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<s-boxed>Artificial intelligence</s-boxed><sep/><s-underlined>Goals</s-underlined><sep/><s-underlined>The general problem of simulating (or creating) intelligence</s-underlined><s-strikethrough>has been broken into subproblems. These consist of particular traits</s-strikethrough><s-underlined>or capabilities that researchers expect an intelligent system to</s-underlined><s-strikethrough>display. The traits described below have received the most</s-strikethrough><s-boxed>attention and cover the scope of AI research.</s-boxed><sep/><s-boxed>Techniques</s-boxed><sep/><s-highlighted>AI research uses a wide variety of techniques to accomplish the</s-highlighted>goals above.<sep/><s-underlined>Applications</s-underlined><sep/>
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Artificial general intelligence<sep/>Terminology<sep/><s-boxed>AGI is also known as strong AI, full AI, human-level AI, human-level</s-boxed>intelligent AI, or general intelligent action.<sep/><s-boxed>Some academic sources reserve the term "strong AI" for computer programs that</s-boxed><s-highlighted>will experience sentience or consciousness. In contrast, weak AI (or narrow AI) is</s-highlighted><s-boxed>able to solve one specific problem but lacks general cognitive abilities. Some academic</s-boxed><s-strikethrough>sources use "weak AI" to refer more broadly to any programs that neither experience</s-strikethrough><s-highlighted>consciousness nor have a mind in the same sense as humans.</s-highlighted><sep/><s-highlighted>Related concepts include artificial superintelligence and transformative AI. An</s-highlighted><s-boxed>artificial superintelligence (ASI) is a hypothetical type of AGI that is much more</s-boxed><s-highlighted>generally intelligent than humans, while the notion of transformative AI relates to</s-highlighted><s-highlighted>AI having a large impact on society, for example, similar to the agricultural or</s-highlighted><s-highlighted>industrial revolution.</s-highlighted><sep/><s-underlined>A framework for classifying AGI by performance and autonomy was proposed in</s-underlined><sep/>
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<s-highlighted>Generative artificial</s-highlighted><sep/><s-underlined>History</s-underlined><sep/><s-underlined>Output modalities</s-underlined><sep/><s-underlined>A generative AI system is constructed</s-underlined>by applying unsupervised machinelearning (invoking for instance<s-strikethrough>neural network architectures such as</s-strikethrough><s-highlighted>generative adversarial networks</s-highlighted>(GANs), variation autoencoders<s-boxed>(VAEs), transformers, or</s-boxed><s-highlighted>self-supervised machine learning</s-highlighted><s-boxed>trained on a dataset. The capabilities</s-boxed><s-strikethrough>of a generative AI system depend on</s-strikethrough><sep/>
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<s-underlined>A.I. Artificial Intelligence</s-underlined><sep/><s-highlighted>Plot</s-highlighted><sep/><s-highlighted>In the 22nd century, rising sea</s-highlighted><s-strikethrough>levels from global warming have</s-strikethrough><s-strikethrough>wiped out coastal cities and</s-strikethrough><s-strikethrough>altered the world's climate. With</s-strikethrough><s-boxed>the human population in decline,</s-boxed><s-highlighted>advanced nations have created</s-highlighted>humanoid robots called mechas tofulfill various roles in society.<sep/>In Madison, New Jersey, David, an<sep/>
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<s-boxed>History of artificial intelligence</s-boxed><sep/><s-boxed>Precursors</s-boxed><sep/><s-highlighted>Birth of artificial intelligence (1941-56)</s-highlighted><sep/><s-strikethrough>The earliest research into thinking machines was inspired by</s-strikethrough><s-underlined>a confluence of ideas that became prevalent in the late 1930s,</s-underlined><s-boxed>1940s, and early 1950s. Recent research in neurology had</s-boxed><s-boxed>shown that the brain was an electrical network of neurons that</s-boxed>fired in all-or-nothing pulses. Norbert Wiener's cyberneticsdescribed control and stability in electrical networks. Claude<s-underlined>Shannon's information theory described digital signals (i.e.,</s-underlined>all-or-nothing signals). Alan Turing's theory of computation<sep/>
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<s-underlined>Applications of artificial intelligence</s-underlined><sep/><s-underlined>Internet and e-commerce</s-underlined><sep/>Games and entertainment<sep/><s-boxed>Games have been a major application of AI's capabilities since the</s-boxed><s-strikethrough>1950s. In the 21st century, AIs have beaten human players in many</s-strikethrough><s-underlined>games, including chess (Deep Blue), Jeopardy! (Watson), Go</s-underlined><s-highlighted>(AlphaGo), poker (Pluribus and Cepheus), E-sports</s-highlighted><s-underlined>(StarCraft), and general game playing (AlphaZero and</s-underlined><sep/><s-strikethrough>Kuki AI is a set of chatbots and other apps which were designed for</s-strikethrough><s-highlighted>entertainment and as a marketing tool. Character.ai is another example of</s-highlighted><s-boxed>a chatbot being used for recreation.</s-boxed><sep/><s-boxed>Economic and social challenges</s-boxed><sep/><s-boxed>AI for Good is a platform launched in 2017 by the International</s-boxed><s-highlighted>Telecommunication Union (ITU) agency of the United Nations</s-highlighted><sep/>
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Music and artificial intelligence<sep/><s-boxed>History</s-boxed><sep/>In the 1950s and the 1960s, music made by<s-boxed>artificial intelligence was not fully original, but</s-boxed><s-strikethrough>generated from templates that people had already</s-strikethrough><s-strikethrough>defined and given to the AI, with this being known</s-strikethrough><s-underlined>as rule-based systems. As time passed, computers</s-underlined>became more powerful, which allowed machine<s-highlighted>learning and artificial neural networks to help in</s-highlighted><s-boxed>the music industry by giving AI large amounts of</s-boxed><s-strikethrough>data to learn how music is made instead of</s-strikethrough><s-boxed>predefined templates. By the early 2000s, more</s-boxed>advancements in artificial intelligence had been<sep/>
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<s-underlined>Timeline of artificial</s-underlined><sep/><s-strikethrough>Antiquity, Classical and Medieval eras</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-boxed>1600-1900</s-boxed><sep/><s-underlined>20th century</s-underlined><sep/><s-strikethrough>21st century</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-boxed>See also</s-boxed><sep/><s-strikethrough>Timeline of machine translation</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-highlighted>Timeline of machine learning</s-highlighted><sep/><s-boxed>Notes</s-boxed><sep/><s-underlined>References</s-underlined><sep/>
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<s-underlined>Artificial intelligence art</s-underlined><sep/><s-strikethrough>History</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-boxed>Tools and processes</s-boxed><sep/><s-highlighted>Impact</s-highlighted><sep/><s-strikethrough>Analysis of existing art using AI</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-highlighted>In addition to the creation of original art, research methods that use</s-highlighted><s-strikethrough>AI have been generated to quantitatively analyze digital art</s-strikethrough><s-strikethrough>collections. This has been made possible due to the large-scale</s-strikethrough><s-boxed>digitization of artwork in the past few decades. According to</s-boxed>CETINIC and SHE (2022), using artificial intelligence toanalyze already-existing art collections can provide new perspectives on<s-strikethrough>the development of artistic styles and the identification of artistic</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-underlined>Two computational methods, close reading and distant viewing, are the</s-underlined><s-boxed>typical approaches used to analyze digitized art. Close reading focuses on</s-boxed><s-underlined>specific visual aspects of one piece. Some tasks performed by machines</s-underlined><sep/>
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<s-underlined>Artificial intelligence in</s-underlined>video games<sep/>Overview<sep/><s-underlined>The term game AI is used to refer</s-underlined><s-underlined>to a broad set of algorithms that also</s-underlined><s-boxed>include techniques from control theory,</s-boxed><s-underlined>robotics, computer graphics and</s-underlined><s-underlined>computer science in general, and so</s-underlined><sep/>
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<s-highlighted>Attention</s-highlighted><sep/><s-strikethrough>Contemporary</s-strikethrough><s-strikethrough>definition and</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-underlined>Prior to the founding of</s-underlined><s-boxed>psychology as a scientific</s-boxed><s-strikethrough>discipline, attention was</s-strikethrough>studied in the field of<s-strikethrough>philosophy. Thus, many of the</s-strikethrough><s-boxed>discoveries in the field of</s-boxed><s-boxed>attention were made by</s-boxed>philosophers. Psychologist<s-underlined>John B. Watson calls Juan Luis</s-underlined><s-strikethrough>Vives the father of modern</s-strikethrough><s-underlined>psychology because, in his</s-underlined><s-boxed>book De Anima et Vita (The</s-boxed><s-strikethrough>Soul and Life), he was the</s-strikethrough><sep/>
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<s-highlighted>Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder</s-highlighted><sep/>Signs and symptoms<sep/><s-strikethrough>Inattention, hyperactivity (restlessness in adults), disruptive behaviour, and impulsivity are common in ADHD. Academic</s-strikethrough><s-highlighted>difficulties are frequent, as are problems with relationships. The signs and symptoms can be difficult to define, as it is</s-highlighted><s-boxed>hard to draw a line at where normal levels of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity end and significant levels</s-boxed><s-strikethrough>requiring interventions begin.</s-strikethrough><sep/>According to the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) and its<s-boxed>text revision (DSM-5-TR), symptoms must be present for six months or more to a degree that is much greater than others</s-boxed><s-boxed>of the same age. This requires at least six symptoms of either inattention or hyperactivity/impulsivity for those under 17 and</s-boxed><s-boxed>at least five symptoms for those 17 years or older. The symptoms must be present in at least two settings (e.g., social,</s-boxed><s-strikethrough>school, work, or home), and must directly interfere with or reduce quality of functioning. Additionally, several</s-strikethrough><s-boxed>symptoms must have been present before age 12 as per DSM-5 criteria. However, research indicates the age of onset</s-boxed>should not be interpreted as a prerequisite for diagnosis given contextual exceptions.<sep/><s-boxed>Comorbidities</s-boxed><sep/><s-strikethrough>Causes</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-boxed>ADHD arises from brain maldevelopment especially in the prefrontal executive networks that can arise either from genetic</s-boxed>factors (different gene variants and mutations for building and regulating such networks) or from acquired disruptions<s-strikethrough>to the development of these networks and regions involved in executive functioning and self-regulation. Their reduced</s-strikethrough>size, functional connectivity, and activation contribute to the pathophysiology of ADHD, as well as imbalances in the<s-boxed>noradrenergic and dopaminergic systems that mediate these brain regions.</s-boxed><sep/>
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<s-underlined>Attention Attention</s-underlined><sep/><s-strikethrough>Writing and recording</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-boxed>Initial work on the album began in late 2016, after the band had finished the tour in support of their prior album,</s-boxed><s-underlined>Threat to Survival. In February 2017, Smith announced that they had begun work on their sixth studio album.</s-underlined><s-underlined>Bass had been working on writing 22 separate pieces of music over the course of their 2016 tour, separate from</s-underlined><s-underlined>the rest of the band, who wanted to just concentrate on touring. Bass had just begun presenting the material to</s-underlined><s-highlighted>Smith, who, while unsure how much exactly would go into the future album, did say that he was very impressed,</s-highlighted><s-strikethrough>and that the material may fit together into a concept album, a first for the band. They joined Iron Maiden</s-strikethrough><s-highlighted>on tour in Europe in April and May, and began recording soon after. Upon the resuming work on the album</s-highlighted><s-boxed>and beginning work in the studio, the band decided to actually only use one of the 22 originally proposed songs by</s-boxed>Bass, but the work of the original 22 songs still inspired them to press forward in sticking with the concept album<s-underlined>idea overall, just with different songs.</s-underlined><sep/><s-underlined>In January 2018, Myers announced that the band had finished the recording the album and that Bass was</s-underlined><s-highlighted>working on finalizing the production and mixing of the album.</s-highlighted><sep/>Themes and composition<sep/>
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<s-strikethrough>Attention!</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-strikethrough>Track listing</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-boxed>Charts</s-boxed><sep/>== References ==<sep/>
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<s-highlighted>Attention Is All You Need</s-highlighted><sep/><s-highlighted>Authors</s-highlighted><sep/>The authors of the paper are: Ashish Vaswani, Noam Shazeer, Niki Parmar, Jakob Uszkoreit,<s-underlined>Llion Jones, Aidan Gomez, Łukasz Kaiser, and Illia Polosukhin. All eight authors were "equal</s-underlined><s-underlined>contributors" to the paper; the listed order was randomized. The Wired article highlights the group's</s-underlined><sep/><s-underlined>Six of the eight authors were born outside the United States; the other two are children of two</s-underlined><s-highlighted>green-card-carrying Germans who were temporarily in California and a first-generation American</s-highlighted><s-highlighted>whose family had fled persecution, respectively.</s-highlighted><sep/>After the paper, each of the authors left Google to join other companies or to found startups. Several<s-boxed>of them expressed feelings of being unable to innovate and expand the Transformer in a direction they want,</s-boxed><s-underlined>if they had stayed at Google.</s-underlined><sep/><s-highlighted>Methods discussed and introduced</s-highlighted><sep/><s-highlighted>The paper is most well known for the introduction of the Transformer architecture, which forms the</s-highlighted><sep/>
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<s-strikethrough>Attention seeking</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-underlined>Causes</s-underlined><sep/>The causes of attention seeking behavior are varied. Risk factors leading to attention seeking<s-boxed>behavior include loneliness, jealousy, low self-esteem, narcissism, rejection, and self-pity.</s-boxed>A desire for validation is theorised as a motivation for attention seeking behavior. As of<s-highlighted>2022, no studies have evaluated the prevalence of attention seeking behavior in the</s-highlighted><s-strikethrough>general population.</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-underlined>One area of concern with attention seeking is misbehavior in classroom settings. Research</s-underlined><s-strikethrough>has shown that parental rejection leads young students to adopt a diminished sense of self</s-strikethrough><s-underlined>consequently resulting in the child feeling insecure, undervalued, and powerless. Experiencing</s-underlined>rejection pushes the child to strive for acceptance through attention seeking behaviors.These children may grow in assertiveness as a means of being heard and seen. Thus, rejected<s-highlighted>children embrace attention seeking behaviors to feel some sense of security and acceptance.</s-highlighted><sep/>Repeated attention seeking behavior is a symptom of several personality disorders, including<s-underlined>narcissistic personality disorder, histrionic personality disorder, borderline personality</s-underlined><s-underlined>disorder, and sometimes (though more rarely) in antisocial personality disorder.</s-underlined><sep/><s-boxed>Attention-seeking behavior should be distinguished from impulsive or disruptive behaviors</s-boxed>associated with ADHD; while ADHD can sometimes make it difficult to suppress<s-strikethrough>normal attention-seeking impulses, most ADHD-related misbehavior is not motivated</s-strikethrough><s-boxed>by attention-seeking.</s-boxed><sep/><s-highlighted>A 2019 study on adolescents with narcissistic tendencies and the use of social media</s-highlighted><s-strikethrough>explores this relation between narcissism and attention seeking behavior. In the study it was</s-strikethrough><sep/>
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<s-underlined>At attention</s-underlined><sep/><s-underlined>By country</s-underlined><sep/>See also<sep/><s-strikethrough>Military parade</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-underlined>Drill commands</s-underlined><sep/><s-boxed>== References ==</s-boxed><sep/>
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<s-underlined>Attention deficit</s-underlined><sep/>
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Attention (machine learning)<sep/>History<sep/><s-highlighted>Academic reviews of the history of the attention mechanism</s-highlighted><s-underlined>are provided in Niu et al. and Soydaner.</s-underlined><sep/><s-highlighted>Overview</s-highlighted><sep/><s-underlined>The modern era of machine attention was revitalized by</s-underlined><s-underlined>grafting an attention mechanism (Fig 1. orange) to an</s-underlined><sep/><s-strikethrough>Figure 2 shows the internal step-by-step operation of the</s-strikethrough><s-highlighted>attention block (A) in Fig 1.</s-highlighted><sep/>This attention scheme has been compared to the Query-Key<sep/>
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<s-underlined>Transformer (deep learning architecture)</s-underlined><sep/><s-boxed>History</s-boxed><sep/>Training<sep/>Architecture<sep/><s-highlighted>All transformers have the same primary components:</s-highlighted><sep/><s-underlined>Tokenizers, which convert text into tokens.</s-underlined><sep/><s-strikethrough>Embedding layer, which converts tokens and positions of</s-strikethrough><s-underlined>the tokens into vector representations.</s-underlined><sep/><s-highlighted>Transformer layers, which carry out repeated</s-highlighted><sep/>
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<s-underlined>Economics</s-underlined><sep/><s-boxed>Definitions of economics</s-boxed><sep/><s-underlined>The earlier term for the discipline was "political economy", but since the late</s-underlined><s-strikethrough>19th century, it has commonly been called "economics". The term is</s-strikethrough>ultimately derived from Ancient Greek οἰκονομία (oikonomia) which is a term<s-highlighted>for the "way (nomos) to run a household (oikos)", or in other words the</s-highlighted><s-strikethrough>know-how of an οἰκονομικός (oikonomikos), or "household or homestead manager".</s-strikethrough><s-highlighted>Derived terms such as "economy" can therefore often mean "frugal" or</s-highlighted><s-underlined>"thrifty". By extension then, "political economy" was the way to manage a</s-underlined><s-strikethrough>polis or state.</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-highlighted>There are a variety of modern definitions of economics; some reflect evolving</s-highlighted><s-boxed>views of the subject or different views among economists. Scottish philosopher</s-boxed><s-underlined>Adam Smith (1776) defined what was then called political economy as</s-underlined><s-strikethrough>"an inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations", in</s-strikethrough><sep/>
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<s-strikethrough>Keynesian economics</s-strikethrough><sep/>Historical context<sep/><s-underlined>The General Theory</s-underlined><sep/><s-highlighted>Keynes set forward the ideas that became the basis for</s-highlighted><s-boxed>Keynesian economics in his main work, The General</s-boxed><s-underlined>Theory of Employment, Interest and Money</s-underlined><s-boxed>(1936). It was written during the Great</s-boxed><s-highlighted>Depression, when unemployment rose to 25% in the</s-highlighted><s-strikethrough>United States and as high as 33% in some</s-strikethrough><s-boxed>countries. It is almost wholly theoretical, enlivened by</s-boxed><s-boxed>occasional passages of satire and social commentary. The</s-boxed><s-highlighted>book had a profound impact on economic thought, and</s-highlighted><s-strikethrough>ever since it was published there has been debate over</s-strikethrough><s-strikethrough>its meaning.</s-strikethrough><sep/>
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<s-underlined>Agricultural economics</s-underlined><sep/><s-underlined>Origins</s-underlined><sep/>Economics has been defined as thestudy of resource allocation under<s-underlined>scarcity. Agricultural economics, or</s-underlined><s-strikethrough>the application of economic methods</s-strikethrough><s-highlighted>to optimize the decisions made by</s-highlighted><s-strikethrough>agricultural producers, grew to</s-strikethrough><s-boxed>prominence around the turn of the</s-boxed><sep/>
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<s-boxed>Behavioral economics</s-boxed><sep/><s-boxed>History</s-boxed><sep/><s-underlined>Early classical economists included psychological reasoning in much of their</s-underlined><s-highlighted>writing, though psychology at the time was not a recognized field of study. In The</s-highlighted><s-underlined>Theory of Moral Sentiments, Adam Smith wrote on concepts later</s-underlined><s-strikethrough>popularized by modern Behavioral Economic theory, such as loss aversion.</s-strikethrough><s-highlighted>Jeremy Bentham, a Utilitarian philosopher in the 1700s conceptualized</s-highlighted><s-boxed>utility as a product of psychology. Other economists who incorporated psychological</s-boxed><s-underlined>explanations in their works included Francis Edgeworth, Vilfredo Pareto and Irving</s-underlined><sep/><s-highlighted>A rejection and elimination of psychology from economics in the early 1900s</s-highlighted><s-strikethrough>brought on a period defined by a reliance on empiricism. There was a lack of</s-strikethrough><s-strikethrough>confidence in hedonic theories, which saw pursuance of maximum benefit as an</s-strikethrough><s-strikethrough>essential aspect in understanding human economic behavior. Hedonic analysis had</s-strikethrough><s-underlined>shown little success in predicting human behavior, leading many to question its</s-underlined>viability as a reliable source for prediction.<sep/>There was also a fear among economists that the involvement of psychology in<sep/>
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London School of Economics<sep/><s-strikethrough>History</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-strikethrough>Campus and estate</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-underlined>Since 1902, LSE has been based at Clare</s-underlined>Market and Houghton Street (first syllable<s-boxed>pronounced "How") in Westminster. It is</s-boxed><s-boxed>surrounded by a number of important institutions</s-boxed><s-strikethrough>including the Royal Courts of Justice, all four</s-strikethrough>Inns of Courts, Royal College of Surgeons,<s-strikethrough>Sir John Soane's Museum, and the West End</s-strikethrough><s-underlined>is immediately across Kingsway from campus, which</s-underlined><s-highlighted>also borders the City of London and is within</s-highlighted>walking distance to Trafalgar Square and theHouses of Parliament.<sep/>
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Managerial<sep/><s-highlighted>Economic</s-highlighted><s-strikethrough>Theories</s-strikethrough><s-strikethrough>relevant to</s-strikethrough><s-boxed>Managerial</s-boxed><sep/><s-highlighted>Microeconomics is</s-highlighted><s-boxed>the dominant focus</s-boxed><sep/>
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<s-highlighted>Labour economics</s-highlighted><sep/><s-strikethrough>Macro and micro analysis of labour markets</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-highlighted>There are two sides to labour economics. Labour economics can</s-highlighted><s-boxed>generally be seen as the application of microeconomic or</s-boxed><s-underlined>macroeconomic techniques to the labour market. Microeconomic</s-underlined>techniques study the role of individuals and individual firms in the<s-boxed>labour market. Macroeconomic techniques look at the</s-boxed><s-underlined>interrelations between the labour market, the goods market, the</s-underlined><s-boxed>money market, and the foreign trade market. It looks at how</s-boxed>these interactions influence macro variables such as employment<s-underlined>levels, participation rates, aggregate income and gross domestic</s-underlined><sep/>
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Neoclassical economics<sep/>Classification<sep/><s-highlighted>The term was originally introduced by Thorstein</s-highlighted><s-underlined>Veblen in his 1900 article "Preconceptions of</s-underlined><s-strikethrough>Economic Science", in which he related</s-strikethrough><s-highlighted>marginalists in the tradition of Alfred Marshall et</s-highlighted><s-boxed>al. to those in the Austrian School.</s-boxed><sep/><s-strikethrough>No attempt will here be made even to pass a verdict</s-strikethrough>on the relative claims of the recognized two or<s-strikethrough>three main "schools" of theory, beyond the</s-strikethrough><s-boxed>somewhat obvious finding that, for the purpose in</s-boxed><sep/>
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<s-underlined>Elasticity (economics)</s-underlined><sep/><s-boxed>Introduction</s-boxed><sep/><s-strikethrough>The concept of price elasticity was first cited in an informal</s-strikethrough><s-underlined>form in the book Principles of Economics published by the</s-underlined>author Alfred Marshall in 1890. Subsequently, a major studyof the price elasticity of supply and the price elasticity of<s-boxed>demand for US products was undertaken by Joshua Levy and</s-boxed><s-strikethrough>Trevor Pollock in the late 1960s.</s-strikethrough><sep/>Elasticity is an important concept in neoclassical economic<s-strikethrough>theory, and enables in the understanding of various economic</s-strikethrough><s-strikethrough>concepts, such as the incidence of indirect taxation, marginal</s-strikethrough>concepts relating to the theory of the firm, distribution of<s-highlighted>wealth, and different types of goods relating to the theory of</s-highlighted>consumer choice. An understanding of elasticity is also<sep/>
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Marxian economics<sep/>Marx's critique of classical economics<sep/><s-underlined>Marx's critique of political economy took as its starting point the work of the</s-underlined><s-strikethrough>best-known economists of his day, the British moral philosopher turned economist</s-strikethrough>Adam Smith as well as David Ricardo.<sep/><s-strikethrough>In The Wealth of Nations (1776), Smith argued that the most important characteristic</s-strikethrough>of a market economy was that it permitted a rapid growth in productive abilities.<s-boxed>Smith claimed that a growing market stimulated a greater "division of labor" (i.e.</s-boxed>specialization of businesses and/or workers) and in turn this led to greater<s-underlined>productivity. Although Smith generally said little about laborers, he did note that an</s-underlined><s-underlined>increased division of labor could at some point cause harm to those whose jobs</s-underlined><s-highlighted>became narrower and narrower as the division of labor expanded. Smith</s-highlighted>maintained that a laissez-faire economy would naturally correct itself over time.<sep/><s-underlined>Marx followed Smith by claiming that the most important beneficial economic</s-underlined>consequence of capitalism was a rapid growth in productivity abilities. Marx also<s-boxed>expanded greatly on the notion that laborers could come to harm as capitalism became</s-boxed><s-highlighted>more productive. Additionally, Marx noted in Theories of Surplus Value: "We see</s-highlighted><s-highlighted>the great advance made by Adam Smith beyond the Physiocrats in the analysis of</s-highlighted><s-boxed>surplus-value and hence of capital. In their view, it is only one definite kind of</s-boxed>concrete labour—agricultural labour—that creates surplus-value... But to Adam<s-highlighted>Smith, it is general social labour — no matter in what use-values it manifests itself —</s-highlighted><s-strikethrough>the mere quantity of necessary labour, which creates value. Surplus-value, whether it</s-strikethrough>takes the form of profit, rent, or the secondary form of interest, is nothing but a<s-boxed>part of this labour, appropriated by the owners of the material conditions of labour</s-boxed><sep/>
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Quantum mechanics<sep/><s-underlined>Overview and fundamental concepts</s-underlined><sep/><s-boxed>Quantum mechanics allows the calculation of properties</s-boxed>and behaviour of physical systems. It is typically<s-boxed>applied to microscopic systems: molecules, atoms and</s-boxed><s-strikethrough>subatomic particles. It has been demonstrated to hold for</s-strikethrough><s-strikethrough>complex molecules with thousands of atoms, but its</s-strikethrough><s-underlined>application to human beings raises philosophical</s-underlined><s-strikethrough>problems, such as Wigner's friend, and its application</s-strikethrough>to the universe as a whole remains speculative.<s-underlined>Predictions of quantum mechanics have been verified</s-underlined><s-highlighted>experimentally to an extremely high degree of accuracy.</s-highlighted><sep/>
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<s-underlined>Quantum</s-underlined><sep/><s-boxed>Wave postulate</s-boxed><sep/><s-strikethrough>The theory of quantum</s-strikethrough><s-highlighted>mechanics postulates that a</s-highlighted>wave equation completelydetermines the state of a<s-strikethrough>quantum system at all</s-strikethrough><s-boxed>times. Furthermore, this</s-boxed>differential equation is<s-highlighted>restricted to be linear and</s-highlighted><s-strikethrough>homogeneous. These</s-strikethrough>conditions mean that for any<s-highlighted>two solutions of the wave</s-highlighted><sep/>
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<s-strikethrough>Introduction to quantum mechanics</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-underlined>History</s-underlined><sep/><s-underlined>James C. Maxwell's unification of the equations governing</s-underlined><s-strikethrough>electricity, magnetism, and light in the late 19th century led to</s-strikethrough>experiments on the interaction of light and matter. Some of these<s-underlined>experiments had aspects which could not be explained until quantum</s-underlined>mechanics emerged in the early part of the 20th century.<sep/><s-boxed>Wave–particle duality</s-boxed><sep/><s-boxed>The concept of wave–particle duality says that neither the</s-boxed><s-underlined>classical concept of "particle" nor of "wave" can fully describe the</s-underlined><s-boxed>behavior of quantum-scale objects, either photons or matter.</s-boxed><sep/>
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History of quantum mechanics<sep/><s-underlined>Triumph and trouble at the end of the</s-underlined>classical era<sep/><s-underlined>The discoveries of the 19th century, both the successes and</s-underlined><s-highlighted>failures, set the stage for the emergence of quantum mechanics.</s-highlighted><sep/><s-boxed>Old quantum theory</s-boxed><sep/><s-strikethrough>Quantum mechanics developed in two distinct phases. The</s-strikethrough><s-highlighted>first phase, known as the old quantum theory, began around</s-highlighted><s-underlined>1900 with radically new approaches to explanations physical</s-underlined><s-underlined>phenomena not understood by classical mechanics of the 1800s.</s-underlined><sep/>
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<s-boxed>Interpretations of quantum</s-boxed><sep/><s-highlighted>History</s-highlighted><sep/><s-highlighted>The definition of quantum theorists' terms,</s-highlighted>such as wave function and matrix mechanics,<s-highlighted>progressed through many stages. For instance,</s-highlighted><s-highlighted>Erwin Schrödinger originally viewed the</s-highlighted><s-highlighted>electron's wave function as its charge density</s-highlighted><s-strikethrough>smeared across space, but Max Born</s-strikethrough><s-underlined>reinterpreted the absolute square value of the</s-underlined>wave function as the electron's probability<s-strikethrough>density distributed across space;: 24–33 the</s-strikethrough><s-underlined>Born rule, as it is now called, matched</s-underlined><s-boxed>experiment, whereas Schrödinger's charge</s-boxed><sep/>
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<s-highlighted>Applications of quantum mechanics</s-highlighted><sep/>Electronics<sep/><s-strikethrough>Many modern electronic devices are designed using quantum</s-strikethrough><s-boxed>mechanics. Examples include lasers, electron microscopes,</s-boxed><s-strikethrough>magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) devices and the components</s-strikethrough>used in computing hardware. The study of semiconductors led<s-underlined>to the invention of the diode and the transistor, which are</s-underlined><s-underlined>indispensable parts of modern electronics systems, computer</s-underlined><s-strikethrough>and telecommunications devices. Another application is for</s-strikethrough><s-underlined>making laser diodes and light-emitting diodes, which are a</s-underlined><s-strikethrough>high-efficiency source of light. The global positioning system</s-strikethrough><s-highlighted>(GPS) makes use of atomic clocks to measure precise time</s-highlighted><s-underlined>differences and therefore determine a user's location.</s-underlined><sep/>
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<s-highlighted>Mathematical</s-highlighted><s-highlighted>formulation of quantum</s-highlighted><sep/><s-boxed>History of the formalism</s-boxed><sep/><s-strikethrough>Postulates of quantum</s-strikethrough><sep/>A physical system is generally<s-strikethrough>described by three basic ingredients:</s-strikethrough><s-strikethrough>states; observables; and dynamics (or</s-strikethrough><s-boxed>law of time evolution) or, more</s-boxed><s-highlighted>generally, a group of physical</s-highlighted><s-boxed>symmetries. A classical description</s-boxed><s-highlighted>can be given in a fairly direct way by</s-highlighted><s-underlined>a phase space model of mechanics:</s-underlined><s-underlined>states are points in a phase space</s-underlined><s-highlighted>formulated by symplectic manifold,</s-highlighted><sep/>
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<s-highlighted>Measurement in quantum</s-highlighted><sep/><s-strikethrough>Mathematical formalism</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-boxed>History of the measurement concept</s-boxed><sep/><s-boxed>Quantum information and</s-boxed><sep/><s-boxed>Quantum information science studies how</s-boxed>information science and its application as<s-boxed>technology depend on quantum-mechanical</s-boxed>phenomena. Understanding measurement in<s-boxed>quantum physics is important for this field in</s-boxed><s-underlined>many ways, some of which are briefly surveyed</s-underlined><sep/><s-highlighted>Laboratory implementations</s-highlighted><sep/><s-boxed>The range of physical procedures to which the</s-boxed><s-boxed>mathematics of quantum measurement can be</s-boxed><s-underlined>applied is very broad. In the early years of the</s-underlined>subject, laboratory procedures involved the<sep/>
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<s-boxed>Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)</s-boxed><sep/><s-highlighted>Introduction</s-highlighted><sep/><s-highlighted>The Hamiltonian of a system represents the total energy of the system; that is,</s-highlighted><s-strikethrough>the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of all particles associated with the</s-strikethrough><s-boxed>system. The Hamiltonian takes different forms and can be simplified in some cases by</s-boxed><s-underlined>taking into account the concrete characteristics of the system under analysis, such as</s-underlined><s-strikethrough>single or several particles in the system, interaction between particles, kind of</s-strikethrough>potential energy, time varying potential or time independent one.<sep/>Schrödinger Hamiltonian<sep/><s-highlighted>Schrödinger equation</s-highlighted><sep/>The Hamiltonian generates the time evolution of quantum states. If<sep/><s-strikethrough>Dirac formalism</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-boxed>However, in the more general formalism of Dirac, the Hamiltonian is typically</s-boxed><s-underlined>implemented as an operator on a Hilbert space in the following way:</s-underlined><sep/>The eigenkets of<sep/><s-strikethrough>Expressions for the Hamiltonian</s-strikethrough><sep/>
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Relational<s-highlighted>quantum</s-highlighted><sep/><s-highlighted>History and</s-highlighted><sep/><s-highlighted>Relational</s-highlighted><s-underlined>quantum</s-underlined>mechanics arose<s-boxed>from a</s-boxed><s-boxed>comparison of the</s-boxed><s-highlighted>quandaries posed</s-highlighted><sep/>
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Calculus<sep/><s-highlighted>Etymology</s-highlighted><sep/><s-highlighted>In mathematics education, calculus is an abbreviation</s-highlighted><s-strikethrough>of both infinitesimal calculus and integral calculus,</s-strikethrough><s-underlined>which denotes courses of elementary mathematical</s-underlined><sep/><s-highlighted>In Latin, the word calculus means “small pebble”,</s-highlighted>(the diminutive of calx, meaning "stone"), a meaning<s-highlighted>which still persists in medicine. Because such pebbles</s-highlighted><s-strikethrough>were used for counting out distances, tallying votes, and</s-strikethrough><s-boxed>doing abacus arithmetic, the word came to be the</s-boxed><s-highlighted>Latin word for calculation. In this sense, it was used in</s-highlighted><s-highlighted>English at least as early as 1672, several years</s-highlighted><sep/>
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<s-boxed>Lambda calculus</s-boxed><sep/><s-highlighted>Explanation and</s-highlighted><sep/><s-highlighted>Lambda calculus is Turing</s-highlighted><s-underlined>complete, that is, it is a universal</s-underlined><s-boxed>model of computation that can</s-boxed><s-highlighted>be used to simulate any Turing</s-highlighted><s-underlined>machine. Its namesake, the Greek</s-underlined>letter lambda (λ), is used inlambda expressions and lambdaterms to denote binding a<s-underlined>variable in a function.</s-underlined><sep/><s-highlighted>Lambda calculus may be untyped</s-highlighted><s-boxed>or typed. In typed lambda</s-boxed><sep/>
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<s-highlighted>Fundamental theorem of calculus</s-highlighted><sep/>History<sep/><s-underlined>The fundamental theorem of calculus relates</s-underlined><s-highlighted>differentiation and integration, showing that these</s-highlighted><s-boxed>two operations are essentially inverses of one</s-boxed>another. Before the discovery of this theorem, it<s-highlighted>was not recognized that these two operations were</s-highlighted><s-underlined>related. Ancient Greek mathematicians knew how</s-underlined><s-underlined>to compute area via infinitesimals, an operation that</s-underlined>we would now call integration. The origins of<s-underlined>differentiation likewise predate the fundamental</s-underlined>theorem of calculus by hundreds of years; for<sep/>
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<s-boxed>Calculus (dental)</s-boxed><sep/><s-strikethrough>Etymology</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-boxed>The word comes from Latin calculus 'small stone', from calx 'limestone, lime', probably related to Greek χάλιξ</s-boxed>chalix 'small stone, pebble, rubble', which many trace to a Proto-Indo-European root for 'split, break up'. Calculus<s-boxed>was a term used for various kinds of stones. This spun off many modern words, including calculate ('use stones for</s-boxed><s-strikethrough>mathematical purposes'), and calculus, which came to be used, in the 18th century, for accidental or incidental mineral</s-strikethrough>buildups in human and animal bodies, like kidney stones and minerals on teeth.<sep/>Tartar, on the other hand, originates in Greek as well (tartaron), but as the term for the white encrustation inside casks<s-boxed>(a.k.a. potassium bitartrate, commonly known as cream of tartar). This came to be a term used for calcium phosphate</s-boxed><s-underlined>on teeth in the early 19th century.</s-underlined><sep/><s-strikethrough>Chemical composition</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-highlighted>Calculus is composed of both inorganic (mineral) and organic (cellular and extracellular matrix) components.</s-highlighted><sep/><s-strikethrough>Calculus formation</s-strikethrough><sep/>Dental calculus typically forms in incremental layers that are easily visible using both electron microscopy and lightmicroscopy. These layers form during periodic calcification events of the dental plaque, but the timing and triggers of<s-highlighted>these events are not well understood. The formation of calculus varies widely among individuals and at different locations</s-highlighted><s-boxed>within the mouth. Many variables have been identified that influence the formation of dental calculus, including age,</s-boxed><s-highlighted>sex, ethnic background, diet, location in the oral cavity, oral hygiene, bacterial plaque composition, host genetics, access</s-highlighted><s-underlined>to professional dental care, physical disabilities, systemic diseases, tobacco use, and drugs and medications.</s-underlined><sep/><s-highlighted>Supragingival calculus formation is most abundant on the buccal (cheek) surfaces of the maxillary (upper jaw) molars</s-highlighted><sep/>
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<s-underlined>Join-calculus</s-underlined><sep/><s-strikethrough>Implementations</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-strikethrough>References</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-boxed>External links</s-boxed><sep/>INRIA, Join Calculus homepage<sep/><s-strikethrough>Microsoft Research, The Join Calculus: a Language</s-strikethrough>for Distributed Mobile Programming<sep/>
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<s-underlined>History of calculus</s-underlined><sep/><s-highlighted>Etymology</s-highlighted><sep/><s-underlined>In mathematics education, calculus denotes courses</s-underlined><s-underlined>of elementary mathematical analysis, which are</s-underlined>mainly devoted to the study of functions and limits.The word calculus is Latin for "small pebble" (thediminutive of calx, meaning "stone"), a meaning whichstill persists in medicine. Because such pebbles<s-underlined>were used for counting out distances, tallying votes,</s-underlined><s-boxed>and doing abacus arithmetic, the word came to</s-boxed><s-underlined>mean a method of computation. In this sense, it was</s-underlined><s-underlined>used in English at least as early as 1672, several years</s-underlined><sep/>
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Calculus<sep/><s-underlined>Biology</s-underlined><sep/><s-underlined>Calculus (spider), a genus of the</s-underlined><s-strikethrough>family Oonopidae</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-highlighted>Caseolus calculus, a genus and</s-highlighted>species of small land snails<sep/><s-underlined>Medicine</s-underlined><sep/><s-strikethrough>Calculus (dental), deposits of</s-strikethrough><s-strikethrough>calcium phosphate salts on teeth,</s-strikethrough><s-strikethrough>also known as tartar</s-strikethrough><sep/>
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<s-strikethrough>Calculus of variations</s-strikethrough><sep/>History<sep/>The calculus of variations beganwith the work of Isaac Newton,<s-boxed>such as with Newton's minimal</s-boxed><s-underlined>resistance problem, which he</s-underlined><s-underlined>formulated and solved in 1685, and</s-underlined><s-strikethrough>later published in his Principia in</s-strikethrough><s-strikethrough>1687, which was the first problem</s-strikethrough><s-underlined>in the field to be formulated and</s-underlined><s-strikethrough>correctly solved, and was also</s-strikethrough><s-highlighted>one of the most difficult</s-highlighted><s-highlighted>problems tackled by variational</s-highlighted>methods prior to the twentieth<sep/>
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<s-strikethrough>Vector calculus</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-boxed>Basic objects</s-boxed><sep/>Vector algebra<sep/><s-underlined>The algebraic (non-differential) operations in vector</s-underlined><s-underlined>calculus are referred to as vector algebra, being defined</s-underlined><s-boxed>for a vector space and then applied pointwise to a vector</s-boxed>field. The basic algebraic operations consist of:<sep/><s-underlined>Also commonly used are the two triple products:</s-underlined><sep/>Operators and theorems<sep/>
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<s-strikethrough>Calculus bovis</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-boxed>References</s-boxed><sep/><s-strikethrough>External links</s-strikethrough><sep/>Niuhuang<sep/><s-highlighted>Pharmacopoeia of the</s-highlighted><s-underlined>People's Republic of China</s-underlined><s-underlined>2015 entries for calculus</s-underlined><sep/><s-boxed>Bovis calculus. ≥ 5% cholic</s-boxed>acid, ≥ 25% bilirubin by<s-boxed>dry wright.</s-boxed><sep/>
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Evolutionary biology<sep/><s-strikethrough>Subfields</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-boxed>Evolution is the central unifying concept in biology. Biology</s-boxed><s-highlighted>can be divided into various ways. One way is by the level of</s-highlighted><s-underlined>biological organization, from molecular to cell, organism to</s-underlined><s-highlighted>population. Another way is by perceived taxonomic group, with</s-highlighted><s-boxed>fields such as zoology, botany, and microbiology, reflecting what</s-boxed><s-underlined>was once seen as the major divisions of life. A third way is by</s-underlined><s-strikethrough>approaches, such as field biology, theoretical biology,</s-strikethrough><s-strikethrough>experimental evolution, and paleontology. These alternative</s-strikethrough><s-highlighted>ways of dividing up the subject have been combined with</s-highlighted><s-strikethrough>evolutionary biology to create subfields like evolutionary ecology</s-strikethrough><s-underlined>and evolutionary developmental biology.</s-underlined><sep/><s-highlighted>More recently, the merge between biological science and</s-highlighted><sep/>
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<s-strikethrough>Evolutionary</s-strikethrough><s-strikethrough>developmental biology</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-highlighted>History</s-highlighted><sep/><s-boxed>The control of body</s-boxed><sep/><s-underlined>The origins of novelty</s-underlined><sep/><s-underlined>Among the more surprising and,</s-underlined><s-highlighted>perhaps, counterintuitive (from a</s-highlighted><s-underlined>neo-Darwinian viewpoint) results of</s-underlined><s-strikethrough>recent research in evolutionary</s-strikethrough><s-highlighted>developmental biology is that the</s-highlighted><s-underlined>diversity of body plans and</s-underlined><s-underlined>morphology in organisms across</s-underlined><s-underlined>many phyla are not necessarily</s-underlined><sep/>
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<s-boxed>Index of evolutionary biology</s-boxed><sep/><s-boxed>A</s-boxed><sep/><s-highlighted>abiogenesis – adaptation – adaptive mutation –</s-highlighted><s-strikethrough>adaptive radiation – allele – allele frequency –</s-strikethrough><s-underlined>allochronic speciation – allopatric speciation –</s-underlined><s-underlined>altruism – anagenesis – anti-predator</s-underlined><s-boxed>adaptation – applications of evolution –</s-boxed><s-underlined>apomorphy – aposematism – Archaeopteryx –</s-underlined><s-boxed>aquatic adaptation – artificial selection –</s-boxed><sep/><s-boxed>B</s-boxed><sep/><s-underlined>Henry Walter Bates – biological organisation –</s-underlined><s-strikethrough>Black Queen hypothesis – Brassica oleracea –</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-strikethrough>C</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-highlighted>Cambrian explosion – camouflage – Sean B.</s-highlighted><s-highlighted>Carroll – catagenesis – gene-centered view of</s-highlighted><sep/>
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<s-strikethrough>Journal of Evolutionary Biology</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-boxed>References</s-boxed><sep/><s-boxed>External links</s-boxed><sep/><s-highlighted>Official website</s-highlighted><sep/>
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<s-strikethrough>Glossary of genetics and evolutionary biology</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-underlined>A</s-underlined><sep/><s-strikethrough>adaptation</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-underlined>1. The dynamic evolutionary process by which biological</s-underlined><s-boxed>organisms develop characteristics that allow them to survive</s-boxed>and reproduce within their environments.<sep/>2. The state or condition reached by a population during that<sep/><s-highlighted>3. Any character or phenotypic trait with a functional role in</s-highlighted>an individual organism and which has evolved and is maintained<s-underlined>through natural selection.</s-underlined><sep/>
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<s-underlined>Ecology and</s-underlined><s-underlined>evolutionary</s-underlined><sep/><s-underlined>Examples of current</s-underlined><s-underlined>research topics</s-underlined><sep/><s-boxed>Urban evolution</s-boxed><sep/><s-strikethrough>With fast growing cities</s-strikethrough><s-boxed>and high rates of</s-boxed>urbanization a whole new kind<sep/>
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<s-boxed>History of</s-boxed><s-highlighted>evolutionary</s-highlighted><sep/>Antiquity<sep/>Middle Ages<sep/><s-underlined>Renaissance and</s-underlined><sep/>In the first half<sep/>
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<s-boxed>Computational</s-boxed><sep/><s-highlighted>History</s-highlighted><sep/><s-underlined>Bioinformatics, the</s-underlined><s-underlined>analysis of informatics</s-underlined><s-highlighted>processes in biological</s-highlighted><s-underlined>systems, began in the</s-underlined><s-boxed>early 1970s. At this time,</s-boxed><s-strikethrough>research in artificial</s-strikethrough>intelligence was using<s-highlighted>network models of the</s-highlighted>human brain in order to<s-boxed>generate new algorithms.</s-boxed><s-highlighted>This use of biological</s-highlighted><sep/>
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European Society for Evolutionary<sep/>Presidents<sep/><s-underlined>Source: ESEB</s-underlined><sep/><s-highlighted>1987–1989: Arthur Cain (first president)</s-highlighted><sep/><s-strikethrough>1989–1991: Bengt Bengtsson</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-highlighted>1991–1993: John Maynard Smith</s-highlighted><sep/><s-strikethrough>Objectives and Activities</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-underlined>ESEB aims to support and promote the study of</s-underlined><s-highlighted>organic evolution and the integration of scientific</s-highlighted><sep/>
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<s-underlined>Outline of evolution</s-underlined><sep/><s-underlined>Fundamentals about evolution</s-underlined><sep/><s-boxed>Evolutionary theory and modelling</s-boxed><sep/><s-highlighted>See also Basic principles (above)</s-highlighted><sep/>Taxonomy, systematics, and phylogeny<sep/><s-underlined>Evolution of biodiversity</s-underlined><sep/><s-underlined>Biodiversity – Variety and variability of life forms</s-underlined><sep/><s-highlighted>Applications in other disciplines</s-highlighted><sep/><s-boxed>Applications of evolution – Practical application of</s-boxed>biological evolution<sep/><s-strikethrough>Biological anthropology – Branch of anthropology that</s-strikethrough><s-strikethrough>studies the physical development of the human species</s-strikethrough><sep/>
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<s-underlined>Philosophy of language</s-underlined><sep/><s-underlined>History</s-underlined><sep/><s-highlighted>Major topics and</s-highlighted><sep/>Problems in the<s-strikethrough>philosophy of</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-underlined>Further reading</s-underlined><sep/>Atherton, Catherine. 1993.<s-strikethrough>The Stoics on Ambiguity.</s-strikethrough><s-boxed>Cambridge, UK: Cambridge</s-boxed><s-strikethrough>University Press.</s-strikethrough><sep/>
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<s-highlighted>Language game (philosophy)</s-highlighted><sep/><s-highlighted>Philosophical Investigations</s-highlighted><sep/><s-highlighted>In his work Philosophical Investigations</s-highlighted><s-underlined>(1953), Ludwig Wittgenstein regularly</s-underlined><s-strikethrough>referred to the concept of</s-strikethrough>language-games. Wittgenstein rejectedthe idea that language is somehowseparate and corresponding to reality,and he argued that concepts do not need<s-boxed>clarity for meaning. Wittgenstein used</s-boxed><s-boxed>the term "language-game" to designate</s-boxed><s-boxed>forms of language simpler than the</s-boxed><s-strikethrough>entirety of a language itself, "consisting</s-strikethrough><s-underlined>of language and the actions into which it</s-underlined><s-strikethrough>is woven" and connected by family</s-strikethrough>resemblance (Familienähnlichkeit). The<s-boxed>concept was intended "to bring into</s-boxed><sep/>
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<s-strikethrough>Ordinary language philosophy</s-strikethrough><sep/>Central ideas<sep/><s-underlined>The later Wittgenstein held that the meanings of</s-underlined><s-underlined>words reside in their ordinary uses and that this is why</s-underlined><s-boxed>philosophers trip over words taken in abstraction. From</s-boxed><s-strikethrough>this came the idea that philosophy had gotten into</s-strikethrough><s-highlighted>trouble by trying to use words outside of the context of</s-highlighted><s-boxed>their use in ordinary language. For example,</s-boxed>"understanding" is what you mean when you say "Iunderstand". "Knowledge" is what you mean when you<s-strikethrough>say "I know". The point is that you already know</s-strikethrough><s-highlighted>what "understanding" or "knowledge" are, at least</s-highlighted>implicitly. Philosophers are ill-advised to construct<s-underlined>new definitions of these terms, because this is</s-underlined><s-highlighted>necessarily a redefinition, and the argument may</s-highlighted><sep/>
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<s-highlighted>Ideal language philosophy</s-highlighted><sep/><s-underlined>See also</s-underlined><sep/><s-boxed>Formal language theory</s-boxed><sep/><s-strikethrough>References</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-highlighted>Barber, Alex; Stainton, Robert, eds. (2010).</s-highlighted><s-highlighted>Concise Encyclopedia of Philosophy of Language</s-highlighted>and Linguistics. Oxford: Elsevier. p. 47. ISBN978-0-08-096500-0. OCLC 377840723.<sep/><s-boxed>Moore, A. W. (2012). The Evolution of Modern</s-boxed><s-strikethrough>Metaphysics: Making Sense of Things. Cambridge:</s-strikethrough><s-boxed>Cambridge University Press. pp. 230, 242, 224–54.</s-boxed><s-boxed>ISBN 978-1-139-02922-3. OCLC</s-boxed><sep/>
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Philosophy<sep/><s-highlighted>Etymology</s-highlighted><sep/><s-underlined>The word philosophy comes from</s-underlined><s-highlighted>the Ancient Greek words</s-highlighted>φίλος (philos) 'love' andσοφία (sophia) 'wisdom'.<s-strikethrough>Some sources say that the term was</s-strikethrough><sep/>
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<s-highlighted>Analytic philosophy</s-highlighted><sep/><s-highlighted>Emergence in Germany</s-highlighted><s-strikethrough>and Austria</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-boxed>Analytic philosophy was deeply</s-boxed><s-boxed>influenced by what is called</s-boxed><s-strikethrough>Austrian realism in the former</s-strikethrough><s-underlined>state of Austria-Hungary, so much</s-underlined><s-boxed>so that Michael Dummett has</s-boxed><s-underlined>remarked that analytic</s-underlined><s-strikethrough>philosophy is better characterized</s-strikethrough><s-strikethrough>as Anglo-Austrian rather than</s-strikethrough>the usual Anglo-American.<sep/>
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<s-strikethrough>Outline of</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-strikethrough>Branches of</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-strikethrough>The branches of</s-strikethrough><s-boxed>philosophy and their</s-boxed><s-underlined>sub-branches that are</s-underlined><s-underlined>used in contemporary</s-underlined><s-highlighted>philosophy are as</s-highlighted><sep/><s-highlighted>Philosophic</s-highlighted>traditions by region<sep/>Regional variations of<sep/><s-highlighted>History of</s-highlighted><sep/>
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Natural language<sep/>Defining natural language<sep/><s-highlighted>Natural language can be broadly defined as</s-highlighted><s-underlined>different from</s-underlined><sep/><s-highlighted>artificial and constructed languages, e.g.</s-highlighted>computer programming languages<sep/><s-underlined>constructed international auxiliary languages</s-underlined><sep/>non-human communication systems in nature such<s-strikethrough>as whale and other marine mammal vocalizations</s-strikethrough><s-underlined>or honey bees' waggle dance.</s-underlined><sep/><s-underlined>Controlled languages</s-underlined><sep/>
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<s-underlined>Meaning</s-underlined><sep/><s-underlined>Truth and meaning</s-underlined><sep/><s-highlighted>The question of what is</s-highlighted><s-highlighted>a proper basis for</s-highlighted><s-underlined>deciding how words,</s-underlined><s-boxed>symbols, ideas and</s-boxed><s-strikethrough>beliefs may properly be</s-strikethrough><s-highlighted>considered to</s-highlighted><sep/>
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<s-highlighted>Philosophy of mathematics</s-highlighted><sep/><s-boxed>Major themes</s-boxed><sep/><s-highlighted>History</s-highlighted><sep/><s-strikethrough>The origin of mathematics is of arguments and disagreements. Whether the birth of mathematics was by chance</s-strikethrough>or induced by necessity during the development of similar subjects, such as physics, remains an area of<sep/><s-boxed>Many thinkers have contributed their ideas concerning the nature of mathematics. Today, some philosophers</s-boxed><s-underlined>of mathematics aim to give accounts of this form of inquiry and its products as they stand, while others</s-underlined>emphasize a role for themselves that goes beyond simple interpretation to critical analysis. There aretraditions of mathematical philosophy in both Western philosophy and Eastern philosophy. Western<s-strikethrough>philosophies of mathematics go as far back as Pythagoras, who described the theory "everything is mathematics"</s-strikethrough><s-highlighted>(mathematicism), Plato, who paraphrased Pythagoras, and studied the ontological status of mathematical objects,</s-highlighted><s-underlined>and Aristotle, who studied logic and issues related to infinity (actual versus potential).</s-underlined><sep/><s-boxed>Greek philosophy on mathematics was strongly influenced by their study of geometry. For example, at one</s-boxed><s-highlighted>time, the Greeks held the opinion that 1 (one) was not a number, but rather a unit of arbitrary length. A</s-highlighted><s-strikethrough>number was defined as a multitude. Therefore, 3, for example, represented a certain multitude of units, and</s-strikethrough>was thus "truly" a number. At another point, a similar argument was made that 2 was not a number but a<s-highlighted>fundamental notion of a pair. These views come from the heavily geometric straight-edge-and-compass</s-highlighted>viewpoint of the Greeks: just as lines drawn in a geometric problem are measured in proportion to the first<s-underlined>arbitrarily drawn line, so too are the numbers on a number line measured in proportion to the arbitrary first</s-underlined><s-strikethrough>"number" or "one".</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-underlined>These earlier Greek ideas of numbers were later upended by the discovery of the irrationality of the square</s-underlined>root of two. Hippasus, a disciple of Pythagoras, showed that the diagonal of a unit square was incommensurable<sep/>
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<s-underlined>Globalization</s-underlined><sep/><s-boxed>Etymology and usage</s-boxed><sep/><s-strikethrough>The word globalization was used in the English language as early</s-strikethrough><s-highlighted>as the 1930s, but only in the context of education, and the term</s-highlighted><s-boxed>failed to gain traction. Over the next few decades, the term was</s-boxed><s-boxed>occasionally used by other scholars and media, but it was not clearly</s-boxed><s-strikethrough>defined. One of the first usages of the term in the meaning</s-strikethrough><s-highlighted>resembling the later, was by French economist François Perroux</s-highlighted><s-strikethrough>in his essays from the early 1960s (in his French works he used the</s-strikethrough><s-highlighted>term "mondialisation" (literarly worldization in French), also</s-highlighted>translated as mundialization). Theodore Levitt is often credited<s-boxed>with popularizing the term and bringing it into the mainstream</s-boxed><s-strikethrough>business audience in the later in the middle of 1980s.</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-boxed>Though often treated as synonyms, in French, globalization is seen</s-boxed><s-underlined>as a stage following mondialisation, a stage that implies the</s-underlined><s-highlighted>dissolution of national identities and the abolishment of borders</s-highlighted><s-strikethrough>inside the world network of economic exchanges.</s-strikethrough><sep/>
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<s-underlined>Alter-globalization</s-underlined><sep/><s-highlighted>History</s-highlighted><sep/><s-highlighted>The 1970s saw resistance to</s-highlighted>global expansion by bothgovernment and<s-underlined>non-government parties.</s-underlined><s-boxed>U.S. Senator Frank Church</s-boxed><s-strikethrough>was concerned with the role</s-strikethrough><s-highlighted>multinational corporations</s-highlighted><s-underlined>were beginning to play in</s-underlined><s-strikethrough>global trade and created a</s-strikethrough>subcommittee that reviewed<s-boxed>corporate practices to see if</s-boxed><s-strikethrough>they were advancing U.S.</s-strikethrough><sep/>
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<s-highlighted>Anti-globalization movement</s-highlighted><sep/><s-boxed>Ideology and causes</s-boxed><sep/><s-boxed>Supporters believe that by the late 20th century those</s-boxed><s-boxed>they characterized as "ruling elites" sought to harness the</s-boxed><s-highlighted>expansion of world markets for their own interests; this</s-highlighted><s-underlined>combination of the Bretton Woods institutions, states,</s-underlined>and multinational corporations has been called<s-boxed>"globalization" or "globalization from above." In reaction,</s-boxed><s-boxed>various social movements emerged to challenge their</s-boxed>influence; these movements have been called<s-underlined>"anti-globalization," "alter-globalization" or "globalization</s-underlined><s-strikethrough>from below."</s-strikethrough><sep/>
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<s-boxed>Globalism</s-boxed><sep/>Definition<sep/><s-underlined>Paul James defines globalism</s-underlined><sep/><s-highlighted>at least in its more specific use ... as the</s-highlighted><s-strikethrough>dominant ideology and subjectivity</s-strikethrough><s-highlighted>associated with different historically</s-highlighted>formations of global extension. The<s-boxed>definition thus implies that there were</s-boxed><s-boxed>pre-modern or traditional forms of</s-boxed><s-highlighted>globalism and globalization long before the</s-highlighted><s-strikethrough>driving force of capitalism sought to</s-strikethrough><s-highlighted>colonize every corner of the globe, for</s-highlighted><s-strikethrough>example, going back to the Roman Empire in</s-strikethrough><s-boxed>the second century AD, and perhaps to the</s-boxed>Greeks of the fifth-century BC.<sep/><s-boxed>Early ideas of globalism were also</s-boxed><s-highlighted>expressed by Adam Smith through his views</s-highlighted><s-boxed>on the role of commodities in distinguishing</s-boxed>the civilized from the barbarous, which<s-underlined>was deeply embedded in the ideology of</s-underlined><sep/><s-strikethrough>Manfred Steger distinguishes among</s-strikethrough>different globalisms, such as justice<sep/>
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<s-strikethrough>Cultural</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-boxed>Contributing</s-boxed><sep/><s-boxed>Macroregions,</s-boxed><s-highlighted>such as the</s-highlighted><s-underlined>European Union</s-underlined><s-underlined>and North</s-underlined><s-boxed>American Free</s-boxed><sep/>
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History of globalization<sep/><s-boxed>Periodization</s-boxed><sep/><s-highlighted>Thomas L. Friedman divides the history of globalization into</s-highlighted><s-strikethrough>three periods: Globalization 1.0 (1492–1800), Globalization 2.0</s-strikethrough><s-highlighted>(1800–2000) and Globalization 3.0 (2000–present). He states</s-highlighted><s-strikethrough>that Globalization 1.0 involved the globalization of countries,</s-strikethrough><s-highlighted>Globalization 2.0 involved the globalization of companies and</s-highlighted><s-boxed>Globalization 3.0 involves the globalization of individuals.</s-boxed><sep/><s-highlighted>Klaus Schwab, founder and Executive Chairman of the World</s-highlighted>Economic Forum, Richard Baldwin and Philippe Martin have<s-boxed>divided the history of globalization into four eras: Globalization</s-boxed><s-highlighted>1.0 was before World War I, Globalization 2.0 was after</s-highlighted>World War II "when trade in goods was combined with<s-highlighted>complementary Globalization 3.0, for which other terms in use</s-highlighted><s-strikethrough>have included "New Globalization", hyperglobalization, the "global</s-strikethrough><s-underlined>value chain revolution", and the period of offshoring, refers to a</s-underlined><s-underlined>more recent period of change in global economic relationships, and</s-underlined><sep/>
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<s-highlighted>Global</s-highlighted><sep/><s-strikethrough>Entertainment</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-highlighted>Global (Paul van Dyk album), 2003</s-highlighted><sep/><s-highlighted>Global (Bunji Garlin album), 2007</s-highlighted><sep/><s-boxed>Global (Humanoid album), 1989</s-boxed><sep/>Global (Todd Rundgren album), 2015<sep/><s-strikethrough>Bruno J. Global, a character in the anime series The Super Dimension</s-strikethrough><s-underlined>Fortress Marcoss</s-underlined><sep/><s-highlighted>Companies and brands</s-highlighted><sep/><s-strikethrough>Other uses</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-highlighted>.global, top-level domain</s-highlighted><sep/>
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Political globalization<sep/><s-boxed>Definitions</s-boxed><sep/><s-strikethrough>William R. Thompson has defined it as "the</s-strikethrough><s-strikethrough>expansion of a global political system, and its</s-strikethrough><s-highlighted>institutions, in which inter-regional transactions</s-highlighted><s-highlighted>(including, but certainly not limited to trade) are</s-highlighted><s-highlighted>managed". Valentine M. Moghadam defined it</s-highlighted><s-highlighted>as "an increasing trend toward multilateralism</s-highlighted>(in which the United Nations plays a key role),<s-strikethrough>to an emerging 'transnational state apparatus,'</s-strikethrough><s-underlined>and toward the emergence of national and</s-underlined><s-underlined>international nongovernmental organizations</s-underlined><s-highlighted>that act as watchdogs over governments and have</s-highlighted><s-boxed>increased their activities and influence".</s-boxed><s-highlighted>Manfred B. Steger in turn wrote that it</s-highlighted><sep/>
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<s-underlined>Economic globalization</s-underlined><sep/><s-strikethrough>Evolution of globalization</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-underlined>Global agents</s-underlined><sep/><s-underlined>Impact</s-underlined><sep/><s-highlighted>See also</s-highlighted><sep/><s-strikethrough>Notes</s-strikethrough><sep/>References<sep/><s-underlined>Gao, Shangquan (2000). "Economic Globalization:</s-underlined><s-underlined>Trends, Risks and Risk Prevention: 2000" (PDF).</s-underlined><sep/><s-underlined>Bordo, Michael D.; Taylor, Alan M.; Williamson,</s-underlined><s-strikethrough>Jeffrey G. (1 November 2007). Globalization in</s-strikethrough>Historical Perspective. University of Chicago Press.<s-strikethrough>ISBN 978-0-226-06599-1.</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-boxed>Held, David, ed. (2004). A Globalizing World?:</s-boxed><s-underlined>Culture, Economics, Politics (2nd ed.). London; New</s-underlined>York: Routledge, in association with the Open<sep/>James, Paul; Gills, Barry (2007). Globalization and<s-underlined>Economy, Vol. 1: Global Markets and Capitalism.</s-underlined><s-underlined>London: Sage Publications.</s-underlined><sep/>
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<s-highlighted>Criticisms of globalization</s-highlighted><sep/><s-strikethrough>Economic impacts</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-strikethrough>Political impacts</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-strikethrough>Environmental impacts</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-boxed>Social impacts</s-boxed><sep/>Psychological impacts<sep/><s-strikethrough>Cultural impacts</s-strikethrough><sep/>See also<sep/><s-strikethrough>Criticism of capitalism</s-strikethrough><sep/>Criticism of neoliberalism<sep/><s-underlined>Criticism of the World Bank</s-underlined><sep/><s-underlined>Criticism of the World Trade Organization</s-underlined><sep/><s-underlined>Development criticism</s-underlined><sep/>
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<s-highlighted>Greek mythology</s-highlighted><sep/>Sources<sep/><s-highlighted>Greek mythology is known today primarily from Greek literature and</s-highlighted>representations on visual media dating from the Geometric period from c.900 BC to c. 800 BC onward.: 200 In fact, literary and archaeological<s-highlighted>sources integrate, sometimes mutually supportive and sometimes in conflict;</s-highlighted><s-highlighted>however, in many cases, the existence of this corpus of data is an indication</s-highlighted>that many elements of Greek mythology have strong factual and historical<sep/><s-underlined>Survey of mythic history</s-underlined><sep/><s-strikethrough>Greek mythology has changed over time to accommodate the evolution of</s-strikethrough><s-underlined>their culture, of which mythology, both overtly and in its unspoken</s-underlined><s-boxed>assumptions, is an index of the changes. In Greek mythology's surviving</s-boxed><s-strikethrough>literary forms, as found mostly at the end of the progressive changes, it is</s-strikethrough><s-highlighted>inherently political, as Gilbert Cuthbertson (1975) has argued.</s-highlighted><sep/><s-strikethrough>The earlier inhabitants of the Balkan Peninsula were an agricultural</s-strikethrough><s-underlined>people who, using animism, assigned a spirit to every aspect of nature.</s-underlined><s-strikethrough>Eventually, these vague spirits assumed human forms and entered the local</s-strikethrough>mythology as gods.: 17 When tribes from the north of the Balkan<sep/>
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<s-underlined>Pleiades (Greek mythology)</s-underlined><sep/>Etymology<sep/><s-highlighted>The name Pleiades ostensibly derived from the name of their</s-highlighted><s-strikethrough>mother, Pleione, effectively meaning "daughters of</s-strikethrough>Pleione". However, etymologically, the name of the<s-underlined>star-cluster likely came first, and Pleione's name</s-underlined><s-underlined>indicated that she was the mother of the Pleiades. According</s-underlined><s-strikethrough>to another suggestion Pleiades derived from πλεῖν (plein, "to</s-strikethrough><s-strikethrough>sail") because of the cluster's importance in delimiting the</s-strikethrough><s-highlighted>sailing season in the Mediterranean Sea: "the season of</s-highlighted><s-underlined>navigation began with their heliacal rising".</s-underlined><sep/><s-underlined>Family</s-underlined><sep/><s-strikethrough>The Pleiades' parents were the Titan Atlas and the</s-strikethrough><s-highlighted>Oceanid Pleione born on Mount Cyllene. In some accounts,</s-highlighted><s-underlined>their mother was called Aethra, another Oceanid. Aside</s-underlined><sep/>
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<s-strikethrough>Metamorphoses in Greek</s-strikethrough><sep/>List<sep/><s-underlined>Falsely claimed as Greek</s-underlined><sep/><s-highlighted>Throughout the eons, several made up and</s-highlighted>unattested stories involving Greek<s-boxed>mythological characters and Greek</s-boxed><s-underlined>mythological motives have been passed as</s-underlined><s-underlined>genuine Greek myths and beliefs and</s-underlined><s-highlighted>attributed to various ancient Greek and</s-highlighted><s-strikethrough>Roman writers, despite having no basis in</s-strikethrough><s-highlighted>Greek mythology and being attested in no</s-highlighted><s-highlighted>ancient Greek or Latin texts. Those do not</s-highlighted><sep/>
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Pontus (mythology)<sep/><s-boxed>Mythology</s-boxed><sep/>For Hesiod, Pontus seems little more than a personification<s-highlighted>of the sea, ho póntos (Ancient Greek: ὁ Πόντος), by which</s-highlighted><s-strikethrough>Hellenes signified the Mediterranean Sea. After the</s-strikethrough>castration of his brother, Uranus, Pontus, with his mother<s-boxed>Gaia, fathered Nereus (the Old Man of the Sea),</s-boxed><s-boxed>Thaumas (the awe-striking "wonder" of the Sea,</s-boxed><s-strikethrough>embodiment of the sea's dangerous aspects), Phorcys and his</s-strikethrough><s-boxed>sister-consort Ceto, and the "Strong Goddess" Eurybia.</s-boxed><s-strikethrough>With the sea goddess Thalassa (whose own name simply</s-strikethrough><s-underlined>means "sea" but is derived from a Pre-Greek root), he</s-underlined><sep/>
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<s-boxed>Giants (Greek mythology)</s-boxed><sep/><s-boxed>Origins</s-boxed><sep/><s-underlined>The name "Gigantes" is usually taken to imply</s-underlined><s-boxed>"earth-born", and Hesiod's Theogony makes this</s-boxed><s-underlined>explicit by having the Giants be the offspring of</s-underlined><s-underlined>Gaia (Earth). According to Hesiod, Gaia,</s-underlined><s-highlighted>mating with Uranus, bore many children: the</s-highlighted><s-underlined>first generation of Titans, the Cyclopes, and the</s-underlined><s-strikethrough>Hundred-Handers. However, Uranus hated his</s-strikethrough><s-underlined>children and, as soon as they were born, he</s-underlined><s-strikethrough>imprisoned them inside Gaia, causing her much</s-strikethrough><sep/>
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<s-underlined>List of</s-underlined><s-highlighted>Greek</s-highlighted><s-underlined>mythological</s-underlined><sep/><s-boxed>Mythological</s-boxed><sep/><s-highlighted>Aeternae:</s-highlighted>creatures with<s-highlighted>bony, saw-toothed</s-highlighted><s-boxed>protuberances</s-boxed><s-boxed>sprouting from</s-boxed><sep/>
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<s-highlighted>Calypso (mythology)</s-highlighted><sep/><s-highlighted>Etymology</s-highlighted><sep/><s-boxed>The name Calypso derives from the Ancient Greek καλύπτω</s-boxed>(kalyptō), meaning 'to cover', 'to conceal', or 'to hide'; as such, hername translates to 'she who conceals' as she conceals Odysseus from the<s-boxed>rest of the world, keeping him on her island. According to the medieval</s-boxed>dictionary Etymologicum Magnum, her name means 'concealing the<s-underlined>knowledge' (from Greek: καλύπτουσα το</s-underlined><s-boxed>διανοούμενον, romanized: kalýptousa to dianooúmenon),</s-boxed><s-boxed>which – combined with the Homeric epithet δολόεσσα</s-boxed><s-boxed>(dolóessa, meaning 'subtle' or 'wily') – justifies the reclusive character</s-boxed><s-boxed>of Calypso and her island.</s-boxed><sep/><s-boxed>Family</s-boxed><sep/>
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Dragons in Greek<sep/><s-strikethrough>Origins</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-underlined>The word dragon derives</s-underlined><s-highlighted>from the Greek δράκων</s-highlighted><s-boxed>(drakōn) and its Latin</s-boxed><s-underlined>cognate draco. Ancient</s-underlined><s-highlighted>Greeks applied the term to</s-highlighted>large, constricting snakes.<sep/>
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<s-highlighted>List of mortals in</s-highlighted><s-boxed>Greek mythology</s-boxed><sep/><s-underlined>Heroes</s-underlined><sep/><s-underlined>Notable women</s-underlined><sep/>Kings<sep/><s-underlined>Seers/oracles</s-underlined><sep/><s-highlighted>Amazons</s-highlighted><sep/>Inmates of Tartarus<sep/><s-underlined>The Danaides, forty-nine</s-underlined><s-strikethrough>daughters of Danaus who</s-strikethrough><sep/>
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<s-boxed>Titans</s-boxed><sep/><s-strikethrough>Genealogy</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-strikethrough>Former gods</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-boxed>The Titans, as a group, represent a pre-Olympian order. Hesiod uses the expression "the former gods"</s-boxed><s-boxed>(theoi proteroi) in reference to the Titans. They were the banished gods, who were no longer part of</s-boxed>the upper world. Rather they were the gods who dwelt underground in Tartarus, and as such, they may<s-strikethrough>have been thought of as "gods of the underworld", who were the antithesis of, and in opposition to, the</s-strikethrough><s-highlighted>Olympians, the gods of the heavens. Hesiod called the Titans "earth-born" (chthonic), and in the</s-highlighted>Homeric Hymn to Apollo, Hera prays to the Titans "who dwell beneath the earth", calling on them<s-strikethrough>to aid her against Zeus, just as if they were chthonic spirits. In a similar fashion, in the Iliad, Hera,</s-strikethrough><s-strikethrough>upon swearing an oath by the underworld river Styx, "invoked by name all the gods below Tartarus,</s-strikethrough><s-underlined>that are called Titans" as witnesses.</s-underlined><sep/><s-strikethrough>They were the older gods, but not, apparently, as was once thought, the old gods of an indigenous group in</s-strikethrough><s-strikethrough>Greece, historically displaced by the new gods of Greek invaders. Rather, they were a group of gods,</s-strikethrough>whose mythology at least, seems to have been borrowed from the Near East (see "Near East origins,"<s-highlighted>below). These imported gods gave context and provided a backstory for the Olympian gods, explaining</s-highlighted><s-highlighted>where these Greek Olympian gods had come from, and how they had come to occupy their position of</s-highlighted><s-highlighted>supremacy in the cosmos. The Titans were the previous generation, and family of gods, whom the</s-highlighted>Olympians had to overthrow, and banish from the upper world, in order to become the ruling pantheon ofGreek gods.<sep/>
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Urban planning<sep/><s-boxed>History</s-boxed><sep/><s-boxed>There is evidence of urban planning and designed</s-boxed><s-underlined>communities dating back to the Mesopotamian,</s-underlined><s-strikethrough>Indus Valley, Minoan, and Egyptian civilizations in</s-strikethrough>the third millennium BCE. Archaeologists studyingthe ruins of cities in these areas find paved streets<s-underlined>that were laid out at right angles in a grid pattern.</s-underlined>The idea of a planned out urban area evolved asdifferent civilizations adopted it. Beginning in the<s-highlighted>8th century BCE, Greek city states primarily used</s-highlighted>orthogonal (or grid-like) plans. Hippodamus of<s-boxed>Miletus (498–408 BC), the ancient Greek architect</s-boxed><s-underlined>and urban planner, is considered to be "the father</s-underlined><s-strikethrough>of European urban planning", and the namesake of</s-strikethrough><s-boxed>the "Hippodamian plan" (grid plan) of city layout.</s-boxed><sep/><s-boxed>The ancient Romans also used orthogonal plans for</s-boxed><s-underlined>their cities. City planning in the Roman world was</s-underlined><s-boxed>developed for military defense and public</s-boxed><s-highlighted>convenience. The spread of the Roman Empire</s-highlighted><s-underlined>subsequently spread the ideas of urban planning.</s-underlined><s-underlined>As the Roman Empire declined, these ideas slowly</s-underlined>disappeared. However, many cities in Europe still<sep/>
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<s-highlighted>Urban planning education</s-highlighted><sep/><s-strikethrough>Coursework</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-highlighted>As urban planning is such a broad and interdisciplinary field, a typical</s-highlighted><s-highlighted>planning degree program emphasizes breadth over depth, with core</s-highlighted><s-highlighted>coursework that provides background for all areas of planning. Core courses</s-highlighted>typically include coursework in history, theory of urban planning, urbandesign, statistics, land use, planning law, zoning law, public policy and<s-boxed>administration, urban economics, and planning practice. Many planning</s-boxed><s-boxed>degree programs also allow a student to "concentrate" in a specific area of</s-boxed><s-highlighted>interest within planning, such as land use, environmental planning, housing,</s-highlighted>community development, economic development, historic preservation,<s-boxed>international development, urban design, transportation planning, or</s-boxed><s-underlined>geographic information systems (GIS). Some programs permit a student to</s-underlined><s-highlighted>concentrate in real estate, however, graduate real estate education has</s-highlighted><s-strikethrough>changed giving rise to specialized real estate programs.</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-strikethrough>Professional degrees</s-strikethrough><sep/>The most common planning degree is at a graduate level (per Planetizen's<s-underlined>global program directory); there is not one standard naming convention for</s-underlined><s-underlined>the degree and each generally reflects the geographic focus of the specific</s-underlined><s-underlined>program (e.g. regional, urban, city, and/or town planning). There are fewer</s-underlined><s-strikethrough>bachelor's degree programs in urban planning. Research degrees are</s-strikethrough>commonly only offered as part of a doctorate program. The United States<s-highlighted>has the highest concentration of programs in planning, followed by the</s-highlighted><sep/>
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<s-underlined>Urban planning in Communist countries</s-underlined><sep/><s-strikethrough>Beginnings of urban planning in communist</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-strikethrough>Many eastern European countries had suffered physical</s-strikethrough><s-boxed>damage during World War II and their economies were in a</s-boxed><s-boxed>very poor state. There was a need to reconstruct cities which</s-boxed><s-strikethrough>had been severely damaged due to the war. For example,</s-strikethrough>Warsaw, Poland, had been practically razed to the ground<s-underlined>under the planned destruction of Warsaw by German forces</s-underlined><s-strikethrough>after the 1944 Warsaw Uprising. The centre of Dresden,</s-strikethrough><s-highlighted>Germany, had been totally destroyed by the 1945 Allied</s-highlighted><s-boxed>bombardment. Stalingrad had been largely destroyed and</s-boxed><s-strikethrough>only a small number of structures were left standing.</s-strikethrough><sep/>
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<s-underlined>History of urban planning</s-underlined><sep/><s-underlined>Prehistory</s-underlined><sep/><s-strikethrough>The pre-Classical and Classical</s-strikethrough><s-highlighted>periods saw a number of cities laid</s-highlighted>out according to fixed plans, though<s-boxed>many tended to develop organically.</s-boxed>Designed cities were characteristic<s-underlined>of the Minoan, Mesopotamian,</s-underlined><s-highlighted>Harrapan, and Egyptian civilisations</s-highlighted><s-strikethrough>of the third millennium BC (see</s-strikethrough>Urban planning in ancient Egypt).<s-strikethrough>The first recorded description of</s-strikethrough><s-underlined>urban planning appears in the Epic</s-underlined><s-strikethrough>of Gilgamesh: "Go up on to the wall</s-strikethrough><s-strikethrough>of Uruk and walk around. Inspect</s-strikethrough><s-highlighted>the foundation platform and</s-highlighted><s-underlined>scrutinise the brickwork. Testify</s-underlined><s-strikethrough>that its bricks are baked bricks, And</s-strikethrough><sep/>
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<s-strikethrough>Urban planning in Israel</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-highlighted>Urban planning in Tel Aviv</s-highlighted><sep/><s-strikethrough>Urban planning in Jerusalem</s-strikethrough><sep/>Planning of kibbutzim<sep/><s-boxed>Degania, established in 1910 near the southern tip of the Sea of</s-boxed><s-strikethrough>Galilee, the first kibbutz was designed through the influences of</s-strikethrough><s-underlined>socialist and utopian ideals that had evolved since the 19th</s-underlined><s-highlighted>century, particularly the communal philosophies associated</s-highlighted><s-strikethrough>with Marxist thought. The spatial organization centered on a</s-strikethrough>shared courtyard, around which key communal buildings such asdining facilities, bathing areas, and workspaces were arranged<s-underlined>to promote cooperation and equality among residents. As an</s-underlined><s-strikethrough>agricultural community, functional structures like the grain silo</s-strikethrough><s-strikethrough>and water tower served both practical and symbolic roles.</s-strikethrough>Public institutions, including a school designed by Richard<s-underlined>Kauffmann, reflected the kibbutz's collective ethos, especially in</s-underlined>its approach to education and childcare. Degania's layout and<s-strikethrough>philosophy set a precedent for future kibbutzim.</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-strikethrough>Nahalal, established in 1921 in Israel's Jezreel Valley, was</s-strikethrough><s-boxed>planned by architect Richard Kauffmann, the kibbutz was</s-boxed><s-strikethrough>designed with in a circular formation, placing shared public</s-strikethrough>buildings such as the school and community centers at its core.<sep/>
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<s-strikethrough>Theories of urban planning</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-boxed>Background</s-boxed><sep/><s-strikethrough>Urban planning can include urban renewal, by adapting urban</s-strikethrough><s-strikethrough>planning methods to existing cities suffering from decline.</s-strikethrough><s-boxed>Alternatively, it can concern the massive challenges associated with</s-boxed><s-underlined>urban growth, particularly in the Global South. All in all, urban</s-underlined><s-strikethrough>planning exists in various forms and addresses many different issues.</s-strikethrough><s-highlighted>The modern origins of urban planning lie in the movement for urban</s-highlighted><s-boxed>reform that arose as a reaction against the disorder of the industrial</s-boxed><s-highlighted>city in the mid-19th century. Many of the early influencers were</s-highlighted><s-boxed>inspired by anarchism, which was popular in the turn of the 19th and</s-boxed>20th centuries. The new imagined urban form was meant to gohand-in-hand with a new society, based upon voluntary co-operation<s-strikethrough>within self-governing communities.</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-underlined>In the late 20th century, the term sustainable development has come to</s-underlined><s-underlined>represent an ideal outcome in the sum of all planning goals. Sustainable</s-underlined><sep/>
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<s-boxed>Planning areas of Singapore</s-boxed><sep/>List of planning areas<sep/>Planning areas are further subdivided into 332 subzones for statistical purposes.<sep/>* = Place names attested to be of Malay origin and referred to similarly in the Malay language.<sep/><s-highlighted>See also</s-highlighted><sep/><s-strikethrough>Administrative divisions of Singapore</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-strikethrough>Subdivisions of Singapore</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-boxed>Constituencies of Singapore</s-boxed><sep/><s-underlined>Urban planning in Singapore</s-underlined><sep/><s-underlined>Regions of Singapore</s-underlined><sep/><s-highlighted>References</s-highlighted><sep/><s-boxed>External links</s-boxed><sep/>Planning Areas Boundaries Map A<sep/><s-underlined>Planning Areas Boundaries Map B</s-underlined><sep/><s-strikethrough>Singapore Subzone Map</s-strikethrough><sep/>
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<s-strikethrough>Urban</s-strikethrough><s-boxed>planning of</s-boxed><sep/><s-boxed>Geography and</s-boxed><sep/><s-strikethrough>Barcelona,</s-strikethrough><s-underlined>capital and</s-underlined><s-boxed>largest city of</s-boxed><s-strikethrough>the autonomous</s-strikethrough><s-underlined>community of</s-underlined><sep/>
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Urban design<sep/><s-highlighted>Theory</s-highlighted><sep/>Urban design deals with the larger scale of<s-highlighted>groups of buildings, infrastructure, streets, and</s-highlighted><s-boxed>public spaces, entire neighbourhoods and</s-boxed><s-highlighted>districts, and entire cities, with the goal of</s-highlighted><s-highlighted>making urban environments that are equitable,</s-highlighted><s-strikethrough>beautiful, performative, and sustainable.</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-boxed>Urban design is an interdisciplinary field</s-boxed><s-boxed>that utilizes the procedures and the elements</s-boxed><s-underlined>of architecture and other related professions,</s-underlined><s-boxed>including landscape design, urban planning,</s-boxed><sep/>
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<s-strikethrough>Urban planning in Nazi Germany</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-highlighted>History</s-highlighted><sep/><s-highlighted>The rise of the Nazi Party to power in 1933 brought about significant</s-highlighted><s-highlighted>changes in the direction of architecture and urban planning in Germany. New</s-highlighted><s-underlined>political and administrative entities, formed to govern territories occupied between</s-underlined>1938 and 1942, had spatial and urban planning as core features. Albert Speer,<s-underlined>Hitler's chief architect, applied his skills to design and construct buildings and</s-underlined><s-strikethrough>cities in support of the Nazi ideology.</s-strikethrough><sep/><s-boxed>Purpose</s-boxed><sep/>Places<sep/><s-strikethrough>Legacy</s-strikethrough><sep/>
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