[13]. The series was based off amateur video submissions from viewers. They received almost 2000 submissions for the first episode.[14] The videos are typically low quality and show people falling down or mildly embarrassing themselves. The show rarely depicts injuries or graphic content, and was billed as a family-friendly experience. America's Funniest Home Videos is incredibly mild compared to the stunts in Jackass a decade later. This series was popular through the 1990s. Jackass The violence really escalated when Jackass aired on October 1, 2000. Common themes in the show include parody of disabled people, male homoeroticism, and scatological humor. In an MTV episode entitled "Self-Defense", Johnny Knoxville uses three self-defense weapons on himself: red pepper spray at “the highest concentration you can get,” a 120,000 volt stun gun, and a 50,000 volt taser gun. The episode shows Knoxville's extreme, self-induced pain from the three weapons, and also depicts him removing the Taser clips from his chest. Later in the episode, Chris Pontius pretends to be kidnapped in Knoxville’s trunk wearing only a thong. As is Pontius is shown jumping out of the car half naked, he comments in a voice-over: “from my experiments with sexiness, seems like some people are afraid at first, and fear usually equals violence. But eventually I win their hearts and instead of fighting they’ll want to make love to me.” The cameraman jokingly asks “even the men?” and Pontius replies “yep.” Knoxville takes the homoeroticism even further when he drives up to a gas station and asks “Excuse me sir, I have a full grown semi-nude man bound by duct tape in my trunk and I was trying to get out the desert to bury him. How do I hit the five south?”[15] In another episode, Bam Margera is pushed down flights of stairs or off curbs in a wheel chair while pretending to act mentally disabled. The episode shows shocked onlookers walking past and doing nothing to prevent the abuse. The Jackass franchise often uses these crass or offensive stunts to highlight uncomfortable truths like homophobia and the Bystander Effect. Tosh.0 A newly popular amateur video TV show is Tosh.0, which tops even some of the Jackass stunts. It's a Comedy Central show which first aired in 2009 and is hosted by comedian Daniel Tosh. Unlike American’s Funniest Home Videos, the producers of Tosh.0 strongly discourage video submissions. A message at the beginning of each episode warns: “Tosh.0 features videos from the internet and is intended for a mature audience. Comedy Central does not condone the activities performed and discourages anyone from attempting them. Enjoy.”[16] Nevertheless, the more violent videos are promoted and glorified. In one of the most horrific clips ever played by the show, a young man named Zac jumps off a cliff, hits a ledge on the way down, and is flung on his back into the water below. Tosh liked the clip so much that Zach received a six minute highlight called Web-Redemption, in which Zac reveals that he suffered from a collapsed lung as a result of his jump. Zac also says, “I’m kinda glad I jumped. I got some internet fame.” Tosh laughs and replies “I like your attitude.” [17] There is a clear discrepancy between what Tosh's statement and the warning message at the beginning of the episode. Explanations of Jackass' Popularity Modern Day Heroes A hero is defined by Merriam-Webster as a man admired for his achievements and noble qualities. [18] Superman and Gandhi are considered heroes for their fictional <｜fim▁hole｜> explanation of the popularity of Jackass is that the cast are perceived as modern-day heroes by their fans. The cast of Jacass is incredibly relatable for fans. They’re regular looking guys who rose to fame based on gutsy stunts, not looks or money. Fans who emulate their pranks on YouTube are trying to gain that same level of social status. The Jackass crew are a new type of hero: the man-of-action hero, as defined by Drs. Holt and Thompson in a 2004 article. [19] Research has shown that males are compelled to engage in risky behaviors as they reach adolescence.[20] It has also been shown than viewing risky behavior such as the stunts in the Jackass movies has a measurable impact on our perception of risk and our likelihood to participate in risky behavior ourselves.[21] This increase in risk inclination is most strongly seen in teenage boys. [22] We are inspired by what we see in the media and therefore are more likely to reproduce it. Adolescent males desire to be like these reality TV stars because they are men of action heroes who gain social status by engaging in dangerous behavior. Affective Economics In his 2006 book, Cultural Convergence, Dr. Henry Jenkins of USC Annenberg School of Communication coined the term affective economics.[23] He defines it as “a new configuration of marketing theory…which seeks to understand the emotional underpinnings of consumer decision-making as a driving force behind viewing and purchasing decisions.” In his book, Jenkins uses this concept to explain the massive popularity of American Idol. He asserts that media producers are changing their marketing paradigm to build long-term relationships with a few loyal consumers, as opposed to shallow relationships with many consumers. According to Jenkins, “Brand loyalty is the holy grail of affective economics because of what economists call the 80/20 rule: for most consumer products, 80 percent of purchases are made by 20 percent of their consumer base.” With so many cable TV channels and movies available today, media producers are in stiff competition for consumers, so they aim to cultivate their fans' emotional investment in the brand. Loyal consumers form online brand communities, where they discuss the brand and its products and reaffirm their relationship. Think of Harley-Davidson or Apple and their consumer's intense loyalty and social structure. Reality TV intensifies consumers' emotional attachment because viewers come to see the actors as their friends. It's unlikely that the creators of Jackass have heard of affective economics or intended to use it to gain loyal viewers, but they unwittingly utilized its principles with great success. The franchise has developed a large and loyal set of fans - primarily young men. It doesn't matter to the Jackass crew if movie critics call their content "depraved". By targeting a small subset of consumers, they have an extremely loyal and engaged fanbase who will watch anyways. Amateur video postings of fans performing the Jackass stunts and pranks are a powerful version of Jenkins' "Brand Communities". The videos attract more people to the brand and also make consumers feel closer to the Jackass crew. The Jackass website and videogame are broader components of the brand community.[24] Targeted Marketing Why is Jackass so popular with young men in particular? Neither the movies nor the show had much of a plot (with the exception of the newest movie, Bad Grandpa). They are instead a compilation of many different unrelated stunts and pranks. Mary Crawford of the University of Connecticut found in a study of humor that men tend to prefer slapstick and aggressive humor, while women prefer funny stories with a narrative arc.[25] Therefore, the jumble of stunts in a Jackass film appeal strongly to men, but not women. Jackass is male bonding at its finest. It a group of average-looking guys who could be your best friends, who are doing stupid stunts and seem to be having the time of their lives. Comedy Central recently conducted research on the humor preferences of young men ages 18-34, who are their stated target audience. It found that "Unlike previous generations, humor, not music, is [young men's] number one form of self-expression."[26] One quote from the study directly illustrates the power of the Jackass brand among young men: "Millennials respond to humor that feels personal and authentic, finding that hilarity in everyday life speaks more to their experience than artificial, overly crafted narratives. Research found that the majority of Millennials ... are drawn to talent who look and sound like them and situations that reflect their experiences." The casual, low-budget appearance of the Jackass films and the improvisational nature of the dialogue play right into that research finding. These factors help explain how Jackass was so phenomenally successful in the box office and how two-thirds of viewers were men.[27] Further Research Jackass was gained huge success in media markets by gaining a loyal target audience and exploiting modern day hero culture. There are many other factors that may contribute to the success of Jackass and similar media. Research within psychology on risk inclination explores controversial media such as violent video games and crude music. Other social factors may be explored to determine their role in the success of this media. Reference ↑ http://lubbockonline.com/stories/102802/ent_LA0515-7.001.shtml ↑ http://www.the-numbers.com/movies/franchise/Jackass ↑ http://www.the-numbers.com/movies/2002/JCKAS.php ↑ http://www.the-numbers.com/movies/2006/JCKA2.php ↑ http://www.the-numbers.com/movie/Jackass-3D#tab=box-office ↑ http://www.the-numbers.com/movie/Jackass-Presents-Bad-Grandpa#tab=box-office ↑ http://lubbockonline.com/stories/102802/ent_LA0515-7.001.shtml ↑ http://www.movieguide.org/reviews/jackass-presents-bad-grandpa.html ↑ http://playboysfw.kinja.com/what-a-jackass-the-brilliance-of-johnny-knoxville-1450782294 ↑ http://www.eonline.com/news/41509/another-jackass-copycat ↑ http://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=jackass+copycat&sm=3 ↑ http://guycodeblog.mtv.com/2011/05/24/worst-jackass-injuries/ ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/America's_Funniest_Home_Videos ↑ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8Le_AO-S0xk ↑ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9xrRmNcLigM ↑ http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1430587/ ↑ http://tosh.comedycentral.com/video-clips/fd3i0h/cliff-jumper ↑ http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/hero ↑ Holt, D. B. & Thompson, C. J. (2004). Man‐of‐Action Heroes: The Pursuit of Heroic Masculinity in Everyday Consumption. Journal of Consumer Research, 31(2), 425-440. ↑ Slovic, P. (1966). Risk-Taking in Children: Age and Sex Differences. Child Development, 37(1), 169-176. ↑ Fischer, P., Vingilis, E., Greitemeyer, T. & Vogrincic, C. (2011). Risk-Taking and the Media. Risk Analysis, 31, 699–705. ↑ Fischer, P., Vingilis, E., Greitemeyer, T. & Vogrincic, C. (2011). Risk-Taking and the Media. Risk Analysis, 31, 699–705. ↑ http://books.google.com/books/about/Convergence_Culture.html?id=RlRVNikT06YC ↑ http://www.dickhouse.tv/ ↑ http://psychcentral.com/lib/how-and-why-humor-differs-between-the-sexes/0007851/2 ↑ http://thearf-org-aux-assets.s3.amazonaws.com/ogilvy/12/PDF/ComedyCentral.pdf ↑ http://lubbockonline.com/stories/102802/ent_LA0515-7.001.shtml <｜fim▁end｜>	or real contributions to society. One
<｜fim▁begin｜> In English, the second person pronoun only has one person - whether talking to one person or several, whether talking to an intimate friend of someone we don't know at all, we say "you". However, as in many other languages, there are several forms of this word in Portuguese that each encompass different senses. In fact, there are EIGHT forms of the word "you" in Portuguese. They are listed below. Tu Vós Você Vocês O senhor A senhora Os senhores As senhoras Tu and Vós 'Vós' is relatively uncommon nowadays, but 'tu' is still widely used in Portugal and in some areas of Brazil. TU This form of "you" is very informal, and can be used only when talking to one person. That is to say, it is only used between friends, when addressing children, or in situations where a certain level of comfort has been established. It is mostly used in Portugal. In Brazil it is used in the southern states of Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina, and in the states of North (except Rondonia and Tocantins) and Northeast (except Bahia and Sergipe). In Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo State's coast, tu can be also listen, but used in some specific social groups. Tu is conjugated with the SECOND PERSON SINGULAR conjugation (this means that when we use a verb, such as falar [to speak], to conjugate it in the present indicative you should use tu falas). In some regions of Brazil, tu is mostly used with a verb conjugated as if it was used with você in colloquial speech. For example, tu fala instead of tu falas. However, there are other regions in Brazil (such as Maranhão, Pará and Santa Catarina coast) where tu conjugated in the second person (canonic conjugation) is more frequently employed. VÓS This is the plural form of "you", or SECOND PERSON PLURAL. It is formal in Portugal and Brazil. It is hardly ever used in the spoken language; it is still occasionally used in (formal) written communication in Portugal and Brazil. It may also be encountered in literature, for example The Bible, in a similar way to some words such "Thee" and "Thou" in English. For example, Vós falais [you speak]. However, in Portugal the colloquial use of the possessive pronoun "vosso/vossos/vossa/vossas" (which matches with "vós") instead of "seu/sua/seus/suas" (which matches with "vocês") is common. For instance, the sentence "Voltem (vocês) para as vossas casas!" is common in Portugal, instead of "Voltem (vocês) para as suas casas!". The use of "vosso" is less commoun in Brazil, but not nonexistent. Você and Vocês These are the most common forms of 'you' in usage. If in doubt, they can be used in almost any situation. VOCÊ This is a common used form of "you" and is used between employees, friends, people of the same age and social standing. Again, it can be used only when you are talking to one person. It can be both mildly formal (in Portugal) and informal (in Brazil). It is widely used in Brazil instead of tu. It uses the THIRD PERSON SINGULAR conjugation, which means we use the same form of the verb as with "he" or "she" - for instance, ele fala [he speaks] and você fala [you speak]. In Brazil, the use of "você" as informal speech is more frequent in the central areas of the country, including São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Minas Gerais, middle-west states, in the northeast <｜fim▁hole｜> around the capital), the northern states of Rondônia e Tocantins, and in the southern state of Paraná. As television is centered in the cities of São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, "você" is the pattern use on national television for informal situations. In some regions, like in Amazonas or Acre, the use of tu or você is interchangeable. One person can change from você to tu and vice-versa in the same speech. In Portugal, many people when employ "você" to adress formally to other people,they prefer to avoid the explict pronunciation of the word "você" and only use the conjugation in the third person since the explict use of the word can be considered as you are treating the listener as inferior. In Brazil, the use of "tu" and "você" does not have any difference of connotation like that and both uses are considered informal, and the difference of use between them is only regional. However, in regions where "você" is the pattern, it is common to use the object pronoun "te" (with matches with "tu") instead of "o/a" or "lhe" (which matches with "você"). For instance, the sentence "Você sabe que eu te amo" (You know I love you) instead of "Você sabe que eu o amo" is the colloquial pattern in Brazil. The exception is for reflexive verbs where the pronoun "se" (which matches with "você") is frequently employed. For instance: "Você se incomoda?" and never "Você te incomoda?" Also, in the imperative mode, the conjugation in the second person is the the most common. For instance: "Fala!" (imperative mode for "tu" when it is said: "Speak!") instead of "Fale!" (imperative form for "você"). This last form is not infrequent, but considered slightly formal. The possessive pronoun "teu/tua" (which matches with "tu") is common spoken in "você" regions instead of "seu/sua" (which mathces with "você") although both uses are frequent and equally colloquial. VOCÊS This has the same level of formality as the singular você, however, it is used when talking to a group of people. It uses the THIRD PERSON PLURAL conjugation. That means that we use the same part of the verb as with 'they'. For instance, eles bebem [they drink] and vocês bebem [you drink]. O senhor and A senhora These are the polite forms of 'you'. They are widely used. O SENHOR and A SENHORA This is the formal version of "you" (one person), and is used when you don't know someone, or towards someone you should show respect to, for example, a boss or a teacher. O senhor is used when talking to a male, and a senhora when talking to a female. Like você, it uses the THIRD PERSON SINGULAR conjugation. So we can have Você fala or O senhor fala. "O senhor/a senhora" is widely used in Portugal and Brazil in the situations listed above. OS SENHORES and AS SENHORAS These two forms are, as you have probably guessed, the plural forms of o senhor and a senhora, respectively. We use them in the same situations as with o senhor and a senhora - but when we are talking to more than one person. And what if we are talking to a group which is mixed? We use os senhores if the group is mixed. These forms, like vocês, use the THIRD PERSON PLURAL conjugation. So we can have eles comeram [they ate], vocês comeram [you ate], os senhores comeram [you ate] and as senhoras comeram [you ate] <｜fim▁end｜>	states of Bahia (specially

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