doc_id int32 0 2.25M | text stringlengths 101 8.13k | source stringlengths 38 44 |
|---|---|---|
15,800 | On May 12, 2006, "The Washington Post" reported that when Robert Stevens took control of Lockheed Martin in 2004, he faced the dilemma that within 10 years, 100,000 of the about 130,000 Lockheed Martin employees – more than three-quarters – would be retiring. On August 31, 2006, Lockheed Martin won a $3.9 billion contr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66527 |
15,801 | In August 2007, Lockheed Martin acquired 3Dsolve, a Cary, North Carolina company that created simulations and training modules for the military and corporate clients. Renamed Lockheed Martin 3D Learning Systems, the company remained in Cary with 3D's founder founder Richard Boyd as director. The name was eventually sho... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66527 |
15,802 | On August 13, 2008, Lockheed Martin acquired the government business unit of Nantero, Inc., a company that had developed methods and processes for incorporating carbon nanotubes in next-generation electronic devices. In 2009, Lockheed Martin bought Unitech. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66527 |
15,803 | On November 18, 2010, Lockheed Martin announced that it would be closing its Eagan, Minnesota, location by 2013 to reduce costs and optimize capacity at its locations nationwide. In January 2011, Lockheed Martin agreed to pay the US Government $2 million to settle allegations that the company submitted false claims on ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66527 |
15,804 | On May 28, 2011, it was reported that a cyberattack using previously stolen EMC files had broken through to sensitive materials at the contractor. It is unclear if the Lockheed incident is the specific prompt whereby on June 1, 2011, the new United States military strategy, makes explicit that a cyberattack is "casus b... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66527 |
15,805 | On July 10, 2012, Lockheed Martin announced it was cutting its workforce by 740 workers to reduce costs and remain competitive as necessary for future growth. On November 27, 2012, Lockheed Martin announced that Marillyn Hewson will become the corporation's chief executive officer on January 1, 2013. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66527 |
15,806 | On January 7, 2013, Lockheed Martin Canada announced that it will be acquiring the engine maintenance, repair and overhaul assets from Aveos Fleet Performance in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. On July 3, 2013, Lockheed Martin announced that it was partnering with DreamHammer to use the company's software for integrated comm... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66527 |
15,807 | In March 2014, Lockheed Martin acquired Beontra AG, a provider of integrated planning and demand forecasting tools for airport, planning to expand their business in commercial airport information technology solutions. Also in March 2014, Lockheed Martin announced its acquisition of Industrial Defender Inc. On June 2, 2... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66527 |
15,808 | On July 20, 2015, Lockheed Martin announced plans to purchase Sikorsky Aircraft from United Technologies Corporation at a cost of $7.1 billion. The Pentagon has criticized the acquisition as causing a reduction in competition. In November 2015, the acquisition received final approval from the Chinese government, with a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66527 |
15,809 | In August 2016, Canadian Forces Maritime tested an integrated submarine combat system developed by Lockheed Martin. The test marked Canada’s first use of the combat system with the MK 48 heavyweight torpedo, variant 7AT. The same month, a deal to merge Leidos with the entirety of Lockheed Martin's Information Systems &... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66527 |
15,810 | In May 2017, during a visit to Saudi Arabia by President Donald Trump, Saudi Arabia signed business deals worth tens of billions of dollars with U.S. companies, including Lockheed Martin. (See: 2017 United States–Saudi Arabia arms deal) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66527 |
15,811 | On August 13, 2018, Lockheed Martin announced that the company had secured a $480 million contract from the United States Air Force to develop a hypersonic weapon prototype. A hypersonic missile can travel at one mile a second. This is the second contract for hypersonic weapons that Martin has secured; The first was fr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66527 |
15,812 | On November 29, 2018, Lockheed Martin was awarded a Commercial Lunar Payload Services contract by NASA, which makes it eligible to bid on delivering science and technology payloads to the Moon for NASA, worth $2.6 billion. Lockheed Martin plans to formally propose a lander called "McCandless Lunar Lander", named after ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66527 |
15,813 | On April 11, 2019, at 6:35 pm EDT, an Arabsat-6A satellite was successfully launched from (LC-39A). This satellite is one of two, the other being SaudiGeoSat-1/HellasSat-4 and they are the "most advanced commercial communications satellites ever built by" Lockheed Martin. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66527 |
15,814 | On September 23, 2019, Lockheed Martin and NASA signed a $4.6–billion contract to build six or more Orion capsules for NASA's Artemis program to send astronauts to the Moon. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66527 |
15,815 | In January 2020, the Naval Sea Systems Command awarded Lockheed Martin with a $138 million contract related with the AEGIS Combat System Engineering Agent (CSEA). The LMT Rotary and Mission Systems (RMS) unit of the company is to develop, integrate, test, and deliver the AEGIS Advanced Capability Build (ACB) 20 integra... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66527 |
15,816 | In January 2020, the Pentagon found at least 800 software defects in Lockheed Martin's F-35 fighter jets owned by the US Armed Forces during an annual review. The 2018 and 2019 reviews revealed a large number of defects as well. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66527 |
15,817 | In February 2020, Lockheed Martin acquired Vector Launch Inc's satellite software technology GalacticSky for $4.25 million after a bankruptcy court received no bids by the February 21 deadline. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66527 |
15,818 | On December 20, 2020, it was announced that Lockheed Martin would acquire Aerojet Rocketdyne Holdings for $4.4 billion. The acquisition was expected to close in first quarter of 2022. On February 13, 2022, Lockheed abandoned the deal following regulatory disapproval. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66527 |
15,819 | For the fiscal year 2020, Lockheed Martin reported earnings of $6.833 billion, with an annual revenue of $65.398 billion, an increase of 9.3% over the previous year. Backlog was 144.0 billion at the end of 2019, up from 130.5 billion at the end of the 2018. Firm orders were $94.5 billion at the end of 2019. Its shares ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66527 |
15,820 | Lockheed Martin Corporation reported Total CO2e emissions (Direct + Indirect) for the twelve months ending 31 December 2020 at 919 Kt (-49 /-5.1% y-o-y). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66527 |
15,821 | Lockheed Martin received $36 billion in government contracts in 2008 alone; more than any company in history. It does work for more than two dozen government agencies from the Department of Defense and the Department of Energy to the Department of Agriculture and the Environmental Protection Agency. It is involved in s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66527 |
15,822 | In October 2013, Lockheed announced it expected to finalize a $2.2 billion contract with the United States Air Force for two advanced military communications satellites. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66527 |
15,823 | Lockheed Martin has already begun to help the military transition to renewable energy sources with solar photovoltaic powered microgrids and as the military aims to reach 25% renewable energy by 2025 in order to improve national security. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66527 |
15,824 | On March 3, 2012, the U.S. Justice Department said that Lockheed Martin had agreed to settle allegations that the defense contractor had sold overpriced perishable tools used on many contracts. The DoJ said the allegations were based specifically on the subsidiary Tools & Metals Inc's inflation of costs between 1998 an... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66527 |
15,825 | On February 20, 2013, Lockheed Martin Corp complied with the U.S. District Court in New York, agreeing to pay a $19.5 million lawsuit to conclude a securities fraud class-action legal battle that had accused the company of deceiving shareholders in regards to expectations for the company's information technology divisi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66527 |
15,826 | On December 20, 2014, Lockheed Martin Integrated Systems agreed to settle a False Claims Act lawsuit paying $27.5 million to finalize allegations that it had knowingly overbilled taxpayers for work performed by company staff who did not hold the relevant essential qualifications for the contract. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66527 |
15,827 | As of March 2020, Lockheed Martin shares are mainly held by institutional investors (State Street Corporation, Vanguard group, BlackRock, Capital Group Companies, and others). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66527 |
15,828 | Lockheed Martin is listed as the largest U.S. government contractor and ranks first for the number of incidents, and fifth for the size of settlements on the 'contractor misconduct' database maintained by the Project on Government Oversight, a Washington, D.C.-based watchdog group. Since 1995, the company has agreed to... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66527 |
15,829 | In 2013, Lt. Gen. Christopher Bogdan criticized the company's F-35 fighter program. The general said: "I want them both to start behaving like they want to be around for 40 years... I want them to take on some of the risk of this program. I want them to invest in cost reductions. I want them to do the things that will ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66527 |
15,830 | According to the magazine "Politico", Lockheed Martin has "a political network that is already the envy of its competitors", and its contracts enjoy wide bipartisan support in the U.S. Congress thanks to it having "perfected the strategy of spreading jobs on weapons programs in key states and congressional districts". ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66527 |
15,831 | Through its political action committee (PAC), the company provides low levels of financial support to candidates who advocate national defense and relevant business issues. It was the largest contributor to the House Armed Services Committee chairman, Republican Buck McKeon of California with over $50,000 donated in th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66527 |
15,832 | Lockheed Martin Employees Political Action Committee is one of the 50 largest in the country, according to FEC data. With contributions from 3,000 employees, it donates $500,000 a year to about 260 House and Senate candidates. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66527 |
15,833 | Senior management consists of the CEO, CFO, and Executive Vice Presidents (EVPs) of four business areas. The EVPs are responsible for managing major programs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66527 |
15,834 | On March 16, 2020, Lockheed announced that CEO Marillyn Hewson would become executive chair and be succeeded as CEO by James Taiclet on June 15; Taiclet is currently the head of American Tower, and was previously the president of Honeywell Aerospace and before that a VP at United Technologies. Lockheed also announced t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66527 |
15,835 | Employees in each program are organized into four tiers: Tier1 –Program Manager/VP, Tier2-Functional Teams (Finance, Chief Engineer, Quality, Operations, etc.), Tier3-Integrated Product Teams (IPTs) (Weapon System Development, Weapon System Integration, etc.), and Tier4-detailed product development. Floor or touch work... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66527 |
15,836 | Lockheed Martin manages employees through its Full Spectrum Leadership and LM21 programs. The LM21 program relies on Six Sigma principles, which are techniques to improve efficiency. Senior management constructs leadership councils and assigns managers to facilitate Kaizen events, which target specific processes for im... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66527 |
15,837 | Tier2 Functional Leads and Tier3 IPT Leads report to Tier1. IPT leads are responsible for entire systems or products defined by the contract's Statement of Work. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66527 |
15,838 | To control quality, Lockheed Martin trains and builds IPT teams. and ensures that work is executed correctly through a Technical Performance Measure (TPM) system which emphasizes its Lean and 6 Sigma processes. Middle management uses commitment mechanisms that parallel high commitment and human relations theory. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66527 |
15,839 | Floor employees assemble aircraft using Flow-to-takt lean manufacturing process which uses properties from both division of labor and scientific management. By separating tasks based on parts, Lockheed Martin utilizes the division of labor theory, specialization on a specific area creates efficiency. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66527 |
15,840 | The "Double Helix methodology" is a systems development methodology used by Lockheed Martin. It combines experimentation, technology, and a warfighter's concept of operations to create new tactics and weapons. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66527 |
15,841 | Penicillins (P, PCN or PEN) are a group of β-lactam antibiotics originally obtained from "Penicillium" moulds, principally "P. chrysogenum" and "P. rubens". Most penicillins in clinical use are synthesised by P. chrysogenum using deep tank fermentation and then purified. A number of natural penicillins have been discov... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,842 | 10% of the population claims penicillin allergies but because the frequency of positive skin test results decreases by 10% with each year of avoidance, 90% of these patients can tolerate penicillin. Additionally, those with penicillin allergies can usually tolerate cephalosporins (another group of β-lactam) because the... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,843 | Penicillin was discovered in 1928 by Scottish scientist Alexander Fleming as a crude extract of "P. rubens". Fleming's student Cecil George Paine was the first to successfully use penicillin to treat eye infection (Ophthalmia neonatorum) in 1930. The purified compound (penicillin F) was isolated in 1940 by a research t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,844 | Several semisynthetic penicillins are effective against a broader spectrum of bacteria: these include the antistaphylococcal penicillins, aminopenicillins, and antipseudomonal penicillins. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,845 | The term "penicillin" is defined as the natural product of "Penicillium" mould with antimicrobial activity. It was coined by Alexander Fleming on 7 March 1929 when he discovered the antibacterial property of "Penicillium rubens". Fleming explained in his 1929 paper in the "British Journal of Experimental Pathology" tha... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,846 | Other minor active components of "Penicillium" include penicillin O, penicillin U1, and penicillin U6. Other named constituents of natural "Penicillium", such as penicillin A, were subsequently found not to have antibiotic activity and are not chemically related to antibiotic penicillins. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,847 | The precise constitution of the penicillin extracted depends on the species of "Penicillium" mould used and on the nutrient media used to culture the mould. Fleming's original strain of "Penicillium rubens" produces principally penicillin F, named after Fleming. But penicillin F is unstable, difficult to isolate, and p... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,848 | The principal commercial strain of "Penicillium chrysogenum" (the Peoria strain) produces penicillin G as the principal component when corn steep liquor is used as the culture medium. When phenoxyethanol or phenoxyacetic acid are added to the culture medium, the mould produces penicillin V as the main penicillin instea... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,849 | 6-Aminopenicillanic acid (6-APA) is a compound derived from penicillin G. 6-APA contains the beta-lactam core of penicillin G, but with the side chains stripped off; 6-APA is a useful precursor for manufacturing other penicillins. There are many semi-synthetic penicillins derived from 6-APA and these are in three group... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,850 | The use of units to prescribe penicillin is a historical accident and is largely obsolete outside of the US. Since the original penicillin was an ill-defined mixture of active compounds (an amorphous yellow powder), the potency of each batch of penicillin varied from batch to batch. It was therefore impossible to presc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,851 | The "unit" of penicillin has had three previous definitions, and each definition was chosen as being roughly equivalent to the previous one. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,852 | There is an older unit for penicillin V that is not equivalent to the current penicillin V unit. The reason is that the US FDA incorrectly assumed that the potency of penicillin V is the same mole-for-mole as penicillin G. In fact, penicillin V is less potent than penicillin G, and the current penicillin V unit reflect... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,853 | Penicillin G (benzylpenicillin) was first produced from a penicillium fungus that occurs in nature. The strain of fungus used today for the manufacture of penicillin G was created by genetic engineering to improve the yield in the manufacturing process. None of the other natural penicillins (F, K, N, X, O, U1 or U6) ar... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,854 | Penicillin V (phenoxymethylpenicillin) is produced by adding the precursor phenoxyacetic acid to the medium in which a genetically modified strain of the penicillium fungus is being cultured. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,855 | There are three major groups of other semi-synthetic antibiotics related to the penicillins. They are synthesised by adding various side-chains to the precursor 6-APA, which is isolated from penicillin G. These are the antistaphylococcal antibiotics, broad-spectrum antibiotics, and antipseudomonal antibiotics. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,856 | Antistaphylococcal antibiotics are so-called because they are resistant to being broken down by staphylococcal penicillinase. They are also, therefore, referred to as being penicillinase-resistant. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,857 | This group of antibiotics is called "broad-spectrum" because they are active against a wide range of Gram-negative bacteria such as "Escherichia coli" and "Salmonella typhi", for which penicillin is not suitable. However, resistance in these organisms is now common. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,858 | There are many ampicillin precursors in existence. These are inactive compounds that are broken down in the gut to release ampicillin. None of these pro-drugs of ampicillin are in current use: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,859 | The Gram-negative species, "Pseudomonas aeruginosa," is naturally resistant to many antibiotic classes. There were many efforts in the 1960s and 1970s to develop antibiotics that are active against "Pseudomonas" species. There are two chemical classes within the group: carboxypenicillins and ureidopenicillins. All are ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,860 | The term "penicillin", when used by itself, may refer to either of two chemical compounds, penicillin G or penicillin V. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,861 | Penicillin G is destroyed by stomach acid, so it cannot be taken by mouth, but doses as high as 2.4 g can be given (much higher than penicillin V). It is given by intravenous or intramuscular injection. It can be formulated as an insoluble salt, and there are two such formulations in current use: procaine penicillin an... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,862 | Penicillin G is licensed for use to treat septicaemia, empyema, pneumonia, pericarditis, endocarditis and meningitis caused by susceptible strains of staphylococci and streptococci. It is also licensed for the treatment of anthrax, actinomycosis, cervicofacial disease, thoracic and abdominal disease, clostridial infect... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,863 | Penicillin V can be taken by mouth because it is relatively resistant to stomach acid. Doses higher than 500 mg are not fully effective because of poor absorption. It is used for the same bacterial infections as those of penicillin G and is the most widely used form of penicillin. However, it is not used for diseases, ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,864 | Because penicillin resistance is now so common, other antibiotics are now the preferred choice for treatments. For example, penicillin used to be the first-line treatment for infections with "Neisseria gonorrhoeae" and "Neisseria meningitidis", but it is no longer recommended for treatment of these infections. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,865 | Common (≥ 1% of people) adverse drug reactions associated with use of the penicillins include diarrhoea, hypersensitivity, nausea, rash, neurotoxicity, urticaria, and superinfection (including candidiasis). Infrequent adverse effects (0.1–1% of people) include fever, vomiting, erythema, dermatitis, angioedema, seizures... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,866 | Pain and inflammation at the injection site are also common for parenterally administered benzathine benzylpenicillin, benzylpenicillin, and, to a lesser extent, procaine benzylpenicillin. The condition is known as livedoid dermatitis or Nicolau syndrome. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,867 | The term "penam" is used to describe the common core skeleton of a member of the penicillins. This core has the molecular formula R-CHNOS, where R is the variable side chain that differentiates the penicillins from one another. The penam core has a molar mass of 243 g/mol, with larger penicillins having molar mass near... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,868 | The key structural feature of the penicillins is the four-membered β-lactam ring; this structural moiety is essential for penicillin's antibacterial activity. The β-lactam ring is itself fused to a five-membered thiazolidine ring. The fusion of these two rings causes the β-lactam ring to be more reactive than monocycli... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,869 | A variety of β-lactam antibiotics have been produced following chemical modification from the 6-APA structure during synthesis, specifically by making chemical substitutions in the acyl side chain. For example, the first chemically altered penicillin, methicillin, had substitutions by methoxy groups at positions 2’ and... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,870 | Penicillin can easily enter bacterial cell in case of Gram-positive species. This is because Gram-positive bacteria do not have an outer cell membrane and are simply enclosed in a thick cell wall. Penicillin molecules are small enough to pass through the spaces of glycoproteins in the cell wall. For this reason Gram-po... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,871 | Penicillin, or any other molecule, enters Gram-negative bacteria in a different manner. The bacteria have thinner cell walls but the external surface is coated with an additional cell membrane, called the outer membrane. The outer membrane is a lipid layer (lipopolysaccharide chain) that blocks passage of water-soluble... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,872 | The chemical structure of penicillin is triggered with a very precise, pH-dependent directed mechanism, affected by a unique spatial assembly of molecular components, which can activate by protonation. It can travel through bodily fluids, targeting and inactivating enzymes responsible for cell-wall synthesis in gram-po... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,873 | Penicillin kills bacteria by inhibiting the completion of the synthesis of peptidoglycans, the structural component of bacterial cell wall. It specifically inhibits the activity of enzymes that are needed for the cross-linking of peptidoglycans during the final step in cell wall biosynthesis. It does this by binding to... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,874 | Bacteria constantly remodel their peptidoglycan cell walls, simultaneously building and breaking down portions of the cell wall as they grow and divide. During the last stages of peptidoglycan biosynthesis, uridine diphosphate-"N"-acetylmuramic acid pentapeptide (UDP-MurNAc) is formed in which the fourth and fifth amin... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,875 | The enzymes that hydrolyze the peptidoglycan cross-links continue to function, even while those that form such cross-links do not. This weakens the cell wall of the bacterium, and osmotic pressure becomes increasingly uncompensated—eventually causing cell death (cytolysis). In addition, the build-up of peptidoglycan pr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,876 | Gram-positive bacteria are called protoplasts when they lose their cell walls. Gram-negative bacteria do not lose their cell walls completely and are called spheroplasts after treatment with penicillin. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,877 | Penicillin shows a synergistic effect with aminoglycosides, since the inhibition of peptidoglycan synthesis allows aminoglycosides to penetrate the bacterial cell wall more easily, allowing their disruption of bacterial protein synthesis within the cell. This results in a lowered MBC for susceptible organisms. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,878 | Penicillins, like other "β"-lactam antibiotics, block not only the division of bacteria, including cyanobacteria, but also the division of cyanelles, the photosynthetic organelles of the glaucophytes, and the division of chloroplasts of bryophytes. In contrast, they have no effect on the plastids of the highly develope... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,879 | Some bacteria produce enzymes that break down the β-lactam ring, called β-lactamases, which make the bacteria resistant to penicillin. Therefore, some penicillins are modified or given with other drugs for use against antibiotic-resistant bacteria or in immunocompromised patients. The use of clavulanic acid or tazobact... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,880 | Penicillin has low protein binding in plasma. The bioavailability of penicillin depends on the type: penicillin G has low bioavailability, below 30%, whereas penicillin V has higher bioavailability, between 60 and 70%. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,881 | Penicillin has a short half-life and is excreted via the kidneys. This means it must be dosed at least four times a day to maintain adequate levels of penicillin in the blood. Early manuals on the use of penicillin, therefore, recommended injections of penicillin as frequently as every three hours, and dosing penicilli... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,882 | When Alexander Fleming discovered the crude penicillin in 1928, one important observation he made was that many bacteria were not affected by penicillin. This phenomenon was realised by Ernst Chain and Edward Abraham while trying to identify the exact of penicillin. In 1940, they discovered that unsusceptible bacteria ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,883 | The actual process of resistance mechanism can be very complex. In case of reduced permeability in bacteria, the mechanisms are different between Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. In Gram-positive bacteria, blockage of penicillin is due to changes in the cell wall. For example, resistance to vancomycin in "S. a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,884 | Resistance due to PBP alterations is highly varied. A common case is found in "Streptococcus pneumoniae" where there is mutation in the gene for PBP, and the mutant PBPs have decreased binding affinity for penicillins. There are six mutant PBPs in "S. pneumoniae", of which PBP1a, PBP2b, PBP2x and sometimes PBP2a are re... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,885 | Enzymatic destruction by β-lactamases is the most important mechanism of penicillin resistance, and is described as "the greatest threat to the usage [of penicillins]". It was the first discovered mechanism of penicillin resistance. During the experiments when purification and biological activity tests of penicillin we... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,886 | There are unusual mechanisms in "P. aeruginosa", in which there can be biofilm-mediated resistance and formation of multidrug-tolerant persister cells. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,887 | Starting in the late 19th century there had been reports of the antibacterial properties of "Penicillium" mould, but scientists were unable to discern what process was causing the effect. Scottish physician Alexander Fleming at St. Mary's Hospital in London (now part of Imperial College) was the first to show that "Pen... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,888 | C. J. La Touche identified the fungus as "Penicillium rubrum" (later reclassified by Charles Thom as "P. notatum" and "P. chrysogenum", but later corrected as "P. rubens"). Fleming expressed initial optimism that penicillin would be a useful antiseptic, because of its high potency and minimal toxicity in comparison to ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,889 | Fleming did not convince anyone that his discovery was important. This was largely because penicillin was so difficult to isolate that its development as a drug seemed impossible. It is speculated that had Fleming been more successful at making other scientists interested in his work, penicillin would possibly have bee... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,890 | The importance of his work has been recognized by the placement of an International Historic Chemical Landmark at the Alexander Fleming Laboratory Museum in London on 19 November 1999. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,891 | In 1930, Cecil George Paine, a pathologist at the Royal Infirmary in Sheffield, successfully treated ophthalmia neonatorum, a gonococcal infection in infants, with penicillin (fungal extract) on November 25, 1930. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,892 | In 1940, Australian scientist Howard Florey (later Baron Florey) and a team of researchers (Ernst Chain, Edward Abraham, Arthur Duncan Gardner, Norman Heatley, Margaret Jennings, Jean Orr-Ewing and Arthur Gordon Sanders) at the Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford made progress in making concentra... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,893 | The first successful use of pure penicillin was when Fleming treated Harry Lambert of fatal infection of the nervous system (streptococcal meningitis) in 1942. By that time the Oxford team could produce only a small amount. Florey willingly gave the only available sample to Fleming. Lambert showed improvement from the ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,894 | As the medical application was established, the Oxford team found that it was impossible to produce usable amounts in their laboratory. Failing to persuade the British government, Florey and Heatley travelled to the US in June 1941 with their mould samples in order to interest the US government for large-scale producti... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,895 | On March 14, 1942, the first patient was treated for streptococcal sepsis with US-made penicillin produced by Merck & Co. Half of the total supply produced at the time was used on that one patient, Anne Miller. By June 1942, just enough US penicillin was available to treat ten patients. In July 1943, the War Production... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,896 | G. Raymond Rettew made a significant contribution to the American war effort by his techniques to produce commercial quantities of penicillin, wherein he combined his knowledge of mushroom spawn with the function of the Sharples Cream Separator. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,897 | By 1943, Rettew's lab was producing most of the world's penicillin. During World War II, penicillin made a major difference in the number of deaths and amputations caused by infected wounds among Allied forces, saving an estimated 12%–15% of lives. Availability was severely limited, however, by the difficulty of manufa... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,898 | Penicillin is actively excreted, and about 80% of a penicillin dose is cleared from the body within three to four hours of administration. Indeed, during the early penicillin era, the drug was so scarce and so highly valued that it became common to collect the urine from patients being treated, so that the penicillin i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
15,899 | After World War II, Australia was the first country to make the drug available for civilian use. In the U.S., penicillin was made available to the general public on March 15, 1945. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23312 |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.