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200 | A month later, Einstein's works were among those targeted by the German Student Union in the Nazi book burnings, with Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels proclaiming, "Jewish intellectualism is dead." One German magazine included him in a list of enemies of the German regime with the phrase, "not yet hanged", offe... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
201 | Einstein was now without a permanent home, unsure where he would live and work, and equally worried about the fate of countless other scientists still in Germany. Aided by the Academic Assistance Council, founded in April 1933 by British liberal politician William Beveridge to help academics escape Nazi persecution, Ei... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
202 | Locker-Lampson took Einstein to meet Winston Churchill at his home, and later, Austen Chamberlain and former Prime Minister Lloyd George. Einstein asked them to help bring Jewish scientists out of Germany. British historian Martin Gilbert notes that Churchill responded immediately, and sent his friend, physicist Freder... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
203 | Einstein later contacted leaders of other nations, including Turkey's Prime Minister, İsmet İnönü, to whom he wrote in September 1933 requesting placement of unemployed German-Jewish scientists. As a result of Einstein's letter, Jewish invitees to Turkey eventually totaled over "1,000 saved individuals". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
204 | Locker-Lampson also submitted a bill to parliament to extend British citizenship to Einstein, during which period Einstein made a number of public appearances describing the crisis brewing in Europe. In one of his speeches he denounced Germany's treatment of Jews, while at the same time he introduced a bill promoting J... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
205 | On 3 October 1933, Einstein delivered a speech on the importance of academic freedom before a packed audience at the Royal Albert Hall in London, with "The Times" reporting he was wildly cheered throughout. Four days later he returned to the US and took up a position at the Institute for Advanced Study, noted for havin... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
206 | Einstein was still undecided on his future. He had offers from several European universities, including Christ Church, Oxford, where he stayed for three short periods between May 1931 and June 1933 and was offered a five-year research fellowship (called a "studentship" at Christ Church), but in 1935, he arrived at the ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
207 | Einstein's affiliation with the Institute for Advanced Study would last until his death in 1955. He was one of the four first selected (along with John von Neumann, Kurt Gödel, and Hermann Weyl) at the new Institute, where he soon developed a close friendship with Gödel. The two would take long walks together discussin... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
208 | In 1939, a group of Hungarian scientists that included émigré physicist Leó Szilárd attempted to alert Washington to ongoing Nazi atomic bomb research. The group's warnings were discounted. Einstein and Szilárd, along with other refugees such as Edward Teller and Eugene Wigner, "regarded it as their responsibility to a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
209 | The letter is believed to be "arguably the key stimulus for the U.S. adoption of serious investigations into nuclear weapons on the eve of the U.S. entry into World War II". In addition to the letter, Einstein used his connections with the Belgian Royal Family and the Belgian queen mother to get access with a personal ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
210 | For Einstein, "war was a disease ... [and] he called for resistance to war." By signing the letter to Roosevelt, some argue he went against his pacifist principles. In 1954, a year before his death, Einstein said to his old friend, Linus Pauling, "I made one great mistake in my life—when I signed the letter to Presiden... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
211 | Einstein became an American citizen in 1940. Not long after settling into his career at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, he expressed his appreciation of the meritocracy in American culture compared to Europe. He recognized the "right of individuals to say and think what they pleased" without ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
212 | Einstein joined the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in Princeton, where he campaigned for the civil rights of African Americans. He considered racism America's "worst disease", seeing it as "handed down from one generation to the next". As part of his involvement, he corresponded with... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
213 | In 1946, Einstein visited Lincoln University in Pennsylvania, a historically black college, where he was awarded an honorary degree. Lincoln was the first university in the United States to grant college degrees to African Americans; alumni include Langston Hughes and Thurgood Marshall. Einstein gave a speech about rac... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
214 | In 1918, Einstein was one of the founding members of the German Democratic Party, a liberal party. Later in his life, Einstein's political view was in favor of socialism and critical of capitalism, which he detailed in his essays such as "Why Socialism?" His opinions on the Bolsheviks also changed with time. In 1925, h... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
215 | Einstein was deeply impressed by Mahatma Gandhi, with whom he exchanged written letters. He described Gandhi as "a role model for the generations to come". The initial connection was established on 27 September 1931, when Wilfrid Israel took his Indian guest V. A. Sundaram to meet his friend Einstein at his summer home... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
216 | Einstein was a figurehead leader in helping establish the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, which opened in 1925, and was among its first Board of Governors. Earlier, in 1921, he was asked by the biochemist and president of the World Zionist Organization, Chaim Weizmann, to help raise funds for the planned university. He... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
217 | Einstein was not a nationalist and was against the creation of an independent Jewish state, which would be established without his help as Israel in 1948. He felt that the waves of arriving Jews of the Aliyah could live alongside existing Arabs in Palestine. Nevertheless, upon the death of Israeli president Weizmann in... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
218 | Einstein spoke of his spiritual outlook in a wide array of original writings and interviews. He said he had sympathy for the impersonal pantheistic God of Baruch Spinoza's philosophy. He did not believe in a personal god who concerns himself with fates and actions of human beings, a view which he described as naïve. He... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
219 | Einstein was primarily affiliated with non-religious humanist and Ethical Culture groups in both the UK and US. He served on the advisory board of the First Humanist Society of New York, and was an honorary associate of the Rationalist Association, which publishes "New Humanist" in Britain. For the 75th anniversary of ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
220 | In a German-language letter to philosopher Eric Gutkind, dated 3 January 1954, Einstein wrote:The word God is for me nothing more than the expression and product of human weaknesses, the Bible a collection of honorable, but still primitive legends which are nevertheless pretty childish. No interpretation no matter how ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
221 | Einstein had been sympathetic toward vegetarianism for a long time. In a letter in 1930 to Hermann Huth, vice-president of the German Vegetarian Federation (Deutsche Vegetarier-Bund), he wrote:Although I have been prevented by outward circumstances from observing a strictly vegetarian diet, I have long been an adherent... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
222 | He became a vegetarian himself only during the last part of his life. In March 1954 he wrote in a letter: "So I am living without fats, without meat, without fish, but am feeling quite well this way. It almost seems to me that man was not born to be a carnivore." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
223 | His mother played the piano reasonably well and wanted her son to learn the violin, not only to instill in him a love of music but also to help him assimilate into German culture. According to conductor Leon Botstein, Einstein began playing when he was 5. However, he did not enjoy it at that age. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
224 | When he turned 13, he discovered the violin sonatas of Mozart, whereupon he became enamored of Mozart's compositions and studied music more willingly. Einstein taught himself to play without "ever practicing systematically". He said that "love is a better teacher than a sense of duty." At the age of 17, he was heard by... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
225 | Music took on a pivotal and permanent role in Einstein's life from that period on. Although the idea of becoming a professional musician himself was not on his mind at any time, among those with whom Einstein played chamber music were a few professionals, including Kurt Appelbaum, and he performed for private audiences... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
226 | In 1931, while engaged in research at the California Institute of Technology, he visited the Zoellner family conservatory in Los Angeles, where he played some of Beethoven and Mozart's works with members of the Zoellner Quartet. Near the end of his life, when the young Juilliard Quartet visited him in Princeton, he pla... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
227 | On 17 April 1955, Einstein experienced internal bleeding caused by the rupture of an abdominal aortic aneurysm, which had previously been reinforced surgically by Rudolph Nissen in 1948. He took the draft of a speech he was preparing for a television appearance commemorating the state of Israel's seventh anniversary wi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
228 | Einstein refused surgery, saying, "I want to go when I want. It is tasteless to prolong life artificially. I have done my share; it is time to go. I will do it elegantly." He died in the University Medical Center of Princeton at Plainsboro early the next morning at the age of 76, having continued to work until near the... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
229 | During the autopsy, the pathologist Thomas Stoltz Harvey removed Einstein's brain for preservation without the permission of his family, in the hope that the neuroscience of the future would be able to discover what made Einstein so intelligent. Einstein's remains were cremated in Trenton, New Jersey, and his ashes wer... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
230 | In a memorial lecture delivered on 13 December 1965 at UNESCO headquarters, nuclear physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer summarized his impression of Einstein as a person: "He was almost wholly without sophistication and wholly without worldliness ... There was always with him a wonderful purity at once childlike and profou... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
231 | Einstein bequeathed his personal archives, library, and intellectual assets to the Hebrew University of Jerusalem in Israel. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
232 | Throughout his life, Einstein published hundreds of books and articles. He published more than 300 scientific papers and 150 non-scientific ones. On 5 December 2014, universities and archives announced the release of Einstein's papers, comprising more than 30,000 unique documents. Einstein's intellectual achievements a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
233 | The "Annus Mirabilis" papers are four articles pertaining to the photoelectric effect (which gave rise to quantum theory), Brownian motion, the special theory of relativity, and E = mc that Einstein published in the "Annalen der Physik" scientific journal in 1905. These four works contributed substantially to the found... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
234 | Einstein's first paper submitted in 1900 to "Annalen der Physik" was on capillary attraction. It was published in 1901 with the title "Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen", which translates as "Conclusions from the capillarity phenomena". Two papers he published in 1902–1903 (thermodynamics) attempted to int... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
235 | Einstein returned to the problem of thermodynamic fluctuations, giving a treatment of the density variations in a fluid at its critical point. Ordinarily the density fluctuations are controlled by the second derivative of the free energy with respect to the density. At the critical point, this derivative is zero, leadi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
236 | Einstein's ""Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper"" ("On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies") was received on 30 June 1905 and published 26 September of that same year. It reconciled conflicts between Maxwell's equations (the laws of electricity and magnetism) and the laws of Newtonian mechanics by introducing changes ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
237 | This paper predicted that, when measured in the frame of a relatively moving observer, a clock carried by a moving body would appear to slow down, and the body itself would contract in its direction of motion. This paper also argued that the idea of a luminiferous aether—one of the leading theoretical entities in physi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
238 | In his paper on mass–energy equivalence, Einstein produced "E" = "mc" as a consequence of his special relativity equations. Einstein's 1905 work on relativity remained controversial for many years, but was accepted by leading physicists, starting with Max Planck. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
239 | Einstein originally framed special relativity in terms of kinematics (the study of moving bodies). In 1908, Hermann Minkowski reinterpreted special relativity in geometric terms as a theory of spacetime. Einstein adopted Minkowski's formalism in his 1915 general theory of relativity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
240 | General relativity (GR) is a theory of gravitation that was developed by Einstein between 1907 and 1915. According to general relativity, the observed gravitational attraction between masses results from the warping of space and time by those masses. General relativity has developed into an essential tool in modern ast... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
241 | As Einstein later said, the reason for the development of general relativity was that the preference of inertial motions within special relativity was unsatisfactory, while a theory which from the outset prefers no state of motion (even accelerated ones) should appear more satisfactory. Consequently, in 1907 he publish... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
242 | In 1911, Einstein published another article "On the Influence of Gravitation on the Propagation of Light" expanding on the 1907 article, in which he estimated the amount of deflection of light by massive bodies. Thus, the theoretical prediction of general relativity could for the first time be tested experimentally. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
243 | In 1916, Einstein predicted gravitational waves, ripples in the curvature of spacetime which propagate as waves, traveling outward from the source, transporting energy as gravitational radiation. The existence of gravitational waves is possible under general relativity due to its Lorentz invariance which brings the con... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
244 | The first, indirect, detection of gravitational waves came in the 1970s through observation of a pair of closely orbiting neutron stars, PSR B1913+16. The explanation of the decay in their orbital period was that they were emitting gravitational waves. Einstein's prediction was confirmed on 11 February 2016, when resea... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
245 | While developing general relativity, Einstein became confused about the gauge invariance in the theory. He formulated an argument that led him to conclude that a general relativistic field theory is impossible. He gave up looking for fully generally covariant tensor equations and searched for equations that would be in... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
246 | In June 1913, the Entwurf ('draft') theory was the result of these investigations. As its name suggests, it was a sketch of a theory, less elegant and more difficult than general relativity, with the equations of motion supplemented by additional gauge fixing conditions. After more than two years of intensive work, Ein... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
247 | In 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to the structure of the universe as a whole. He discovered that the general field equations predicted a universe that was dynamic, either contracting or expanding. As observational evidence for a dynamic universe was not known at the time, Einstein introduced a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
248 | Following the discovery of the recession of the nebulae by Edwin Hubble in 1929, Einstein abandoned his static model of the universe, and proposed two dynamic models of the cosmos, The Friedmann-Einstein universe of 1931 and the Einstein–de Sitter universe of 1932. In each of these models, Einstein discarded the cosmol... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
249 | In many Einstein biographies, it is claimed that Einstein referred to the cosmological constant in later years as his "biggest blunder", based on a letter George Gamow claimed to have received from him. The astrophysicist Mario Livio has recently cast doubt on this claim. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
250 | In late 2013, a team led by the Irish physicist Cormac O'Raifeartaigh discovered evidence that, shortly after learning of Hubble's observations of the recession of the nebulae, Einstein considered a steady-state model of the universe. In a hitherto overlooked manuscript, apparently written in early 1931, Einstein explo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
251 | It thus appears that Einstein considered a steady-state model of the expanding universe many years before Hoyle, Bondi and Gold. However, Einstein's steady-state model contained a fundamental flaw and he quickly abandoned the idea. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
252 | General relativity includes a dynamical spacetime, so it is difficult to see how to identify the conserved energy and momentum. Noether's theorem allows these quantities to be determined from a Lagrangian with translation invariance, but general covariance makes translation invariance into something of a gauge symmetry... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
253 | Einstein argued that this is true for a fundamental reason: the gravitational field could be made to vanish by a choice of coordinates. He maintained that the non-covariant energy momentum pseudotensor was, in fact, the best description of the energy momentum distribution in a gravitational field. This approach has bee... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
254 | The use of non-covariant objects like pseudotensors was heavily criticized in 1917 by Erwin Schrödinger and others. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
255 | In 1935, Einstein collaborated with Nathan Rosen to produce a model of a wormhole, often called Einstein–Rosen bridges. His motivation was to model elementary particles with charge as a solution of gravitational field equations, in line with the program outlined in the paper "Do Gravitational Fields play an Important R... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
256 | If one end of a wormhole was positively charged, the other end would be negatively charged. These properties led Einstein to believe that pairs of particles and antiparticles could be described in this way. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
257 | In order to incorporate spinning point particles into general relativity, the affine connection needed to be generalized to include an antisymmetric part, called the torsion. This modification was made by Einstein and Cartan in the 1920s. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
258 | The theory of general relativity has a fundamental lawthe Einstein field equations, which describe how space curves. The geodesic equation, which describes how particles move, may be derived from the Einstein field equations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
259 | Since the equations of general relativity are non-linear, a lump of energy made out of pure gravitational fields, like a black hole, would move on a trajectory which is determined by the Einstein field equations themselves, not by a new law. So Einstein proposed that the path of a singular solution, like a black hole, ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
260 | This was established by Einstein, Infeld, and Hoffmann for pointlike objects without angular momentum, and by Roy Kerr for spinning objects. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
261 | In a 1905 paper, Einstein postulated that light itself consists of localized particles ("quanta"). Einstein's light quanta were nearly universally rejected by all physicists, including Max Planck and Niels Bohr. This idea only became universally accepted in 1919, with Robert Millikan's detailed experiments on the photo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
262 | Einstein concluded that each wave of frequency "f" is associated with a collection of photons with energy "hf" each, where "h" is Planck's constant. He does not say much more, because he is not sure how the particles are related to the wave. But he does suggest that this idea would explain certain experimental results,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
263 | In 1907, Einstein proposed a model of matter where each atom in a lattice structure is an independent harmonic oscillator. In the Einstein model, each atom oscillates independently—a series of equally spaced quantized states for each oscillator. Einstein was aware that getting the frequency of the actual oscillations w... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
264 | Throughout the 1910s, quantum mechanics expanded in scope to cover many different systems. After Ernest Rutherford discovered the nucleus and proposed that electrons orbit like planets, Niels Bohr was able to show that the same quantum mechanical postulates introduced by Planck and developed by Einstein would explain t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
265 | Einstein contributed to these developments by linking them with the 1898 arguments Wilhelm Wien had made. Wien had shown that the hypothesis of adiabatic invariance of a thermal equilibrium state allows all the blackbody curves at different temperature to be derived from one another by a simple shifting process. Einste... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
266 | In 1924, Einstein received a description of a statistical model from Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose, based on a counting method that assumed that light could be understood as a gas of indistinguishable particles. Einstein noted that Bose's statistics applied to some atoms as well as to the proposed light particle... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
267 | Although the patent office promoted Einstein to Technical Examiner Second Class in 1906, he had not given up on academia. In 1908, he became a "Privatdozent" at the University of Bern. In ""Über die Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen über das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung"" (""), on the quantization of light, ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
268 | In a series of works completed from 1911 to 1913, Planck reformulated his 1900 quantum theory and introduced the idea of zero-point energy in his "second quantum theory". Soon, this idea attracted the attention of Einstein and his assistant Otto Stern. Assuming the energy of rotating diatomic molecules contains zero-po... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
269 | In 1917, at the height of his work on relativity, Einstein published an article in "Physikalische Zeitschrift" that proposed the possibility of stimulated emission, the physical process that makes possible the maser and the laser. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
270 | This article showed that the statistics of absorption and emission of light would only be consistent with Planck's distribution law if the emission of light into a mode with n photons would be enhanced statistically compared to the emission of light into an empty mode. This paper was enormously influential in the later... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
271 | Einstein discovered Louis de Broglie's work and supported his ideas, which were received skeptically at first. In another major paper from this era, Einstein gave a wave equation for de Broglie waves, which Einstein suggested was the Hamilton–Jacobi equation of mechanics. This paper would inspire Schrödinger's work of ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
272 | Einstein played a major role in developing quantum theory, beginning with his 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect. However, he became displeased with modern quantum mechanics as it had evolved after 1925, despite its acceptance by other physicists. He was skeptical that the randomness of quantum mechanics was fundam... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
273 | The Bohr–Einstein debates were a series of public disputes about quantum mechanics between Einstein and Niels Bohr, who were two of its founders. Their debates are remembered because of their importance to the philosophy of science. Their debates would influence later interpretations of quantum mechanics. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
274 | In 1935, Einstein returned to quantum mechanics, in particular to the question of its completeness, in a collaboration with Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen that laid out what would become known as the EPR paradox. In a thought experiment, they considered two particles, which had interacted such that their properties we... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
275 | Given Einstein's concept of local realism, there were two possibilities: (1) either the other particle had these properties already determined, or (2) the process of measuring the first particle instantaneously affected the reality of the position and momentum of the second particle. Einstein rejected this second possi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
276 | Einstein's belief in local realism led him to assert that, while the correctness of quantum mechanics was not in question, it must be incomplete. But as a physical principle, local realism was shown to be incorrect when the Aspect experiment of 1982 confirmed Bell's theorem, which J. S. Bell had delineated in 1964. The... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
277 | Although Einstein was wrong about local realism, his clear prediction of the unusual properties of its opposite, entangled quantum states, has resulted in the EPR paper becoming among the most influential papers published in "Physical Review". It is considered a centerpiece of the development of quantum information the... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
278 | Following his research on general relativity, Einstein attempted to generalize his theory of gravitation to include electromagnetism as aspects of a single entity. In 1950, he described his "unified field theory" in a "Scientific American" article titled "On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation". Although he was laude... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
279 | Notably, Einstein's unification project did not accommodate the strong and weak nuclear forces, neither of which was well understood until many years after his death. Although mainstream physics long ignored Einstein's approaches to unification, Einstein's work has motivated modern quests for a theory of everything, in... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
280 | Einstein conducted other investigations that were unsuccessful and abandoned. These pertain to force, superconductivity, and other research. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
281 | In addition to longtime collaborators Leopold Infeld, Nathan Rosen, Peter Bergmann and others, Einstein also had some one-shot collaborations with various scientists. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
282 | Einstein and De Haas demonstrated that magnetization is due to the motion of electrons, nowadays known to be the spin. In order to show this, they reversed the magnetization in an iron bar suspended on a torsion pendulum. They confirmed that this leads the bar to rotate, because the electron's angular momentum changes ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
283 | Einstein suggested to Erwin Schrödinger that he might be able to reproduce the statistics of a Bose–Einstein gas by considering a box. Then to each possible quantum motion of a particle in a box associate an independent harmonic oscillator. Quantizing these oscillators, each level will have an integer occupation number... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
284 | This formulation is a form of second quantization, but it predates modern quantum mechanics. Erwin Schrödinger applied this to derive the thermodynamic properties of a semiclassical ideal gas. Schrödinger urged Einstein to add his name as co-author, although Einstein declined the invitation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
285 | In 1926, Einstein and his former student Leó Szilárd co-invented (and in 1930, patented) the Einstein refrigerator. This absorption refrigerator was then revolutionary for having no moving parts and using only heat as an input. On 11 November 1930, was awarded to Einstein and Leó Szilárd for the refrigerator. Their inv... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
286 | While traveling, Einstein wrote daily to his wife Elsa and adopted stepdaughters Margot and Ilse. The letters were included in the papers bequeathed to the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Margot Einstein permitted the personal letters to be made available to the public, but requested that it not be done until twenty ye... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
287 | Einstein's right of publicity was litigated in 2015 in a federal district court in California. Although the court initially held that the right had expired, that ruling was immediately appealed, and the decision was later vacated in its entirety. The underlying claims between the parties in that lawsuit were ultimately... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
288 | Mount Einstein in New Zealand's Paparoa Range was named after him in 1970 by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
289 | Einstein became one of the most famous scientific celebrities, beginning with the confirmation of his theory of general relativity in 1919. Despite the general public having little understanding of his work, he was widely recognized and received adulation and publicity. In the period before World War II, "The New Yorke... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
290 | Einstein has been the subject of or inspiration for many novels, films, plays, and works of music. He is a favorite model for depictions of absent-minded professors; his expressive face and distinctive hairstyle have been widely copied and exaggerated. "Time" magazine's Frederic Golden wrote that Einstein was "a cartoo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
291 | Einstein received numerous awards and honors, and in 1922, he was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". None of the nominations in 1921 met the criteria set by Alfred Nobel, so the 1921 prize was carrie... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 |
292 | The periodic table, also known as the periodic table of the (chemical) elements, is a rows and columns arrangement of the chemical elements. It is widely used in chemistry, physics, and other sciences, and is generally seen as an icon of chemistry. It is a graphic formulation of the periodic law, which states that the ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23053 |
293 | The table is divided into four roughly rectangular areas called blocks. The rows of the table are called periods, and the columns are called groups. Elements from the same group of the periodic table show similar chemical characteristics. Trends run through the periodic table, with nonmetallic character (keeping their ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23053 |
294 | The first periodic table to become generally accepted was that of the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869: he formulated the periodic law as a dependence of chemical properties on atomic mass. Because not all elements were then known, there were gaps in his periodic table, and Mendeleev successfully used the perio... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23053 |
295 | The periodic table continues to evolve with the progress of science. In nature, only elements up to atomic number 94 exist; to go further, it was necessary to synthesise new elements in the laboratory. Today, all the first 118 elements are known, completing the first seven rows of the table, but chemical characterisati... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23053 |
296 | The periodic table is a 2-dimensional structured table. The elements are placed in table cells, in reading order of ascending "atomic number". The table columns are called "groups", the rows are called "periods". The breaks at the end of each period occur according to a repetition (or periodicity) of physical and chemi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23053 |
297 | The smallest constituents of all normal matter are known as atoms. Atoms are extremely small, being about one ten-billionth of a meter across; thus their internal structure is governed by quantum mechanics. Atoms consist of a small positively charged nucleus, made of positively charged protons and uncharged neutrons, s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23053 |
298 | Atoms can be subdivided into different types based on the number of protons (and thus also electrons) they have. This is called the atomic number, often symbolised "Z" (for "Zahl" — German for "number"). Each distinct atomic number therefore corresponds to a class of atom: these classes are called the chemical elements... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23053 |
299 | Today, 118 elements are known, the first 94 of which are known to occur naturally on Earth at present. Of the 94 natural elements, eighty have a stable isotope and one more (bismuth) has an almost-stable isotope (with a half-life over a billion times the age of the universe). Two more, thorium and uranium, have isotope... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23053 |
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