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11,200 | Sagan's interest in UFO reports prompted him on August 3, 1952, to write a letter to U.S. Secretary of State Dean Acheson to ask how the United States would respond if flying saucers turned out to be extraterrestrial. He later had several conversations on the subject in 1964 with Jacques Vallée. Though quite skeptical of any extraordinary answer to the UFO question, Sagan thought scientists should study the phenomenon, at least because there was widespread public interest in UFO reports. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6824 |
11,201 | Stuart Appelle notes that Sagan "wrote frequently on what he perceived as the logical and empirical fallacies regarding UFOs and the abduction experience. Sagan rejected an extraterrestrial explanation for the phenomenon but felt there were both empirical and pedagogical benefits for examining UFO reports and that the subject was, therefore, a legitimate topic of study." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6824 |
11,202 | In 1966 Sagan was a member of the Ad Hoc Committee to Review Project Blue Book, the U.S. Air Force's UFO investigation project. The committee concluded Blue Book had been lacking as a scientific study, and recommended a university-based project to give the UFO phenomenon closer scientific scrutiny. The result was the Condon Committee (1966–68), led by physicist Edward Condon, and in their final report they formally concluded that UFOs, regardless of what any of them actually were, did not behave in a manner consistent with a threat to national security. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6824 |
11,203 | Sociologist Ron Westrum writes that "The high point of Sagan's treatment of the UFO question was the AAAS' symposium in 1969. A wide range of educated opinions on the subject were offered by participants, including not only proponents such as James McDonald and J. Allen Hynek but also skeptics like astronomers William Hartmann and Donald Menzel. The roster of speakers was balanced, and it is to Sagan's credit that this event was presented in spite of pressure from Edward Condon." With physicist Thornton Page, Sagan edited the lectures and discussions given at the symposium; these were published in 1972 as "UFO's: A Scientific Debate". Some of Sagan's many books examine UFOs (as did one episode of "Cosmos") and he claimed a religious undercurrent to the phenomenon. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6824 |
11,204 | Sagan again revealed his views on interstellar travel in his 1980 "Cosmos" series. In one of his last written works, Sagan argued that the chances of extraterrestrial spacecraft visiting Earth are vanishingly small. However, Sagan did think it plausible that Cold War concerns contributed to governments misleading their citizens about UFOs, and wrote that "some UFO reports and analyses, and perhaps voluminous files, have been made inaccessible to the public which pays the bills ... It's time for the files to be declassified and made generally available." He cautioned against jumping to conclusions about suppressed UFO data and stressed that there was no strong evidence that aliens were visiting the Earth either in the past or present. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6824 |
11,205 | Sagan briefly served as an adviser on Stanley Kubrick's film "". Sagan proposed that the film suggest, rather than depict, extraterrestrial superintelligence. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6824 |
11,206 | Sagan's contribution to the 1969 AAAS symposium was an attack on the belief that UFOs are piloted by extraterrestrial beings. Applying several logical assumptions (see Drake equation), Sagan calculated the possible number of advanced civilizations capable of interstellar travel to be about one million. He projected that any civilization wishing to check on all the others on a regular basis of, say, once a year would have to launch 10,000 spacecraft annually. Not only does that seem like an unreasonable number of launchings, but it would take all the material in one percent of the universe's stars to produce all the spaceships needed for all the civilizations to seek each other out. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6824 |
11,207 | To argue that the Earth was being chosen for regular visitations, Sagan said, one would have to assume that the planet is somehow unique, and that assumption "goes exactly against the idea that there are lots of civilizations around. Because if there are then our sort of civilization must be pretty common. And if we're not pretty common then there aren't going to be many civilizations advanced enough to send visitors". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6824 |
11,208 | This argument, which some called Sagan's paradox, helped to establish a new school of thought, namely the belief that extraterrestrial life exists, but it has nothing to do with UFOs. The new belief had a salutary effect on UFO studies. It helped separate researchers who wanted to distinguish UFOs from those who wanted to identify their pilots and it gave scientists opportunities to search the universe for intelligent life unencumbered by the stigma associated with UFOs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6824 |
11,209 | After having myelodysplasia for two years and receiving three bone marrow transplants from his sister, Sagan died from pneumonia at the age of 62 at the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center in Seattle, Washington, on December 20, 1996. His burial took place at Lake View Cemetery in Ithaca, New York. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6824 |
11,210 | The 1997 film "Contact", based on Sagan's only novel of the same name and finished after his death, ends with the dedication "For Carl". His photo can also be seen in the film. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6824 |
11,211 | In 1997, the Sagan Planet Walk was opened in Ithaca, New York. It is a walking-scale model of the Solar System, extending 1.2 km from the center of The Commons in downtown Ithaca to the Sciencenter, a hands-on museum. The exhibition was created in memory of Carl Sagan, who was an Ithaca resident and Cornell Professor. Professor Sagan had been a founding member of the museum's advisory board. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6824 |
11,212 | The landing site of the unmanned "Mars Pathfinder" spacecraft was renamed the Carl Sagan Memorial Station on July 5, 1997. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6824 |
11,213 | Asteroid 2709 Sagan is named in his honor, as is the Carl Sagan Institute for the search of habitable planets. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6824 |
11,214 | Sagan's son, Nick Sagan, wrote several episodes in the "Star Trek" franchise. In an episode of "" entitled "Terra Prime", a quick shot is shown of the relic rover "Sojourner", part of the "Mars Pathfinder" mission, placed by a historical marker at Carl Sagan Memorial Station on the Martian surface. The marker displays a quote from Sagan: "Whatever the reason you're on Mars, I'm glad you're there, and I wish I was with you." Sagan's student Steve Squyres led the team that landed the rovers "Spirit" and "Opportunity" successfully on Mars in 2004. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6824 |
11,215 | On November 9, 2001, on what would have been Sagan's 67th birthday, the Ames Research Center dedicated the site for the Carl Sagan Center for the Study of Life in the Cosmos. "Carl was an incredible visionary, and now his legacy can be preserved and advanced by a 21st century research and education laboratory committed to enhancing our understanding of life in the universe and furthering the cause of space exploration for all time", said NASA Administrator Daniel Goldin. Ann Druyan was at the center as it opened its doors on October 22, 2006. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6824 |
11,216 | August 2007 the Independent Investigations Group (IIG) awarded Sagan posthumously a Lifetime Achievement Award. This honor has also been awarded to Harry Houdini and James Randi. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6824 |
11,217 | In September 2008, a musical compositor Benn Jordan released his album "Pale Blue Dot" as a tribute to Carl Sagan's life. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6824 |
11,218 | Beginning in 2009, a musical project known as Symphony of Science sampled several excerpts of Sagan from his series "Cosmos" and remixed them to electronic music. To date, the videos have received over 21 million views worldwide on YouTube. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6824 |
11,219 | The 2014 Swedish science fiction short film "Wanderers" uses excerpts of Sagan's narration of his book "Pale Blue Dot", played over digitally-created visuals of humanity's possible future expansion into outer space. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6824 |
11,220 | In February 2015, the Finnish-based symphonic metal band Nightwish released the song "Sagan" as a non-album bonus track for their single "Élan". The song, written by the band's songwriter/composer/keyboardist Tuomas Holopainen, is an homage to the life and work of the late Carl Sagan. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6824 |
11,221 | On October 21, 2019, the Carl Sagan and Ann Druyan Theater was opened at the Center for Inquiry West in Los Angeles. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6824 |
11,222 | In 2022, Sagan was posthumously awarded the Future of Life Award "for reducing the risk of nuclear war by developing and popularizing the science of nuclear winter." The honor, shared by seven other recipients involved in nuclear winter research, was accepted by his widow, Ann Druyan. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6824 |
11,223 | GitHub, Inc. () is an Internet hosting service for software development and version control using Git. It provides the distributed version control of Git plus access control, bug tracking, software feature requests, task management, continuous integration, and wikis for every project. Headquartered in California, it has been a subsidiary of Microsoft since 2018. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,224 | It is commonly used to host open source software development projects. As of June 2022, GitHub reported having over 83 million developers and more than 200 million repositories, including at least 28 million public repositories. It is the largest source code host . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,225 | Development of the GitHub.com platform began on October 19, 2007. The site was launched in April 2008 by Tom Preston-Werner, Chris Wanstrath, P. J. Hyett and Scott Chacon after it had been made available for a few months prior as a beta release. GitHub has an annual keynote called GitHub Universe. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,226 | GitHub, Inc. was originally a flat organization with no middle managers; in other words, "everyone is a manager" (self-management). Employees could choose to work on projects that interested them (open allocation), but salaries were set by the chief executive. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,227 | In 2014, GitHub, Inc. introduced a layer of middle management amid harassment claims made against senior management. Tom Preston-Werner resigned as CEO amid the scandal. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,228 | GitHub.com was a bootstrapped start-up business, which in its first years provided enough revenue to be funded solely by its three founders and start taking on employees. In July 2012, four years after the company was founded, Andreessen Horowitz invested $100 million in venture capital. In July 2015 GitHub raised another $250 million of venture capital in a series B round. Investors were Sequoia Capital, Andreessen Horowitz, Thrive Capital, and other venture capital funds. As of 2018, GitHub was estimated to be generating $200–300 million in Annual Recurring Revenue. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,229 | The GitHub service was developed by Chris Wanstrath, P. J. Hyett, Tom Preston-Werner, and Scott Chacon using Ruby on Rails, and started in February 2008. The company, GitHub, Inc., has existed since 2007 and is located in San Francisco. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,230 | On February 24, 2009, GitHub announced that within the first year of being online, GitHub had accumulated over 46,000 public repositories, 17,000 of which were formed in the previous month. At that time, about 6,200 repositories had been forked at least once and 4,600 had been merged. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,231 | That same year, the site was used by over 100,000 users, according to GitHub, and had grown to host 90,000 unique public repositories, 12,000 having been forked at least once, for a total of 135,000 repositories. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,232 | In 2010, GitHub was hosting 1 million repositories. A year later, this number doubled. ReadWriteWeb reported that GitHub had surpassed SourceForge and Google Code in total number of commits for the period of January to May 2011. On January 16, 2013, GitHub passed the 3 million users mark and was then hosting more than 5 million repositories. By the end of the year, the number of repositories was twice as great, reaching 10 million repositories. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,233 | In 2012, GitHub raised $100 million in funding from Andreessen Horowitz with a $750 million valuation. On July 29, 2015, GitHub stated it had raised $250 million in funding in a round led by Sequoia Capital. Other investors of that round included Andreessen Horowitz, Thrive Capital, and IVP (Institutional Venture Partners). The round valued the company at approximately $2 billion. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,234 | In 2015, GitHub opened an office in Japan, its first outside of the U.S. In 2016, GitHub was ranked No. 14 on the "Forbes" Cloud 100 list. It was not featured on the 2018, 2019, and 2020 lists. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,235 | On February 28, 2018, GitHub fell victim to the third-largest distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attack in history, with incoming traffic reaching a peak of about 1.35 terabits per second. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,236 | On June 19, 2018, GitHub expanded its GitHub Education by offering free education bundles to all schools. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,237 | From 2012, Microsoft became a significant user of GitHub, using it to host open-source projects and development tools such as .NET Core, Chakra Core, MSBuild, PowerShell, PowerToys, Visual Studio Code, Windows Calculator, Windows Terminal and the bulk of its product documentation (now to be found on Microsoft Docs). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,238 | On June 4, 2018, Microsoft announced its intent to acquire GitHub for US$7.5 billion. The deal closed on October 26, 2018. GitHub continued to operate independently as a community, platform and business. Under Microsoft, the service was led by Xamarin's Nat Friedman, reporting to Scott Guthrie, executive vice president of Microsoft Cloud and AI. GitHub's CEO, Chris Wanstrath, was retained as a "technical fellow," also reporting to Guthrie. Nat Friedman resigned November 3, 2021; he was replaced by Thomas Dohmke. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,239 | There have been concerns from developers Kyle Simpson, JavaScript trainer and author, and Rafael Laguna, CEO at Open-Xchange over Microsoft's purchase, citing uneasiness over Microsoft's handling of previous acquisitions, such as Nokia's mobile business and Skype. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,240 | This acquisition was in line with Microsoft's business strategy under CEO Satya Nadella, which has seen a larger focus on cloud computing services, alongside the development of and contributions to open-source software. "Harvard Business Review" argued that Microsoft was intending to acquire GitHub to get access to its user base, so it can be used as a loss leader to encourage the use of its other development products and services. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,241 | Concerns over the sale bolstered interest in competitors: Bitbucket (owned by Atlassian), GitLab and SourceForge (owned by BIZX, LLC) reported that they had seen spikes in new users intending to migrate projects from GitHub to their respective services. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,242 | In September 2019, GitHub acquired Semmle, a code analysis tool. In February 2020, GitHub launched in India under the name GitHub India Private Limited. In March 2020, GitHub announced that they were acquiring npm, a JavaScript packaging vendor, for an undisclosed sum of money. The deal was closed on April 15, 2020. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,243 | In early July 2020, the GitHub Archive Program was established, to archive its open-source code in perpetuity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,244 | GitHub's mascot is an anthropomorphized "octocat" with five octopus-like arms. The character was created by graphic designer Simon Oxley as clip art to sell on iStock, a website that enables designers to market royalty-free digital images. GitHub became interested in Oxley's work after Twitter selected a bird that he designed for their own logo. The illustration GitHub chose was a character that Oxley had named Octopuss. Since GitHub wanted Octopuss for their logo (a use that the iStock license disallows), they negotiated with Oxley to buy exclusive rights to the image. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,245 | GitHub renamed Octopuss to Octocat, and trademarked the character along with the new name. Later, GitHub hired illustrator Cameron McEfee to adapt Octocat for different purposes on the website and promotional materials; McEfee and various GitHub users have since created hundreds of variations of the character, which are available on The Octodex. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,246 | Projects on GitHub.com can be accessed and managed using the standard Git command-line interface; all standard Git commands work with it. GitHub.com also allows users to browse public repositories on the site. Multiple desktop clients and Git plugins are also available. The site provides social networking-like functions such as feeds, followers, wikis (using wiki software called Gollum) and a social network graph to display how developers work on their versions ("forks") of a repository and what fork (and branch within that fork) is newest. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,247 | Anyone can browse and download public repositories but only registered users can contribute content to repositories. With a registered user account, users are able to have discussions, manage repositories, submit contributions to others' repositories, and review changes to code. GitHub.com began offering limited private repositories at no cost in January 2019 (limited to three contributors per project). Previously, only public repositories were free. On April 14, 2020, GitHub made "all of the core GitHub features" free for everyone, including "private repositories with unlimited collaborators." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,248 | The fundamental software that underpins GitHub is Git itself, written by Linus Torvalds, creator of Linux. The additional software that provides the GitHub user interface was written using Ruby on Rails and Erlang by GitHub, Inc. developers Wanstrath, Hyett, and Preston-Werner. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,249 | The main purpose of GitHub.com is to facilitate the version control and issue tracking aspects of software development. Labels, milestones, responsibility assignment, and a search engine are available for issue tracking. For version control, Git (and by extension GitHub.com) allows pull requests to propose changes to the source code. Users with the ability to review the proposed changes can see a diff of the requested changes and approve them. In Git terminology, this action is called "committing" and one instance of it is a "commit." A history of all commits is kept and can be viewed at a later time. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,250 | GitHub's Terms of Service do not require public software projects hosted on GitHub to meet the Open Source Definition. The terms of service state, "By setting your repositories to be viewed publicly, you agree to allow others to view and fork your repositories." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,251 | GitHub Enterprise is a self-managed version of GitHub.com with similar functionality. It can be run on an organization's own hardware or on a cloud provider, and it has been available since November 2011. In November 2020, source code for GitHub Enterprise Server was leaked online in an apparent protest against DMCA takedown of youtube-dl. According to GitHub, the source code came from GitHub accidentally sharing the code with Enterprise customers themselves, not from an attack on GitHub servers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,252 | GitHub Pages is a static web hosting service offered by GitHub since 2008 to GitHub users for hosting user blogs, project documentation, or even whole books created as a page. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,253 | All GitHub Pages content is stored in a Git repository, either as files served to visitors verbatim or in Markdown format. GitHub is seamlessly integrated with Jekyll static website and blog generator and GitHub continuous integration pipelines. Each time the content source is updated, Jekyll regenerates the website and automatically serves it via GitHub Pages infrastructure. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,254 | As with the rest of GitHub, it includes both free and paid tiers of service, instead of being supported by web advertising. Websites generated through this service are hosted either as subdomains of the github.io domain, or as custom domains bought through a third-party domain name registrar. When a custom domain is set on a GitHub Pages repo a Let's Encrypt certificate for it is generated automatically. Once the certificate has been generated Enforce HTTPS can be set for the repository's website to transparently redirect all HTTP requests to HTTPS. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,255 | GitHub also operates a pastebin-style site called Gist, which is for code snippets, as opposed to GitHub proper, which is for larger projects. Tom Preston-Werner débuted the feature at a Ruby conference in 2008. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,256 | Gist builds on the traditional simple concept of a pastebin by adding version control for code snippets, easy forking, and TLS encryption for private pastes. Because each "gist" is its own Git repository, multiple code snippets can be contained in a single page and they can be pushed and pulled using Git. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,257 | Unregistered users were able to upload Gists until March 19, 2018, when uploading gists was restricted to logged-in users, reportedly to mitigate spamming on the page of recent gists. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,258 | Gists' URLs use hexadecimal IDs, and edits to gists are recorded in a revision history, which can show the text difference of thirty revisions per page with an option between a "split" and "unified" view. Like repositories, Gists can be forked, "starred", i.e. publicly bookmarked, and commented on. The count of revisions, stars, and forks is indicated on the gist page. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,259 | GitHub launched a new program called the GitHub Student Developer Pack to give students over the age of 13 free access to popular development tools and services. GitHub partnered with Bitnami, Crowdflower, DigitalOcean, DNSimple, HackHands, Namecheap, Orchestrate, Screenhero, SendGrid, Stripe, Travis CI, and Unreal Engine to launch the program. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,260 | In 2016 GitHub announced the launch of the GitHub Campus Experts program to train and encourage students to grow technology communities at their universities. The Campus Experts program is open to university students 18 years and older across the world. GitHub Campus Experts are one of the primary ways that GitHub funds student-oriented events and communities, Campus Experts are given access to training, funding, and additional resources to run events and grow their communities. To become a Campus Expert applicants must complete an online training course consisting of multiple modules designed to grow community leadership skills. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,261 | GitHub also provides some software as a service ("SaaS") integrations for adding extra features to projects. Those services include: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,262 | GitHub Sponsors allows users to make monthly money donations to projects hosted on GitHub. The public beta was announced on May 23, 2019, and the project accepts waitlist registrations. The Verge said that GitHub Sponsors "works exactly like Patreon" because "developers can offer various funding tiers that come with different perks, and they'll receive recurring payments from supporters who want to access them and encourage their work" except with "zero fees to use the program." Furthermore, GitHub offers incentives for early adopters during the first year: it pledges to cover payment processing costs and match sponsorship payments up to $5,000 per developer. Furthermore, users still can use other similar services like Patreon and Open Collective and link to their own websites. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,263 | In July 2020, GitHub stored a February archive of the site in an abandoned mountain mine in Svalbard, Norway, part of the Arctic World Archive and not far from the Svalbard Global Seed Vault. The archive contained the code of all active public repositories, as well as that of dormant, but significant public repositories. The 21TB of data was stored on piqlFilm archival film reels as matrix (2D) barcode (Boxing barcode), and is expected to last 500–1,000 years. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,264 | The GitHub Archive Program is also working with partners on Project Silica, in an attempt to store all public repositories for 10,000 years. It aims to write archives into the molecular structure of quartz glass platters, using a high-precision laser that pulses a quadrillion (1,000,000,000,000,000) times per second. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,265 | In March 2014, GitHub programmer Julie Ann Horvath alleged that founder and CEO Tom Preston-Werner and his wife, Theresa, engaged in a pattern of harassment against her that led to her leaving the company. In April 2014, GitHub released a statement denying Horvath's allegations. However, following an internal investigation, GitHub confirmed the claims. GitHub's CEO Chris Wanstrath wrote on the company blog, "The investigation found Tom Preston-Werner in his capacity as GitHub's CEO acted inappropriately, including confrontational conduct, disregard of workplace complaints, insensitivity to the impact of his spouse's presence in the workplace, and failure to enforce an agreement that his spouse should not work in the office." Preston-Werner subsequently resigned from the company. The firm then announced it would implement new initiatives and trainings "to make sure employee concerns and conflicts are taken seriously and dealt with appropriately." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,266 | On July 25, 2019, a developer based in Iran wrote on Medium that GitHub had blocked his private repositories and prohibited access to GitHub pages. Soon after, GitHub confirmed that it was now blocking developers in Iran, Crimea, Cuba, North Korea, and Syria from accessing private repositories. However, GitHub reopened access to GitHub Pages days later, for public repositories regardless of location. It was also revealed that using GitHub while visiting sanctioned countries could result in similar actions occurring on a user's account. GitHub responded to complaints and the media through a spokesperson, saying: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,267 | GitHub is subject to US trade control laws, and is committed to full compliance with applicable law. At the same time, GitHub's vision is to be the global platform for developer collaboration, no matter where developers reside. As a result, we take seriously our responsibility to examine government mandates thoroughly to be certain that users and customers are not impacted beyond what is required by law. This includes keeping public repositories services, including those for open source projects, available and accessible to support personal communications involving developers in sanctioned regions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,268 | Developers who feel that they should not have restrictions can appeal for the removal of said restrictions, including those who only travel to, and do not reside in, those countries. GitHub has forbidden the use of VPNs and IP proxies to access the site from sanctioned countries, as purchase history and IP addresses are how they flag users, among other sources. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,269 | On December 4, 2014, Russia blacklisted GitHub.com because GitHub initially refused to take down user-posted suicide manuals. After a day, Russia withdrew its block, and GitHub began blocking specific content and pages in Russia. On December 31, 2014, India blocked GitHub.com along with 31 other websites over pro-ISIS content posted by users; the block was lifted three days later. On October 8, 2016, Turkey blocked GitHub to prevent email leakage of a hacked account belonging to the country's energy minister. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,270 | On March 26, 2015, a large-scale DDoS attack was launched against GitHub.com that lasted for just under five days. The attack, which appeared to originate from China, primarily targeted GitHub-hosted user content describing methods of circumventing Internet censorship. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,271 | On April 19, 2020, Chinese police detained Chen Mei and Cai Wei (volunteers for Terminus 2049, a project hosted on GitHub), and accused them of "picking quarrels and provoking trouble." Cai and Chen archived news articles, interviews, and other materials published on Chinese media outlets, and social media platforms that have been removed by censors in China. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,272 | GitHub has a $200,000 contract with U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) for the use of their on-site product GitHub Enterprise Server. This contract was renewed in 2019, despite internal opposition from many GitHub employees. In an email sent to employees, later posted to the GitHub blog on October 9, 2019, CEO Nat Friedman stated "The revenue from the purchase is less than $200,000 and not financially material for our company." He announced that GitHub had pledged to donate $500,000 to "nonprofit groups supporting immigrant communities targeted by the current administration." In response, at least 150 GitHub employees signed an open letter re-stating their opposition to the contract, and denouncing alleged human rights abuses by ICE. As of November 13, 2019, five workers had resigned over the contract. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,273 | The ICE contract dispute came into focus again in June 2020 due to the company's decision to abandon "master/slave" branch terminology, spurred by the George Floyd protests and Black Lives Matter movement. Detractors of GitHub describe the branch renaming to be a form of performative activism and have urged GitHub to cancel their ICE contract instead. An open letter from members of the open source community was shared on GitHub in December 2019, demanding that the company drop its contract with ICE and provide more transparency into how they conduct business and partnerships. The letter has been signed by more than 700 people. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,274 | In January 2021, GitHub fired one of its employees after he expressed concern for colleagues as a violent mob stormed the U.S. Capitol, calling some of the rioters "Nazis." After an investigation, GitHub's COO said there were "significant errors of judgment and procedure" with the company's decision to fire the employee. As a result of the investigation, GitHub reached out to the employee, and the company's head of human resources resigned. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,275 | Linus Torvalds, the original developer of the Git software, has criticized the merging ability of the GitHub interface. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18545292 |
11,276 | Roman numerals are a numeral system that originated in ancient Rome and remained the usual way of writing numbers throughout Europe well into the Late Middle Ages. Numbers are written with combinations of letters from the Latin alphabet, each letter with a fixed integer value, modern style uses only these seven: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25657 |
11,277 | The use of Roman numerals continued long after the decline of the Roman Empire. From the 14th century on, Roman numerals began to be replaced by Arabic numerals; however, this process was gradual, and the use of Roman numerals persists in some applications to this day. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25657 |
11,278 | One place they are often seen is on clock faces. For instance, on the clock of Big Ben (designed in 1852), the hours from 1 to 12 are written as: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25657 |
11,279 | The notations and can be read as "one less than five" (4) and "one less than ten" (9), although there is a tradition favouring representation of "4" as "" on Roman numeral clocks. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25657 |
11,280 | Other common uses include year numbers on monuments and buildings and copyright dates on the title screens of movies and television programs. , signifying "a thousand, and a hundred less than another thousand", means 1900, so 1912 is written . For the years of this century, indicates 2000. The current year is (2022). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25657 |
11,281 | Roman numerals use different symbols for each power of ten and no zero symbol, in contrast with the place value notation of Arabic numerals (in which place-keeping zeros enable the same digit to represent different powers of ten). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25657 |
11,282 | This allows some flexibility in notation, and there has never been an official or universally accepted standard for Roman numerals. Usage in ancient Rome varied greatly and became thoroughly chaotic in medieval times. Even the post-renaissance restoration of a largely "classical" notation has failed to produce total consistency: variant forms are even defended by some modern writers as offering improved "flexibility". On the other hand, especially where a Roman numeral is considered a legally binding expression of a number, as in U.S. Copyright law (where an "incorrect" or ambiguous numeral may invalidate a copyright claim, or affect the termination date of the copyright period) it is desirable to strictly follow the usual style described below. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25657 |
11,283 | A number containing two or more decimal digits is built by appending the Roman numeral equivalent for each, from highest to lowest, as in the following examples: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25657 |
11,284 | Any missing place (represented by a zero in the place-value equivalent) is omitted, as in Latin (and English) speech: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25657 |
11,285 | In practice, Roman numerals for numbers over 1000 are currently used mainly for year numbers, as in these examples: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25657 |
11,286 | The largest number that can be represented in this notation is 3,999 ('), but since the largest Roman numeral likely to be required today is ' (the current year) there is no practical need for larger Roman numerals. Prior to the introduction of Arabic numerals in the West, ancient and medieval users of the system used various means to write larger numbers; see large numbers below. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25657 |
11,287 | While subtractive notation for 4, 40 and 400 (, and ) has been the usual form since Roman times, additive notation to represent these numbers (, and ) continued to be used, including in compound numbers like , , and . The additive forms for 9, 90, and 900 (, , and ) have also been used, although less often. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25657 |
11,288 | The two conventions could be mixed in the same document or inscription, even in the same numeral. For example, on the numbered gates to the Colosseum, is systematically used instead of , but subtractive notation is used for ; consequently, gate 44 is labelled . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25657 |
11,289 | Modern clock faces that use Roman numerals still very often use for four o'clock but for nine o'clock, a practice that goes back to very early clocks such as the Wells Cathedral clock of the late 14th century. However, this is far from universal: for example, the clock on the Palace of Westminster tower (commonly known as Big Ben) uses a subtractive for 4 o'clock. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25657 |
11,290 | Isaac Asimov once mentioned an "interesting theory" that Romans avoided using because it was the initial letters of , the Latin spelling of Jupiter, and might have seemed impious. He did not say whose theory it was. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25657 |
11,291 | Several monumental inscriptions created in the early 20th century use variant forms for "1900" (usually written ). These vary from for 1910 as seen on Admiralty Arch, London, to the more unusual, if not unique for 1903, on the north entrance to the Saint Louis Art Museum. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25657 |
11,292 | Especially on tombstones and other funerary inscriptions 5 and 50 have been occasionally written and instead of and , and there are instances such as and rather than or . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25657 |
11,293 | There is a common belief that "any" smaller digit placed to the left of a larger digit is subtracted from the total, and that by clever choices a long Roman numeral can be "compressed". The best known example of this is the function in Microsoft Excel, which can turn 499 into , , , , or depending on the "" setting. There is no indication this is anything other than an invention by the programmer, and the universal-subtraction belief may be a result of modern users trying to rationalize the syntax of Roman numerals. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25657 |
11,294 | There is, however, some historic use of subtractive notation other than that described in the above "standard": in particular for 17, for 18, for 97, for 98, and for 99. A possible explanation is that the word for 18 in Latin is , literally "two from twenty", 98 is (two from hundred), and 99 is (one from hundred). However, the explanation does not seem to apply to and , since the Latin words for 17 and 97 were (seven ten) and (ninety seven), respectively. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25657 |
11,295 | There are multiple examples of being used for 8. There does not seem to be a linguistic explanation for this use, although it is one stroke shorter than . was used by officers of the XVIII Roman Legion to write their number. The notation appears prominently on the cenotaph of their senior centurion Marcus Caelius ( – 9 AD). On the publicly displayed official Roman calendars known as Fasti, is used for the 18 days to the next Kalends, and for the 28 days in February. The latter can be seen on the sole extant pre-Julian calendar, the Fasti Antiates Maiores. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25657 |
11,296 | While irregular subtractive and additive notation has been used at least occasionally throughout history, some Roman numerals have been observed in documents and inscriptions that do not fit either system. Some of these variants do not seem to have been used outside specific contexts, and may have been regarded as errors even by contemporaries. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25657 |
11,297 | As Roman numerals are composed of ordinary alphabetic characters, there may sometimes be confusion with other uses of the same letters. For example, "XXX" and "XL" have other connotations in addition to their values as Roman numerals, while "IXL" more often than not is a gramogram of "I excel", and is in any case not an unambiguous Roman numeral. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25657 |
11,298 | As a non-positional numeral system, Roman numerals have no "place-keeping" zeros. Furthermore, the system as used by the Romans lacked a numeral for the number zero itself (that is, what remains after 1 is subtracted from 1). The word (the Latin word meaning "none") was used to represent 0, although the earliest attested instances are medieval. For instance Dionysius Exiguus used alongside Roman numerals in a manuscript from 525 AD. About 725, Bede or one of his colleagues used the letter , the initial of or of (the Latin word for "nothing") for 0, in a table of epacts, all written in Roman numerals. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25657 |
11,299 | The use of to indicate "none" long survived in the historic apothecaries' system of measurement: used well into the 20th century to designate quantities in pharmaceutical prescriptions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25657 |
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