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1,980,702 | The MSSS cameras on board the Mars Global Surveyor, produced high resolution images that were also processed by Malin Space Science Systems, and discovered the intriguing polar features informally known as 'dark dune spots' and 'spiders'. The origin of dark dune spots and the dark slope streaks emanating from them is yet uncertain, and various hypotheses have been put forward on their origin and formation process. The current model proposed by NASA and European teams propose cold geyser-like systems that eject CO and dark basaltic sand. The seasonal frosting of some areas near the southern ice cap results in the formation of transparent 1 metre thick slabs of dry ice above the ground. With the arrival of spring, sunlight warms the subsurface and pressure from subliming CO builds up under a slab, elevating and ultimately rupturing it. This leads to geyser-like eruptions of CO gas mixed with dark basaltic sand or dust. This process is rapid, observed happening in the space of a few days, weeks or months, a growth rate rather unusual in geology – especially for Mars. The gas rushing underneath a slab to the site of a geyser carves a spider-like pattern of radial channels under the ice. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1862628 | 1,979,564 |
852,862 | The "SHH" gene is a member of the hedgehog gene family with five variations of DNA sequence alterations or splice variants. "SHH" is located on chromosome seven and initiates the production of Sonic Hedgehog protein. This protein sends short- and long-range signals to embryonic tissues to regulate development. If the "SHH" gene is mutated or absent, the protein Sonic Hedgehog cannot do its job properly. Sonic hedgehog contributes to cell growth, cell specification and formation, structuring and organization of the body plan. This protein functions as a vital morphogenic signaling molecule and plays an important role in the formation of many different structures in developing embryos. The "SHH" gene affects several major organ systems, such as the nervous system, cardiovascular system, respiratory system and musculoskeletal system. Mutations in the "SHH" gene can cause malformation of components of these systems, which can result in major problems in the developing embryo. The brain and eyes, for example, can be significantly impacted by mutations in this gene and cause disorders such as Microphthalmia and Holoprosencephaly. Microphthalmia is a condition that affects the eyes, which results in small, underdeveloped tissues in one or both eyes. This can lead to issues ranging from a coloboma to a single small eye to the absence of eyes altogether. Holoprosencephaly is a condition most commonly caused by a mutation of the "SHH" gene that causes improper separation of the left and right brain and facial dysmorphia. Many systems and structures rely heavily on proper expression of the "SHH" gene and subsequent sonic hedgehog protein, earning it the distinction of being an essential gene to development. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=353697 | 852,408 |
909,275 | Ehrlich earned a bachelor's degree in zoology from the University of Pennsylvania in 1953, an M.A. from the University of Kansas in 1955, and a Ph.D. from the University of Kansas in 1957, supervised by the prominent bee researcher Charles Duncan Michener (the title of his dissertation: "The Morphology, Phylogeny and Higher Classification of the Butterflies (Lepidoptera: Papilionoidea)"). During his studies he participated with surveys of insects in the areas of the Bering Sea and Canadian Arctic, and then with a National Institutes of Health fellowship, investigated the genetics and behavior of parasitic mites. In 1959 he joined the faculty at Stanford University, being promoted to professor of biology in 1966. By training he is an entomologist specializing in Lepidoptera (butterflies). He was appointed to the Bing Professorship in 1977. He is well-known for popularizing the term coevolution in an influential 1964 paper co-authored with the botanist Peter H. Raven, where they proposed that an evolutionary 'arms-race' between plants and insects explains the extreme diversification of plants and insects. This paper was highly influential on the then nascent field of chemical ecology. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=359542 | 908,796 |
1,393,041 | Face perception is a function of the visual system which is critical for social behavior. People with schizophrenia have shown abnormalities in tasks designed to probe facial processing and recognition. Specifically, performance deficits have been observed in this disorder when subjects were asked to identify degraded pictures of faces, and the deficits observed were specific to those with predominantly disorganized symptoms. Another experiment using the same stimuli during EEG found poorer performance and slower reaction times among those with schizophrenia, as well as abnormalities in beta band activity. The authors state that these results are related to deficits in long range coordination of neural activity, as described for contour detection. Another experiment using EEG and structural MRI to examine facial processing abnormalities in schizophrenia found decreased N170 component responses, and this was correlated with decreased gray matter volumes in the fusiform gyrus. There is evidence that the fusiform face area is a visual cortical region that may be specialized for detecting faces. The authors of this study conclude that their data support a specific face processing deficit in schizophrenia. However, another study using fractured images of faces found that people with schizophrenia were better than healthy adults at identifying images of famous people that had been distorted. These experiments state that this may be evidence of weaker "configural" processing in schizophrenia, who instead may rely more on local image features for face identification, as these were preserved in their image manipulation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=34042719 | 1,392,270 |
556,357 | The economics of Kalecki was based, more explicitly and systematically than that of Keynes, on the principle of the circular flow of income that goes back to the Physiocrat François Quesnay. According to that principle, income is determined by expenditure decisions, not by the exchange of resources (capital or labor). Kalecki and Keynes claimed that in capitalist economy, production and employment levels (economic equilibrium) are determined foremost by the magnitude of investment by business enterprises (the crucial "driver of the business cycle"), not by price and wage flexibility. Savings are determined by investments, not the other way around. Contrary to the Ricardian, Marxian and Neoclassical economics, Kalecki asserted that higher wages lead to fuller employment. His monetary theory was rooted in the business cycle theory of Knut Wicksell. Quesnay's circular flow of income fell into disrepute in the political economy of the 19th century, when the idea that prices integrate exchange decisions gained ground, but was revived by Joseph Schumpeter, who pointed out the necessity of considering the circular flow of income (recognition of the economic cycle) as an integrating factor in order to gain a comprehensive understanding of the total economic process in a given period. The principle was discarded again with the arrival of neoliberal domination in economics and its main current defined by prices of economic equilibrium. Economist Jan Toporowski said that Kalecki's theory of the business cycle remains "the most serious challenge to general equilibrium macroeconomics", which has prevailed since the late 19th century. More than Keynes, Kalecki was skeptical about government's ability to sustain fiscal and monetary stimulus policies or of business support for full employment. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2205338 | 556,068 |
541,824 | As a second application of this work, he was able to show meromorphic continuation for a large class of formula_2-functions arising in the theory of automorphic forms, not previously known to have them. These occurred in the constant terms of Eisenstein series, and meromorphicity as well as a weak functional equation were a consequence of functional equations for Eisenstein series. This work led in turn, in the winter of 1966–67, to the now well known conjectures making up what is often called the Langlands program. Very roughly speaking, they propose a huge generalization of previously known examples of reciprocity, including (a) classical class field theory, in which characters of local and arithmetic abelian Galois groups are identified with characters of local multiplicative groups and the idele quotient group, respectively; (b) earlier results of Martin Eichler and Goro Shimura in which the Hasse–Weil zeta functions of arithmetic quotients of the upper half plane are identified with formula_2-functions occurring in Hecke's theory of holomorphic automorphic forms. These conjectures were first posed in relatively complete form in a famous letter to Weil, written in January 1967. It was in this letter that he introduced what has since become known as the formula_2-group and along with it, the notion of functoriality. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25986 | 541,544 |
1,031,952 | SB10 transposase has been improved over the decade since its construction by increasing the consensus with a greater number of extinct Tc1 transposon sequences and testing various combinations of changes. Further work has shown that the DNA-binding domain consists of two paired sequences, which are homologous to sequence motifs found in certain transcription factors. The paired subdomains in SB transposase were designated PAI and RED. The PAI subdomain plays a dominant role in recognition of the DR sequences in the transposon. The RED subdomain overlaps with the nuclear localization signal, but its function remains unclear. The most recent version of SB transposase, SB100X, has about 100 times the activity of SB10 as determined by transposition assays of antibiotic-resistance genes conducted in tissue cultured human HeLa cells. The International Society for Molecular and Cell Biology and Biotechnology Protocols and Research (ISMCBBPR) named SB100X the molecule of the year for 2009 for recognition of the potential it has in future genome engineering. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31728232 | 1,031,416 |
233,350 | The Deputy Administrator of NASA, Dr. Robert Seamans, was attending a celebratory dinner sponsored by the Goddard Space Flight Center, at which Vice President Hubert Humphrey was the guest speaker, when the problem arose. The incident inspired Seamans to review NASA's problem investigation procedures, modeled after military crash investigations, and on April 14, 1966, to formalize a new procedure in "Management Instruction 8621.1, Mission Failure Investigation Policy And Procedures". This gave the Deputy Administrator the option of performing independent investigations of major failures, beyond those failure investigations for which the various Program Office officials were normally responsible. It declared: "It is NASA policy to investigate and document the causes of all major mission failures which occur in the conduct of its space and aeronautical activities and to take appropriate corrective actions as a result of the findings and recommendations." Seamans first invoked this new procedure immediately following the fatal Apollo 1 spacecraft fire on January 27, 1967. It was also invoked after the next critical in-flight failure, which occurred on the Apollo 13 lunar mission in April 1970. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=364888 | 233,231 |
1,104,045 | Myelination, formation of the lipid myelin sheath around neuronal axons, is a process that is essential for normal brain function. The myelin sheath provides insulation for the nerve impulse when communicating between neural systems. Without it, the impulse would be disrupted and the signal would not reach its target, thus impairing normal functioning. Because so much of brain development occurs in the prenatal stage and infancy, it is crucial that myelination, along with cortical development occur properly. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a non-invasive technique used to investigate myelination and cortical maturation (the cortex is the outer layer of the brain composed of gray matter). Rather than showing the actual myelin, the MRI picks up on the myelin water fraction, a measure of myelin content. Multicomponent relaxometry (MCR) allow visualization and quantification of myelin content. MCR is also useful for tracking white matter maturation, which plays an important role in cognitive development. It has been discovered that in infancy, myelination occurs in a caudal–cranial, posterior-to-anterior pattern. Because there is little evidence of a relationship between myelination and cortical thickness, it was revealed that cortical thickness is independent of white matter. This allows various aspects of the brain to grow simultaneously, leading to a more fully developed brain. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=189701 | 1,103,482 |
99,148 | Kaku was inspired to pursue a career in physics after seeing a photograph of Albert Einstein's desk at the time of his death. Kaku was fascinated to learn that Einstein had been unable to complete his unified field theory and resolved to dedicate his life to solving this theory. By the time Kaku was in high school, he had developed a strong passion for physics. For a science fair, Michio built a 2.3 MeV “atom smasher” in his parents' garage. Using scrap metal and 22 miles of wire, he created a magnetic field 20,000 times stronger than Earth’s, as well as collisions powerful enough to produce antimatter. It was at this National Science Fair in Albuquerque, New Mexico, that he attracted the attention of physicist Edward Teller, who took Kaku as a protégé, awarding him the Hertz Engineering Scholarship. Kaku graduated "summa cum laude" from Harvard University in 1968 and was first in his physics class. He attended the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory at the University of California, Berkeley, receiving a PhD and holding a lectureship at Princeton University in 1972. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=348746 | 99,105 |
118,659 | In the presence of strong electrostatic fields it is predicted that virtual particles become separated from the vacuum state and form real matter. The fact that electromagnetic radiation can be transformed into matter and vice versa leads to fundamentally new features in quantum electrodynamics. One of the most important consequences is that, even in the vacuum, the Maxwell equations have to be exchanged by more complicated formulas. In general, it will be not possible to separate processes in the vacuum from the processes involving matter since electromagnetic fields can create matter if the field fluctuations are strong enough. This leads to highly complex nonlinear interaction - gravity will have an effect on the light at the same time the light has an effect on gravity. These effects were first predicted by Werner Heisenberg and Hans Heinrich Euler in 1936 and independently the same year by Victor Weisskopf who stated: "The physical properties of the vacuum originate in the "zero-point energy" of matter, which also depends on absent particles through the external field strengths and therefore contributes an additional term to the purely Maxwellian field energy". Thus strong magnetic fields vary the energy contained in the vacuum. The scale above which the electromagnetic field is expected to become nonlinear is known as the Schwinger limit. At this point the vacuum has all the properties of a birefringent medium, thus in principle a rotation of the polarization frame (the Faraday effect) can be observed in empty space. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=84400 | 118,613 |
1,692,096 | The dates for the Nara period are thought to be around 710-784. The beginning of this period is marked by the relocation of Japan's capital to Nara. It was during this period that Japanese society took on a more hierarchical structure with all power proceeding the emperor. In addition there was a merging of Buddhism and state which led to the commission of large scale temple complexes with monuments such as pagodas. In terms of sculpture, this period marked the adoption of the hollow- core dry lacquer technique - it has been suggested that this technique was used in an effort to reduce the use of bronze. Rather than merely depicting Buddha and bodhisattvas, renderings of deities and guardian figures begin to appear with individualistic and expressive features. The Early Nara period saw a move towards more naturalistic styles emerging from China. The Triad of Yakushi shows the healing Buddha which presides over the Eastern Pure Land attended by two Bodhisattvas Nikko and Gakko. The triad, housed in the Yakushiji temple (7th century in Nara), reveals Chinese and central Asian influences in its anatomical definition, naturalism and realistic drapery. The technique known as hompa-shiki was a new way to render drapery in a more solid and fleshy form. This technique later rose in popularity during the Heian period. The end of the nara period is marked by a stylistic shift in sculpture. In terms of painting, Buddhist works emulated the Chinese Tang style, which was characterized by elongated and rounded figures and broad brush strokes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=17616212 | 1,691,145 |
1,079,583 | Not all algorithms try to either find a unique cluster assignment for each point or all clusters in all subspaces; many settle for a result in between, where a number of possibly overlapping, but not necessarily exhaustive set of clusters are found. An example is FIRES, which is from its basic approach a subspace clustering algorithm, but uses a heuristic too aggressive to credibly produce all subspace clusters. Another hybrid approach is to include a human-into-the-algorithmic-loop: Human domain expertise can help to reduce an exponential search space through heuristic selection of samples. This can be beneficial in the health domain where, e.g., medical doctors are confronted with high-dimensional descriptions of patient conditions and measurements on the success of certain therapies. An important question in such data is to compare and correlate patient conditions and therapy results along with combinations of dimensions. The number of dimensions is often very large, consequently one needs to map them to a smaller number of relevant dimensions to be more amenable for expert analysis. This is because irrelevant, redundant, and conflicting dimensions can negatively affect effectiveness and efficiency of the whole analytic process. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22562715 | 1,079,028 |
714,867 | However, in a newer history by a retired "Big Safari" commander published in 2014, some of the earlier account is refuted as erroneous. The "Pee Wee III" aircraft arrived in Pakistan in March 1964, well before the Chinese nuclear tests began, not for monitoring the tests since the aircraft were not yet equipped with the sampling equipment, camera, or sensors of the standard RB-57Fs, but to collect telemetry from Soviet missile test ranges, particularly Kapustin Yar. The aircraft were both flown and maintained by members of the Pakistan Air Force, not the U.S. Air Force, a condition mandated by the Pakistanis. The RB-57F prototypes, with the required capability of being a type that PAF airmen could fly, had been purpose-built with the telemetry mission as its goal, and the modification for carrying a two-ton payload in the bomb bay had been made by General Dynamics as part of its development, not by the PAF. From April to October 1965 the two RB-57s each underwent an annual three-month depot maintenance recycle at the General Dynamics plant in Fort Worth required by "Big Safari" rules, which was where "Pee Wee III" No. 2 was when the air war began on 1 September 1965. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=33576652 | 714,494 |
1,543,726 | The paradigm shift in psychology from behaviorism to the study of cognition had a huge impact on the field of Human Performance Modeling. Regarding memory and cognition, the research of Newell and Simon regarding artificial intelligence and the General Problem Solver (GPS; Newell & Simon, 1963), demonstrated that computational models could effectively capture fundamental human cognitive behavior. Newell and Simon were not simply concerned with the amount of information - say, counting the number of bits the human cognitive system had to receive from the perceptual system - but rather the actual computations being performed. They were critically involved with the early success of comparing cognition to computation, and the ability of computation to simulate critical aspects of cognition - thus leading to the creation of the sub-discipline of artificial intelligence within computer science, and changing how cognition was viewed in the psychological community. Although cognitive processes do not literally flip bits in the same way that discrete electronic circuits do, pioneers were able to show that any universal computational machine could simulate the processes used in another, without a physical equivalence (Phylyshyn, 1989; Turing, 1936). The cognitive revolution allowed all of cognition to be approached by modeling, and these models now span a vast array of cognitive domains - from simple list memory, to comprehension of communication, to problem solving and decision making, to imagery, and beyond. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=47152350 | 1,542,853 |
1,217,620 | This combines gravity, quantization, and even the electromagnetic interaction, promising ingredients of a fundamental physical theory. This outcome revealed a previously unknown and already existing natural link between general relativity and quantum mechanics. There lacks clarity in the generalization of this theory to 3 + 1 dimensions. However, a recent derivation in 3 + 1 dimensions under the right coordinate conditions yields a formulation similar to the earlier 1 + 1, a dilaton field governed by the logarithmic Schrödinger equation that is seen in condensed matter physics and superfluids. The field equations are amenable to such a generalization, as shown with the inclusion of a one-graviton process, and yield the correct Newtonian limit in "d" dimensions, but only with a dilaton. Furthermore, some speculate on the view of the apparent resemblance between the dilaton and the Higgs boson. However, there needs more experimentation to resolve the relationship between these two particles. Finally, since this theory can combine gravitational, electromagnetic, and quantum effects, their coupling could potentially lead to a means of testing the theory through cosmology and experimentation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=564961 | 1,216,967 |
1,126,417 | In a closely following regulatory action, on August 23, 2004, USEC applied for a license to construct and operate the larger, commercial scale "American Centrifuge Plant" in the same complex of structures as the Lead Cascade, plus some new construction. The NRC issued Special Nuclear Materials License SNM-2011 on Docket 70-7004 to USEC to construct and operate the proposed plant at the Portsmouth site in April 2007, and construction began in May 2007. In July 2009, the DOE did not grant a $2 billion loan guarantee for the planned uranium-enrichment facility in Piketon, "causing the initiative to go into financial meltdown," the USEC spokesperson Elizabeth Stuckle said, adding "we are now forced to initiate steps to demobilize the project." On July 28, 2009, the company said that it was suspending work on the project because of the DOE's decision not to provide loan guarantees. The DOE said that the proposed plant was not ready for commercial production and therefore ineligible for the loan guarantees. The department said at the time that if USEC withdraws its application, it would receive $45 million over the next 18 months to conduct further research and development of the centrifuge technology, which the DOE viewed as promising. The 2009 decisions by DOE and USEC effectively ended the commercial scale American Centrifuge Plant project as envisioned in that timeframe. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12653614 | 1,125,840 |
341,439 | The original Berkeley RISC designs were in some sense teaching systems, not designed specifically for outright performance. To the RISC's basic register-heavy and load/store concepts, ARM added a number of the well-received design notes of the 6502. Primary among them was the ability to quickly serve interrupts, which allowed the machines to offer reasonable input/output performance with no added external hardware. To offer interrupts with similar performance as the 6502, the ARM design limited its physical address space to 64 MB of total addressable space, requiring 26 bits of address. As instructions were 4 bytes (32 bits) long, and required to be aligned on 4-byte boundaries, the lower 2 bits of an instruction address were always zero. This meant the program counter (PC) only needed to be 24 bits, allowing it to be stored along with the eight bit processor flags in a single 32-bit register. That meant that upon receiving an interrupt, the entire machine state could be saved in a single operation, whereas had the PC been a full 32-bit value, it would require separate operations to store the PC and the status flags. This decision halved the interrupt overhead. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=60558 | 341,258 |
1,008,553 | In May 1940 during the Battle of France the DLMs were tasked with the difficult manoeuvre of carrying out a quick advance into the Low Countries, followed by a holding action to allow the infantry divisions following behind to dig themselves in. The 2nd and 3rd DLM were concentrated in the Gembloux gap between Louvain and Namur, where there were no natural obstacles to impede a German advance. They had to spread out somewhat to hold that sector against incursions by the German 3rd and 4th Panzer Divisions. This was necessitated by the local tactical situation and did not reflect some fundamental difference in doctrine between the use of the DLMs and the "Panzerdivisionen". Both types of units were very similar in equipment, training and organisation, as the German armoured divisions too were primarily intended for strategic exploitation, while the breakthrough phase was preferably left to the infantry. The resulting tank battle from 13 to 15 May, the Battle of Hannut, was—with about 1700 AFVs participating—the largest until that day and is still one of the largest of all time. The S 35s gave a good account of themselves, proving to be indeed superior to the German tanks in direct combat, but they were rather hesitantly deployed as the French High Command mistakenly supposed the gap was the German "Schwerpunkt" and tried to preserve their best tanks to block subsequent attacks by the rest of the "Panzerwaffe". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2838334 | 1,008,032 |
1,567,844 | While platform trials offer many advantages for investigating a single disease, their adaptive nature and potential for numerous and complicated arms limit the ability to execute platform trials. Platforms require a large number of experts for trial design, Data Monitoring and Safety Boards and operations leading to high cost and communication complexity. That platform trials can run for long periods of time may mean that updates to the standard of care in the control group are necessary, complicating analysis. Further, care must be taken to ensure that the data from late-added arms are compared to appropriate sub-sections of the control group, further adding to statistical complexity. Too, publishing results of terminated arms may be complicated if the whole trial has not yet completed, as shared data in the trial may still need to remain blinded. Further, the complexity of platform designs, which may have multiple sponsors and funding sources as well as changing treatment arms, can make them difficult to register in standardized databases. Platform trials, again due to their complexity, require long planning times and can therefore be a poor choice of design for therapies that require immediate investigation. Finally, funding mechanisms can become complicated if a trial is investigating different therapies from different pharmaceutical companies; and their ill-defined trial lengths make them less desirable funding targets from federal funding agencies. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=70064623 | 1,566,957 |
577,988 | A recently exploited technique to accelerate traditional volume rendering algorithms such as ray-casting is the use of modern graphics cards. Starting with the programmable pixel shaders, people recognized the power of parallel operations on multiple pixels and began to perform "general-purpose computing on (the) graphics processing units" (GPGPU). The pixel shaders are able to read and write randomly from video memory and perform some basic mathematical and logical calculations. These SIMD processors were used to perform general calculations such as rendering polygons and signal processing. In recent GPU generations, the pixel shaders now are able to function as MIMD processors (now able to independently branch) utilizing up to 1 GB of texture memory with floating point formats. With such power, virtually any algorithm with steps that can be performed in parallel, such as volume ray casting or tomographic reconstruction, can be performed with tremendous acceleration. The programmable pixel shaders can be used to simulate variations in the characteristics of lighting, shadow, reflection, emissive color and so forth. Such simulations can be written using high level shading languages. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=698016 | 577,692 |
942,903 | On each of the two competition days, the students are typically given three problems which they have to solve in five hours. Each student works on his/her own, with only a computer and no other help allowed, specifically no communication with other contestants, books etc. Usually to solve a task the contestant has to write a computer program (only in C++) and submit it before the five-hour competition time ends. The program is graded by being run with secret test data. From IOI 2010, tasks are divided into subtasks with graduated difficulty, and points are awarded only when all tests for a particular subtask yield correct results, within specific time and memory limits. In some cases, the contestant's program has to interact with a secret computer library, which allows problems where the input is not fixed, but depends on the program's actions – for example in game problems. Another type of problem has known inputs which are publicly available already during the five hours of the contest. For these, the contestants have to submit an output file instead of a program, and it is up to them whether they obtain the output files by writing a program (possibly exploiting special characteristics of the input), or by hand, or by a combination of these means. Pascal has been removed as an available programming language as of 2019. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14777 | 942,401 |
546,273 | Prior to the end of the war on 15 August 1945, the Australian military was preparing to contribute forces to the invasion of Japan. Australia's participation in this operation would have involved elements of all three services fighting as part of Commonwealth forces. It was planned to form a new 10th Division from existing AIF personnel which would form part of the Commonwealth Corps with British, Canadian and New Zealand units. The corps' organisation was to be identical to that of a US Army corps, and it would have participated in the invasion of the Japanese home island of Honshū which was scheduled for March 1946 under Operation Coronet. Planning for operations against Japan ceased in August 1945 when Japan surrendered following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japanese field commanders subsequently surrendered to Allied forces across the Pacific Theatre and Australian forces accepted the surrender of their Japanese opponents at ceremonies conducted at Morotai, several locations in Borneo, Timor, Wewak, Rabaul, Bougainville and Nauru. Following the surrender the Australian Army faced a number of immediate operational and administrative issues, including the need to maintain security in the areas it occupied, the disarming and administration of surrendered Japanese forces in these areas, organising the return of approximately 177,000 soldiers (including prisoners of war) to Australia, the demobilisation and discharge of the bulk of the soldiers serving in the Army, and the raising of an occupation force for service in Japan. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22738876 | 545,987 |
837,012 | The first fifty production M18 57 mm cannons and ammunition were rushed from the factories to the European theater in March 1945. Further examples were subsequently sent to the Pacific Theater. The first combat the new cannon saw was with the U.S. Army's 17th Airborne Division near Essen, Germany as well as U.S. Forces in the Po Valley in Italy during the 1945 Spring Offensive. While the performance of the high explosive (HE) warhead was impressive, the M18's 57 mm HEAT round was slightly less so, only about of armor penetration at 90 degrees, compared with the M6A3 rocket for the Bazooka which had a penetration of 100 mm. The only effective way to knock out German tanks was a clean shot to the rear of the tank or to cause malfunctions by hits on the seams or joint of the tanks such as the gun turret elevation joint of the main gun, junction points of the turret and hull which would cause burn over of working mechanism and produce jamming and finally a hit on the tracks to immobilize a tank. They could then be destroyed by infantry Bazooka team, anti-tank guns or field artillery. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21708398 | 836,563 |
1,832,127 | In November 2007, a controversial aerial approach was used to spray microencapsulated LBAM pheromone in urban and rural areas of the counties of Santa Cruz and Monterey California to combat the invasive light brown apple moth. Usually the effect of disruption of orientation of the male moths to females (or monitoring pheromone traps) can be detected by the reduction in moth capture in monitoring pheromone traps. The government campaign using areawide aerial microencapsulated pheromone applications failed to show any sign of mating disruption on the light brown apple moth populations in the treated area. It was found that the first aerial campaign was performed using an incomplete (the wrong) pheromone blend of the light brown apple moth (the wrong blend decreased tremendously the likelihood of success of the mating disruption program), and the LBAM microencapsulated formulation was untested, and finally, microencapsule formulations are notoriously known for their short field life, weak and erratic performance. Furthermore it is possible that the LBAM microencapsulated formulation used in the government campaign was unfit for aerial delivery in urban areas; although pheromone is safe, the formulation used had microcapsules of very small diameter which made it into a possible inhalation hazard that seems to be linked to an increase in allergenic reactions of the population in the target area. This set of LBAM mating disruption aerial applications done by the government has created tremendous dissent of the public in general as well as of several sectors of the scientific community. Now, several years later, the affected communities as well as the nascent US pheromone industry (which provides safer, yet very effective, alternatives to the use of conventional pesticides) are still suffering the ripple effects of these disastrous Bay Area LBAM eradication campaigns. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14344741 | 1,831,080 |
322,878 | Nearly all inflation models predict that the total (matter+energy) density of the universe should be very close to the critical density. During the 1980s, most cosmological research focused on models with critical density in matter only, usually 95% cold dark matter (CDM) and 5% ordinary matter (baryons). These models were found to be successful at forming realistic galaxies and clusters, but some problems appeared in the late 1980s: in particular, the model required a value for the Hubble constant lower than preferred by observations, and the model under-predicted observations of large-scale galaxy clustering. These difficulties became stronger after the discovery of anisotropy in the by the COBE spacecraft in 1992, and several modified CDM models came under active study through the mid-1990s: these included the Lambda-CDM model and a mixed cold/hot dark matter model. The first direct evidence for dark energy came from supernova observations in 1998 of accelerated expansion in Riess "et al." and in Perlmutter "et al.", and the Lambda-CDM model then became the leading model. Soon after, dark energy was supported by independent observations: in 2000, the BOOMERanG and Maxima experiments observed the first acoustic peak in the CMB, showing that the total (matter+energy) density is close to 100% of critical density. Then in 2001, the 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey gave strong evidence that the matter density is around 30% of critical. The large difference between these two supports a smooth component of dark energy making up the difference. Much more precise measurements from WMAP in 2003–2010 have continued to support the standard model and give more accurate measurements of the key parameters. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19604228 | 322,706 |
1,441,704 | Many companies have worked with inkjet over the years. Many patents have been issued and the technology has been used in a number of products. The basic form of the inkjet was a single nozzle with either fluid forced through under pressure, pulled from it by electrical potential or pushed out with the help of a piezo. Single nozzle inkjets will be discussed first in this introduction. Inkjet technology was pioneered by Teletype Corporation in the 1960s which introduced the "electronic pull", high voltage drop extraction from a nozzle, Inktronic Teleprinter in 1965 printing at 120 characters per second (cps) from a row of 40 inkjets using the Charles R. Winston patent, Method and Apparatus for Transferring Inks, 1962, US3,060,429. Teletype experimented with "hot-melt" wax inks as described in a Teletype patent by Johannes F. Gottwald, Liquid Metal Recorder, 1971, US 3,596,285, that outputs a fabricated metal symbol (Stock exchange symbols and quotes) able to be removed from the conveyor carrier and the Bismuth metal alloy reused if desired. The use of Hot-melt inks with a newer Drop-On-Demand inkjet technology(invented by Zoltan in 1972) with these inks would not be seen again until 1984 at Howtek and Exxon. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=46964830 | 1,440,892 |
1,887,550 | The testing team of Type 032-1 consisted a crew that included seasoned submariners such as Mr. Han Wen-Yun (韩文运), the captain of the boat, Chen Ji-Lin (陈吉林), the crew chief, Mr. Jing Li-Feng (荆聿封), Mr. Li X-Ju (李锡驹), data recording staff on board the boat. The test manager was originally Professor Wang Xu (王旭) of Tianjin University, but after being hospitalized in early April 1959 due to illness, deputy test manager Mr. Chen Hou-Tai (陈厚泰) assumed the responsibility of test management. Three sea trials were conducted, with the first one revealed the sub was a little unstable when going backward, and based on this discovered, the design was modified to incorporate an additional pair of stabilizing fins to resolve the issue. The second sea trial was to evaluate the batteries, which provide enough power to meet the designed speed at 9 kts. However, it was discovered more batteries were needed to provide greater endurance and range. The third sea trial was submergence test, which was successfully completed. However, because the sub performed much better than expected, testing crew remain submerge much longer than originally planned, causing people on the surface and land to mistakenly believe the sub had sunk due to lack of adequate communication means at the time. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=48600955 | 1,886,468 |
2,023,897 | Thiel's first appointment after graduation was as an Alexander von Humboldt Fellow at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, where she worked in the research group of Gerhard Ertl, who later went on to receive the 2007 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. In 1982 she joined the technical staff of Sandia National Laboratories in Livermore, California, and, after a brief stint as a visiting professor in the physics department of the University of California, Berkeley, joined the chemistry department faculty of Iowa State University in 1983, with a simultaneous appointment as staff scientist with the US Department of Energy's Ames Laboratory She was subsequently promoted to the ranks of associate professor (1988), full professor (1991) and distinguished professor (2001). She received an additional appointment as professor of materials science and engineering in 2012. Throughout this time period she received outstanding teaching awards, and held several administrative posts, including program director for materials chemistry (Ames Laboratory; 1988–2004), chief research officer (Ames Laboratory; 2008–2009) and chair of the Iowa State Chemistry Department (1999-2002). Thiel was an associate editor of "The Journal of Chemical Physics" (2013–2020). She attended the Nobel Prize ceremony on December 10, 2011, where Dan Shechtman received the 2011 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the discovery of quasicrystals. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=62484997 | 2,022,733 |
1,659,871 | Brazil's public research institutes and universities follow rigid rules that tend to make them difficult to manage. States may opt to develop their own research institutes and university systems but, as all laws and regulations are adopted at federal level, they all have to follow the same rules and regulations. Thus, they all come up against the same hurdles. These include extensive bureaucratic structures, an obligation to recruit staff, academic or otherwise, from among public servants, analogous career ladders and salary systems, an irregular flow of funds, overly complex procurement procedures and powerful unions in the civil service. A structural alternative was developed in 1998, with the creation of social organizations. These private, non-profit entities manage public research facilities under contract to federal agencies. They have the autonomy to hire (or fire) staff, contract services, buy equipment, choose the topics and objectives of scientific or technological research and sign research contracts with private companies. The flexibility accorded to these social organizations and their management style have made them a success story in Brazilian science. As of 2015, there were six such organizations: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1525228 | 1,658,938 |
355,614 | In early 2020, immunology research at the Faculty of Medicine focused on SARS-CoV-2 under the leadership of Robin Shattock as part of the college's COVID-19 Response Team, including the search of a cheap vaccine which started human trials on 15 June 2020. Neil Ferguson's 16 March report entitled "Impact of non-pharmaceutical interventions (NPIs) to reduce COVID- 19 mortality and healthcare demand" was described in a 17 March "The New York Times" article, as the coronavirus "report that jarred the U.S. and the U.K. to action". Since 18 May 2020, Imperial College's Dr. Samir Bhatt has been advising the state of New York for its reopening plan. The governor of New York, Andrew Cuomo, said at the time that "the Imperial College model, as we've been following this for weeks, was the best, most accurate model." The hospitals from the Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, which have been caring for COVID-19 infected patients, partnered with Microsoft to use their HoloLens when treating those patients, reducing the amount of time spent by staff in high-risk areas by up to 83%, as well as saving up to 700 items of PPE per ward, per week. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=61116 | 355,431 |
1,096,803 | New government spending, regulation, and policies helped the industry weather the 2009 economic crisis better than many other sectors. Most notably, U.S. President Barack Obama's American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 included more than $70 billion in direct spending and tax credits for clean energy and associated transportation programs. This policy-stimulus combination represents the largest federal commitment in U.S. history for renewables, advanced transportation, and energy conservation initiatives. Based on these new rules, many more utilities strengthened their clean-energy programs. Clean Edge suggests that the commercialization of clean energy will help countries around the world deal with the current economic malaise. Once-promising solar energy company, Solyndra, became involved in a political controversy involving U.S. President Barack Obama's administration's authorization of a $535 million loan guarantee to the Corporation in 2009 as part of a program to promote alternative energy growth. The company ceased all business activity, filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy, and laid-off nearly all of its employees in early September 2011. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10418624 | 1,096,243 |
1,758,769 | Any seasonal cloud cover at the new site needed to arrive in the opposite season to that at Climax, in order to then provide for year-round coverage of the Sun. Similar to Climax, the atmosphere above the new site should be exceptionally free from haze and dust in order to permit for the best possible observing. Roberts and Menzel examined the White Sands Proving Ground (an area used as a research rocket firing range near Holloman Air Force Base in Alamogordo, New Mexico). They "concluded that the section of the Sacramento Mountains in which Sacramento Peak is located would be especially promising for a solar research site. Further inquiries and inspection tended to confirm this initial reaction". Holloman Air Force Base could be used to supply the equipment and any supplies. Sacramento Peak was, at 9200 feet was also low enough to be more accessible to researchers than Climax at 11,000 feet and the thickly forested setting blocked interference from rising air currents up the mountain. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57822012 | 1,757,776 |
1,608,680 | The College has approximately 225 students and offers programs in 35 disciplines, from journalism to astrophysics. Around 80 students are accepted per year, with suggested applicant scores of 30 on the ACT and/or 1300 on the SAT, and top 10% class placement at high school graduation. Students benefit from their involvement with the College: they are the first to register for classes, can waive general education requirements for graduation, can tailor their tutorials with content that does not mirror existing Ohio University courses, can check out books from the university library for extended periods of time, receive first preference for scholars' dorms, and are eligible for funding to support specific activities, including foreign study, attending conferences, and internships in expensive cities. All programs of study require the completion of a thesis project that requires an original contribution to the particular field. Students must also maintain a 3.5 GPA in their overall coursework. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9781970 | 1,607,775 |
667,233 | While surveillance targets were pre-programmed and the camera could operate automatically, astronauts could decide target priority for photographing. By avoiding cloudy areas and identifying more interesting subjects (an open missile silo instead of a closed one, for example), they would save film, the major limitation, since it had to be returned in the small Gemini B spacecraft. In cloudy areas like Moscow, it was estimated that the MOL would be 45 percent more efficient in its use of film than an automated satellite system through the ability to react to cloud cover, but for sunnier areas like the Tyuratam missile complex, this might be no more than 15 percent. The selective targeting afforded by human-guided surveillance would be more efficient than that obtained by robotic satellites. Of the 159 KH-7 Gambit photographs of the Tyuratam area, only 9 percent showed missiles on the launch pads, and of 77 photographs of missile silos, only 21 percent were with the doors open. The analysts identified 60 MOL targets in the complex. Only two or three could be photographed on each pass, but astronauts could select the most interesting ones on the spur of the moment, and photograph them with greater resolution than KH-7 Gambit. It was hoped that valuable technical information would thereby be obtained. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=615373 | 666,885 |
133,329 | The understanding of neurons and the nervous system became increasingly precise and molecular during the 20th century. For example, in 1952, Alan Lloyd Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley presented a mathematical model for transmission of electrical signals in neurons of the giant axon of a squid, which they called "action potentials", and how they are initiated and propagated, known as the Hodgkin–Huxley model. In 1961–1962, Richard FitzHugh and J. Nagumo simplified Hodgkin–Huxley, in what is called the FitzHugh–Nagumo model. In 1962, Bernard Katz modeled neurotransmission across the space between neurons known as synapses. Beginning in 1966, Eric Kandel and collaborators examined biochemical changes in neurons associated with learning and memory storage in "Aplysia". In 1981 Catherine Morris and Harold Lecar combined these models in the Morris–Lecar model. Such increasingly quantitative work gave rise to numerous biological neuron models and models of neural computation. Neuroscience began to be recognized as a distinct academic discipline in its own right. Eric Kandel and collaborators have cited David Rioch, Francis O. Schmitt, and Stephen Kuffler as having played critical roles in establishing the field. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14400 | 133,276 |
479,821 | The production process starts with mother rolls. First, the etched, roughened and pre-formed anode foil on the mother roll as well as the spacer paper and the cathode foil are cut to the required width. The foils are fed to an automatic winder, which makes a wound section in a consecutive operation involving three sequential steps: terminal welding, winding, and length cutting. In the next production step the wound section fixed at the lead out terminals is soaked with electrolyte under vacuum impregnation. The impregnated winding is then built into an aluminum case, provided with a rubber sealing disc, and mechanically tightly sealed by curling. Thereafter, the capacitor is provided with an insulating shrink sleeve film. This optically ready capacitor is then contacted at rated voltage in a high temperature post-forming device for healing all the dielectric defects resulting from the cutting and winding procedure. After post-forming, a 100% final measurement of capacitance, leakage current, and impedance takes place. Taping closes the manufacturing process; the capacitors are ready for delivery. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44717055 | 479,580 |
2,222,573 | Previous secret ingredients include: (2019) birthday party supplies, gold; (2018) string, bags, balloons, “2018 teaser”; (2017) packing materials, duct tape; (2016) plastic bottles, PVC pipe, compressed air; (2015) air, plastic bottles, light bulbs; (2014) breakfast foods; dinner ingredients, lunch ingredients; (2013) PVC pipe, sea water; (2012) natural elements, domes, things found around the lagoon, Exploratorium paper products; (2011) chalk (Members Night Edition), eggs, magnets; colors (2010) triangles, leaves, lightbulbs, oil redux; (2009) Frank Oppenheimer, batteries, ferrofluid, oil, nuts and bolts; (2008) bats, eye care, dental hygiene, hair care; (2007) wire, candles, paint, sugar, baseball equipment, plastic water bottles; (2006) iron; (2003) water; (2002) hot dogs; (2001) Celebrity bake-off; (2000) feminine hygiene products, soap, popsicle sticks, corks, marshmallow peeps; (1999) Chanukah candles, pumpkins, food coloring, compact discs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=33298861 | 2,221,311 |
916,633 | After the Civil War, population expansion, railroad construction, and the culling of the buffalo herds heightened military tensions on the Great Plains. Specifically, according to Colville scholar Dina Gilio-Whitaker in her book As Long as Grass Grows, "While the railroads wreaked havoc on Indian lives in numerous ways, one of the most destructive and tragic outcomes of the United States' industrial expansion was the near extermination of the Plains buffalo herds, with the railroads as the strategic prerequisite to carry out the plan". So extreme was the buffalo extermination that by the 1890s fewer than one thousand remained, scattered mostly on private ranches. Several tribes, especially the Sioux and Comanche, fiercely resisted confinement to reservations. The main role of the Army was to keep indigenous peoples on reservations and to end their wars against settlers and each other, William Tecumseh Sherman and Philip Sheridan were in charge. A famous victory for the Plains Nations was the Battle of the Little Big Horn in 1876, when Col. George Armstrong Custer and two hundred plus members of the 7th Cavalry were killed by a force consisting of Native Americans from the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho nations. The last significant conflict came in 1891 and ended in the Wounded Knee Massacre. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=161323 | 916,150 |
846,439 | Primary progressive aphasia (PPA) is a type of neurological syndrome in which language capabilities slowly and progressively become impaired. As with other types of aphasia, the symptoms that accompany PPA depend on what parts of the left hemisphere are significantly damaged. However, unlike most other aphasias, PPA results from continuous deterioration in brain tissue, which leads to early symptoms being far less detrimental than later symptoms. Those with PPA slowly lose the ability to speak, write, read, and generally comprehend language. Eventually, almost every patient becomes mute and completely loses the ability to understand both written and spoken language. Although it was first described as solely impairment of language capabilities while other mental functions remain intact, it is now recognized that many, if not most of those with PPA experience impairment of memory, short-term memory formation and loss of executive functions. It was first described as a distinct syndrome by M. Marsel Mesulam in 1982. Primary progressive aphasias have a clinical and pathological overlap with the frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD) spectrum of disorders and Alzheimer's disease. However, PPA is not considered synonymous to Alzheimer's disease due to the fact that, unlike those affected by Alzheimer's disease, those with PPA are generally able to maintain the ability to care for themselves, remain employed, and pursue interests and hobbies. Moreover, in diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, Pick's disease, and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, progressive deterioration of comprehension and production of language is just one of the many possible types of mental deterioration, such as the progressive decline of memory, motor skills, reasoning, awareness, and visuospatial skills. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2540923 | 845,989 |
1,517,961 | The clusters shrink as energy is dissipated by gas drag and inelastic collisions, leading to the formation of planetesimals the size of large asteroids. Impact speeds are limited during the collapse of the smaller clusters that form 1–10 km asteroids, reducing the fragmentation of particles, leading to the formation of porous pebble pile planetesimals with low densities. Gas drag slows the fall of the smallest particles and less frequent collisions slows the fall of the largest particles during this process, resulting in the size sorting of particles with mid-sized particles forming a porous core and a mix of particle sizes forming denser outer layers. The impact speeds and the fragmentation of particles increase with the mass of the clusters, lowering the porosity and increasing the density of the larger objects such as 100 km asteroid that form from a mixture of pebbles and pebble fragments. Collapsing swarms with excess angular momentum can fragment, forming binary or in some cases trinary objects resembling those in the Kuiper belt. In simulations the initial mass distribution of the planetesimals formed via streaming instabilities fits a power law: dn/dM ~ M, that is slightly steeper than that of small asteroids, with an exponential cutoff at larger masses. Continued accretion of chondrules from the disk may shift the size distribution of the largest objects toward that of the current asteroid belt. In the outer Solar System the largest objects can continue to grow via pebble accretion, possibly forming the cores of giant planets. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=48840652 | 1,517,104 |
2,218,069 | He did postdoctoral study on lunar craters: he worked with Gilbert Fielder, a vocal supporter of the volcanic origin of the craters, at the university observatory. Guest soon rejected Fielder's commonly-held belief and instead supported the meteorite-impact mechanism; the new data unequivocally supported his view. He joined NASA's programme for planetary exploration, including the 1973 "Mariner 10" mission to Mercury and the 1975 Viking programme to Mars. In 1980, he founded the first NASA Regional Planetary Image Facility outside of the U.S.A. at UCL where he taught many leading international scientists including Rosaly Lopes, Chris Kilburn and Ben Bussey. He was involved with scientists from the Soviet Union on their 1988 "Phobos 2" mission to Mars and further with the American 1989 "Magellan" mission to Venus. He contributed to the first geological map of Mercury and the first detailed map of eastern equatorial Mars, along with Ron Greeley. Guest and Greeley helped to select the "Viking 2" landing site. With Philippe Masson, , and Marcello Fulchignoni, he founded the European Planetary Geology Consortium in 1976 to foster cooperation in planetary surface studies. In 1999, he moved from the UCL observatory to the Department of Geological Sciences. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57939789 | 2,216,807 |
313,248 | From 1947 to 1951, Stockhausen studied music pedagogy and piano at the Hochschule für Musik Köln (Cologne Conservatory of Music) and musicology, philosophy, and German studies at the University of Cologne. He had training in harmony and counterpoint, the latter with Hermann Schroeder, but he did not develop a real interest in composition until 1950. He was admitted at the end of that year to the class of Swiss composer Frank Martin, who had just begun a seven-year tenure in Cologne. At the Darmstädter Ferienkurse in 1951, Stockhausen met Belgian composer Karel Goeyvaerts, who had just completed studies with Olivier Messiaen (analysis) and Darius Milhaud (composition) in Paris, and Stockhausen resolved to do likewise. He arrived in Paris on 8 January 1952 and began attending Messiaen's courses in aesthetics and analysis, as well as Milhaud's composition classes. He continued with Messiaen for a year, but he was disappointed with Milhaud and abandoned his lessons after a few weeks. In March 1953, he left Paris to take up a position as assistant to Herbert Eimert at the newly established Electronic Music Studio of Nordwestdeutscher Rundfunk (NWDR) (from 1 January 1955, Westdeutscher Rundfunk, or WDR) in Cologne. In 1963, he succeeded Eimert as director of the studio. From 1954 to 1956, he studied phonetics, acoustics, and information theory with Werner Meyer-Eppler at the University of Bonn. Together with Eimert, Stockhausen edited the journal "Die Reihe" from 1955 to 1962. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=17268 | 313,080 |
2,123,955 | The genome of "Paraburkholderia xenovorans" (LB400) is one of the largest bacterial genomes completely sequenced to date. The recent genomic studies of this organism have helped expand understanding of bacterial catabolism, noncatabolic physiological adaptation to organic compounds, and the evolution of large bacterial genomes. The metabolic pathways from phylogenetically diverse isolates are very similar with respect to overall organization. As originally noted in pseudomonads, a large number of "peripheral aromatic" pathways funnel a range of natural and xenobiotic compounds into a restricted number of "central aromatic" pathways. These pathways are genetically organized in genus-specific fashions. Comparative genomic studies reveal that some pathways are more widespread than initially thought. Functional genomic studies have established that even organisms harboring high numbers of homologous enzymes seem to contain few examples of true redundancy. Analyses have indicated that recent genetic flux appears to have played a more significant role in the evolution of some large genomes, such as "Burkholderia xenovorans" LB400, than in others. However, the emerging trend is that the large gene repertoires of potent pollutant degraders such as "B. xenovorans" LB400 have evolved principally through more ancient processes. That this is true in such phylogenetically diverse species is remarkable and further suggests the ancient origin of this catabolic capacity. Aromatic compounds are among the most recalcitrant of organic pollutants and much interest is seen in using microbial biodegradation to clean up contaminated sites. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11290211 | 2,122,735 |
1,590,193 | For sustainability point of view, Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD) is a Nano-scale manufacturing technology using bottom-up and chemical vapor deposition (CVD) manufacturing method. ALD replaces SiO dielectric film with AlO dielectric film. ALD industry is already in use in Semiconductor industry and promising in solar cells, fuel cells, medical device, sensor, polymer industries. Nano manufacturing technology allow improvements in food packaging. For example, improvement in plastic material barrier allow customers to identify relevant information. Longer food life and safer food is aimed with self repairing functions as well. Performance of traditional construction materials; steel and concrete improves with nanotechnology. Reinforcing concrete with metal oxide nanoparticle reduces permeability and increase strength. Property of high tensile strength and Young’s modulus of Nanocarbon additions such as Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and Carbon nanofibers (CNFs), creates denser and less porous material. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=49251542 | 1,589,299 |
310,228 | Mars, Enceladus and Europa are considered likely candidates in the search for life primarily because they may have underground liquid water, a molecule essential for life as we know it for its use as a solvent in cells. Water on Mars is found frozen in its polar ice caps, and newly carved gullies recently observed on Mars suggest that liquid water may exist, at least transiently, on the planet's surface. At the Martian low temperatures and low pressure, liquid water is likely to be highly saline. As for Europa and Enceladus, large global oceans of liquid water exist beneath these moons' icy outer crusts. This water may be warmed to a liquid state by volcanic vents on the ocean floor, but the primary source of heat is probably tidal heating. On 11 December 2013, NASA reported the detection of "clay-like minerals" (specifically, phyllosilicates), often associated with organic materials, on the icy crust of Europa. The presence of the minerals may have been the result of a collision with an asteroid or comet according to the scientists. Additionally, on 27 June 2018, astronomers reported the detection of complex macromolecular organics on Enceladus and, according to NASA scientists in May 2011, "is emerging as the most habitable spot beyond Earth in the Solar System for life as we know it". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2787 | 310,061 |
125,345 | Lightning is a dramatic natural example of static discharge. While the details are unclear and remain a subject of debate, the initial charge separation is thought to be associated with contact between ice particles within storm clouds. In general, significant charge accumulations can only persist in regions of low electrical conductivity (very few charges free to move in the surroundings), hence the flow of neutralizing charges often results from neutral atoms and molecules in the air being torn apart to form separate positive and negative charges, which travel in opposite directions as an electric current, neutralizing the original accumulation of charge. The static charge in air typically breaks down in this way at around 10,000 volts per centimeter (10 kV/cm) depending on humidity. The discharge superheats the surrounding air causing the bright flash, and produces a shock wave causing the booming sound. The lightning bolt is simply a scaled-up version of the sparks seen in more domestic occurrences of static discharge. The flash occurs because the air in the discharge channel is heated to such a high temperature that it emits light by incandescence. The clap of thunder is the result of the shock wave created as the superheated air expands explosively. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=200136 | 125,293 |
1,222,422 | Vanadium oxides have been a common class of cathodes to study due to their high capacity, ease of synthesis, and electrochemical window that matches well with common polymer electrolytes. Vanadium oxides cathodes, typically classed as charged cathodes, are found in many different structure types. These materials have been extensively studied by Stanley Whittingham among others. In 2007, Subaru introduced a battery with double the energy density while only taking 15 minutes for an 80% charge. They used a nanostructured vanadium oxide, which is able to load two to three times more lithium ions onto the cathode than the layered lithium cobalt oxide. In 2013 researchers announced a synthesis of hierarchical vanadium oxide nanoflowers (VO·"n"HO) synthesized by an oxidation reaction of vanadium foil in a NaCl aqueous solution. Electrochemical tests demonstrate deliver high reversible specific capacities with 100% coulombic efficiency, especially at high C rates ("e.g.", 140 mAh g at 10 C). In 2014, researchers announced the use of vanadate-borate glasses (VO – LiBO glass with reduced graphite oxide) as a cathode material. The cathode achieved around 1000 Wh/kg with high specific capacities in the range of ~ 300 mAh/g for the first 100 cycles. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42601555 | 1,221,763 |
819,659 | While the origins of cost–benefit analysis can be traced back to Jules Dupuit's classic article "On the Measurement of the Utility of Public Works" (1844), much of the subsequent scholarly development occurred in the United States and arose from the challenges of water-resource development. In 1950, the U.S. Federal Interagency River Basin Committee's Subcommittee on Benefits and Costs published a report entitled, "Proposed Practices for Economic Analysis of River Basin Projects" (also known as the "Green Book"), which became noteworthy for bringing in the language of welfare economics. In 1958, Otto Eckstein published "Water-Resource Development: The Economics of Project Evaluation", and Roland McKean published his "Efficiency in Government Through Systems Analysis: With Emphasis on Water Resources Development". The latter book is also considered a classic in the field of operations research. In subsequent years, several other important works appeared: Jack Hirshleifer, James DeHaven, and Jerome W. Milliman published a volume entitled "Water Supply: Economics, Technology, and Policy" (1960); and a group of Harvard scholars including Robert Dorfman, Stephen Marglin, and others published "Design of Water-Resource Systems: New Techniques for Relating Economic Objectives, Engineering Analysis, and Governmental Planning" (1962). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18532781 | 819,218 |
1,448,587 | By the mid-1960s, the techniques of biochemistry and molecular biology—in particular protein electrophoresis—provided a way to measure the level of heterozygosity in natural populations: a possible means to resolve the classical/balance controversy. In 1963, Jack L. Hubby published an electrophoresis study of protein variation in "Drosophila"; soon after, Hubby began collaborating with Richard Lewontin to apply Hubby's method to the classical/balance controversy by measuring the proportion of heterozygous loci in natural populations. Their two landmark papers, published in 1966, established a significant level of heterozygosity for "Drosophila" (12%, on average). However, these findings proved difficult to interpret. Most population geneticists (including Hubby and Lewontin) rejected the possibility of widespread neutral mutations; explanations that did not involve selection were anathema to mainstream evolutionary biology. Hubby and Lewontin also ruled out heterozygote advantage as the main cause because of the segregation load it would entail, though critics argued that the findings actually fit well with overdominance hypothesis. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11863361 | 1,447,771 |
98,394 | To coincide with the film's release, Pocket Books published a written by Roddenberry. The only "Star Trek" novel Roddenberry wrote, the book adds back story and elements that did not appear in the movie; for example, the novelization mentions that Willard Decker is the son of Commodore Matt Decker from the original series episode ""—a plot element intended for the "Phase II" television series. The novel also has a different opening scene to introduce "Vejur" and Kirk, concentrates in sections on Kirk's struggle with confidence in taking command of the "Enterprise" again and expands on Ilia and Decker's relationship. The "Vejur" spelling for the "intruder's" name was used exclusively in the novel Roddenberry authored, from its first appearance on page 179 of the first paperback edition of the novelization through to the account on the novel's page 241 of Kirk reading the undamaged "V-G-E-R" letters on the fictional "Voyager 6" space probe's nameplate. In addition to the novel, "Star Trek" printed media included a coloring book, ship blueprints, a starship "history book," a sticker book of graphics, a home costume how-to book and a comic book adaptation published by Marvel Comics as "Marvel Super Special" #15 (Dec. 1979). Toys included action figures, ship models, and a variety of watches, phaser mockups and communicators. McDonald's sold specially designed "Star Trek" Happy Meals. The marketing was part of a coordinated approach by Paramount and its parent conglomerate Gulf+Western to create a sustained "Star Trek" product line. started Pocket Books' "Star Trek" book franchise, which produced 18 consecutive bestsellers within a decade. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=277006 | 98,352 |
865,781 | POCT is often accomplished through the use of transportable, portable, and handheld instruments (e.g., blood glucose meter, nerve conduction study device) and test kits (e.g., CRP, HBA1C, Homocystein, HIV salivary assay, etc.). Small bench analyzers or fixed equipment can also be used when a handheld device is not available—the goal is to collect the specimen and obtain the results in a very short period of time at or near the location of the patient so that the treatment plan can be adjusted as necessary before the patient leaves. Cheaper, faster, and smarter POCT devices have increased the use of POCT approaches by making it cost-effective for many diseases, such as diabetes, carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) and acute coronary syndrome. Additionally, it is very desirable to measure various analytes simultaneously in the same specimen, allowing a rapid, low-cost, and reliable quantification. Therefore, multiplexed point-of-care testing (xPOCT) has become more important for medical diagnostics in the last decade. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8713563 | 865,321 |
1,591,179 | SCRs were invented by Dr. Carl G. Langner P.E., NAE who described an SCR together with a flexible joint used to accommodate angular deflections of the top region of the SCR relative a support platform, as the platform and the SCR move in currents and waves. SCRs use thousands of feet of long unsupported pipe spans. Complex dynamics, hydrodynamics, including vortex induced vibrations (VIVs) and physics of pipe interactions with the seabed are involved. Those are tough on materials used to build the SCR pipe. Dr. Langner had carried out years of analytical and design work before an application for his US patent was filed. That work started before 1969 and it was reflected in internal Shell documents, which are confidential, but a patent on an early 'Bare Foot' SCR design was issued. VIVs are predominantly controlled with a use of devices attached to the SCR pipe. Those can be for example VIV suppression devices, like helicoidal strakes or fairings that considerably reduce VIV amplitudes. The development of VIV prediction engineering programs, like for example the SHEAR7 program, is an ongoing process that originated in cooperation between MIT and Shell Exploration & Production in parallel to the development of the SCR concept, while having SCR development in mind. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31591708 | 1,590,285 |
689,536 | is the red spiky-haired silent protagonist of the game. He is never shown speaking, using facial expressions to communicate. His name is spelled in Japanese materials. He lives in the village of Truce with his mother. A chance encounter with Marle at the fair begins a series of adventures and uncovers a pre-millennial evil. In 12,000 BC, when the party is confronted with Lavos in the Ocean Palace of the Kingdom of Zeal, Crono sacrifices himself to save his friends, resulting in his death. With time travel, the player can manage to replace Crono at the moment before he dies with a clone received from the Millennial Fair in 1000 A.D, saving his life. The PlayStation, Game Boy Advance, Nintendo DS, Apple iOS, Android, and Microsoft Windows/Steam versions of "Chrono Trigger" include an FMV scene at the end that shows Crono and Marle getting married. A second FMV depicts the fall of Guardia Kingdom in the year AD 1005, though it is unknown what happened to him during this event. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5817189 | 689,174 |
1,013,852 | The MiG-1 was designed in response to a requirement for a high-altitude fighter with an inline engine issued by the VVS in January 1939. Initially the aircraft, designated "I-200", was designed in the Polikarpov construction bureau. Work started in June 1939, under the direction of Nikolai Polikarpov and his assistant M. Tetivikin. Polikarpov himself preferred radial engines and promoted his I-180 design at that time, but when the powerful Mikulin AM-37 inline engine became available, he decided to use it in a fighter. The approach that he selected was to build the smallest possible aircraft around the intended powerplant, thereby minimizing weight and drag — the philosophy of the light fighter. As specified, the aircraft was to be capable of reaching 670 km/h (417 mph). In August 1939, Polikarpov fell out of favor with Joseph Stalin and as a result, when Polikarpov went in November 1939 to tour Germany's aviation works, the Soviet authorities decided to scatter his construction team and create a new Experimental Construction Section (OKO), headed by Artem Mikoyan and Mikhail Gurevich, which remained formally subordinated to the Polikarpov bureau until June 1940. Further work upon the I-200 design was assigned to Mikoyan and Gurevich, who later became recognized — not with full justice — as its designers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=534690 | 1,013,331 |
301,623 | Practical electronic converters use switching techniques. Switched-mode DC-to-DC converters convert one DC voltage level to another, which may be higher or lower, by storing the input energy temporarily and then releasing that energy to the output at a different voltage. The storage may be in either magnetic field storage components (inductors, transformers) or electric field storage components (capacitors). This conversion method can increase or decrease voltage. Switching conversion is often more power-efficient (typical efficiency is 75% to 98%) than linear voltage regulation, which dissipates unwanted power as heat. Fast semiconductor device rise and fall times are required for efficiency; however, these fast transitions combine with layout parasitic effects to make circuit design challenging. The higher efficiency of a switched-mode converter reduces the heatsinking needed, and increases battery endurance of portable equipment. Efficiency has improved since the late 1980s due to the use of power FETs, which are able to switch more efficiently with lower at higher frequencies than power bipolar transistors, and use less complex drive circuitry. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=618169 | 301,462 |
644,977 | Phenotypic plasticity in plants includes the timing of transition from vegetative to reproductive growth stage, the allocation of more resources to the roots in soils that contain low concentrations of nutrients, the size of the seeds an individual produces depending on the environment, and the alteration of leaf shape, size, and thickness. Leaves are particularly plastic, and their growth may be altered by light levels. Leaves grown in the light tend to be thicker, which maximizes photosynthesis in direct light; and have a smaller area, which cools the leaf more rapidly (due to a thinner boundary layer). Conversely, leaves grown in the shade tend to be thinner, with a greater surface area to capture more of the limited light. Dandelion are well known for exhibiting considerable plasticity in form when growing in sunny versus shaded environments. The transport proteins present in roots also change depending on the concentration of the nutrient and the salinity of the soil. Some plants, "Mesembryanthemum crystallinum" for example, are able to alter their photosynthetic pathways to use less water when they become water- or salt-stressed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3040270 | 644,637 |
1,032,096 | In 1990 Benetton competed with three-time world champion Nelson Piquet and Alessandro Nannini, who was replaced by Roberto Moreno after an injury in a helicopter accident in the last two races. Initially, HB III engines were used, which were replaced by the HB IV version in the summer. At the beginning of the season, Benetton had difficulties asserting itself against the smaller teams with the old DFR customer engine. At the US Grand Prix , Pierluigi Martini (Minardi), Andrea de Cesaris ( BMS Scuderia Italia ) and Jean Alesi (Tyrrell) qualified ahead of Piquet in the fastest Benetton. The situation was similar in Brazil, and also in San Marino and Monaco, a DFR car with Jean Alesis Tyrrell was the top-placed Cosworth car. However, the good qualifying results of the smaller teams were at least partly due to the exceptional performance of Pirelli's qualifying tyres, which were superior to the Goodyear tires used by Benetton. On the other hand, Alesi finished second twice at the start of the season with the revolutionary Tyrrell 019, putting DFR customer Tyrrell ahead of Benetton in the constructors' championship up until the Canadian Grand Prix. Ultimately, however, Benetton established itself. With two wins Piquet's in Australia and Japan - where Benetton even achieved a double victory - as well as three second and three third places and several other places in the points, the team scored 71 world championship points and finished third in the constructors' championship at the end of the year behind McLaren and Ferrari. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=68931039 | 1,031,560 |
1,247,380 | In symptomatic patients, since these tumors are benign, gross total resection (GTR) is the preferred course of therapy. The chance of a cure has nearly reached 100% because to recent improvements in imaging, surgical techniques, and intensive care quality. Significant (12 percent) perioperative mortality occurs in the juvenile population, with catastrophic blood loss accounting for the majority of cases. Preoperative embolization can improve the likelihood of a full tumor resection and reduce this risk. Radiosurgery could be a therapy option. To decrease blood flow and increase tumor resectability, percutaneous stereotactic intratumoral embolization with a sclerosing agent has also been tried. Although it is rarely used, adjuvant chemotherapy can prolong survival and prevent recurrence. Irradiation followed by subtotal resection may be used to treat a developing residual choroid plexus papilloma, making it more likely to success. Malignant tumors and those with leptomeningeal dissemination require adjuvant treatment as well. Bevacizumab is playing a bigger part in disseminated choroid plexus papilloma, according to recent research. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8160158 | 1,246,705 |
1,993,395 | The university witnessed a leap in the number of colleges in 1998, when the College of Medicine and Health Sciences was established for the purpose of providing qualified doctors and medical staff, and the same year witnessed the establishment of the College of Applied Sciences, and the aim of its establishment was dictated by the presence of a number of colleges of a scientific nature in addition to the accompanying expansion in structures This is in addition to rehabilitating human cadres and manpower, attracting faculty members and teaching assistants, and sending them for training. The Red Sea University continued to do more to give and provide service to the community. This educational service included other sectors of society with different conditions and needs that were achieved by conducting additional and continuing studies in 1995. Several study programs qualifying for intermediate and technical diplomas have been implemented in the disciplines of education, economics, engineering, earth sciences and applied sciences. Large numbers of students have graduated from these diplomas, in addition to studying by affiliation to obtain a bachelor's degree from the Faculty of Economics. Due to the expansion of additional studies and the success they have achieved, they have been transferred to A stand-alone college under the name of College of Technical Studies. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25780732 | 1,992,252 |
1,687,236 | Over time, there are several arguments that would come to define the history of evolutionary neuroscience. The first is the argument between Etienne Geoffro St. Hilaire and George Cuvier over the topic of "common plan versus diversity". Geoffrey argued that all animals are built based on a single plan or archetype and he stressed the importance of homologies between organisms, while Cuvier believed that the structure of organs was determined by their function and that knowledge of the function of one organ could help discover the functions of other organs. He argued that there were at least four different archetypes. After Darwin, the idea of evolution was more accepted and Geoffrey's idea of homologous structures was more accepted. The second major argument is that of the Scala Naturae (scale of nature) versus the phylogenetic bush. The Scala Naturae, later also called the phylogenetic scale, was based on the premise that phylogenies are linear or like a scale while the phylogenetic bush argument was based on the idea that phylogenies were nonlinear and resembled a bush more than a scale. Today it is accepted that phylogenies are nonlinear. A third major argument dealt with the size of the brain and whether relative size or absolute size was more relevant in determining function. In the late 18th century, it was determined that brain to body ratio reduces as body size increases. However more recently, there is more focus on absolute brain size as this scales with internal structures and functions, with the degree of structural complexity, and with the amount of white matter in the brain, all suggesting that absolute size is much better predictor of brain function. Finally, a fourth argument is that of natural selection (Darwinism) versus developmental constraints (concerted evolution). It is now accepted that the evolution of development is what causes adult species to show differences and evolutionary neuroscientists maintain that many aspects of brain function and structure are conserved across species. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1555376 | 1,686,290 |
1,030,379 | Projects in which he used concrete foundations included the Millbank Penitentiary, the rebuilding of the London Custom House and the British Museum. At the first two he was called in when work overseen by previous architects had proved unstable. The prison at Millbank (1812–21; demolished c. 1890) had been designed by an architect called William Williams, but his plan was then revised by Thomas Hardwick. The largest prison in Europe, it consisted of a hexagonal central courtyard with an elongated pentagonal courtyard on each outer wall of the central courtyard; the three outer corners of the pentagonal courtyards each had a tower one storey higher than the three floors of the rest of the building. Work had started under Hardwick in late 1812, but when the boundary wall had reached a height of about six feet it began to tilt and crack. After 18 months, with £26,000 spent, Hardwick resigned. Work continued and by February 1816 the first prisoners were admitted, but the building creaked and several windows spontaneously shattered. Smirke and the engineer John Rennie the Elder were called in, and they recommended demolition of three of the towers and the underpinning of the entire building with concrete foundations: the first known use of this material for foundations in Britain since the Roman Empire. The work cost £70,000, bringing the total cost of the building to £458,000. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1484094 | 1,029,845 |
1,067,782 | Although most fungi—and especially "Aspergillus"—fail to grow in healthy human tissue, significant growth may occur in people whose adaptive immune system is compromised, such as those with chronic granulomatous disease, who are undergoing chemotherapy, or who have recently undergone a bone marrow transplantation. Within the lungs of such individuals, the fungal hyphae spread out as a spherical growth. With the restoration of normal defense mechanisms, neutrophils and lymphocytes are attracted to the edge of the spherical fungal growth where they lyse, releasing tissue-digesting enzymes as a normal function. A sphere of the infected lung is thus cleaved from the adjacent lung. This sphere flops around in the resulting cavity and is recognized on x-ray as a fungus ball. This process is beneficial as a potentially serious invasive fungal infection is converted into surface colonization. Although the fungus is inactivated in the process, surgeons may choose to operate to reduce the possibility of bleeding. Microscopic examination of surgically removed recently formed fungus balls clearly shows a sphere of dead lung containing fungal hyphae. Microscopic examination of older lesions reveals mummified tissue which may reveal faint residual lung or hyphal structures. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3129502 | 1,067,228 |
636,376 | The last entry in the class is the UGST (Fizik-1) heavy deepwater torpedo with a range of up to (export versions are limited to 40 km). It differs from most previous Soviet and Russian torpedoes in that unlike the previously dominant electric or peroxide propulsion, it uses the Otto fuel axial engine, which allows it to have much extended range while keeping the speeds of up to 65 knots. It also features an updated homing system, which, in addition to the traditional passive wake homing, features a phased array active sonar and an improved wire guidance system: previous Soviet torpedoes had the guidance wire spool in the torpedo body, with the wire released through the hollow propeller shaft, which had the disadvantage of the wire being prone to breakage, while the UGST has the wire release port on the side. Together with the towed extender spool, kept in the calmer portion of the wake, this makes the wire much more durable than before, though not as durable as the tube mounted spool (not used by the Soviets/Russian Navy as it interferes with the automatic reload systems). It was supposed to enter service in the 1990s, but the teething problems and the lack of funding during that period made the deployment sluggish, and it entered the widespread service only in the 2015 by the Fizik name, being quickly replaced by the new-generation Futlyar ("Fizik-2"). Sources refer to them as heat-seeking torpedoes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=621595 | 636,037 |
2,061,779 | The dielectric permittivity and magnetic permeability are usually understood within the 3-vector representation of electrodynamics via the relations formula_13 and formula_14 where formula_15 and formula_16 are, respectively, the electric field, magnetic flux density, electric displacement, and magnetic field intensity, and where and could be matrices. On the other hand, general relativity is formulated in the language of 4-dimensional tensors. To obtain the tensorial optical metric, medium properties such as permittivity, permeability, and magnetoelectric couplings must first be promoted to 4-dimensional covariant tensors, and the electrodynamics of light propagation through such media residing within a background space-time must also be expressed in a compatible 4-dimensional way. Here, electrodynamic fields will be described in terms of differential forms, exterior algebra, and the exterior derivative. Similar to the way that 3-vectors are denoted with an arrow, as in formula_17 4-dimensional tensors will be denoted by bold symbols, for example formula_18 The musical isomorphisms will be used to indicate raising and lowering of indices with the metric, and a dot notation is used to denote contraction on adjacent indices, e.g. formula_19 The speed of light is set to formula_20 and the vacuum permeability and permittivity are likewise set to 1. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38875981 | 2,060,591 |
144,528 | For testing the susceptibility of electronic devices to ESD from human contact, an ESD Simulator with a special output circuit, called the human body model (HBM) is often used. This consists of a capacitor in series with a resistor. The capacitor is charged to a specified high voltage from an external source, and then suddenly discharged through the resistor into an electrical terminal of the device under test. One of the most widely used models is defined in the JEDEC 22-A114-B standard, which specifies a 100 picofarad capacitor and a 1,500 ohm resistor. Other similar standards are MIL-STD-883 Method 3015, and the ESD Association's ESD STM5.1. For compliance to European Union standards for Information Technology Equipment, the IEC/EN 61000-4-2 test specification is used. Another specification referenced by equipment maker Schaffner calls for C = 150 pF and R = 330 Ω which provides high fidelity results. While the theory is mostly there, very few companies measure the real ESD survival rate. Guidelines and requirements are given for test cell geometries, generator specifications, test levels, discharge rate and waveform, types and points of discharge on the "victim" product, and functional criteria for gauging product survivability. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=75049 | 144,470 |
1,772,693 | In February 1998, the battalion deployed for 3 months to Laredo, Texas in support of Joint Task Force Six to conduct general engineering construction missions in support of U.S. Border Patrol. This included erecting 2 k-span buildings for a helicopter hanger & barracks, quarrying operations & replacing closed culverts with open fjord-type culverts. Bravo also deployed to Alaska in September 1998 through October 1998 to conduct base camp and road construction in support of JTF ALASKAN ROAD. HSC and the Earth Moving Platoons from Alpha and Bravo company deployed to White Sands, New Mexico to conduct horizontal construction missions to include road and airfield construction, and two new golf course fairways and a driving range from February 1999 to April 1999. Meanwhile, in April 1999, Bravo company deployed a vertical platoon to Abilene, Texas in support of JTF-6 and the Abilene Police Department to construct a shoot house for their training facility. Shortly thereafter, in May 1999, Alpha company deployed to Thailand in support of "COBRA GOLD" to again provide humanitarian and civic assistance, in the form of new construction and facilities upgrade. Alpha company and elements from HSC and Bravo company deployed to KOSOVO to conduct base camp construction and facilities upgrade along with constructing and improving existing road networks for Camp Bondsteel and the NATO forces assigned there from August 1999 through February 2000. Meanwhile, Bravo and HSC were busy taking part in constructions missions that were vital to the Army's new Medium Brigade Transformation Project being conducted at Fort Lewis. In mid-2001 the battalion began to work closely with the President's counter-drug agency, JTF-6. In August, Alpha Company deployed to New York City to build a state-of-the-art classroom facility for the New York City Police Department. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23176611 | 1,771,696 |
1,515,294 | Extreme phenomena have been observed in single-shot studies of the temporal dynamics of optical beam filamentation in air and the two-dimensional transverse profiles of beams forming multiple filaments in a nonlinear Xenon cell. In the former studies, spectral analysis of self-guided optical filaments, which were generated with pulses close to the critical power for filamentation in air, showed that the shot-to-shot statistics become heavy-tailed at the short wavelength and long wavelength edges of the spectrum. Termed optical rogue wave statistics, this behavior was studied in simulations, which supported an explanation based on pump noise transfer by self-phase modulation. In the latter experimental study, filaments of extreme intensity described as optical rogue waves were observed to emerge due to mergers between filament strings when multiple filaments are generated. In contrast, the statistical properties were found to be approximately Gaussian for low filament numbers. It was noted that extreme spatio-temporal events are found only in certain nonlinear media even though other media have larger nonlinear responses, and the experimental findings suggested that laser-induced thermodynamic fluctuations within the nonlinear medium are the origin of the extreme events observed in multifilamention. Numerical predictions of extreme occurrences in multiple beam filamentation have also been performed, with some differences in conditions and interpretation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42450197 | 1,514,443 |
410,450 | Originally, Gordon was going to adapt Lovecraft's story for the stage, but eventually decided along with writers Dennis Paoli and William Norris to make it as a half-hour television pilot. The story was set around the turn of the century, and they soon realized that it would be too expensive to recreate. They updated it to the present day in Chicago with the intention of using actors from the Organic Theater company. They were told that the half hour format was not saleable and so they made it an hour, writing 13 episodes. Special effects technician Bob Greenberg, who had worked on John Carpenter's "Dark Star", repeatedly told Gordon that the only market for horror was in feature films, and introduced him to producer Brian Yuzna. Gordon showed Yuzna the script for the pilot and the 12 additional episodes. The producer liked what he read and convinced Gordon to shoot the film in Hollywood, because of all the special effects involved. Yuzna made a distribution deal with Charles Band's Empire Pictures in return for post-production services. However, after viewing the initial dailies Empire became involved in the actual production, making a number of suggestions, including the recruitment of Mac Ahlberg as cinematographer. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1129009 | 410,248 |
514,057 | Inspired by the RAF's Empire Test Pilots' School, Colonel Ernest K. Warburton, chief of the Flight Test Section at Wright Field, set about changing the role and status of flight testing in the Army Air Forces. His goals for the flight test community were standardization and independence, which were later realized with the establishment of the Air Technical Command Flight Test Training unit on 9 September 1944 and the independent Flight Test Division in 1945. The AAF now had a formal program of study to train young pilots to become flight test professionals. Under the command of Major Ralph C. Hoewing, the Flight Test Training Unit's curriculum included classroom sessions covering performance flight test theory and piloting techniques. The students then put theory into practice with performance evaluations on the AT-6 Texan trainer. Shortly after the first class graduated, the school was redesignated the Flight Section School Branch with an increased focus on academic theory. In 1945, the school moved to Vandalia Municipal Airport (now the Dayton International Airport), after which it was redesignated the Flight Performance School and placed under the command of Lt. Colonel John R. Muehlberg, who became the first to carry the title "commandant". Under Muehlberg, who in 1944/45 had attended the second course at the newly established ETPS in England, the school increased its fleet with North American P-51 Mustangs, Boeing B-17 Flying Fortresss, and North American B-25 Mitchells and expanded the curriculum to include a separate four-month stability and control course in addition to the existing performance course. In 1946, the test pilot school was moved again to nearby Patterson Field and Colonel Albert Boyd was assigned as chief of the Flight Test Division. Col. Boyd profoundly influenced both the school and the character of its future AAF test pilots with his insistence on precision flying skills and discipline. A graduate of the school in 1946, Major Bob Cardenas, later summarized Col. Boyd's influence: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=610257 | 513,791 |
792,013 | Although the advent of anatomical physical modernity cannot confidently be linked with palaeoneurological change, it does seem probable that hominid brains evolved through the same selection processes as other body parts. Genes that promoted a capacity for symbolism may have been selected for, suggesting that the foundations for symbolic culture may well be grounded in biology. However, behavior that was mediated by symbolism may have only come later, even though this physical capacity was already in place much earlier. Skoyles and Sagan, for example, argue that human brain expansion by increasing the prefrontal cortex would have created a brain capable of symbolizing its previously non-symbolic cognition, and that this process, slow to begin with, increasingly accelerated during the last 100,000 years. Symbolically mediated behavior may then feed back upon this process by creating a greater ability to manufacture symbolic artifacts and social networks. According to the research team in Jebel Irhoud, the discovery means that "Homo sapiens"—not members of a rival or ancestor species ("Homo heidelbergensis", "Homo naledi")—were the ones who left behind Middle Stone Age hand tools that have since been unearthed all over Africa. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5971398 | 791,588 |
1,436,717 | The advantages of the AV fistula use are lower infection rates, because no foreign material is involved in their formation, higher blood flow rates (which translates to more effective dialysis), and a lower incidence of thrombosis. The complications are fewer than with other access methods. If a fistula has a very high blood flow and the vasculature that supplies the rest of the limb is poor, a steal syndrome can occur, where blood entering the limb is drawn into the fistula and returned to the general circulation without entering the limb's capillaries. This results in cold extremities of that limb, cramping pains, and, if severe, tissue damage. One long-term complication of an AV fistula can be the development of an aneurysm, a bulging in the wall of the vein where it is weakened by the repeated insertion of needles over time. To a large extent the risk of developing an aneurysm can be reduced by carefully rotating needle sites over the entire fistula, or using the "buttonhole" (constant site) technique. Aneurysms may necessitate corrective surgery and may shorten the useful life of a fistula. Fistulas can also become blocked due to blood clotting or infected if sterile precautions are not followed during needle insertion at the start of dialysis. Because of the high volume of blood flowing through the fistula, excessive bleeding can also occur. This is most common soon after a dialysis treatment. Pressure must be applied to the needle holes to induce clotting. If that pressure is removed prematurely or a patient engages in physical activity too soon after dialysis, the needle holes can open up. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5754311 | 1,435,908 |
1,998,664 | Histological examination of the lesions in DFL usually reveals them to be localized to the GI tract mucosa and submucosa. The lesions consist of abnormal germinal center-containing lymphoid follicles overcrowded with a uniformly-sized population of malignant centrocytes and rare centroblasts. The lesions are classified as low grade (i.e. Lugano classification Grades 1 or 2) in 95-100% of cases. Immunochemical analyses indicate that the latter cells express CD20, CD10, BCL6, and CD79A and have a very low proliferation rate as defined by the intensity of their expression of Ki-67. They also overexpress Bcl2 as a consequence of having the t(14:18)q32:q21) translocation. These findings are similar to those in follicular lymphoma but the malignant cells in DFL generally have fewer genomic abnormalities than those in follicular lymphoma and the profile of overexpressed genes in DFL tissues more closely resemble those in marginal zone than follicular lymphoma tissues. The diagnosis of DFL depends on finding: the cited histological, and immunolochemical abnormalities; the t(14:18)q32:q21) translocation; and no evidence that the disease ranges outside of the GI tract as evidenced by negative results for, e.g. bone marrow biopsy and CT scan of the abdomen which thereby rule out involvement of the bone marrow and mesenteric as well as other abdominal lymph node, respectively. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=61515082 | 1,997,520 |
534,114 | For all ESA selected astronauts, Basic Training begins at the EAC headquarters. This section of the training cycle has four separate training blocks that last 16 months. Astronauts will receive an orientation on the major spacefaring nations, their space agencies, and all major crewed and uncrewed space programs. Training in this phase also looks into applicable laws and policies of the space sector. Technical (including engineering, astrodynamics, propulsion, orbital mechanics, etc.) and scientific (including human physiology, biology, earth observation, and astronomy) basics are introduced, to ensure that all new astronauts have the required base level of knowledge. Training is done on ISS operations and facilities, including an introduction to all major operating systems on board the ISS that are required for its functionality as a crewed space research laboratory. This phase also covers in-depth systems operations for all spacecraft that service the ISS (e.g. Soyuz, Progress, Automatic Transfer Vehicle (ATV), and the H-II Transfer Vehicle (HTV)), as well as ground control and launch facility training. This training phase also focuses on skills such as robotic operations, rendezvous and docking, Russian language courses, human behavior and performance, and finally a PADI open water scuba diving course. This scuba course provides basic EVA training at ESA's NBF before moving onto the larger NASA training facility at the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=34892999 | 533,835 |
1,472,865 | While it is known that mental and sexual health is related to estrogen levels in women, there are limited studies concerning FHA and mental and sexual health. Links to serotonin, dopamine, and allopregnanolone fluctuations have been found in FHA women. Ghrelin concentrations have been found to be linked higher levels of disordered eating behaviors in FHA patients compared to both exercising and sedentary controls. The degree of disordered and restrictive eating behaviors have been positively associated with PYY concentrations in women with AN, and fasting PYY has been linked to drive for thinness in exercising women. This suggests that increased PYY may decrease the drive to increase energy intake which typically occurs when ghrelin levels are elevated: it is this dysregulation which may directly cause the psychopathological phenotype that increases susceptibility to developing chronic negative energy through restrictive eating patterns. The increased cortisol release caused by FHA can contribute to fluctuating moods, difficulty coping with common life events and stresses, and disordered eating, as serum cortisol levels correlate with the Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression (HAM-D) and Anxiety (HAM-A). Psychological well-being can be altered in response to low energy availability (LEA), but LEA may also preclude psychological problems. It has been suggested that a higher drive for thinness may serve as a proxy for LEA; a higher drive for thinness has been reported in amenorrheic females than eumeorrheic females. Studies have shown similarities between women affected with FHA and women affected with anorexia nervosa, including a tendency towards depression, bulimic tendencies, cognitive restraint problems with maturity and social security, introversion, inability to manage stress and an obsession with dieting and weight. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15738568 | 1,472,035 |
1,460,437 | A travelling microscope is an instrument for measuring length with a resolution typically in the order of 0.01mm. The precision is such that better-quality instruments have measuring scales made from Invar to avoid misreadings due to thermal effects. The instrument comprises a microscope mounted on two rails fixed to, or part of a very rigid bed. The position of the microscope can be varied coarsely by sliding along the rails, or finely by turning a screw. The eyepiece is fitted with fine cross-hairs to fix a precise position, which is then read off the vernier scale. Some instruments, such as that produced in the 1960s by the Precision Tool and Instrument Company of Thornton Heath, Surrey, England, also measure vertically. The purpose of the microscope is to aim at reference marks with much higher accuracy than is possible using the naked eye. It is used in laboratories to measure the refractive index of flat specimens using the geometrical concepts of ray optics (Duc de Chaulnes’ method). It is also used to measure very short distances precisely, for example the diameter of a capillary tube. This mechanical instrument has now largely been superseded by electronic- and optically based measuring devices that are both very much more accurate and considerably cheaper to produce. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12793895 | 1,459,615 |
465,817 | Several academic research papers including Turner et al. (2003), Ford and Smith (2004), Adger (2006), Fraser (2007) and Patt et al. (2010) amongst others, have provided a detail review of the diverse epistemologies and methodologies in vulnerability research. Turner et al. (2003) for example proposed a framework that illustrates the complexity and interactions involved in vulnerability analysis, draws attention to the array of factors and linkages that potentially affects the vulnerability of a couple of human–environment systems. The framework makes use of nested flowcharts to show how social and environmental forces interact to create situations vulnerable to sudden changes. Ford and Smith (2004), propose an analytical framework, based on research with Canadian arctic communities. They suggest that, the first stage is to assess current vulnerability by documenting exposures and current adaptive strategies. This should be followed by a second stage that estimates directional changes in those current risk factors and characterizes the community's future adaptive capacity. Ford and Smith's (2004) framework utilizes historic information including how communities have experienced and addressed climatic hazards, with information on what conditions are likely to change, and what constraints and opportunities there are for future adaptation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=368974 | 465,584 |
1,520,906 | Several studies have used various techniques to study the frequency of subthreshold oscillations at a different membrane potential. For example, a study examined the frequencies of SMPO in different anatomical positions on the dorsoventral axis of a rat medial entorhinal cortex. They used whole-cell patch recording in vivo and biophysical modeling in compartmental simulations of entorhinal stellate cells to examine the properties (SMPO), at different membrane potentials of the entorhinal cortex layer II stellate cells. This technique incorporates electrical stimulation of polar molecules in cell membrane. The study found that Dorsal cells are likely to show a positive slope of peak frequency with depolarization, whereas ventral cells tend to show a negative slope of peak frequency with depolarization. These findings illustrate that there are high frequencies of SMPO in dorsal cells and low frequencies in the ventral cells. A similar study that did whole-cell recordings of olivary neurons in vivo to investigate the relationship between subthreshold activities and spiking behavior in an intact brain illustrates that the majority of neurons displayed subthreshold oscillation activities. Which means that the inferior olive of mammals’ brain exhibits relatively stable frequencies settings of oscillations. As a result, this might be used to generate and rest temporal firing patterns in an electrically coupled ensemble. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14728230 | 1,520,045 |
166,669 | Despite those efforts, PrEP remains controversial among some who worry that widespread PrEP adoption could cause public health issues by enabling risky sexual behaviors. For instance, AIDS Healthcare Foundation founder and director Michael Weinstein has been vocal in his opposition to PrEP adoption, suggesting that PrEP causes people to make riskier decisions about sex than they would otherwise make. Some researchers, however, believe that there is insufficient data to determine whether or not PrEP implementation has an effect on the rate of other sexually transmitted infections. Other critics point out that despite implementation of PrEP, significant disparities exist. For example, some point out that African Americans bear a disproportionate burden of HIV infections but may be less likely than whites to access PrEP. Still other critics of PrEP object to the high cost of the regimen. For example, the U.K.'s NHS initially refused to offer PrEP to individuals citing concerns about cost and suggested that local officials ought to bear the responsibility of paying for the drug. However, following significant advocacy efforts, the NHS has started to offer PrEP to people in the UK in 2017. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5295343 | 166,583 |
387,367 | The proposed Variable Specific Impulse Magnetoplasma Rocket (VASIMR) functions by using radio waves to ionize a propellant into a plasma, and then using a magnetic field to accelerate the plasma out of the back of the rocket engine to generate thrust. The VASIMR is currently being developed by Ad Astra Rocket Company, headquartered in Houston, Texas, with help from Canada-based Nautel, producing the 200 kW RF generators for ionizing propellant. Some of the components and "plasma shoots" experiments are tested in a laboratory settled in Liberia, Costa Rica. This project is led by former NASA astronaut Dr. Franklin Chang-Díaz (CRC-USA). A 200 kW VASIMR test engine was in discussion to be fitted in the exterior of the International Space Station, as part of the plan to test the VASIMR in space – however plans for this test onboard ISS were canceled in 2015 by NASA, with a free flying VASIMR test being discussed by Ad Astra instead. An envisioned 200 megawatt engine could reduce the duration of flight from Earth to Jupiter or Saturn from six years to fourteen months, and Mars from 7 months to 39 days. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37839 | 387,172 |
2,137,922 | This article makes a proposition based on a perceptive view. When asking the question "am I fat?" the answer is either yes or no, in terms of bits relative to quantum bits, respectively. When perceived in relation to quantum bits the answer can be both yes and no, taking into consideration the multitude of corresponding amplitudes. Traditionally, when one looks at a mirror and they see their reflection, and they are fat, the answer to that above question, will be yes. However, in the unconscious quantum logic, the answer is both yes and no, where the answers are superposed. The unconscious object relation of anorexia nervosa affect the probability amplitudes of the logical proposition "I am fat" . There is essentially a disruption to the perception. The Orch OR theory proposes that the human consciousness can be explained through "object reduction" which is a function by which the brain uses "microtubules" in the neurons to computate and regulate neural operations. Tubulins, existing as a subunit of microtubules, are related by quantum superposition and perform functions like that of a quantum computer. Upon disruption or poor development of these formulations, the normal perception is lost. Which leads to one of the coinciding theories where there is a "failure to develop" as a child, learning to recognize self from others and their own body parts. The pre-anorexic child is unable to develop a normal sense of self that is appropriately linked with their psychic experience, thereby introjecting a "false self". With this disconnect having occurred, the child will now derive their self-perception from the wants and desires of others around them. Due to this assimilation of an identity not their own, there has been the term coined "the selflessness of anorexia". Obedience and desire to please others is why the pre-anorexic child is often described as "the good child that always listens". Due to this development that when the child grows up to be independent and not knowing how to have and satisfy their own needs, they resort to self-starvation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=49771725 | 2,136,692 |
112,432 | In the past, it was thought that inflammation was the first event in initiating lung tissue scarring. Later findings showed that the development of fibroblastic foci precedes the accumulation of inflammatory cells and the consequent deposition of collagen. This pathogenetic model is indirectly supported by the clinical features of IPF, including an insidious onset over several years, relatively infrequent acute exacerbations, and failure to respond to immunosuppressive therapy. However, it is the belief of some researchers that the disease is a multi-mechanistic one, wherein the trigger for the disease may stem from abnormalities in any number of wound healing pathways, including the inflammatory response. Such abnormalities could occur in any number of the nine implicated pathways (clotting cascade, antioxidant pathways, apoptosis, inflammatory cytokines, angiogenesis and vascular remodelling, growth factors, surfactant and matrix regulatory factors), and that through further investigation into all nine, novel therapies and approaches could be proposed on a unique or case-by-case basis should attempts at treating or circumventing complications in any one pathway prove unsuccessful. A number of therapies that target fibroblast activation or the synthesis of extracellular matrix are currently in early testing or are being considered for development. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8768565 | 112,387 |
216,759 | High-pressure mercury vapor (and some specially-designed metal-halide) lamps find application in molecular spectroscopy due to providing useful broadband continuum ("noise") energy at millimeter and terahertz wavelengths, owing to the high electron temperature of the arc plasma; the main UV emission line of ionized mercury (254 nm) correlates to a blackbody of T= 11,500 K. This property makes them among the very few simple, inexpensive sources available for generating such frequencies. For example, a standard 250-watt general-lighting mercury lamp produces significant output from 120 GHz to 6 THz. In addition, shorter wavelengths in the mid-infrared are emitted from the hot quartz arc-tube envelope. As with the ultraviolet output, the glass outer bulb is largely opaque at these frequencies and thus for this purpose needs to be removed (or omitted in purpose-made lamps). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1125543 | 216,651 |
2,048,808 | A nine-inch Cooke equatorial was mounted under Grant's supervision in 1863, and was employed by him for observations of planets, comets, and double stars. He joined the Himalaya expedition to Spain for the total eclipse of 18 July 1860, and from his station near Vittoria watched the disclosure of the chromosphere and prominences, the true nature of which he had been one of the first to infer. He originated in 1861 the electrically controlled time service of Glasgow, and co-operated with Sir George Biddell Airy in 1865 in determining, by means of galvanic signals, the difference of longitude between Glasgow and Greenwich. The Leonid meteors of 1866 and 1868, the Andromeda of 1872 and 1885, and the ingress of Venus at the transit of 1882 were observed by him, and formed the subjects of communications to the Royal Astronomical Society. In a letter to the "Times" of 20 Sept. 1867, he traced the forged Pascal papers to their source in the third edition of Newton's "Principia." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31777117 | 2,047,627 |
792,768 | Along with Cartan, Chern is one of the mathematicians known for popularizing the use of differential forms in math and physics. In his biography, Richard Palais and Chuu-Lian Terng have written "... we would like to point out a unifying theme that runs through all of it: his absolute mastery of the techniques of differential forms and his artful application of these techniques in solving geometric problems. This was a magic mantle, handed down to him by his great teacher, Élie Cartan. It permitted him to explore in depth new mathematical territory where others could not enter. What makes differential forms such an ideal tool for studying local and global geometric properties" ("and for relating them to each other") "is their two complementary aspects. They admit, on the one hand, the local operation of exterior differentiation, and on the other the global operation of integration over cochains, and these are related via Stokes's Theorem." While at the IAS, there were two competing methods of geometry: the tensor calculus and the newer differential forms. Chern has written I usually like to say that vector fields is like a man, and differential forms is like a woman. Society must have two sexes. If you only have one, it’s not enough.In the last years of his life, he advocated the study of Finsler geometry, writing several books and articles on the subject. His research on Finsler geometry is continued through Tian Gang, Paul C. Yang, and Sun-Yung Alice Chang of Princeton University. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=391905 | 792,343 |
1,276,758 | There are several projects and proposals to save coastal areas by reducing human damage, some of which have been attempted, including restoring natural floods from the Mississippi. Without such restoration, coastal communities will continue to disappear. One of the primary methods that has been developed are freshwater diversions, which extract water from Mississippi River at strategic locations and transport fresh water and silt from the river through aqueducts and then pump and distribute them into nearby estuaries. This process invigorates freshwater plant life and re-introduces silt into the estuaries. Freshwater diversions have not been without controversy and have encountered some opposition, primarily from oyster harvesters who believe that the current high level salinity is needed in their state-licensed zones in order to maintain healthy production. Another method of coastal restoration is the direct planting of new marsh grasses and other forms of sustainable plant life into affected areas.<ref name="Lipinski (Seeding Mangroves/Planting)"></ref> There is the practice of seeding, which may be turn out to be more productive than direct planting, which often entails the dropping large amounts of seeds from crop-dusters intended to grow into freshwater plants. Mangrove seeds have been tried because when grown they have the benefit of reducing marsh water salinity. Transporting already-dredged material from the Mississippi river to marshes, swamps, and barrier islands is also an option. Some have proposed the removal of river levees in certain low-populated areas to allow fresh water and silt dispersion into marshes, though this method is controversial and has yet to be attempted. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=47741580 | 1,276,065 |
1,124,251 | In addition to a gRNA target, Cas9 requires binding to a specific 2-6 nucleotide sequence PAM. In commonly used SpCas9 systems the PAM motif is 5’ NGG 3’, where N represents any of the four DNA nucleotides. The requirement of the PAM sequence can cause specificity limitations as some regions will not have an available target sequence to make a desired genetic modification. The PAM sequence can be edited to non-canonical NAG and NGA motifs which not only improve the specificity but also reduced off-target effects. A D1135E mutant appears to alter PAM specificities. The D1135E mutant reduces off-target effects and increases the specificity of SpCas9. An additional variant, SpCas9-HF1, also results in favorable improvements to Cas9 specificity. Several combinations of substitutions known to form non-specific DNA contacts (N497A, R661A, Q695A, and Q926A) have been identified. A quadruple substitution of these residues (later named SpCas9-HF1), has extremely low levels of off-target effects as detected by GUIDE-seq experiments. Variants such as SpCas9-HF1 and D1135E, and others like it can be combined, tested and readily added to existing SpCas9 vectors to reduce the rates of off-target mutations. Additionally, many of the engineering strategies listed above can be combined to create increasingly robust and reliable RNA-guided nuclease editing tools. Directed evolution can also be used to reduce nuclease activity on particular target sequences, leading to variants such as SpartaCas (containing mutations D23A, T67L, Y128V, and D1251G relative to wildtype SpCas9). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=56710049 | 1,123,677 |
2,092,786 | During her early tenure at UC Berkeley, Kremen also served as a member on the Committee on Status of Pollinators where she led the first global study on crop production that is reliant upon animal pollination. In recognition of her research, she was named a 2007 MacArthur Fellows Program, which came with an unrestricted $500,000 award for the next five years. In the same year, Kremen was also awarded a Hellman Fellowship from the American Academy of Arts & Sciences for her project "How does Biological Diversity Promote Ecosystem Services: a Mechanistic Study of Almond Crop Pollination in a Changing California Landscape." As an associate professor of environmental science, policy and management, Kremen led a study in 2011 which concluded that farmers could become more cost-efficient if they relied less on renting honey bees. In recognition of her academic achievements, Kremen was elected a Fellow of the California Academy of Sciences in 2013 and appointed Editor in Chief of the journal "Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=26723672 | 2,091,581 |
417,638 | Numerous functions of EVs have been established or postulated. The first evidence for the existence of EVs was enabled by the ultracentrifuge, the electron microscope, and functional studies of coagulation in the mid-20th century. A sharp increase in interest in EVs occurred in the first decade of the 21st century following the discovery that EVs could transfer nucleic acids such as RNA from cell to cell. Associated with EVs from certain cells or tissues, nucleic acids could be easily amplified as markers of disease and also potentially traced back to a cell of origin, such as a tumor cell. When EVs are taken up by other cells, they may alter the behaviour of the recipient cell, for instance EVs released by colorectal cancer cells increase migration of fibroblasts and thus EVs are of importance in forming tumour landscapes. This discovery also implied that EVs could be used for therapeutic purposes, such as delivering nucleic acids or other cargo to diseased tissue. This growing interest was paralleled by formation of companies and funding programs focused on development of EVs as biomarkers or therapies of disease, the founding of an International Society for Extracellular Vesicles (ISEV), and establishment of a scientific journal devoted to the field, the "Journal of Extracellular Vesicles". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=43476921 | 417,434 |
2,065,775 | The 100-meter dash was Cartwright's only trials event; she won from 16-year-old Betty Robinson, the eventual Olympic champion. Future star Stella Walsh was narrowly eliminated in the semi-finals. The 800 meters was run as a time trial with several heats; both Boeckmann in heat one and Wilson in heat three broke the previous national record. Women's middle distance races were a rarity in the United States, and the three Americans selected were not expected to make any impact in Amsterdam; MacDonald's sixth place in the Olympic final (2:22.6e) was a surprise. The high jump title was decided in a jump-off; Wiley, who went on to win bronze in Amsterdam, defeated newcomer Shiley by clearing 4 ft in (1.52 m) a second time. Reichardt, the discus champion, had not competed since 1926 but made a comeback for the Olympics; the American record in this event was relatively easy to break, as in previous years American meets had used a heavier imperial discus. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=48383429 | 2,064,584 |
452,612 | High Resolution Melting analysis is the simplest PCR-based method to understand. Basically, the same thermodynamic properties that allowed for the gel techniques to work apply here, and in real-time. A fluorimeter monitors the post-PCR denaturation of the entire dsDNA amplicon. You make primers specific to the site you want to amplify. You "paint" the amplicon with a double-strand specific dye, included in the PCR mix. The ds-specific dye integrates itself into the PCR product. In essence, the entire amplicon becomes a probe. This opens up new possibilities for discovery. Either you position the primers very close to either side of the SNP in question (small amplicon genotyping, Liew, 2004) or amplify a larger region (100-400bp in length) for scanning purposes. For simple genotyping of an SNP, it is easier to just make the amplicon small to minimize the chances you mistake one SNP for another. The melting temperature (Tm) of the entire amplicon is determined and most homozygotes are sufficiently different (in the better instruments) in Tm to genotype. Heterozygotes are even easier to differentiate because they have heteroduplexes generated (refer to the gel-based explanations) which broadens the melt transition and usually gives two discernible peaks. Amplicon melting using a fluorescently-labeled primer has been described (Gundry et al., 2003) but is less practical than using ds-specific dyes due to the cost of the fluorogenic primer. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9007251 | 452,393 |
2,181,188 | At the start of this race Peter Agaba was caught napping, giving up 20 metres to the field. Ferguson Cheruiyot made it clear it was going to be a record attempt, the Kenyan running off the front and making a clear separation from the pack. Kevin López kicked past Michael Rutt to put Spain in second place at the handoff with a strong finish by Shaquille Dill putting Bermuda into the mix. After Cheruiyot's 1:45.8 first leg, Kenya had a 30 metre lead. Job Koech Kinyor took off with similar intent widening the gap to 40 metres, Aaron Evans running in second place for Bermuda. Towards the end of the second leg, the pack bunched behind Evans, with Robby Andrews kicking past everyone to put the USA in second at the handoff. Sammy Kibet Kirongo continued the effort, for the third consecutive leg, the Kenyans running their first lap in times tickling 50 seconds flat and suffering the second lap. Clearly in second place, Brandon Johnson started to close down the gap. Kibet's second lap was indeed painful, his leg ending in an exhausted standing position. Marcin Lewandowski ran around the pack into a clear third place with 300 metres to go in his leg, the Polish team closing down on the second place Americans, still 25 metres behind the Kenyans. World Junior Champion Alfred Kipketer ran his first lap even harder than his teammates, under 50 seconds as if he had the super human ability of his namesake Wilson, the lead again opening up to 40 metres over Duane Solomon, who had future World silver medalist Adam Kszczot on his heels. The reality of running 800 metres came down on Kipketer, his pace slowed noticeably, his huge lead disappearing. As Solomon gained, Kszczot was on his shoulder and running by. Kipketer was flailing trying to will his body the final few metres to the finish. Kipketer made it, with enough every left to hold up his hand in victory. Kszczot was leaning for the finish but was not close enough for it to be effective, but clearly ahead of Solomon. It was a surprisingly close finish with three teams within 2/3 of a second after Kenya had run a time trial, with a huge lead for most of the race. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42773487 | 2,179,942 |
969,098 | Between the mid-1980s and the 2000s, the prevailing interpretation of how hadrosaurids processed their food followed the model put forward in 1984 by David B. Weishampel. He proposed that the structure of the skull permitted motion between bones that resulted in backward and forward motion of the lower jaw, and outward bowing of the tooth-bearing bones of the upper jaw when the mouth was closed. The teeth of the upper jaw would grind against the teeth of the lower jaw like rasps, processing plant material trapped between them. Such a motion would parallel the effects of mastication in mammals, although accomplishing the effects in a completely different way. Work in the early 2000s has challenged the Weishampel model. A study published in 2008 by Casey Holliday and Lawrence Witmer found that ornithopods like "Edmontosaurus" lacked the types of skull joints seen in those modern animals that are known to have kinetic skulls (skulls that permit motion between their constituent bones), such as squamates and birds. They proposed that joints that had been interpreted as permitting movement in dinosaur skulls were actually cartilaginous growth zones. An important piece of evidence for Weishampel's model is the orientation of scratches on the teeth, showing the direction of jaw action. Other movements could produce similar scratches though, such as movement of the bones of the two halves of the lower jaw. Not all models have been scrutinized under present techniques. Vincent Williams and colleagues (2009) published additional work on hadrosaurid tooth microwear. They found four classes of scratches on "Edmontosaurus" teeth. The most common class was interpreted as resulting from an oblique motion, not a simple up-down or front-back motion, which is consistent with the Weishampel model. This motion is thought to have been the primary motion for grinding food. Two scratch classes were interpreted as resulting from forward or backward movement of the jaws. The other class was variable and probably resulted from opening the jaws. The combination of movements is more complex than had been previously predicted. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1585380 | 968,588 |
703,566 | In 1916, Brown expanded the character set to include more features; in the revised version: a comparatively short skull with a high helmet-like crest formed by nasals, prefrontals and frontals; the nasals not being separated in front by premaxillaries; a narrow beak, expanded section in front of the elongated nares; a small narial opening; a vertebral formula of 15 cervicals, 19 dorsals, 8 sacrals, and 61+ caudals; possession of dorsal spines of a medium height; high anterior caudal spines; long chevrons; long scapulae, possessing a blade of medium width; a radius considerably longer than humerus; comparatively short metacarpals; an anteriorly decurved ilium; a long ischium with a foot-like terminal expansion; a pubis with an anterior blade that is short and broadly expanded at end; a femur that is longer than the tibia; the phalanges of pes are short; that the integument over the sides and tail composed of polygonal tuberculate scales without pattern but graded in size in different parts of the body; and a belly with longitudinal rows of large conical limpet-like scales separated by uniformly large polygonal tubercles. Again, the presumed traits of the snout are incorrect because Brown confused the praemaxillae with the nasal bones and the nasal bones with the frontals. Most of the postcranial traits are today known to be shared with other lambeosaurines. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1360138 | 703,198 |
357,414 | The F1AZ features an integrated ground-attack system, comprising two on-board computers that can identify targets at a distance of 5 km. A laser range finder, situated below its conical nose, is connected to the computers to provide them with target info without emitting radar signals. After target identification and information gathering, bombs are automatically released at the right moment, known as CCRP, or 'Computer Controlled Release Point'. While the range-finding ability of the EMD AIDA 2 radar permits the use of combat and visual interception missiles, the helmet-mounted sight element enables the pilot to make off-boresight engagements, without waiting until achieving an optimum firing position. The F1AZ is equipped with two internal DEFA 30mm cannons with 125 rounds each, and carries a wide variety of external ordnance, including various types of bombs, cluster munitions, missiles, and rocket launchers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=377985 | 357,228 |
196,578 | Interferometers are devices that extract information from interference. They are widely used in science and industry for the measurement of microscopic displacements, refractive index changes and surface irregularities. In the case with most interferometers, light from a single source is split into two beams that travel in different optical paths, which are then combined again to produce interference; two incoherent sources can also be made to interfere under some circumstances though. The resulting interference fringes give information about the difference in optical path lengths. In analytical science, interferometers are used to measure lengths and the shape of optical components with nanometer precision; they are the highest precision length measuring instruments in existence. In Fourier transform spectroscopy they are used to analyze light containing features of absorption or emission associated with a substance or mixture. An astronomical interferometer consists of two or more separate telescopes that combine their signals, offering a resolution equivalent to that of a telescope of diameter equal to the largest separation between its individual elements. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=166689 | 196,478 |
323,290 | "Thesis" is also used to describe a cumulative project for a bachelor's degree and is more common at selective colleges and universities, or for those seeking admittance to graduate school or to obtain an honors academic designation. These projects are called "senior projects" or "senior theses"; they are generally done in the senior year near graduation after having completed other courses, the independent study period, and the internship or student teaching period (the completion of most of the requirements before the writing of the paper ensures adequate knowledge and aptitude for the challenge). Unlike a dissertation or master's thesis, they are not as long and they do not require a novel contribution to knowledge or even a very narrow focus on a set subtopic. Like them, they can be lengthy and require months of work, they require supervision by at least one professor adviser, they must be focused on a certain area of knowledge, and they must use an appreciable amount of scholarly citations. They may or may not be defended before a committee but usually are not; there is generally no preceding examination before the writing of the paper, except for at very few colleges. Because of the nature of the graduate thesis or dissertation having to be more narrow and more novel, the result of original research, these usually have a smaller proportion of the work that is cited from other sources, though the fact that they are lengthier may mean they still have total citations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=300215 | 323,118 |
1,887,549 | Type 032-1 is the unarmed prototype of the Type 032 series, and eventually, it is also the only one completed among the series. Political upheaval has caused numerous problems in that the subsystems could not be ready because many subsystems delivered was in such poor quality that they were rejected immediately upon inspection. Type 032 is powered by lead batteries used by railway cargo carts. Construction was finally completed in November 1958 at Jiangnan Shipyard, but sea trials had to be conducted at Lushunkou. The reason to select Lushunkou as the test site is because water depth averages only 70 meters in Lushunkou, much shallower than that of Shanghai region, so if accident occurs during sea trials, it would be easier to carry out rescue missions. In addition, Lushunkou is also the only base in China at the time where Chinese submarine fleet is stationed, and the commander of the base at the time, Major general Liu Huaqing provided great support to the program. In order to make the trip, Type 032-1 had to be first loaded on a barge at Jiangnan Shipyard to be shipped to the Shanghai railway station in the north via Huangpu River. The midget sub was then loaded on a flatbed railway cart to be transported to Lushunkou. Crew to conduct sea trials also traveled by the same cargo train, with a temporary hut built on one of the flatbed carts of the same train. After three days travel by railway, the midget sub reached its destination and was transferred to a pier at the base, with sea trials immediate followed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=48600955 | 1,886,467 |
1,237,631 | Unlike Vela Hotel, MIDAS experienced a number of problems due to its complexities. In Fall 1960, General Laurence S. Kuter, commander-in-chief of North American Air Defense Command and Lieutenant General Joseph H. Atkinson, commander of Air Defense Command, urged chief of staff of the Air Force General Thomas D. White to accelerate and expand the troubled MIDAS program. This led to tension between the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division, under Air Research and Development Command, which sought to continue its research and development, while Air Defense Command wanted to operationally employ it as early as possible. The final MIDAS development plan put forward by AFBMD on 31 March 1961, scheduled twenty-seven development launches and initial operating capability in January 1964. On 16 January, the Joint Chiefs of Staff approved NORAD as the operational command with Air Defense Command as service command. Air Defense Command called for eight satellites in two orbital rings, ensuring constant coverage of the Soviet Union, with sensor data transmitted to the Ballistic Missile Early Warning System (BMEWS) radar sites, then relayed to the NORAD command post in the Cheyenne Mountain Complex. In summer 1961, director of defense research and development Harold Brown conducted a review of the MIDAS program, expressing concern that it could detect light ballistic missiles and submarine launched ballistic missiles. After several test flights, the MIDAS program was reduced to a research and development program, however progress was made in 1963 when MIDAS satellites successfully detected nine launches of LGM-30A Minuteman and UGM-27 Polaris solid-fuel missiles and SM-65 Atlas and HGM-25A Titan I liquid-fuel missiles. Due to defense budget cuts and technological obsolescence, the MIDAS program was ended in 1966 without becoming an operational system. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66185637 | 1,236,966 |
188,667 | Dyslipidemias can also be classified based on the underlying cause, whether it is primary, secondary, or a combination of both. Primary dyslipidemias are caused by genetic disorders that can cause abnormal lipid levels without any other obvious risk factors. Those with primary dyslipidemias are at higher risk of getting complications of dyslipidemias, such as atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, at a younger age. Some common genetic disorders associated with primary dyslipidemias are homozygous or heterozygous hypercholesterolemia, familial hypertriglyceridemia, combined hyperlipidemia, and HDL-C metabolism disorders. In familial hypercholesterolemia, a mutation in the "LDLR, PCSK9," or "APOB" is usually the reason for this and these mutations result in high LDL cholesterol. In combined hyperlipidemia, there is an overproduction of apoB-100 in the liver. This causes high amounts of LDL and VLDL molecules to form. A unique sign of primary dyslipidemias is that patients will often present with acute pancreatitis or xanthomas on the skin, eyelids or around the cornea. In contrast to primary dyslipidemias, secondary dyslipidemas are based on modifiable environmental or lifestyle factors. Some diseases that are associated with a higher risk of dyslipidemia are uncontrolled diabetes mellitus, cholestatic liver disease, chronic kidney disease, hypothyroidism, and polycystic ovarian syndrome. What people eat can also have an influence, with excessive alcohol use, too much carbohydrates, and diets high in saturated fats having a higher risk. Some medications that may contribute to dyslipidemia are thiazide diuretics, beta blockers, oral contraceptives, atypical antipsychotics (clozapine, olanzapine), corticosteroids, tacrolimus, and cyclosporine. Other non-hereditary factors that increase the risk of dyslipidemias are smoking, pregnancy, and obesity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=513054 | 188,570 |
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