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904,078 | According to Accenture, "examples of companies that have successfully implemented ZBB...include a consumer goods company that was able to achieve 18 percent savings and a 20 percent increase in the share price. Another case was that of a prominent commercial bank, which unlocked a large sum of money and reinvested it in 'going digital' and a healthcare company that achieved savings of £1.2bn (€1.36bn) in three years." As a result, companies are vocal about their use of ZBB programs in their earning calls including Mondelēz International, Campbell Soup Company, Kraft Heinz, Anheuser-Busch InBev, and Tesco. In its 2017 first-half results, Unilever even reported that ZBB was improving its marketing productivity and streamlining its advertising spend, while also reducing overhead costs that weren't bringing much value. In another case, the use of ZBB within 3G Capital has been profitable for stockholders. When 3G Capital quickly cut costs within Kraft, their stock prices increased 36% as a direct result. This type of budgeting enabled companies like Kraft to compete again on price with some of the leaner competition, that had previously undercut Kraft's prices. Zero-based budgeting helps more money to flow to stockholders than into unused departments, over-funded programs, and wasteful spending habits. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4478338 | 903,602 |
771,189 | The United States Navy (USN) hoped to use the V-1710 in its rigid airships "Akron" and "Macon", but both were equipped with German-built Maybach VL-2 engines as the V-1710 was still in testing when the "Macon" was lost in February 1935 (the "Akron" having been lost in April 1933). The USAAC purchased its first V-1710 in December 1932. The Great Depression slowed development, and it was not until December 14, 1936, that the engine next flew in the Consolidated XA-11A testbed. The V-1710-C6 successfully completed the USAAC "150 hour Type Test" on April 23, 1937, at , the first engine of any type to do so. The engine was then offered to aircraft manufacturers where it powered the prototype Curtiss XP-37s. All entrants in the new pursuit competition were designed around it, powering the Lockheed P-38, Bell P-39 and Curtiss P-40. When war material procurement agents from the United Kingdom asked North American Aviation to build the P-40 under license, NAA instead proposed their own improved aircraft design, using the V-1710 in their NA-73. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=76309 | 770,775 |
315,171 | Campus construction began in September 1869 when the cornerstone of University Hall was laid at the corner of 11th and S Streets. Though the building was very large, expensive, and ornate, it was made of low-quality materials and required a foundation repair before hosting a single class. By 1871, the university welcomed its inaugural class of twenty collegiate students and 110 preparatory students, and in 1873 offered its first degrees to graduating students. A school newspaper, "Monthly Hesperian Student" (later "The Hesperian", now "The Daily Nebraskan"), was quickly established and the University of Nebraska State Museum (now Morrill Hall) opened in University Hall. In its early years, the University of Nebraska was modest in terms of enrollment, budget, and stature. The school's development was slowed by a mid-1870s grasshopper swarm that devastated the state's economy and caused NU's first chancellor, Allen R. Benton, to resign. Benton's successor, Edmund Burke Fairfield, led a contentious tenure highlighted by clashes over the place of religion in higher education. Under Fairfield's watch, the University of Nebraska hired its first female faculty member, Ellen Smith (Smith Hall, built on campus in 1967 as a student residence hall, is named in her honor). Smith's hire highlighted the young university's relatively diverse group of students and faculty; this was done deliberately by the board of regents, which hoped to boost the school's enrollment and the city's population through immigration. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=323058 | 315,002 |
722,206 | In 1904, Hall published "Adolescence: Its Psychology and Its Relation to Physiology, Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime, Religion, and Education". In this 2-volume study, based on the idea that child development recapitulates human evolution, Hall took on a variety of issues and synthesized scholarship from a wide range of disciplines. After his retirement in 1920, Hall wrote a companion volume on aging. This important account has been labeled "prophetic" in its recognition of an emerging "crisis of aging" in the 20th century, in which longer lifespan, narrowing family roles, and expulsion from the workforce combined to dramatically isolate the elderly and restrict their active participation in public life. Hall railed against this process, arguing that the wisdom conferred by old age meant that the elderly had valuable and creative contributions to make to society. Yet, the stigma of aging meant that, instead, many were engaged in the foolish pursuit of youth, trying to avoid being excluded from full participation in their communities. In the conclusion of the book, Hall expressed a tangible sense of personal anger against this form of discrimination. His stirring call for a better understanding of the aging process anticipated the development of gerontology, and his critique of the marginalization of the elderly still resonates today. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=912656 | 721,826 |
398,687 | Once signal processing in each pixel is completed, a color spatial map of the parameter is displayed on a computer monitor, summarizing all vascular information of the tumor in a single image called a parametric image (see last figure of press article as clinical examples). This parametric image is interpreted by clinicians based on predominant colorization of the tumor: red indicates a suspicion of malignancy (risk of cancer), green or yellow – a high probability of benignity. In the first case (suspicion of malignant tumor), the clinician typically prescribes a biopsy to confirm the diagnostic or a CT scan examination as a second opinion. In the second case (quasi-certain of benign tumor), only a follow-up is needed with a contrast ultrasonography examination a few months later. The main clinical benefits are to avoid a systemic biopsy (with inherent risks of invasive procedures) of benign tumors or a CT scan examination exposing the patient to X-ray radiation. The parametric imaging of vascular signatures method proved to be effective in humans for characterization of tumors in the liver. In a cancer screening context, this method might be potentially applicable to other organs such as breast or prostate. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=143357 | 398,491 |
1,959,447 | A full understanding of the mechanisms involved in vomocytosis is not currently known, yet advances in research have driven initial mechanistic descriptions and crucial steps involved in the process. Research has shown vomocytosis does not occur when pathogens are dead or when engulfed materials are non-living, indicating the survival of phagosomal cargo may be crucial for triggering or enhancing vomocytosis. Additionally, the phagosomal pH may play important roles in vomocytosis efficacy as research has demonstrated vomocytosis rates drop as phagocytes become more acidic and vomocytosis is increased by the addition of weak bases to phagocytes. The membrane composition and cellular state are implicated in vomocytosis as vomocytosis has been shown to decrease with membrane permiability and increase in states of autophagy. Furthermore, inflammatory signals such as Type I interferons, which are produced in response to viral infections, are known to enhance vomocytosis. The impacts of these described forces on inducing vomocytosis are still being elaborated, and it is likely that they are variable based on other unknown external and internal factors. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=47386145 | 1,958,320 |
1,243,262 | The X-chromosome is also a form of nuclear DNA. Since it is found as 1 copy in males and 2 non-identical chromosomes in females it has a ploidy of 1.5. However, in humans the effective ploidy is somewhat higher, ~1.7, as females in the breeding population have tended to outnumber males by 2:1 during a large portion of human prehistory. Like mtDNA, X-linked DNA tends to over emphasize female population history much more than male. There have been several studies of loci on X chromosome, in total 20 sites have been examined. These include PDHA1, PDHA1, Xq21.3, Xq13.3, Zfx, Fix, Il2rg, Plp, Gk, Ids, Alas2, Rrm2p4, AmeIX, Tnfsf5, Licam, and Msn. The time to most recent common ancestor (TMRCA) ranges from fixed to ~1.8 million years, with a median around 700ky. These studies roughly plot to the expected fixation distribution of alleles, given linkage disequilibrium between adjacent sites. For some alleles the point of origin is elusive, for others, the point of origin points toward Sub-Saharan Africa. There are some distinctions within SSA that suggest a smaller region, but there is not adequate enough sample size and coverage to define a place of most recent common ancestor. The TMRCA is consistent with and extends the bottleneck implied by mtDNA, confidently to about 500,000 years. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3295330 | 1,242,589 |
775,172 | An independent evaluation of obstacles to polio eradication requested by the WHO and conducted in 2009 considered the major obstacles in detail by country. In Afghanistan and Pakistan, the researchers concluded that the most significant barrier was insecurity, but that managing human resources, political pressures, the movement of large populations between and within both countries, and inadequately resourced health facilities also posed problems, as did technical issues with the vaccine. In India, the major challenge appeared to be the high efficiency of transmission within the populations of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh states, set against the low (~80% after three doses against type1) seroconversion response seen from the vaccine. In Nigeria, the most critical barriers identified were management issues, in particular the highly variable importance ascribed to polio by different authorities at the local government level, although funding issues, community perceptions of vaccine safety, inadequate mobilisation of community groups, and issues with the cold chain also played a role. In those countries where international spread from endemic countries had resulted in the reestablishment of transmission, namely Angola, Chad, and South Sudan, the key issues identified were underdeveloped health systems and low routine vaccine coverage, although the low level of resources committed to Angola and South Sudan for the purpose of curtailing the spread of polio and climatic factors was also identified as playing a role. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9901652 | 774,756 |
906,352 | The jaw structure and estimated musculature hold numerous lines of evidence indicating that entelodonts could open their mouths unusually wide. This trait may have been useful in hunting or feeding on carrion, but similar adaptations have also been linked to competitive behaviors in herbivores. Hippos, a related group with similar adaptations, are aggressive herbivores which can open their jaws up to 150 degrees and display enlarged canines in order to intimidate rivals. Male hippos engage in head-to-head "yawning" and jaw-wrestling contests, while females attack by approaching from the side and slamming their head into the opponent's body. The wide gape and low skulls of entelodonts would have assisted biting competitions, which are supported by fossil evidence. Large bite marks, including healed punctures, are common on skulls of various American entelodonts. These wounds are concentrated above the sinuses, and are only found on adult specimens. One could easily draws comparisons between these bite marks and the wide range of intraspecific competition over mates or territories in modern artiodactyls. Snout biting in particular is a common competitive behavior among male camels, another group of "primitive" artiodactyls. Ribcage injuries have been attributed to intraspecies aggression in "Archaeotherium." One possible function for the anterior tubercles is as a support for toughened skin, which would have acted as a buffer or display feature during competitive behavior. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1609557 | 905,876 |
1,948,596 | One of the biggest challenges in bioinformatics is documenting and sharing scientific workflows in such a way that the computation and its results can be peer-reviewed or reliably reproduced. Bioinformatic pipelines typically use multiple pieces of software, each of which typically has multiple versions available, multiple input parameters, multiple outputs, and possibly platform-specific configurations. As with experimental parameters in a laboratory protocol, small changes in computational parameters may have a large impact on the scientific validity of the results. The BioCompute Framework provides an object oriented design from which a BCO that contains details of a pipeline and how it was used can be constructed, digitally signed, and shared. The BioCompute concept was originally developed to satisfy FDA regulatory research and review needs for evaluation, validation, and verification of genomics data. However, the Biocompute Framework follows FAIR Data Principles and can be used broadly to provide communication and interoperability between different platforms, industries, scientists and regulators | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=55614105 | 1,947,482 |
57,385 | Externally similar to the classic Hercules in general appearance, the J-model features considerably updated technology. These differences include new Rolls-Royce AE 2100 D3 turboprop engines, Dowty R391 six-bladed composite scimitar propellers that have blade tips swept by 35 degrees, digital avionics (including head-up displays (HUDs) for each pilot), and reduced crew requirements. These changes have improved performance over its C-130E/H predecessors, such as 40% greater range, 21% higher maximum speed, and 41% shorter takeoff distance. Because of the deicing problem discovered late in the certification program, the C-130J includes a black rubber deicing boot at the bottom of the vertical fin, which is another visual difference from previous versions of the Hercules. The J-model is available in a standard-length or stretched "-30" variant. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=16172717 | 57,361 |
1,548,524 | Several enzyme functions have been reported for the PDE2. It has been shown that PDE2 lowers cAMP through increased cGMP caused by atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) resulting in decreased aldosterone secretion. It has also been suggested that PDE2 might play an important role in the regulation of elevated intracellular concentrations of cAMP and cGMP in platelets. PDE3 is an important player in platelet aggregation. It has been reported that higher concentration of cGMP causes inhibition of PDE3, whereas it stimulates PDE2. Interplay between those two functions seems to mediate an opposing regulation of cAMP in platelets. PDE2 regulates cardiac L-type Ca current in cardiac myocytes, where activation of PDE2 by cGMP lowers cAMP and thereby affecting cardiac function. However, it has been recently found that different cAMP pools, located within the cardiac myocyte, mediate different (moreover, sometimes opposing) effects. As different PDE types may affect different cAMP pools, the different PDEs may regulate different processes in the cell. PDE2 is expressed in several regions of the brain and rat experiments have indicated that inhibition of PDE2 enhances functions such as memory. PDE2 is up regulated when monocytes differentiate into macrophages, but the role of PDE2 in matured macrophages is yet to be characterized. Furthermore, PDE2 has been indicated to play a role in inflammatory responses as it has been detected in microvessels, but not in larger vessels. It has been speculated that tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFα) might regulate the function of PDE2 in endothelial cells and thereby affecting flow of fluid and cells through the endothelial barrier as in vitro experiments on endothelial cells show up regulation of both PDE2 mRNA and activity.Until now PDE2 inhibitors have mostly been used as research tools, but are presently being investigated for improving memory, for decreasing endothelial permeability under inflammatory conditions, and for preventing/improving heart failure and cardiac hypertrophy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7906208 | 1,547,643 |
1,767,513 | While researching whether or not matter interacts with the magnetic component of light, Victor Veselago (1967) envisioned the possibility of refraction with a negative sign, according to Maxwell's equations. A refractive index with a negative sign is the result of permittivity, ε < 0 (less than zero) and magnetic permeability, μ < 0 (less than zero). Veselago's analysis has been cited in over 1500 peer reviewed articles and many books. In the mid-1990s, metamaterials were first seen as potential technologies for applications such as nanometer-scale imaging and cloaking objects. For example, in 1995, Guerra fabricated a transparent grating with 50nm lines and spaces, and then coupled this (what would be later called) photonic metamaterial with an immersion objective to resolve a silicon grating having 50nm lines and spaces, far beyond the diffraction limit for the 650nm wavelength illumination in air. And in 2002, Guerra et al published their demonstrated use of subwavelength nano-optics (photonic metamaterials) for optical data storage at densities well above the diffraction limit. As of 2015, metamaterial antennas were commercially available. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=24706093 | 1,766,519 |
694,569 | The wide and large port heads with staggered valve placement give the 302 H.O. high power capabilities. Because of the pent-roof design of the heads, the Boss also had forged pop-up pistons to achieve the desired 10.5:1 compression ratio. Early units were typically characterized by very large intake and exhaust valves sitting in a small quench style combustion chamber. Exhaust valves were sodium-filled to aid cooling. Valve springs were dual units with an inner and outer spring to minimize harmonic resonance at high RPM. The heads feature steel spring seats, screw-in rocker studs, pushrod guide plates to aid in pushrod stability at high RPMs, and adjustable rocker arms. Fuel was provided by a Holley manual choke carburetor. The taller intake required a thinner spacer. Ford used a phenolic spacer that incorporated an aluminum tube for the PCV hose and also helped isolate the carburetor from the heat of the intake. Ignition was handled by a dual point distributor firing unique AF 32 Autolite spark plugs specified because of their smaller size ( wrench vs. wrench) so as to fit within the tight confines of the combustion chamber alongside the very large valves. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=859014 | 694,206 |
1,519,397 | Solusi Mission was the first Seventh-day Adventist mission station in Africa. It was founded in 1894 on 12,000 acres of land given by Cecil Rhodes, prime minister of Cape Colony, to Pieter Wessels and Asa T. Robinson. On October 31, 1956, the Board of Regents of the General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists approved Solusi Mission Training School to become a college. In 1958, Solusi College was giving Bachelor's Degrees to church workers throughout southern and central africa to meet the needs of a growing church membership. Later on negotiations were made to receive affiliation with a Seventh-day Adventist university in the United States. In October 1984 Solusi College became affiliated with Andrews University. During the 10 years of affiliation with Andrews University, Solusi College grew rapidly. New courses were added and enrollment increased by 500%. In 1991 Solusi College submitted an application to become a private university. In March 1992 the National Council visited Solusi College. In July 1994, a charter established Solusi University. On May 4, 1995, His Excellency, Cde Robert Gabriel Mugabe, gave the Solusi University Charter to Chancellor, Dr I. D. Raelly. His Excellency became the first graduate as recipient of the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws. With the establishment of Solusi University, granting of Andrews University degrees became obsolete in August 1998. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2465765 | 1,518,539 |
1,734,158 | Following a design competition in 1900, supervised by Peabody, the Board of Trustees selected designs in the then-popular Beaux-arts architectural style by partner architects William Boring (1859-1937) and Edward Lippincott Tilton (1861-1933), co-designers of the U.S. immigration station at Ellis Island in New York harbor. Over the next five years, stone buildings were erected, using granite from local quarries. The tree-lined streets of the campus, which converged at the steps of Memorial Hall, were designed by landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted (1822-1903), who had designed New York's Central Park. Olmsted selected landscape architect Charles Wellford Leavitt (1871-1928) to design the school's gardens. By 1902, the school had more than a dozen buildings and an endowment of $2 million ($ today). Thirteen of these buildings survive, though some have been damaged or all but destroyed by fire: Memorial Hall, three dormitories (Jackson, Madison, and Harrison), the Chesapeake Inn dormitory and dining hall, the Director's residence, the Monroe Gymnasium, and six Master's cottages. Erika L. Quesenbery, author of "United States Naval Training Center Bainbridge", wrote that Memorial Hall was the school's "centerpiece". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4570957 | 1,733,181 |
320,335 | The animus that had been building against Dissenters and supporters of the American and French Revolutions exploded in July 1791. Priestley and several other Dissenters had arranged to have a celebratory dinner on the anniversary of the storming of the Bastille, a provocative action in a country where many disapproved of the French Revolution and feared that it might spread to Britain. Amid fears of violence, Priestley was convinced by his friends not to attend. Rioters gathered outside the hotel during the banquet and attacked the attendees as they left. The rioters moved on to the New Meeting and Old Meeting churches—and burned both to the ground. Priestley and his wife fled from their home; although their son William and others stayed behind to protect their property, the mob overcame them and torched Priestley's house "Fairhill" at Sparkbrook, destroying his valuable laboratory and all of the family's belongings. Twenty-six other Dissenters’ homes and three more churches were burned in the three-day riot. Priestley spent several days hiding with friends until he was able to travel safely to London. The carefully executed attacks of the "mob" and the farcical trials of only a handful of the "leaders" convinced many at the time—and modern historians later—that the attacks were planned and condoned by local Birmingham magistrates. When George III was eventually forced to send troops to the area, he said: "I cannot but feel better pleased that Priestley is the sufferer for the doctrines he and his party have instilled, and that the people see them in their true light." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=40176 | 320,163 |
19,127 | In 1964, Pyotr Ufimtsev, a Soviet mathematician, published a seminal paper titled "Method of Edge Waves in the Physical Theory of Diffraction" in the journal of the Moscow Institute for Radio Engineering, in which he showed that the strength of the radar return from an object is related to its edge configuration, not its size. Ufimtsev was extending theoretical work published by the German physicist Arnold Sommerfeld. Ufimtsev demonstrated that he could calculate the radar cross-section across a wing's surface and along its edge. The obvious and logical conclusion was that even a large aircraft could reduce its radar signature by exploiting this principle. However, the resulting design would make the aircraft aerodynamically unstable, and the state of computer technology in the early 1960s could not provide the kinds of flight computers which would later allow aircraft such as the F-117 and B-2 Spirit to stay airborne. By the 1970s, when Lockheed analyst Denys Overholser found Ufimtsev's paper, computers and software had advanced significantly, and the stage was set for the development of a stealth airplane. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11720 | 19,119 |
1,515,624 | Between 2007 and 2016, Project Ceibal was the most successful 1:1 program in the world. It included the right to internet connectivity in school as well as at home besides the right to have a computer "Since its implementation, every child who enters the public education system in any part of the country is given a computer for personal use with free Internet connection at school. In addition, Plan Ceibal provides programs, educational resources and teacher training courses that transform the ways of teaching and learning.". The 2007 decree specified in it desired outcomes "1.2.3. EXPECTED RESULTS: Have covered 100% of children of school age within a period of 3 years with an Internet connection in their Schools as in their homes." By 2009 all 300.000 students were equipped with hardware and all schools had WiFi. By 2013 use of Google-drive and apps were added to CREA and By 2015 95% of urban schools had fibre-optic connections. By 2016 Chromebooks were added to the available hardware. Since the original hardware was Fedora based Uruguay has held the top-spot of Linux uptake for years, according to statcounter. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6357454 | 1,514,772 |
1,810,825 | The tawny owl is a considerable predator itself of smaller owls. Data indicates that it is second deadliest owl to the smaller species of owl in Europe, behind only the eagle owl. Among their known owl prey species are Eurasian scops owls ("Otus scops"), Eurasian pygmy owls, little owls ("Athene noctua"), long-eared owls and boreal owls ("Aegolius funereus"). Additionally, they may hunt smaller diurnal birds of prey such as Eurasian sparrowhawks ("Accipiter nisus"), common kestrels ("Falco tinnunculus"), Eurasian hobbys ("Falco subbuteo") and merlins ("Falco columbarius"). Reports of tawny owls killing common buzzards and northern goshawks are of nebulous detail and may refer in fact to nighttime nest robberies rather than overpowering adults of these larger, dangerous and often seemingly avoided raptors. Evidence from Slovenia has indicated that the tawny owl is more feared by small owls such as the boreal owl than even the larger, more powerful Ural owl, as they clustered more strongly as can be explained by habitat in the realm of Ural owl territories but seemed to avoid where possible tawny owl territories. Although there are more known instances of tawny owls hunting little owls, data in central Europe could not distinguish whether little owls were avoiding tawny owls or the wooded habitats they frequent to account for their sometimes spotty ranges. However, when forced to nest in quite close proximity to tawny owls and other medium-sized owl species due to clustered "islands" of habitat remaining in southeastern Poland, the productivity of little owls appeared to lower. Predation by tawny owls can be severe as well on Eurasian pygmy owls, to such an extent that they may have cause the regional extinction of the pygmy around World War II in the Black Forest after the smaller species was already depleted by deforestation. A successful reintroduction of Eurasian pygmys into the forest was followed by a natural range expansion back into the forest by tawnys, which again threatens the population growth of smaller owl. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=68959881 | 1,809,792 |
1,500,977 | Modern interpretation of the message assumes objectivity and neutrality. Graphic design, processed through print technology, translates problems and experiences into a visual linear order. There is a single point of view. The designer believes that he/she should control what would be seen. This model of vision rejects interplay between a viewer and image and affirms that our internal makeup does not alter the impressions we receive. The modern designer's objective is to control the viewer's detached visual component so that information is transmitted seamlessly. In attempting to control the eye, modern design dismissed the creativity of viewing. Beatrice Warde wrote a famous article about rules for typography in modern print in 1932. According to her everything about a 'container' is "calculated to reveal and not to hide the beautiful thing which it was meant to contain." To make a good choice of typography, for modernist designer is not a question of "How should it look?" but "What must it do?" B. Ward pushes to the extreme when she says, "type well used is invisible as type." She denies artistic quality to the printed piece because in her opinion that would mean that its mission is the expression of the designer's self, and not fulfillment of its primary function – conveying the message. These statements are in line with modernist simplicity of Bauhaus, Constructivism, Futurism and their claim that typography, like architecture, must be functional. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=24392212 | 1,500,131 |
1,140,507 | Of the many examples where the sea bed provides an extremely hostile environment for submerged evidence of history, one of the most notable, the "RMS Titanic", though a relatively young wreck and in deep water so calcium-starved that concretion does not occur, appears strong and relatively intact, though indications are that it has already incurred irreversible degradation of her steel and iron hull. As such degradation inevitably continues, data will be forever lost, objects' context will be destroyed and the bulk of the wreck will over centuries completely deteriorate on the floor of the Atlantic Ocean. Comparative evidence shows that all iron and steel ships, especially those in a highly oxygenated environment, continue to degrade and will continue to do so until only their engines and other machinery project much above the sea-floor. Where it remains even after the passage of time, the iron or steel hull is often fragile with no remaining metal within the layer of concretion and corrosion products. The "USS Monitor", having been found in the 1970s, was subjected to a program of attempted "in situ" preservation, for example, but deterioration of the vessel progressed at such a rate that the rescue of her turret was undertaken lest nothing be saved from the wreck. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5720331 | 1,139,913 |
976,705 | Until the pioneering work of British surgeon Joseph Lister in the 1860s, most medical men in Europe believed that chemical damage from exposures to bad air (see "miasma") was responsible for infections in wounds, and facilities for washing hands or a patient's wounds were not available. Lister became aware of the work of French chemist and microbiology pioneer, Louis Pasteur, who showed that rotting and fermentation could occur under anaerobic conditions if micro-organisms were present. Pasteur suggested three methods to eliminate the micro-organisms responsible for gangrene: filtration, exposure to heat, or exposure to chemical solutions. Lister confirmed Pasteur's conclusions with his own experiments and decided to use his findings to develop antiseptic techniques for wounds. As the first two methods suggested by Pasteur were inappropriate for the treatment of human tissue, Lister experimented with the third, spraying carbolic acid on his instruments. He found that this remarkably reduced the incidence of gangrene and he published his results in "The Lancet". Later, on 9 August 1867, he read a paper before the British Medical Association in Dublin, on the "Antiseptic Principle of the Practice of Surgery", which was reprinted in the "British Medical Journal". His work was groundbreaking and laid the foundations for a rapid advance in infection control that saw modern antiseptic operating theatres widely used within 50 years. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11848019 | 976,194 |
446,704 | Beginning in 1921, with an article serialized in "The Freeman", an Irish cultural journal, Cowell popularized the term "tone cluster". While he did not coin the phrase, as is often claimed, he appears to have been the first to use it with its current meaning. During the 1920s and 1930s, Cowell toured widely through North America and Europe, playing his own experimental works, many built around tone clusters. In addition to "The Tides of Manaunaun", "Dynamic Motion", and its five "encores"—"What's This" (1917), "Amiable Conversation" (1917), "Advertisement" (1917), "Antinomy" (1917, rev. 1959; frequently misspelled "Antimony"), and "Time Table" (1917)—these include "The Voice of Lir" (1920), "Exultation" (1921), "The Harp of Life" (1924), "Snows of Fujiyama" (1924), "Lilt of the Reel" (1930), and "Deep Color" (1938). "Tiger" (1930) has a chord of 53 notes, probably the largest ever written for a single instrument until 1969. Along with Ives, Cowell wrote some of the first large-ensemble pieces to make extensive use of clusters. "The Birth of Motion" ( 1920), his earliest such effort, combines orchestral clusters with glissando. "Tone Cluster," the second movement of Cowell's Concerto for Piano and Orchestra (1928, prem. 1978), employs a wide variety of clusters for the piano and each instrumental group (). From a quarter-century later, his Symphony No. 11 (1953) features a sliding chromatic cluster played by muted violins. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=343054 | 446,488 |
144,360 | Unlike diseases such as smallpox and polio, there is no vaccine or drug therapy for guinea worm. Eradication efforts have been based on making drinking water supplies safer (e.g. by provision of borehole wells, or through treating the water with larvicide), on containment of infection and on education for safe drinking water practices. These strategies have produced many successes: two decades of eradication efforts have reduced Guinea worm's global incidence dramatically from over 100,000 in 1995 to less than 100 cases since 2015. While success has been slower than was hoped (the original goal for eradication was 1995), the WHO has certified 180 countries free of the disease, and in 2020 six countries—South Sudan, Ethiopia, Mali, Angola, Cameroon and Chad—reported cases of guinea worm. , the WHO predicted it would be "a few years yet" before eradication is achieved, on the basis that it took 6–12 years for the countries that have so far eliminated guinea worm transmission to do so after reporting a similar number of cases to that reported by Sudan in 2009. Nonetheless, the last 1% of the effort may be the hardest, with cases not substantially decreasing from 2015 (22) to 2020 (24). As a result of missing the 2020 target, the WHO has revised its target for eradication to 2030. The worm is now understood to be able to infect dogs, domestic cats and baboons as well as humans, providing a natural reservoir for the pathogen and thus complicating eradication efforts. In response, the eradication effort is now also targeting animals (especially wild dogs) for treatment and isolation since animal infections far outnumber human infections now (in 2020 Chad reported 1570 animal infections and 12 human infections). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14499186 | 144,302 |
946,169 | Recently, it was observed that adversarial attacks are harder to produce in the practical world due to the different environmental constraints that cancel out the effect of noises. For example, any small rotation or slight illumination on an adversarial image can destroy the adversariality. In addition, researchers such as Google Brain's Nicholas Frosst point out that it is much easier to make self-driving cars miss stop signs by physically removing the sign itself, rather than creating adversarial examples. Frosst also believes that the adversarial machine learning community incorrectly assumes models trained on a certain data distribution will also perform well on a completely different data distribution. He suggests that a new approach to machine learning should be explored, and is currently working on a unique neural network that has characteristics more similar to human perception than state of the art approaches. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=45049676 | 945,666 |
11,827 | The last problem to be solved was how to separate the lunar module a safe distance away from the command module just before reentry. The normal procedure, in lunar orbit, was to release the LM and then use the service module's RCS to pull the CSM away, but by this point, the SM had already been released. Grumman, manufacturer of the LM, assigned a team of University of Toronto engineers, led by senior scientist Bernard Etkin, to solve the problem of how much air pressure to use to push the modules apart. The astronauts applied the solution, which was successful. The LM reentered Earth's atmosphere and was destroyed, the remaining pieces falling in the deep ocean. Apollo 13's final midcourse correction had addressed the concerns of the Atomic Energy Commission, which wanted the cask containing the plutonium oxide intended for the SNAP-27 RTG to land in a safe place. The impact point was over the Tonga Trench in the Pacific, one of its deepest points, and the cask sank to the bottom. Later helicopter surveys found no radioactive leakage. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1770 | 11,822 |
2,141,998 | Consequently, the effect of climate change on the Southern Ocean is an important research topic when trying to understand the global carbon budget. The most important mode that drives the climate in the extratropical Southern Hemisphere is the Southern Annular Mode (SAM) which has consistently been positive in the past few decades, likely as a result of a combination of ozone depletion and global warming. The consistent positive mode of the SAM has so far resulted in a poleward shift of the westerlies and an increase in their strength resulting in an increase in the ventilation of carbon rich deep waters, which is causing a weakening of the carbon sink in the Southern Ocean. Furthermore, increased temperatures seem to result in a freshening of the Antarctic intermediate waters as a result of increased precipitation patterns. However, because the climate dynamics in the Southern Ocean involve feedback mechanisms between the ocean, atmosphere and cryosphere that are poorly understood and not represented well in the current generation of climate models, the effects of climate change on Southern Ocean overturning circulation is still quite uncertain. CMIP5 models predict with “low confidence” a 20% increase in the overall transport of upper-ocean overturning cell in the 21st century. No new studies have improved on this assessment in the Sixth Assessment Report. For the lower cell overturning circulation, combined evidence from observational, numerical and paleoclimate evidence gives “medium confidence” that the lower cell circulation will continue decreasing in the 21st century as a result of increased melt from the Antarctic Ice Sheet. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=70383490 | 2,140,767 |
1,748,596 | In addition, select NWHL players were invited to participate in the 2020 NHL All-Star Weekend in St. Louis. They participated in skill competitions and had a USA vs Canada three-on-three game. The NWHL star, Kendall Coyne Schofield competed in the fastest skater event alongside big names in the NHL such as Connor McDavid, Mat Barzal and Nathan MacKinnon. In the year 2019, she finished 7th out of 8 skaters only a second behind the top skater, Connor McDavid. Also in 2019, Brianna Decker completed a demonstration for the "premier passer" event included in the Al-Star games. After she completed the event, fans complained because she placed three seconds ahead of the first place winner and deserved the $25,000 prize. 2019 was the first time woman ice hockey players has competed in the events but no one received any prizes. The NHL gave the NWHL a special three-on-three event as team USA battled out team Canada. After their countless effort in the events, the NHL still did not pay. Instead, they were given appearance fees and a donation of $1 million towards girls hockey. Their appearances in the games have raised great awareness for women in a male dominated sport. More recognition was given to the NWHL, players earned more respect and they definitely added some new fans to their league. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=26790737 | 1,747,610 |
161,124 | Clinical neuropsychology is the application of neuropsychological knowledge to the assessment (see neuropsychological test and neuropsychological assessment), management, and rehabilitation of people who have experienced illness or injury (particularly to the brain) which has caused neurocognitive problems. In particular they bring a psychological viewpoint to treatment, to understand how such illness and injury may affect and be affected by psychological factors. They also can offer an opinion as to whether a person is demonstrating difficulties due to brain pathology or as a consequence of an emotional or another (potentially) reversible cause or both. For example, a test might show that both patients X and Y are unable to name items that they have been previously exposed to within the past 20 minutes (indicating possible dementia). If patient Y can name some of them with further prompting (e.g. given a categorical clue such as being told that the item they could not name is a fruit), this allows a more specific diagnosis than simply dementia (Y appears to have the vascular type which is due to brain pathology but is usually at least somewhat reversible). Clinical neuropsychologists often work in hospital settings in an interdisciplinary medical team; others work in private practice and may provide expert input into medico-legal proceedings. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=288292 | 161,039 |
1,413,400 | This series of weapons was designed to provide a modern alternative to breech loading conversions of the Civil War-era 3-inch Ordnance rifle. It was constructed of steel and was of built-up construction with a central rifled tube, and reinforcing hoops from the trunnions to the breech. Its steel was stronger than the wrought iron of preceding weapons. The guns had an interrupted screw breech with either a de Bange plastic obturator or (on the earlier modifications) a conceptually similar design by Spaniard Luis Freyre y Góngora with a metallic ring, and fired separate-loading, bagged charges and projectiles. The projectiles weighed approximately and common, shrapnel, or canister types available. The M1885 and M1890 used black powder when first introduced, but the M1897 was redesigned for smokeless powder; the M1890 weapons were then modified for smokeless powder and re-designated M1897s. In the Spanish–American War, difficulties were encountered in ramping up production of smokeless powder, so the M1885 and M1890 weapons were deployed to use the available black powder. The M1890 was a simplification of the M1885, with the barrel made from two forgings instead of eight. The guns had a box trail carriage built from bolted steel plates with two large wooden spoked wheels. The guns did not have a recoil mechanism or a gun shield but the carriage's wheel brakes provided some recoil absorption. Due to its low angle of elevation +20° it was a direct fire weapon. For transport, the gun was attached to a limber for towing by a horse team and there were seats attached to the axle of the carriage for the crew. The limber also had seats for crew members plus ammunition and supplies. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=52293180 | 1,412,604 |
2,168,026 | In 1929 the Union of Technical Men - local 37 of the International Federation of Technical Engineers, Architects and Draftsmen's Union (IFTEADU), based in New York - was expelled from the international union due to 'excessive radicalism' following an unsuccessful strike at the Board of Transportation. In 1933 - at the height of the Great Depression - the American Institute of Architects published suggested minimum wage standards under the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) that prescribed a rate of 50 cents per hour for architectural draftsmen and 40 cents for engineering draftsmen. Incensed by what they perceived as an insultingly low wage rate, members of the Union of Technical Men called a meeting at which it was resolved to merge with United Committee of Architects, Engineers and Chemists (a loose coalition of technical employees' organizations, primarily representing civil service engineers) to form the FAECT. The federation grew rapidly, reaching a membership of 6,500 by 1934, organised into 15 local unions. In June 1936 the FAECT organised a sit-down strike by architects employed by the New York City Department of Parks, who barricaded themselves in their offices in protest at alleged anti-union activities by Robert Moses and other Department officials. Later in the same year the federation secured a significant pay rise for the approximately 7000 architects employed by the Works Progress Administration (WPA). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=35215213 | 2,166,789 |
1,621,122 | The university continued its expansion through the first half of the 20th century; opening several new professional schools, expanding the residential life on the Evanston campus, and establishing a campus for the professional schools in downtown Chicago. Although the university's tax-exempt status came into dispute, a 1908 Illinois Supreme Court removed the tax threat to university property. The original Patten Gymnasium was opened in 1908 to replace its dilapidated predecessor and house the burgeoning athletic programs. In 1914, the North Quads were completed as a part of a $500,000 Fraternity/Men's Dormitory plan. The buildings, designed by Palmer, Hornbostel, and Jones were planned in quadrangles and would house seven fraternities and four residence halls. Harris Hall opened in 1915, opposite University Hall, to house the social sciences and the new department of political science. Dyche Stadium, Northwestern's fourth football stadium, was completed in 1926 and opened with a capacity of 47,000 seats. The Women's Quads were dedicated in 1926 with 2 residential halls and 14 sororities. The Western Episcopal Seminary buildings were opened in 1928, and merged with the Seabury Seminary in 1933 to form the Seabury-Western Theological Seminary. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10414221 | 1,620,207 |
616,436 | The School of Instruction of the Revenue Cutter Service was established on 31 July 1876 near New Bedford, Massachusetts. It used for its training exercises. "Dobbin" was replaced in 1878 with , which was specially designed for the assignment as a training cutter. The School of Instruction moved to Curtis Bay, Maryland in 1900 and then again in 1910 to Fort Trumbull, near New London, Connecticut. The school provided a two-year premise to ship supplemented by some class work and tutoring in technical subjects. In 1903, the third year of instruction was added. The school was oriented to line officers, as engineers were hired directly from civilian life. In 1906, an engineering program for cadets began. Nevertheless, the school remained small, with 5 to 10 cadets per class. In 1914 the School became the Revenue Cutter Academy and with the merger of the Revenue Cutter Service and the Life Saving Service in 1915, it became the United States Coast Guard Academy. In February 1929, Congress appropriated $1,750,000 for construction of buildings to be used for the academy. The city of New London purchased the land on the Thames River and donated it to the government for use as a Coast Guard facility. Construction began in 1931 and the first cadets began occupying the new facilities in 1932. A fourth year of classes was added in 1932. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6204230 | 616,122 |
27,594 | Alexander Graham Bell used the light-sensitive property of selenium to transmit sound over a beam of light in 1880. A working solar cell, of low efficiency, was constructed by Charles Fritts in 1883, using a metal plate coated with selenium and a thin layer of gold; the device became commercially useful in photographic light meters in the 1930s. Point-contact microwave detector rectifiers made of lead sulfide were used by Jagadish Chandra Bose in 1904; the cat's-whisker detector using natural galena or other materials became a common device in the development of radio. However, it was somewhat unpredictable in operation and required manual adjustment for best performance. In 1906, H.J. Round observed light emission when electric current passed through silicon carbide crystals, the principle behind the light-emitting diode. Oleg Losev observed similar light emission in 1922, but at the time the effect had no practical use. Power rectifiers, using copper oxide and selenium, were developed in the 1920s and became commercially important as an alternative to vacuum tube rectifiers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27709 | 27,584 |
854,542 | The Context Camera (CTX) provides grayscale images (500 to 800 nm) with a pixel resolution up to about . CTX is designed to provide context maps for the targeted observations of HiRISE and CRISM, and is also used to mosaic large areas of Mars, monitor a number of locations for changes over time, and to acquire stereo (3D) coverage of key regions and potential future landing sites. The optics of CTX consist of a focal length Maksutov Cassegrain telescope with a 5,064 pixel wide line array CCD. The instrument takes pictures wide and has enough internal memory to store an image long before loading it into the main computer. The camera was built, and is operated by Malin Space Science Systems. CTX mapped 50% of Mars by February 2010. In 2012 it found the impacts of six 55-pound (25-kilogram) entry ballast masses from Mars Science Laboratory's landing of "Curiosity" rover. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=453326 | 854,087 |
1,106,679 | The Reverse Hierarchy Theory (RHT), proposed by Ahissar & Hochstein, aims to link between learning dynamics and specificity and the underlying neuronal sites. RHT proposes that naïve performance is based on responses at high-level cortical areas, where crude, categorical level representations of the environment are represented. Hence initial learning stages involve understanding global aspects of the task. Subsequent practice may yield better perceptual resolution as a consequence of accessing lower-level information via the feedback connections going from high to low levels. Accessing the relevant low-level representations requires a backward search during which informative input populations of neurons in the low level are allocated. Hence, subsequent learning and its specificity reflect the resolution of lower levels. RHT thus proposes that initial performance is limited by the high-level resolution whereas post-training performance is limited by the resolution at low levels. Since high-level representations of different individuals differ due to their prior experience, their initial learning patterns may differ. Several imaging studies are in line with this interpretation, finding that initial performance is correlated with average (BOLD) responses at higher-level areas whereas subsequent performance is more correlated with activity at lower-level areas. RHT proposes that modifications at low levels will occur only when the backward search (from high to low levels of processing) is successful. Such success requires that the backward search will "know" which neurons in the lower level are informative. This "knowledge" is gained by training repeatedly on a limited set of stimuli, such that the same lower-level neuronal populations are informative during several trials. Recent studies found that mixing a broad range of stimuli may also yield effective learning if these stimuli are clearly perceived as different, or are explicitly tagged as different. These findings further support the requirement for top-down guidance in order to obtain effective learning. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25335695 | 1,106,115 |
592,807 | Most of the evidence suggests the increase of volcanic activity was the main cause of the extinction. As a result of the rifting of the super continent Pangea, there was an increase in widespread volcanic activity which released large amounts of carbon dioxide. At the end of the Triassic Period, massive eruptions occurred along the rift zone, known as the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province, for about 500,000 years. These intense eruptions were classified as flood basalt eruptions, which are a type of large scale volcanic activity that releases a huge volume of lava in addition to sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide. The sudden increase in carbon dioxide levels is believed to have enhanced the greenhouse effect, which acidified the oceans and raised average air temperature. As a result of the change in biological conditions in the oceans, 22% of marine families became extinct. In addition, 53% of marine genera and about 76–86% of all species became extinct, which vacated ecological niches; thus, enabling dinosaurs to become the dominant presence in the Jurassic Period. While the majority of the scientists agree that volcanic activity was the main cause of the extinction, other theories suggest the extinction was triggered by the impact of an asteroid, climate change, or rising sea levels. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3029097 | 592,503 |
374,094 | Western honey bee populations face threats to their survival increasing interests into other pollinator species, like the common eastern bumblebee. North American and European populations were severely depleted by "Varroa" mite infestations during the early 1990s, and U.S. beekeepers were further affected by colony collapse disorder in 2006 and 2007. Some subspecies of "Apis mellifera" show naturally varroa sensitive hygiene, for example Apis mellifera lamarckii and Apis mellifera carnica. Improved cultural practices and chemical treatments against "Varroa" mites saved most commercial operations; new bee breeds are beginning to reduce beekeeper dependence on acaricides. Feral bee populations were greatly reduced during this period; they are slowly recovering, primarily in mild climates, due to natural selection for "Varroa" resistance and repopulation by resistant breeds. Although it is generally believed that insecticides have also depleted bee populations, particularly when used in excess of label directions, as bee pests and diseases (including American foulbrood and tracheal mites) are becoming resistant to medications, research in this regard has not been conclusive. A 2012 study of the effect of neonicotinoid-based insecticides showed "no effects observed in field studies at field-realistic dosages." A new study in 2020 found that neonicotinoid insecticides affected the developmental stability of honey bees, particularly haploid males were more susceptible to neonicotinoids than diploid females. The 2020 study also found that heterozygosity may play a key role in buffering insecticide exposure. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18214141 | 373,899 |
279,644 | While studying physics at WPI, ideas came to Goddard's mind that sometimes seemed impossible, but he was compelled to record them for future investigation. He wrote that "there was something inside which simply would not stop working." He purchased some cloth-covered notebooks and began filling them with a variety of thoughts, mostly concerning his dream of space travel. He considered centrifugal force, radio waves, magnetic reaction, solar energy, atomic energy, ion or electrostatic propulsion and other methods to reach space. After experimenting with solid fuel rockets he was convinced by 1909 that chemical-propellant engines were the answer. A particularly complex concept was set down in June 1908: Sending a camera around distant planets, guided by measurements of gravity along the trajectory, and returning to earth. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=210597 | 279,494 |
76,986 | The classical k-means algorithm and its variations are known to only converge to local minima of the minimum-sum-of-squares clustering problem defined as Many studies have attempted to improve the convergence behavior of the algorithm and maximize the chances of attaining the global optimum (or at least, local minima of better quality). Initialization and restart techniques discussed in the previous sections are one alternative to find better solutions. More recently, global optimization algorithms based on branch-and-bound and semidefinite programming have produced ‘’provenly optimal’’ solutions for datasets with up to 4,177 entities and 20,531 features. As expected, due to the NP-hardness of the subjacent optimization problem, the computational time of optimal algorithms for K-means quickly increases beyond this size. Optimal solutions for small- and medium-scale still remain valuable as a benchmark tool, to evaluate the quality of other heuristics. To find high-quality local minima within a controlled computational time but without optimality guarantees, other works have explored metaheuristics and other global optimization techniques, e.g., based on incremental approaches and convex optimization, random swaps (i.e., iterated local search), variable neighborhood search and genetic algorithms. It is indeed known that finding better local minima of the minimum sum-of-squares clustering problem can make the difference between failure and success to recover cluster structures in feature spaces of high dimension. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1860407 | 76,957 |
1,175,406 | Out of 10,000 candidates, France's space center selected only six men and one woman: Claudie Haigneré. She first qualified as an engineer and emergency pilot to the Space Shuttle. She first served as a back-up crew member for the 1993 Mir "Altaïr" mission in which her future husband Jean-Pierre Haigneré participated. The asteroid 135268 Haigneré is named in their combined honour. In 1994, Claudie Haigneré began training at the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center in Star City, Russia, for the Franco-Russian Cassiopée mission and learned Russian during her time there. On 17 August 1996, she became the first French woman to go to space as she and two Russian cosmonauts, commander Valery Korzun and flight engineer Aleksandr Kaleri, launched into space aboard the Soyuz TM-24 on the Russian-French "Cassiopée" mission. While on the mission, visited the Mir space station for 16 days and she conducted comprehensive experiments in the fields of physiology and development biology, fluid physics and technology. In 1999, Haigneré commanded a Soyuz capsule during reentry and became the first woman qualified to do so. As the flight engineer on Soyuz TM-33 in 2001, she became the first European woman to visit the International Space Station. After the mission, Claudie Haigneré continued her involvement in space science by attending scientific workshops and conferences. She also contributed to data analysis and constructions for the scientific programs of future projects. She eventually retired from ESA on 18 June 2002. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=429841 | 1,174,784 |
495,602 | In a patented method, Tetrahydrofuran was used in a solvent containing 50 g (0.205 mols) of uridine (or, presumably, any unprotected nucleoside), 112 ml (1.03 mols) of methyl orthoformate and 10 g (52.6 mmols) of paratoluenesulfonic acid at room temperature with stirring. After stirring at room temperature for 24 hours, the reaction mixture was poured into an aqueous sodium bicarbonate solution followed by extraction with chloroform 5 times. The extract was dried over sodium sulfate and concentrated to give 49.5 g (0.173 mols) of 2',3'-o-methoxymethylideneuridine (yield, 84.5%). After this reaction, the uridine example product 2',3'-o-methoxymethylideneuridine is then dissolved in 50 ml of acetic anhydride at room temperature with stirring. The solution was heated to 140° C. and kept at this temperature for 5 hours under reflux of the solvent. After cooling to room temperature, the solvent was removed by distillation under reduced pressure, 50 ml of water were added, and the mixture was extracted 3 times with 100 ml of chloroform. The extract was concentrated under reduced pressure, 30% ammonia water to obtain an 82.3% yield of 2',3'-dideoxy-2',3'-didehydrouridine. This product example is then hydrated to remove the double bond through dissolving it in methanol (10 ml) containing a catalyst (wet 5% palladium on carbon) (400 mg) in an atmosphere of hydrogen for 1 h to obtain the resultant dideoxynucleoside ( 2',3'-dideoxyuridine in this case). The dye nucleo"tide" to be used will likely occur by treatment with a phosphorylation enzyme and biotinylation and reaction of the biotinylated substance with the dye. It is possible that immediate reaction with the dye may also occur, but extending the arm is claimed to increase efficiency in the case of using a mutant form of DNA polymerase | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3291893 | 495,346 |
191,212 | Although monetary pricing continues with respect to the valuation of ecosystem services, the challenges in policy implementation and management are significant and considerable. The administration of common pool resources has been a subject of extensive academic pursuit. From defining the problems to finding solutions that can be applied in practical and sustainable ways, there is much to overcome. Considering options must balance present and future human needs, and decision-makers must frequently work from valid but incomplete information. Existing legal policies are often considered insufficient since they typically pertain to human health-based standards that are mismatched with necessary means to protect ecosystem health and services. In 2000, to improve the information available, the implementation of an "Ecosystem Services Framework" has been suggested (ESF), which integrates the biophysical and socio-economic dimensions of protecting the environment and is designed to guide institutions through multidisciplinary information and jargon, helping to direct strategic choices. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1855357 | 191,113 |
305,886 | The Plesiosauria have their origins within the Sauropterygia, a group of perhaps archelosaurian reptiles that returned to the sea. An advanced sauropterygian subgroup, the carnivorous Eusauropterygia with small heads and long necks, split into two branches during the Upper Triassic. One of these, the Nothosauroidea, kept functional elbow and knee joints; but the other, the Pistosauria, became more fully adapted to a sea-dwelling lifestyle. Their vertebral column became stiffer and the main propulsion while swimming no longer came from the tail but from the limbs, which changed into flippers. The Pistosauria became warm-blooded and viviparous, giving birth to live young. Early, basal, members of the group, traditionally called "pistosaurids", were still largely coastal animals. Their shoulder girdles remained weak, their pelves could not support the power of a strong swimming stroke, and their flippers were blunt. Later, a more advanced pistosaurian group split off: the Plesiosauria. These had reinforced shoulder girdles, flatter pelves, and more pointed flippers. Other adaptations allowing them to colonise the open seas included stiff limb joints; an increase in the number of phalanges of the hand and foot; a tighter lateral connection of the finger and toe phalanx series, and a shortened tail. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1398078 | 305,723 |
1,019,233 | Within this model, sensory store and short term memory or working memory has limited capacity. Sensory store is able to hold very limited amounts of information for very limited amounts of time. This phenomenon is very similar to having a picture taken with a flash. For a few brief moments after the flash goes off, the flash it seems to still be there. However, it is soon gone and there is no way to know it was there (Sternberg & Sternberg, 2012). Short term memory holds information for slightly longer periods of time, but still has a limited capacity. According to Linden (2007), "The capacity of STM had initially been estimated at "seven plus or minus two" items (Miller 1956), which fits the observation from neuropsychological testing that the average digit span of healthy adults is about seven (Cowan and others 2005). However, it emerged that these numbers of items can only be retained if they are grouped into so-called chunks, using perceptual or conceptual associations between individual stimuli." Its duration is of 5–20 seconds before it is out of the subject's mind. This occurs often with names of people newly introduced to. Images or information based on meaning are stored here as well, but it decays without rehearsal or repetition of such information. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=315578 | 1,018,706 |
2,200,468 | To elucidate the reaction mechanism, detailed investigations were carried out on the reactivity of [BBr] and [BCl] with methane in the gas phase. The molecular structures were investigated with the aid of IR spectroscopy. It was shown that the electrophilic boron atom reacts with the less polar C–H bond. The carbon represents the partially negative (nucleophilic) part of the bond. A heterolytic bond cleavage of the C–H bond occurs, which formally leads to a carbanion [CH] and a proton H. The carbanion binds to the electrophilic boron atom of [BX], forming the dianion [BXCH], while the H ion remains electrostatically bound to this dianion in the gas phase. The overall singly charged ion [BXCH] [H] is a Brønsted acid. Upon contact with water, [BXCH][HO] is formed, which can be detected by the characteristic "umbrella mode" of the coordinated hydronium ion (HO) (cf. Figs. 8 and 9). In addition, the fragment ions [BBr] and [BCl] were deposited on surfaces by the ion soft-landing method, where they reacted with the alkyl chains of organic compounds. The attachment to the nonpolar alkyl chains occurred selectively in the presence of much more reactive functional groups such as aromatic and ester groups. This surprising preference for C–H groups as reactants may be related to the fact that hydrophobic alkyl groups are oriented towards the vacuum in such surface layers. The superelectrophilic anions react directly at the vacuum interface with C–H groups of the phthalate alkyl groups according to the mechanism for methane binding shown in Figure 8. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=69976681 | 2,199,216 |
354,271 | On September 9, 1965, "The Wall Street Journal" reported that a manufacturer of the chemical warned that the death of an Irish woman after undergoing DMSO treatment for a sprained wrist may have been due to the treatment, although no autopsy was done, nor was a causal relationship established. Clinical research using DMSO was halted and did not begin again until the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) published findings in favor of DMSO in 1972. In 1978, the US FDA approved DMSO for treating interstitial cystitis. In 1980, the US Congress held hearings on claims that the FDA was slow in approving DMSO for other medical uses. In 2007, the US FDA granted "fast track" designation on clinical studies of DMSO's use in reducing brain tissue swelling following traumatic brain injury. DMSO exposure to developing mouse brains can produce brain degeneration. This neurotoxicity could be detected at doses as low as 0.3mL/kg, a level exceeded in children exposed to DMSO during bone marrow transplant. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=569213 | 354,088 |
1,815,672 | Namangan State University (NamSU) was established in 1942 as a pedagogical institute. It is in Namangan province which has almost 2.8 mln population with 7900 km2 area located in eastern part on Uzbekistan, considered one of the strategically important area. Nowadays NamSU has over 20,000 students in bachelor and master degree programs. NamSU has 600 teaching staff which 46% of them have PhD and Doctoral levels degrees. NamSU offers various courses of study, including 54 bachelor educational programs, 15 masters specialization programs, 10 programs for full-time Doctorate and another 15 programs for part-time Doctorate. The university trains high-skilled specialists in Languages (Uzbek, Russian, English, German), Literature, Social sciences, Political sciences, History, Archive studies, Pedagogy, Psychology, Education, preschool education, Sport, applied art, music education, geography, economy, mathematics, applied mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, technical sciences, tourism, hotel management, information technology and library studies. The university have also newly established dual degree programs in medicine with Ural Medical University (Russia). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=24840084 | 1,814,638 |
1,863,450 | As the previous Olympic final in Montreal had been in 1976, also this Olympic steeplechase final was quick from the start. In accordance with most pre-final expectations, Tanzania's Filbert Bayi sprinted to the lead soon after the start. With Ethiopia's Eshetu Tura and Spain's Francisco Sanchez following him, Bayi led the 12-man field through 1,000 metres in 2:38.4. During the second kilometre of this final, several runners gradually lost contact with the top steeplechasers. Already with four laps to go, Bayi had stretched his lead over Tura to 10 metres. With three laps to go, Bayi had expanded his lead to at least 20 metres. However, around that point, Poland's Bronislaw Malinowski moved into the third place. By the time Bayi passed 2,000 metres in 5:20.3, he started to tire out. His fatigue became visible with two laps to go, when he still held a 35-metre lead over Tura. As a result, he needed to stretch and strain his tired legs more and more, in order to jump over the barriers. By contrast, Malinowski kept jumping over the barriers smoothly and effortlessly. During the second-last lap, Malinowski passed Tura, and started to close in on Bayi. Although the Tanzanian was still around 20 metres ahead of the Pole at the start of the final lap, Bayi's speed had visibly slowed down. It was only a matter of time before Malinowski would catch and pass him. On the final bend, shortly before the last water barrier, Malinowski at last sprinted past the exhausted Bayi. The experienced Polish steeplechaser easily won the race, while Bayi was able to keep Tura behind himself. Spain's Domingo Ramon placed fourth, as this final's best Western European. (The Olympic Book of Moscow (The Runner Magazine), Helsinki, Finland, 1980; The Big Olympic Book (the 1980 edition), Helsinki, Finland; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8xbEsKKDyNQ.) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21223341 | 1,862,380 |
351,589 | Although Kellogg praised hydropathy for its many uses, he did acknowledge its limits. "In nearly all cases, sunlight, pure air, rest, exercise, proper food, and other hygienic agencies are quite as important as water. Electricity, too, is a remedy which should not be ignored; and skillful surgery is absolutely indispensable in not a small number of cases." With this belief, he went on to criticize many medical figures who misused or overestimated hydropathy in the treating of disease. Among these, he criticized what he referred to as "Cold-Water Doctors" who would recommend the same remedy regardless of the type of ailment or temperament of the patient. These doctors would prescribe ice-cold baths in unwarmed rooms even during the harshest winters. In his opinion, this prejudicial approach to illness resulted in converting hydropathy to a more heroic type of treatment where many became obsessed with taking baths in ice-cold water. He addresses the negative consequences that resulted from this "infatuation", among them tuberculosis and other diseases. This dangerous habit was only exacerbated by physicians who used hydropathy in excess. Kellogg recounts an instance where a patient with a low typhus fever was treated with 35 cold packs while in a feeble state and, not to the surprise of Kellogg, died. Kellogg posits this excessive and dangerous use of hydropathy as a return to the "violent processes" of bloodletting, antimony, mercury and purgatives. Kellogg also criticizes the ignorance in "Hydropathic Quacks" as well as in Preissnitz, the founder of modern hydropathy, himself. Kellogg states that the "Quacks" as well as Preissnitz are ignorant for overestimating the hydropathy as a "cure-all" remedy without understanding the true nature of disease. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=490269 | 351,406 |
334,846 | In the United States, the Games were once again broadcast by NBCUniversal properties under a long-term contract (this would be the only time that the Super Bowl and the Winter Olympics will be held on NBC on the same year). On 28 March 2017, NBC announced that it would adopt a new format for its primetime coverage of the 2018 Winter Olympics, with a focus on live coverage in all time zones to take advantage of Pyeongchang's 14-hour difference with U.S. Eastern Time (and 17-hour difference with U.S. Pacific Time), and to address criticism of its previous tape delay practices. As before, the primetime block began at 8:00 p.m. ET (5:00 p.m. PT), and unlike previous Olympics, was available for streaming. Figure skating events were deliberately scheduled with morning sessions so they could be aired during primetime in the Americas (and in turn, NBC's coverage; due to the substantial fees NBC has paid for rights to the Olympics, the IOC has allowed NBC to have influence on event scheduling to maximize U.S. television ratings when possible; NBC agreed to a $7.75 billion contract extension on 7 May 2014, to air the Olympics through the 2032 games, is also one of the major sources of revenue for the IOC). Coverage took a break in the East for late local news, after which coverage continued into "Primetime Plus", featuring additional live coverage into the Eastern late night and Western primetime hours. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=961505 | 334,668 |
1,685,198 | Petsko's independent academic career has included stints at Wayne State University School of Medicine, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the Max Planck Institute for Medical Research in Heidelberg, and, from 1991 until 2012, Brandeis University, where he was Professor of Biochemistry and of Chemistry and director of the Rosenstiel Basic Medical Sciences Research Center. He is past-president of the American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and of the International Union for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. He is an elected member of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Medicine, and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He is a foreign member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences and has an honorary Doctor of Laws from Dalhousie University. In April 2010, he was elected to the American Philosophical Society. In 2012, he announced that he was moving to Weill Cornell Medical College in New York City, where his wife, Dr. Laurie Glimcher, had been appointed dean. He was appointed at Weill Cornell Medical College as the director of the Helen and Robert Appel Alzheimer's Disease Research Institute and the Arthur J. Mahon Professor of Neurology and Neuroscience in the Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute, and at Cornell University as adjunct professor of Biomedical Engineering, and retained an appointment at Brandeis University as Gyula and Katica Tauber Professor of Biochemistry and Chemistry, Emeritus. His wife was named president and CEO of the Dana–Farber Cancer Institute in October 2016, and in January 2019 he followed her back to Boston, assuming his present position as Professor of Neurology at the Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases at Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12592636 | 1,684,253 |
1,262,836 | The scientific literature shows very little progress toward an acoustic microscope following the Dunn and Fry experiments up until about 1970 when two groups of activity emerged, one headed by C.F. Quate (Stanford University) and the other by A. Korpel and L.W. Kessler (Zenith Radio Research Labs). The first efforts to develop an operational acoustic microscope concentrated upon high-frequency adaptations of low-frequency ultrasonic visualization methods. One early system employed Bragg diffraction imaging, which is based upon direct interaction between an acoustic-wave field and a laser light beam. Another example was based on variations of the Pohlman cell. The original device is based upon a suspension of asymmetric particles in a thin fluid layer which, when acted upon by acoustic energy, produce visual reflectivity changes. Cunningham and Quate modified this by suspending tiny latex spheres in a fluid. Acoustic pressure caused population shifts which were visually detectable. Kessler and Sawyer developed a liquid crystal cell that enabled sound to be detected by hydrodynamic orientation of the fluid. In 1973, the Quate group began the development of a concept, which utilized the first scanning acoustic microscope (SAM) with a confocal pair of 50 MHz ultrasonic lenses for focusing and detecting the ultrasonic energy. In 1974, this concept was realized by R. A. Lemons and C. F. Quate at the Microwave Laboratory of Stanford University. Advancements of this instrument, a scanning acoustic microscope, have to do with achieving very high resolution, novel modes of imaging, and applications. The SAM was commercially introduced by Leitz Corp and by Olympus Corp. In 1970, the Korpel and Kessler group began to pursue a scanning laser detection system for acoustic microscopy. In 1974, the activity was shifted to another organization under Kessler (Sonoscan Inc), where practical aspects of the instrument were developed. This instrument, the scanning laser acoustic microscope (SLAM), was made commercial available in 1975. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18395236 | 1,262,148 |
235,030 | US Defence officials told "The Wall Street Journal" that the core of the new anti-missile shield would be a powerful early-warning radar, known as an X-Band, sited on a southern Japanese island. Discussions between Japan and the United States are currently underway. The new X-Band would join an existing radar that was installed in northern Japan in 2006 and a third X-Band could be placed in South East Asia. The resulting radar arc would cover North Korea, China and possibly even Taiwan. According to U.S. Navy officials and the Congressional Research Service the U.S. Navy has drawn up plans to expand its fleet of ballistic missile-defense-capable warships from 26 ships today to 36 by 2018. Officials said as many as 60% of those are likely to be deployed to Asia and the Pacific. In addition, the U.S. Army is considering acquiring additional Terminal High Altitude Area Defense, or THAAD, antimissile systems, said a senior defense official. Under current plans, the Army is building six THAADs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=350551 | 234,911 |
1,313,896 | Practical and commercial use of KAP is limited by the unpredictability of the weather (notably wind, sun and rain) and the fact that not every site is suitable to flying a kite. Launching a kite near buildings or downwind of trees can be problematic, due to heavy turbulence. The main applications today are amateur photography, art and, especially, archaeology as described on the webpages of the West Lothian Archaeological Trust. Another growing application is its use for community mapping and environmental monitoring by the widespread Public Laboratory for Open Technology and Science. Research scientists are using kite aerial photography for monitoring bird species and also for studies in the geographical and geological sciences, including photogrammetry. Increasingly, kites are being employed where the use of a small unmanned aerial vehicle (SUAV, commonly known as a drone) is either impractical, or encounters legal or other constraints. Attempts to commercialize KAP have so far been largely unsuccessful. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=155264 | 1,313,176 |
1,173,295 | Farming practices and optimal environmental conditions for the propagation of "B. maydis" in the United States led to an epidemic in 1970. In the early 1960s, seed corn companies began to use male sterile cytoplasm so that they could eliminate the previous need for hand detasseling to save both money and time. This seed was eventually bred into hybrid crops until there was an estimated 90% prevalence of Texas male sterile cytoplasm (Tcms) maize, vulnerable to the newly generated Race T. The disease, which first appeared in the United States in 1968, reached epidemic status in 1970 and destroyed about 15% of the corn belt's crop production that year. In 1970 the disease began in the southern United States and by mid-August had spread north to Minnesota and Maine. It is estimated that Illinois alone suffered a loss of 250 million bushels of corn to SCLB. The monetary value of the lost corn crop is estimated at one billion US dollars. In 1971 SCLB losses had basically disappeared. This was due to the return usage of normal cytoplasm corn, not as conducive weather, residues being buried, and planting early. The SCLB epidemic highlighted the issue of genetic uniformity in monoculture crops, which allows for a greater likelihood of new pathogen races and host vulnerability. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37404930 | 1,172,676 |
241,924 | The Il-28 design was conventional in layout, with high, unswept wings and a swept horizontal tail and fin. The engines were carried in bulky nacelles slung directly under the wings. The nosewheel retracted rearwards, while the mainwheels retracted forwards into the engine nacelles. The crew of three were accommodated in separate, pressurised compartments. The navigator, who also acted as bombardier, was accommodated in the glazed nose compartment and was provided with an OPB-5 bombsight based on the American Norden bombsight of the Second World War, while the pilot sat under a sideways opening bubble canopy with an armoured windscreen. The gunner sat in a separate compartment at the rear of the fuselage, operating a power driven turret armed with two Nudelman-Suranov NS-23 23 mm cannons with 250 rounds each. In service, the turret was sometimes removed as a weight saving measure. While the pilot and navigator sat on ejector seats, the gunner had to parachute out of a hatch in the floor in the event of an emergency. Two more fixed, forward-firing 23 mm cannon with 100 rounds each were mounted under the nose and fired by the pilot, while a bomb bay was located in the fuselage, capable of holding four 100 kg (220 lb) bombs in individual containers, or single large bombs of up to 3,000 kg (6,600 lb) slung from a beam in the bomb bay. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=514797 | 241,798 |
1,903,598 | It was during the year 1910 that Martin M. Foss, a traveling representative of the newly organized McGraw-Hill Book Company, in calling on the Department of Engineering Drawing, recognized in the group headed by Professor Thomas E. French one of the most successful and talented groups in its field in the United States. He said to Professor French: "We want a new mechanical drawing text. " "There are already fifty drawing books on the market" protested French. "But which is standard?" countered Foss. "We want a text that will be widely accepted as the standard work on the subject." Professor French accepted the challenge. Discarding the time-worn name "Mechanical Drawing" he coined a new title and wrote a text, ""A Manual of Engineering Drawing for Students and Draftsmen"", which was published in 1911. He was ably assisted by Assistant Professor Robert Meiklejohn, Instructors Owen E. Williams, Arthur C. Harper, Cree Sheets, Frederick W. Ives, William D. Turnbull and William J. Norris, which were the entire teaching staff of the department. The staff contributed immeasurably in the preparation of drawings, problem material as well as advice and suggestions in the text. This pioneering book (now in its 10th edition) made publishing history. It was a truly monumental classic, and for many years was a perennial leader in its field and held the American publishers record as the best selling of all college textbooks. This text is attributed to giving great impetus to the McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, as well as helping Martin Foss, who later became President of the company. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=53759626 | 1,902,504 |
1,689,162 | In Geneva, he became seriously depressed, ran out of money, and on 9 January 1921 he was found dead in his hotel room, having tied himself up in his bed with a mask which was supplied with an asphyxiating gas from a metal container. It appears that his suicide was connected to his utopian beliefs, reflected in his 1903 book of stories, "Earthly Paradise, or a Winter Night's Dream. Tales from the 27th century". As an atheist, his dreamed-of utopia was to be scientifically-based, involving the evolution of a perfect human race. The "Earthly Paradise" describes specially-bred castes of human including one of neotenised sexual adults with child-like features, who were put to death at the age of 35, as they could not be happy in old age. Further, he held extreme ideological beliefs on eugenics and antisemitism. He actively assisted the right-wing nationalist organisation, the Kazan Department of the Union of Russian People, and provided secret assistance to the Ministry of Internal Affairs in hunting down Jews and supposed traitors. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1706639 | 1,688,216 |
128,740 | The disease associated with this increased secretion of cortisol was described by the American neurosurgeon Harvey Cushing in 1912 after he was presented with a unique case of the disease in 1910 a 23-year-old woman called Minnie G. whose symptoms included painful obesity, amenorrhea, hypertrichosis (abnormal hair growth), underdevelopment of secondary sexual characteristics, hydrocephalus and cerebral tension. This combination of symptoms was not yet described by any medical disorder at the time. However, Cushing was confident that Minnie's symptoms were due to dysfunction of the pituitary gland and resembled those associated with an adrenal tumor. Given this conviction, and his knowledge of the three anterior pituitary cell types, Cushing hypothesized that if acidophil hyperpituitarism (excess secretion from the acidophil cells) caused acromegaly, then an excess of basophil cells must be involved in another pituitary disorder that involves sexual dysfunction (amenorrhea in females and erectile dysfunction in males) and could explain Minnie's symptoms. Experimental evidence and case reports by Cushing led to his publication in 1932 on pituitary basophilism as the cause of Cushing's disease. In this publication, the clinical symptoms of the disease, named after Cushing, were described. Out of the 12 cases with hypercortisolism described in Cushing's monograph on the pituitary body, 67% died within a few years after symptom presentation, whereas Minnie G. survived for more than 40 years after symptom presentation, despite the fact that she did not receive any treatments for a pituitary tumor. The prolonged survival made Minnie's case unique at the time. The reason behind this survival remains a mystery since an autopsy of Minnie was refused after her death. However, the most likely explanation, proposed by J. Aidan Carney and based on statistical evidence, was that the basophil adenoma Minnie might have harbored underwent partial infarction, leading to symptom regression. The other hypothesis was that Minnie might have had Primary Pigmented Nodular Adrenocortical Disease (PPNAD), which when associated with Cushing's syndrome (Carney complex) can infrequently cause spontaneous symptom regression of the latter. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=343538 | 128,688 |
455,050 | A piece of calibrated equipment is required for these tests to detect and measure leakage of the 2.4 GHz microwave radiation, it is usually a hand-held device with a sensing antenna that can be scanned over the areas where the door meets the casing to find any radiation "hot-spots" whilst the unit is operating. As microwave ovens are not normally designed to be operated without a load this will usually take the form of an open container containing a quantity of water which is used to absorb the energy and as it gets warmed gives an indication that a unit not previously examined by a tester is actually producing microwaves. After checking for leakage the door is required to be opened by whatever means is provided and the measurement device is not to record a level above the given limit. In some scenarios a known quantity of water is heated for a known period of time and the temperature rise over the period of operation is used to generate an indication of the effective power output of the magnetron. This can be helpful to determine whether the oven is operating at the expected power levels indicated by labelling. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9090858 | 454,828 |
1,815,878 | The 1911 census recorded no woman listing her profession as an engineer. However, at the start of the 20th century in the UK, there were greater opportunities for women to study at university and there were more instances of women studying for degrees in physics, mathematics, and engineering subjects. Nina Cameron Graham graduated from University of Liverpool in 1912 with a degree in Civil Engineering, the first British woman to qualify as an engineer. She married a fellow student and moved to Canada. Electrical Engineer and businesswoman Margaret Partridge studied maths at Bedford College, graduating in 1914. Aeronautical engineer Hilda Lyon went to study maths at Newnham College, Cambridge in 1915. Many women attended Loughborough College (now University), which admitted the first cohort of women engineers in 1919, including mechanical engineer Verena Holmes and engineer, writer and traveller Claudia Parsons. Georgina Kermode's career as socialite, suffragette, metallurgist and serial patentee (in particular the first successful postage stamp selling machines), seems to have emerged from her early marriage to an engineer, whom she soon left behind. Many women gained engineering experience during World War One. As men were away fighting, jobs in factories had to be filled by women. Women in engineering such as Dorothée Pullinger, Rachel Parsons, Margaret Dorothea Rowbotham and Laura Annie Willson all learned important aspects of their trades through working during World War One, particularly in the production of munitions. Recognition of the roles naval architects Blanche Thornycroft, Eily Keary, and Rachel Parsons played was recognised on 9 April 1919 when they became the first three women to be admitted as associate members by the Royal Institution of Naval Architects, Keary having been the first woman to contributed a paper in the institution’s transactions in 1916. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=64174224 | 1,814,844 |
2,040,401 | He started playing professionally in college. He learned to play the harmonica and played around the local blues scene for years. He was a member of The Ed Burns Rhythm & Blues Revue for most of 2014. During that time he began using his middle name Charles going by Matt or Matthew Charles due to the difficulty some have pronouncing his last name. In 2015, Prozialeck relocated to Boston, Massachusetts join the Vizztone band, Erin Harpe & the Delta Swingers. The Delta Swingers toured nationally and were semifinalists in the International Blues Challenge in 2017. At the age of 27 he was the second youngest harmonica player in the competition and the youngest to reach the semifinals that year. His first album with the Delta Swingers, "Big Road", was released on Vizztone in October 2017 to positive reviews. In a review of the album by Daniel Pavlica of The Rocktologist, his playing was recognized and the reviewer said he "played with poignancy and lusty confidence". Big Road peaked at number 9 on the Roots Music Report Blues Albums Chart and was ranked number 52 on their best of 2018 list. A 2018 article in "Blues Blast" Magazine described Prozialeck as the band's "secret weapon". In 2017, he became an official endorser for Seydel harmonicas. The Delta Swingers were nominated for a Boston Music Award and three New England Music Awards in 2018. The band opened for Roomful Of Blues, Lil' Ed Williams, James Montgomery and Jason Ricci during his tenure. He appeared on their album "The Christmas Swing" which would be his last release with the band in December 2018. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=62212199 | 2,039,222 |
1,547,473 | A review published in the New England Journal of Medicine in 2019 summarizes a proposed mechanism in which heat exposure leads to dehydration and volume depletion and/or an increase in core temperature, which may cause kidney injury directly through tissue dysfunction or indirectly through hyperosmolarity or rhabdomyolysis. Similarly, it is possible that chronic sub-clinical undetected AKI leads to eventual CKD. Another proposed mechanism is increased kidney tubular toxin uptake resulting in direct tubular toxicity, which might also be amplified by heat-associated dehydration. Genetic factors are also likely to play a role. Regardless of what mechanisms are eventually proven to be involved, researchers agree that preventive measures should include measures to ensure safe drinking water, adequate hydration, rest, and shade for workers at risk, as well as to reduce exposure to toxins. A review of the state of knowledge on potential causes and mechanisms as of 2019 can be found in a summary of the Third International Workshop on Chronic Kidney Disease of Uncertain/Non-Traditional Etiology in Mesoamerica and Other Regions on Chronic Kidney Disease of Unknown Etiology held in March 2019. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=40667078 | 1,546,596 |
1,361,248 | The second procedure is the dismantling of the site. The decommissioning project is for removing the radioactive materials. Thermal cutting and mechanical cutting are two technical ways to dismantle and demolish. Thermal cutting is used for the metals by burning with high energy in one concentration area. The mechanical cutting takes place in the workshop with mechanical force and cuts reactive materials into two parts or in small pieces. The most dangerous waste is placed inside radioactive-resistant containers, after which the containers are transported to storage facilities. The rest of the site can then be decontaminated. The site is then checked thoroughly for any signs of radiation. Most of the remaining waste onsite can be disposed of normally as it is either not contaminated or radioactivity levels have dropped to within safe limits. This process is often completed using robots, which are able to access the difficult to reach areas deemed too radioactive for human workers. The robot was made by WWER-440-type-NNR and is mostly in central and Eastern of Europe, Russia. The main idea of using robots in decontamination is to reduce the radioactive to a level, therefore workers can be exposed. The robot’s energy was provided from the robot control system and was placed in the manipulator. The manipulator can be controlled by the remote. The “Decomler” robot works in decontamination by using the wheel system and track system. Also, the robot needs to be strictly licensed by national regulating authorities, because the materials processed by the robot need to ensure they are not discharged to outside. Otherwise, it will cause nuclear pollution to both the environment and humans. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=16510408 | 1,360,495 |
1,228,301 | Diplomacy provided very little space for the adjudication of the deep differences between Japan and the United States. The United States was firmly and almost unanimously committed to defending the integrity of China. The isolationism that characterized the strong opposition of many Americans toward war in Europe did not apply to Asia. Japan had no friends in the United States, nor in Great Britain, nor the Netherlands. The United States had not yet declared war on Germany, but was closely collaborating with Britain and the Netherlands regarding the Japanese threat. United States started to move its newest B-17 heavy bombers to bases in the Philippines, well within range of Japanese cities. The goal was deterrence of any Japanese attacks to the south. Furthermore, plans were well underway to ship American air forces to China, where American pilots in Chinese uniforms flying American warplanes, were preparing to bomb Japanese cities well before Pearl Harbor. Great Britain, although realizing it could not defend Hong Kong, was confident in its abilities to defend its major base in Singapore and the surrounding Malaya Peninsula. When the war did start in December 1941, Australian soldiers were rushed to Singapore, weeks before Singapore surrendered, and all the Australian and British forces were sent to prisoner of war camps. the Netherlands, with its homeland overrun by Germany, had a small Navy to defend the Dutch East Indies. Their role was to delay the Japanese invasion long enough to destroy the oil wells, drilling equipment, refineries and pipelines that were the main target of Japanese attacks. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54108025 | 1,227,639 |
1,963,547 | Multi-component gas analyzer systems are used for measuring the major components of volcanic gases. CO, SO, HS, and pressure-temperature-humidity sensors are typically included in a package. Other electrochemical sensors have been successfully incorporated as well, including for H and HCl. The instruments are packaged in compact, portable, weather-resistant containers allowing for "in situ" measurements of various types of outgassing terrains. Gas is pumped into the system at a constant flow rate through a silicone tube placed near the location of interest. A data-logger is used to automatically record and convert the voltage values from the sensors into gas composition values. While the field use of a multi-GAS is simple, postprocessing of the data can be complex. This is due to factors like instrument drift, and atmospheric or environmental conditions. The system can be used for short term or long term studies. Short term usage can include powering the multi-GAS by a lithium battery and moving it around to desired locations or setting up a multi-GAS in a fixed location for a short period of time. Long term studies involve setting up a permanent installment for an extended time. These stations can be set-up with radio transmitters or satellites to send data from distant locations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=51682055 | 1,962,419 |
1,679,990 | Surface acoustic wave devices consists of a piezoelectric crystal-like lithium niobate on which transducers are made by single-metal-layer photolithographic technology. The transducers usually are Inter-Digital Transducers (IDT), which have a two-toothed comb-like structure. An antenna is attached to the IDT for reception and transmission. The transducers convert the incident radio wave to surface acoustic waves that travel on the crystal surface until it reaches the encoding reflectors that reflect some waves and transmit the rest. The IDT collects the reflected waves and transmits them to the reader. The first and last reflectors are used for calibration as the response may be affected by physical parameters such as temperature. A pair of reflectors may also be used for error correction. The reflections increase in size from nearest to farthest of the IDT to account for losses due to preceding reflectors and wave attenuation. Data is encoded using Pulse Position Modulation (PPM). The crystal is logically divided into groups, such that each group typically has a length equal to the inverse of the bandwidth. Each group is divided into slots of equal width. The reflector may be placed in any slot. The last slot in each group is usually unused, leaving n-1 positions for the reflector, thus encoding n-1 states. The repetition rate of the PPM is equal to the system bandwidth. The reflector's slot position may be used to encode phase. The devices' temperature dependence means they can also act as temperature sensors. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=40259268 | 1,679,047 |
589,031 | In March 2008, Levees.org announced that records obtained under the Freedom of Information Act revealed that as early October 2005, the Army Corps of Engineers had directed and later paid the ASCE more than $1.1 million for its peer review (Grant Number: W912HZ-06-1-0001). The grant also paid for a series of misleading ASCE presentations attempting to shift blame away from the corps and onto local levee officials. Members of the ASCE are forbidden from making false or exaggerated statements and also from making statements for an interested party unless this is disclosed. Levees.org claimed the records showed how the external peer review would be done in four phases: Phase 1 was research and analysis on the performance of the levees, floodwalls and other important structures. Phase 2 was provision of information on the current system to prevent future flooding. Phase 3 was provision of information to evaluate alternative approaches to flood protection. Phase 4 was transfer information and knowledge gained to a broader audience within Corps and its consultancy community to communicate lessons learned. The group claimed that these records were proof that ASCE's routine powerpoint presentation from 2007 and 2008 were a public relations campaign to repair the corps' reputation. ASCE officials responded that ASCE paid for the powerpoint presentations itself and had not used USACE grant money for that purpose. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=599261 | 588,729 |
582,587 | In 2001, Hugh et al. expressed the efficiency of the biological pump as the amount of carbon exported from the surface layer (export production) divided by the total amount produced by photosynthesis (overall production). Modelling studies by Buesseler and Boyd revealed that the overall transfer efficiency of the biological pump is determined by a combination of factors: seasonality; the composition of phytoplankton species; the fragmentation of particles by zooplankton; and the solubilization of particles by microbes. In addition, the efficiency of the biological pump is also dependent on the aggregation and disaggregation of organic-rich aggregates and interaction between POC aggregates and suspended “ballast” minerals. Ballast minerals (silicate and carbonate biominerals and dust) are the major constituents of particles that leave the ocean surface via sinking. They are typically denser than seawater and most organic matter, thus, providing a large part of the density differential needed for sinking of the particles. Aggregation of particles increases vertical flux by transforming small suspended particles into larger, rapidly-sinking ones. It plays an important role in the sedimentation of phytodetritus from surface layer phytoplankton blooms. As illustrated by Turner in 2015, the vertical flux of sinking particles is mainly due to a combination of fecal pellets, marine snow and direct sedimentation of phytoplankton blooms, which are typically composed of diatoms, coccolithophorids, dinoflagellates and other plankton. Marine snow comprises macroscopic organic aggregates >500 µm in size and originates from clumps of aggregated phytoplankton (phytodetritus), discarded appendicularian houses, fecal matter and other miscellaneous detrital particles, Appendicularians secrete mucous feeding structures or “houses” to collect food particles and discard and renew them up to 40 times a day . Discarded appendicularian houses are highly abundant (thousands per m3 in surface waters) and are microbial hotspots with high concentrations of bacteria, ciliates, flagellates and phytoplankton. These discarded houses are therefore among the most important sources of aggregates directly produced by zooplankton in terms of carbon cycling potential. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=240228 | 582,289 |
1,087,735 | The safe mode incidents on I24 and I25 left some gaps in the data, which I27 targeted. This time "Galileo" passed just over the surface of Io. At this time, the spacecraft was nearly at the maximum distance from Earth, and there was a solar conjunction, a period when the Sun blocked the line of sight between Earth and Jupiter. As a consequence, three quarters of the observations were taken over a period of just three hours. NIMS images revealed fourteen active volcanoes in a region thought to contain just four. Images of Loki Patera showed that in the four and half months between I24 and I27, some had been covered in fresh lava. Unfortunately, a series of observations of extreme ultraviolet (EUV) had to be cancelled due to yet another safe mode event. Radiation exposure caused a transient bus reset, a computer hardware error resulting in a safe mode event. A software patch implemented after the Europa encounter on orbit E19 guarded against this when the spacecraft was within 15 Jupiter radii of the planet, but this time it occurred at 29 Jupiter radii. The safe mode event also caused a loss of tape playback time, but the project managers decide to carry over some Io data into orbit G28, and play it back then. This limited the amount of tape space available for that Ganymede encounter, but the Io data was considered to be more valuable. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13077 | 1,087,176 |
1,574,437 | Designed especially for operations in the shoal waters off the coast of Tripoli, "Vixen" joined Commodore Edward Preble's squadron for duty in the First Barbary War (1801–1805) immediately upon her commissioning. She sailed from Baltimore on 3 August 1803 under the command of Lieutenant John Smith and deployed with the squadron off Gibraltar on 14 September. Commodore Preble dispatched "Vixen" and the frigate in October to establish a blockade of Tripoli. However, "Vixen" soon departed in search of two Tripolitan warships and was not present when "Philadelphia" grounded and was captured on September 30th. Instead, she carried the dispatches announcing the loss of the frigate and the imprisonment of Captain William Bainbridge, his officers, and crew back to Gibraltar in December.Retribution for this latest action by the Tripoli pirates came swiftly and dramatically. Lt. Stephen Decatur, Jr., boarded and destroyed "Philadelphia" where she lay in Tripoli harbor on 16 February 1804, and Commodore Preble later followed this up with five heavy bombardments of the pirate state on the 3, 7, 24, and 28 August, and on 3 September. "Vixen" participated in all these actions, and performed tactical service by helping to coordinate the movements of the various American vessels. While in Malta in 16 October 1804, she was rerigged as a brig, ostensibly to improve her sailing qualities, and was with the squadron, now under Commodore John Rodgers, in actions before Tunis in August 1805. The warship returned to the United States one year later in August 1806, under the command of Master Commandant George Cox. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1451496 | 1,573,548 |
809,546 | Naturally occurring diamond is almost always found in the crystalline form with a purely cubic orientation of sp bonded carbon atoms. Sometimes there are lattice defects or inclusions of atoms of other elements that give color to the stone, but the lattice arrangement of the carbons remains cubic and bonding is purely sp. The internal energy of the cubic polytype is slightly lower than that of the hexagonal form and growth rates from molten material in both natural and bulk synthetic diamond production methods are slow enough that the lattice structure has time to grow in the lowest energy (cubic) form that is possible for sp bonding of carbon atoms. In contrast, DLC is typically produced by processes in which high energy precursive carbons (e.g. in plasmas, in filtered cathodic arc deposition, in sputter deposition and in ion beam deposition) are rapidly cooled or quenched on relatively cold surfaces. In those cases cubic and hexagonal lattices can be randomly intermixed, layer by atomic layer, because there is no time available for one of the crystalline geometries to grow at the expense of the other before the atoms are "frozen" in place in the material. Amorphous DLC coatings can result in materials that have no long-range crystalline order. Without long range order there are no brittle fracture planes, so such coatings are flexible and conformal to the underlying shape being coated, while still being as hard as diamond. In fact this property has been exploited to study atom-by-atom wear at the nanoscale in DLC. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1821411 | 809,116 |
1,493,300 | In the 1990s, several researchers at the University of Warwick created the first cross-reactive (non-selective) metal-oxide semiconductor sensor array integrated with pattern recognition software for sensing and distinguishing organic vapors, including acetone, ethanol, methanol, and xylene, in multianalyte mixtures. This electronic nose system was known as the Warwick Nose, and combined commercially available tin- and silicon-oxide semiconductors into an array format for gas sensing, see Figure 2. Current efforts are advancing the format of metal-oxide semiconductor arrays using microfabrication techniques to enable smaller array designs and integration of signal processing components into each array component. These microdevices have shown promise with lowered limits of detection and enhanced ability to distinguish volatile organic compounds and carbon monoxide with arrays containing different numbers of device, and these systems also reduce the amount of sensor material with thin films of metal-oxides. Sensitivity of sensors has also been shown to be influenced by changing the ratio of the metal within each device and data processing utilized least square analysis. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66888952 | 1,492,460 |
250,740 | Although he was the man responsible for its technology, Farnsworth appeared only once on a television program. On July 3, 1957, he was a mystery guest ("Doctor X") on the CBS quiz show "I've Got A Secret". He fielded questions from the panel as they unsuccessfully tried to guess his secret ("I invented electronic television."). For stumping the panel, he received $80 and a carton of Winston cigarettes. Host Garry Moore then spent a few minutes discussing with Farnsworth his research on such projects as an early analog high-definition television system, flat-screen receivers, and fusion power. Farnsworth said, "There had been attempts to devise a television system using mechanical disks and rotating mirrors and vibrating mirrors—all mechanical. My contribution was to take out the moving parts and make the thing entirely electronic, and that was the concept that I had when I was just a freshman in high school in the Spring of 1921 at age 14." When Moore asked about others' contributions, Farnsworth agreed, "There are literally thousands of inventions important to television. I hold something in excess of 165 American patents." The host then asked about his current research, and the inventor replied, "In television, we're attempting first to make better utilization of the bandwidth, because we think we can eventually get in excess of 2,000 lines instead of 525 ... and do it on an even narrower channel ... which will make for a much sharper picture. We believe in the picture-frame type of a picture, where the visual display will be just a screen. And we hope for a memory, so that the picture will be just as though it's pasted on there." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42890 | 250,607 |
1,678,929 | In 1932, Casagrande moved to Harvard University where he would later be promoted to a newly created chair of soil mechanics and foundation engineering in 1946. There he rapidly established a school of postgraduate teaching and research that would see the number of students steadily grow from 12 in 1932 to over 80 after World War II. At one stage during 1942–44, Casagrande went on to train a total of approximately 400 army officers on the soil mechanics aspects of airfield construction through a series of intensive four-week programmes at the request of the Army Corps of Engineers. Even though Terzaghi would later join Harvard (with the assistance of Casagrande) from Vienna out of concerns on the turbulent political landscape in Europe, Casagrande was effectively alone in the soil mechanics section because of Terzaghi's many periods of absence (Terzaghi would often be away to the University of Illinois collaborating with his close friend Ralph Peck) and disdain of administrative duties. The successful soil mechanics and foundation engineering programme at Harvard was hence often credited to Casagrande, and its particular emphasis on laboratory courses and seepage being an integral part of the curriculum would later form the basis of similar courses around the world. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12952852 | 1,677,986 |
750,341 | The Rockefeller Foundation offered an extension of Bethe's fellowship, allowing him to return to Italy in 1932. In the meantime, Bethe worked for Sommerfeld in Munich as a "privatdozent". Since Bethe was fluent in English, Sommerfeld had Bethe supervise all his English-speaking postdoctoral fellows, including Lloyd P. Smith from Cornell University. Bethe accepted a request from Karl Scheel to write an article for the "Handbuch der Physik" on the quantum mechanics of hydrogen and helium. Reviewing the article decades later, Robert Bacher and Victor Weisskopf noted that it was unusual in the depth and breadth of its treatment of the subject that required very little updating for the 1959 edition. Bethe was then asked by Sommerfeld to help him with the "handbuch" article on electrons in metals. The article covered the basis of what is now called solid state physics. Bethe took a very new field and provided a clear, coherent, and complete coverage of it. His work on the "handbuch" articles occupied most of his time in Rome, but he also co-wrote a paper with Fermi on another new field, quantum electrodynamics, describing the relativistic interactions of charged particles. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=185853 | 749,943 |
488,775 | Pairs of tapered roller bearings are used in car and vehicle wheel bearings where they must cope simultaneously with large vertical (radial) and horizontal (axial) forces. Tapered roller bearings are commonly used for moderate speed, heavy duty applications where durability is required. Common real world applications are in agriculture, construction and mining equipment, sports robot combat, axle systems, gear box, engine motors and reducers, propeller shaft, railroad axle-box, differential, wind turbines, etc. A tapered roller bearing is a unit that consists of both tapered raceways (inner and outer rings), and tapered rollers. The construction is intended for combination loads, such as dual acting axial and radial loads. The bearing axis is where the projected lines of the raceway combine at a common location to improve rolling, while reducing friction. The load capacity can be increased or decreased depending on the contact angle being increased or decreased. The higher the degree of angle, the greater the contact angle. They are commonly used in pairs for better radial load handling, and in some heavy duty applications, can be found in two or four rows combined in a single unit. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3676872 | 488,524 |
1,100,881 | K. Eric Drexler was strongly influenced by ideas on limits to growth in the early 1970s. During his first year at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, he sought out someone who was working on extraterrestrial resources. He found Gerard K. O'Neill of Princeton University, a physicist famous for his work on storage rings for particle accelerators and his landmark work on the concepts of space colonization. Drexler participated in NASA summer studies on space colonies in 1975 and 1976. He fabricated metal films a few tens of nanometers thick on a wax support to demonstrate the potentials of high-performance solar sails. He was active in space politics, helping the L5 Society defeat the Moon Treaty in 1980. Besides working summers for O'Neill, building mass driver prototypes, Drexler delivered papers at the first three Space Manufacturing conferences at Princeton. The 1977 and 1979 papers were co-authored with Keith Henson, and patents were issued on both subjects, vapor phase fabrication and space radiators. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=16769 | 1,100,320 |
1,338,587 | In 1988 Waxman generalised the standard RGG by introducing a probabilistic connection function as opposed to the deterministic one suggested by Gilbert. The example introduced by Waxman was a stretched exponential where two nodes formula_55 and formula_56 connect with probability given by formula_57where formula_58 is the euclidean separation and formula_59, formula_60are parameters determined by the system. This type of RGG with probabilistic connection function is often referred to a soft random geometric Graph, which now has two sources of randomness; the location of nodes (vertices) and the formation of links (edges). This connection function has been generalized further in the literature formula_61which is often used to study wireless networks without interference. The parameter formula_62 represents how the signal decays with distance, when formula_63 is free space, formula_64 models a more cluttered environment like a town (= 6 models cities like New York) whilst formula_65 models highly reflective environments. We notice that for formula_66 is the Waxman model, whilst as formula_67 and formula_68 we have the standard RGG. Intuitively these type of connection functions model how the probability of a link being made decays with distance. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12106740 | 1,337,854 |
206,572 | Noyce grew up in Grinnell, Iowa. While in high school, he exhibited a talent for mathematics and science and took the Grinnell College freshman physics course in his senior year. He graduated from Grinnell High School in 1945 and entered Grinnell College in the fall of that year. He was the star diver on the 1947 Midwest Conference Championship swim team. While at Grinnell College, Noyce sang, played the oboe and acted. In Noyce's junior year, he got in trouble for stealing a 25-pound pig from the Grinnell mayor's farm and roasting it at a school luau. The mayor wrote to his parents stating that “In the agricultural state of Iowa, stealing a domestic animal is a felony which carries a minimum penalty of a year in prison and a fine of one dollar.” Noyce faced expulsion from school but Grant Gale, Noyce's physics professor and president of the college, did not want to lose a student with Noyce's potential. They compromised with the mayor so that Grinnell would compensate him for the pig, and suspend Noyce for one semester. He returned in February 1949. He graduated Phi Beta Kappa with a BA in physics and mathematics in 1949. He also received a signal honor from his classmates: the Brown Derby Prize, which recognized "the senior man who earned the best grades with the least amount of work". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25808 | 206,465 |
882,471 | Land transport utilized the advanced system of Roman roads. The in-kind taxes paid by communities included the provision of personnel, animals, or vehicles for the "cursus publicus", the state mail and transport service established by Augustus. Relay stations were located along the roads every seven to twelve Roman miles, and tended to grow into a village or trading post. A "mansio" (plural "mansiones") was a privately run service station franchised by the imperial bureaucracy for the "cursus publicus". The support staff at such a facility included muleteers, secretaries, blacksmiths, cartwrights, a veterinarian, and a few military police and couriers. The distance between "mansiones" was determined by how far a wagon could travel in a day. Mules were the animal most often used for pulling carts, travelling about 6.4 km/h. As an example of the pace of communication, it took a messenger a minimum of nine days to travel to Rome from Mainz in the province of Germania Superior, even on a matter of urgency. In addition to the "mansiones", some taverns offered accommodations as well as food and drink; one recorded tab for a stay showed charges for wine, bread, mule feed, and the services of a prostitute. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1965658 | 882,007 |
143,181 | Later in 1940, Dale R. Corson, Kenneth Ross MacKenzie, and Emilio Segrè isolated the element at the University of California, Berkeley. Instead of searching for the element in nature, the scientists created it by bombarding bismuth-209 with alpha particles in a cyclotron (particle accelerator) to produce, after emission of two neutrons, astatine-211. The discoverers, however, did not immediately suggest a name for the element. The reason for this was that at the time, an element created synthetically in "invisible quantities" that had not yet been discovered in nature was not seen as a completely valid one; in addition, chemists were reluctant to recognize radioactive isotopes as legitimately as stable ones. In 1943, astatine was found as a product of two naturally occurring decay chains by Berta Karlik and Traude Bernert, first in the so-called uranium series, and then in the actinium series. (Since then, astatine was also found in a third decay chain, the neptunium series.) Friedrich Paneth in 1946 called to finally recognize synthetic elements, quoting, among other reasons, recent confirmation of their natural occurrence, and proposed that the discoverers of the newly discovered unnamed elements name these elements. In early 1947, "Nature" published the discoverers' suggestions; a letter from Corson, MacKenzie, and Segrè suggested the name "astatine" coming from the Greek "astatos" (αστατος) meaning "unstable", because of its propensity for radioactive decay, with the ending "-ine", found in the names of the four previously discovered halogens. The name was also chosen to continue the tradition of the four stable halogens, where the name referred to a property of the element. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=901 | 143,123 |
1,598,013 | Prior to the invention of the orthopedic plate, metal wiring was used to solve the issue of bone fractures until about 1850. It was debated when the first use of this technique was actually made. Supposedly, the first use of this metal wiring was by the ancient Greeks. The first recorded use of metal wiring was is 1755 in a French journal. It was not until 1870, a Frenchman by the name of Laurent Berenger-Feraud began writing a book on internal fixation and bone fractures called ""Traité de l'immobilisation directe des fragments osseux dans les fractures"" (a book on direct immobilization of bone fragments of fractures). All the information proved to be beneficial in medical procedures, however one thing lacked, the antiseptic treatments needed to properly administer these techniques. Joseph Lister, a British assistant surgeon who in 1877 tried his techniques on a patient and showed huge success. Carl Hausmann is credited with making the first successful plate using both nickel sheets and screws and creating a method of removal without reopening the wound site in 1886. The years following focused on better surgical techniques and experimentation with other materials. Metals were the most common material for orthopedic plates, until cytotoxic tests were used to determine biocompatibility of metals put into the patients body post operation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=49706954 | 1,597,114 |
157,867 | In HPLC, typically 20 μl of the sample of interest are injected into the mobile phase stream delivered by a high pressure pump. The mobile phase containing the analytes permeates through the stationary phase bed in a definite direction. The components of the mixture are separated depending on their chemical affinity with the mobile and stationary phases. The separation occurs after repeated sorption and desorption steps occurring when the liquid interacts with the stationary bed. The liquid solvent (mobile phase) is delivered under high pressure (up to 400 bar or 300.000 torr) into a packed column containing the stationary phase. The high pressure is necessary to achieve a constant flow rate for reproducible chromatography experiments. Depending on the partitioning between the mobile and stationary phases, the components of the sample will flow out of the column at different times. The column is the most important component of the LC system and is designed to withstand the high pressure of the liquid. Conventional LC columns are 100–300 mm long with outer diameter of 6.4 mm (1/4 inch) and internal diameter of 3.0–4.6 mm. For applications involving LC-MS, the length of chromatography columns can be shorter (30–50 mm) with 3–5 μm diameter packing particles. In addition to the conventional model, other LC columns are the narrow bore, microbore, microcapillary, and nano-LC models. These columns have smaller internal diameters, allow for a more efficient separation, and handle liquid flows under 1 ml/min (the conventional flow-rate). In order to improve separation efficiency and peak resolution, ultra performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC) can be used instead of HPLC. This LC variant uses columns packed with smaller silica particles (~1.7 μm diameter) and requires higher operating pressures in the range of 310000 to 775000 torr (6000 to 15000 psi, 400 to 1034 bar). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2378378 | 157,795 |
1,998,268 | On the second day, Bradman was involved in effecting a run out. Denis Compton hit a ball into the covers and Bradman and Loxton collided in an attempt to prevent a run. Compton called Bedser through for a run on the misfield, but Loxton recovered and threw the ball to the wicket-keeper's end with Bedser a long way short of the crease. It ended an innings of 145 minutes, in which Bedser scored 37 and featured in a 121-run partnership with Compton. Compton hit several boundaries and Bradman responded by spreading his field to offer Compton a single so that the tail-enders would be on strike and could be attacked. This worked, as Compton was unable to farm the strike as he desired, and wickets fell at the other end. Bradman caught Jack Young to end England's innings at 363. Having dropped Brown, Barnes was hit in the ribs by a Dick Pollard pull shot and taken to hospital, leaving Australia with only Morris as a specialist opening batsman. Ian Johnson was deployed as Australia's makeshift second opener. He fell for one to bring Bradman to bat. O'Reilly criticised the use of Johnson to partner Morris, as Hassett had transformed himself into a defensive batsman with little backlift and a guarded approach, a style typical of an opener. The Australian captain thus had to face Bedser, who had already dismissed him three times in the Tests with a new ball, and Pollard, who had troubled him in the match against Lancashire. Pollard then trapped Bradman for seven with an off cutter that struck the Australian captain on the back foot to leave Australia at 2/13. Australia were eventually out for 221, yielding a 142-run lead. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21051201 | 1,997,125 |
204,766 | In the late 1990s, and early 2000s, the issue of defense against cruise missiles became more prominent with the new Bush Administration. In 2002, President George W. Bush withdrew the US from the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, allowing further development and testing of ABMs under the Missile Defense Agency, as well as deployment of interceptor vehicles beyond the single site allowed under the treaty. During the Bush's time in office, the potentially threatening countries to the United States included North Korea as well as Iran. While these countries might not have possessed the weaponry that many countries containing missile defense systems had, the Bush administration expected an Iranian missile test within the next ten years. In order to counter the potential risk of North Korean missiles, the United States Department of Defense desired to create missile defense systems along the west coast of the United States, namely in both California and Alaska.There are still technological hurdles to an effective defense against ballistic missile attack. The United States National Ballistic Missile Defense System has come under scrutiny about its technological feasibility. Intercepting midcourse (rather than launch or reentry stage) ballistic missiles traveling at several miles per second with a "kinetic kill vehicle" has been characterized as trying to hit a bullet with a bullet. Despite this difficulty, there have been several successful test intercepts and the system was made operational in 2006, while tests and system upgrades continue. Moreover, the warheads or payloads of ballistic missiles can be concealed by a number of different types of decoys. Sensors that track and target warheads aboard the kinetic kill vehicle may have trouble distinguishing the "real" warhead from the decoys, but several tests that have included decoys were successful. Nira Schwartz's and Theodore Postol's criticisms about the technical feasibility of these sensors have led to a continuing investigation of research misconduct and fraud at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1099196 | 204,660 |
1,345,290 | The most ancient of the Sassanid buildings which admit of being measured and described are assigned to the century between 350 and 450 CE; and we are thus unable to trace the exact steps by which the Sassanid style was gradually elaborated. We come upon it when it is beyond the stage of infancy, when it has acquired a marked and decided character, when it no longer hesitates or falters, but knows what it wants, and goes straight to its ends. Its main features are simple, and are uniform from first to last, the later buildings being merely enlargements of the earlier, by an addition to the number or to the size of the apartments. The principal peculiarities of the style are, first, that the plan of the entire building is an oblong square, without adjuncts or projections; secondly, that the main entrance is into a lofty vaulted porch or hall by an archway of the entire width of the apartment; thirdly, that beside these oblong halls, the building contains square apartments, vaulted with domes, which are circular at their base, and elliptical in their section, and which rest on pendentives of an unusual character; fourthly, that the apartments are numerous and en suite, opening one into another, without the intervention of passages; and fifthly, that the palace comprises, as a matter of course, a court, placed towards the rear of the building, with apartments opening into it. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2784178 | 1,344,552 |
975,791 | Europium is associated with the other rare-earth elements and is, therefore, mined together with them. Separation of the rare-earth elements occurs during later processing. Rare-earth elements are found in the minerals bastnäsite, loparite-(Ce), xenotime, and monazite in mineable quantities. Bastnäsite is a group of related fluorocarbonates, Ln(CO)(F,OH). Monazite is a group of related of orthophosphate minerals (Ln denotes a mixture of all the lanthanides except promethium), loparite-(Ce) is an oxide, and xenotime is an orthophosphate (Y,Yb,Er...)PO. Monazite also contains thorium and yttrium, which complicates handling because thorium and its decay products are radioactive. For the extraction from the ore and the isolation of individual lanthanides, several methods have been developed. The choice of method is based on the concentration and composition of the ore and on the distribution of the individual lanthanides in the resulting concentrate. Roasting the ore, followed by acidic and basic leaching, is used mostly to produce a concentrate of lanthanides. If cerium is the dominant lanthanide, then it is converted from cerium(III) to cerium(IV) and then precipitated. Further separation by solvent extractions or ion exchange chromatography yields a fraction which is enriched in europium. This fraction is reduced with zinc, zinc/amalgam, electrolysis or other methods converting the europium(III) to europium(II). Europium(II) reacts in a way similar to that of alkaline earth metals and therefore it can be precipitated as a carbonate or co-precipitated with barium sulfate. Europium metal is available through the electrolysis of a mixture of molten EuCl and NaCl (or CaCl) in a graphite cell, which serves as cathode, using graphite as anode. The other product is chlorine gas. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9477 | 975,280 |
326,338 | The third-generation appeared in June 1989 and was in production until June 1991. This engine has the silver cam covers with the words only written in red, hence the nickname "red top". Toyota increased the compression ratio from 9.4:1 to 10.3:1. To correct the air-speed problems of the earlier generations, the intake ports in this cylinder head were re-designed to have a smaller cross-section, and hence it has been nicknamed the "smallport" head. This change in the intake ports negated the need for the earlier twin-runner intake manifold and it was replaced with a single-runner manifold. Additional engine modifications to extend life and reliability included under-piston cooling oil squirters, thicker connecting rods and other components. Also of note, the pistons were changed to utilize a fully floating gudgeon pin unlike the pressed-in pins of the earlier versions. Other internal revisions were made to the pistons. They were slightly modified to make space for the under-piston cooling oil squirters found in this engine version. In addition to this, the piston ring size were changed to (top ring), 1.5mm (second ring) and (oil ring), this change in size made it difficult to obtain as compared to the earlier 16 valves versions of the 4AGE (top ring), (second ring), (oil ring). All non-US market 4A-GEs continued to use a MAP sensor, while all of the US-market 4A-GE engines came with a MAF sensor. For US-market cars, this revision increased the power to at 7200 rpm with a torque of at 4800 rpm ( and ). In non-US market cars, this revision produced at 7200 rpm and torque at at 4800 rpm. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=903321 | 326,164 |
265,912 | Due to the ability of ionized atmospheric gases to refract high frequency (HF, or shortwave) radio waves, the ionosphere can reflect radio waves directed into the sky back toward the Earth. Radio waves directed at an angle into the sky can return to Earth beyond the horizon. This technique, called "skip" or "skywave" propagation, has been used since the 1920s to communicate at international or intercontinental distances. The returning radio waves can reflect off the Earth's surface into the sky again, allowing greater ranges to be achieved with multiple hops. This communication method is variable and unreliable, with reception over a given path depending on time of day or night, the seasons, weather, and the 11-year sunspot cycle. During the first half of the 20th century it was widely used for transoceanic telephone and telegraph service, and business and diplomatic communication. Due to its relative unreliability, shortwave radio communication has been mostly abandoned by the telecommunications industry, though it remains important for high-latitude communication where satellite-based radio communication is not possible. Shortwave broadcasting is useful in crossing international boundaries and covering large areas at low cost. Automated services still use shortwave radio frequencies, as do radio amateur hobbyists for private recreational contacts and to assist with emergency communications during natural disasters. Armed forces use shortwave so as to be independent of vulnerable infrastructure, including satellites, and the low latency of shortwave communications make it attractive to stock traders, where milliseconds count. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15097 | 265,768 |
21,492 | Sustainable development has its roots in ideas about sustainable forest management, which were developed in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries. In response to a growing awareness of the depletion of timber resources in England, John Evelyn argued, in his 1662 essay "Sylva", that "sowing and planting of trees had to be regarded as a national duty of every landowner, in order to stop the destructive over-exploitation of natural resources." In 1713, Hans Carl von Carlowitz, a senior mining administrator in the service of Elector Frederick Augustus I of Saxony published "Sylvicultura economics", a 400-page work on forestry. Building upon the ideas of Evelyn and French minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert, von Carlowitz developed the concept of managing forests for sustained yield. His work influenced others, including Alexander von Humboldt and Georg Ludwig Hartig, eventually leading to the development of the science of forestry. This, in turn, influenced people like Gifford Pinchot, the first head of the US Forest Service, whose approach to forest management was driven by the idea of wise use of resources, and Aldo Leopold whose land ethic was influential in the development of the environmental movement in the 1960s. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29501 | 21,483 |
275,358 | The XP-82 was to be powered by two Packard-built Rolls-Royce V-1650 Merlin engines. Initially, the left engine was a V-1650-23 with an additional gear in the propeller reduction box to allow the left propeller to turn opposite to the right propeller, which was driven by the more conventional V-1650-25. In this arrangement both propellers would turn upward as they approached the center wing, which in theory would have allowed better single-engine control. This proved not to be the case when the aircraft refused to become airborne during its first flight attempt. After a month of work North American engineers finally discovered that rotating the propellers to meet in the center on their upward turn created sufficient drag to cancel out all lift from the center wing section, one quarter of the aircraft's total wing surface area. The engines and propellers were then exchanged, with their rotation meeting on the downward turn, and the problem was fully solved. The first XP-82 prototype ("44-83886") was completed on 25 May 1945, and made the type's first successful flight on 26 June 1945. This aircraft was accepted by the Army Air Forces on 30 August 1945, whose officials were so impressed by the aircraft, while still in development, that they ordered the first production P-82Bs in March 1945, fully three months before its first flight. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=671473 | 275,210 |
1,300,522 | Exercise triggers an increase in body temperature, and the post-exercise drop in temperature may promote falling asleep. Exercise may also reduce insomnia by decreasing arousal, anxiety, and depressive symptoms. Insomnia is commonly linked with elevated arousal, anxiety, and depression, and exercise has effects on reducing these symptoms in the general population. These issues count among the most common among most of the population. Anxiety disorders are the most common mental illness in the U.S., affecting 40 million adults in the United States age 18 and older, or 18.1% of the population every year. A 2010 review suggested that exercise generally improved sleep for most people, and may help with insomnia, but there is insufficient evidence to draw detailed conclusions about the relationship between exercise and sleep. A 2020 systematic review and meta-analysis suggested that physical activity has little association with sleep in healthy children. However, there have been several research findings indicating that certain forms of physical activity can improve the quality and duration of sleep. In fact, a 2019 study at The Federal University of São Paulo concluded that moderate physical activity resulted in an increase in sleep efficiency and duration in adults diagnosed with insomnia. The duration refers to the hours of sleep a person gets on a nightly basis, while the quality indicates how well or sufficient it was. Having poor sleep quality can lead to negative short term consequences like emotional distress and performance deficits. The psychosocial issues associated with these consequences can vary between adults, adolescents, and children. Some of the long-term effects of poor sleep quality can lead to conditions like hypertension, metabolic syndrome, and even weight-related issues. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=63967146 | 1,299,808 |
1,238,549 | According to Thomas G. Chondros of Patras University, a simple steelyard balance with a lever mechanism first appeared in the ancient Near East over 5,000 years ago. According to Mark Sky of Harvard University, the steelyard was in use among Greek craftsmen of the 5th and 4th centuries BC, even before Archimedes demonstrated the law of the lever theoretically. The Latin name "statera" comes from the Ancient Greek "στατήρ" ("statḗr"). Roman and Chinese steelyards were independently invented around 200 BC. Steelyards dating from AD 100 to 400 have been unearthed in Great Britain. Steelyards and their components have also been excavated from shipwrecks of the Byzantine period in the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, such as the 7th-century wreck at Yassi Ada, Turkey, and the mid-first millennium shipwreck at Black Assarca Island, Eritrea. The "Oxford English Dictionary" suggests that the name "steelyard" is derived from" steel" combined with "yard", influenced by a "misunderstood" allusion to the Steelyard, the main trading base of the Hanseatic League in London in the 14th century. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7095838 | 1,237,882 |
1,620,201 | During embryonic development, the 21-kD protein FGF4 functions as a signaling molecule that is involved in many important processes. Studies using Fgf4 gene knockout mice showed developmental defects in embryos both in vivo and in vitro, revealing that FGF4 facilitates the survival and growth of the inner cell mass during the postimplantation phase of development by acting as an autocrine or paracrine ligand. FGFs produced in the apical ectodermal ridge (AER) are critical for the proper forelimb and hindlimb outgrowth. FGF signaling in the AER is involved in regulating limb digit number and cell death in the interdigital mesenchyme. When FGF signaling dynamics and regulatory processes are altered, postaxial polydactyly and cutaneous syndactyly, two phenotypic abnormalities collectively known as polysyndactyly, can occur in the limbs. Polysyndactyly is observed when an excess of Fgf4 is expressed in limb buds of wild-type mice. In mutant limb buds that do not express Fgf8, the expression of Fgf4 still results in polysyndactyly, but Fgf4 is also able to rescue all skeletal defects that arise from the lack of Fgf8. Therefore, the Fgf4 gene compensates for the loss of the Fgf8 gene, revealing that FGF4 and FGF8 perform similar functions in limb skeleton patterning and limb development. Studies of zebrafish Fgf4 knockdown embryos demonstrated that when Fgf4 signaling is inhibited, randomized left-right patterning of the liver, pancreas, and heart takes place, showing that Fgf4 is a crucial gene involved in developing left-right patterning of visceral organs. Furthermore, unlike the role of FGF4 in limb development, FGF4 and FGF8 have distinct roles and function independently in the process of visceral organ left-right patterning. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14776330 | 1,619,286 |
641,864 | The wide range of instrumentation for forensic chemical analysis also began to be developed during this time period. The early 19th century saw the invention of the spectroscope by Joseph von Fraunhofer. In 1859, chemist Robert Bunsen and physicist Gustav Kirchhoff expanded on Fraunhofer's invention. Their experiments with spectroscopy showed that specific substances created a unique spectrum when exposed to specific wavelengths of light. Using spectroscopy, the two scientists were able to identify substances based on their spectrum, providing a method of identification for unknown materials. In 1906 botanist Mikhail Tsvet invented paper chromatography, an early predecessor to thin layer chromatography, and used it to separate and examine the plant proteins that make up chlorophyll. The ability to separate mixtures into their individual components allows forensic chemists to examine the parts of an unknown material against a database of known products. By matching the retention factors for the separated components with known values, materials can be identified. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2275867 | 641,525 |
2,194,908 | According to Bevilacqua et al. (2008), "the entry level for the profession remains the baccalaureate degree. The undergraduate course in fonoaudiologia involves a double major with coursework in both speech-language pathology and audiology. Classes include the basic sciences, anatomy and physiology, human development, linguistics, phonetics, psychology, the nature and process of audition and balance, normal and abnormal communication development, and supervised clinical practicum. A double license is granted to graduates of this four-year course, and they are free to work in any area of the field. Graduates must also comply with federal regulatory (licensure) standards in order to practice". According to the Brazilian Federal Speech Language Pathology and Audiology Council (Conselho Federal de Fonoaudiologia, 2018 ), there are currently 117 undergraduate courses in speech-language pathology and audiology in Brazil, with approximately 44.000 professionals in all country. It is at graduate level that different courses are offered in the four areas of specialization defined by the Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology Council (audiology, language, oral motor disorders, and voice). There are several options for degrees and coursework. Some courses offer a 500-hour course of study which provides advanced clinical training focused in one of the four areas of specialization, and graduates receive the title ‘Specialist’. In addition, a few universities offer masters and doctoral degree courses designed to provide the necessary training for those aiming at a career in research and education. Currently, there are 32 specialization courses and eight graduate courses in communication disorders throughout Brazil." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=49441551 | 2,193,658 |
1,025,079 | The best known algorithm for simulating an arbitrary random quantum circuit requires an amount of time that scales exponentially with the number of qubits, leading one group to estimate that around 50 qubits could be enough to demonstrate quantum supremacy. Bouland, Fefferman, Nirkhe and Vazirani gave, in 2018, theoretical evidence that efficiently simulating a random quantum circuit would require a collapse of the computational polynomial hierarchy. Google had announced its intention to demonstrate quantum supremacy by the end of 2017 by constructing and running a 49-qubit chip that would be able to sample distributions inaccessible to any current classical computers in a reasonable amount of time. The largest universal quantum circuit simulator running on classical supercomputers at the time was able to simulate 48 qubits. But for particular kinds of circuits, larger quantum circuit simulations with 56 qubits are possible. This may require increasing the number of qubits to demonstrate quantum supremacy. On October 23, 2019, Google published the results of this quantum supremacy experiment in the Nature article, “Quantum Supremacy Using a Programmable Superconducting Processor” in which they developed a new 53-qubit processor, named “Sycamore”, that is capable of fast, high-fidelity quantum logic gates, in order to perform the benchmark testing. Google claims that their machine performed the target computation in 200 seconds, and estimated that their classical algorithm would take 10,000 years in the world's fastest supercomputer to solve the same problem. IBM disputed this claim, saying that an improved classical algorithm should be able to solve that problem in two and a half days on that same supercomputer. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54452801 | 1,024,546 |
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