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173,669 | The origins of the An-70 can be traced back to the mid-1970s, when Antonov Design Bureau began preliminary design work on a successor for the An-12 four-engine turboprop aircraft. The Soviet Armed Forces, by the 1980s, were looking for a replacement for the An-12 and a complement to the Ilyushin Il-76 four-engine jet transporter; in 1987, the Ministry of Defence, with a new emphasis on air mobility, specified an aircraft with a quick loading time, the ability to operate from short unprepared airfields, could carry up to 300 troops, and have good operating economy. The initial contract for work on the An-70 was concluded in May 1989; Antonov began advanced design work on the new aircraft during the same year. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, in June 1993, the Russian and Ukrainian governments agreed to jointly develop the An-70, with 80 percent of the funding expected to come from Russia. The following year, twenty companies and organisations from the former Soviet Union agreed to jointly develop, market and support the aircraft. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=908224 | 173,578 |
379,758 | Close to 400 million tons of plastic were manufactured globally during year 2018 with annual growth rates approaching 10%, and over 6 gigatons produced in total since 1950. Plastics eventually undergo fragmentation as a typical first step in their decay, and this enables their widespread distribution by air and water currents. Animals easily internalize microplastics and nanoplastics through ingestion and inhalation, accompanied by risks of bioaccumulation. Biodegradable plastics placed into landfills generate methane and carbon dioxide which cycles through the atmosphere unless captured. A major review of the scientific evidence as of year 2019 did not identify major consequences for human society at current levels, but does foresee substantial risks emerging within the next century. A 2019 study indicated that degradation of plastics through sun exposure, releases both carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. Bioplastics with a more natural and rapid carbon cycle have been developed as an alternative to other petroleum-based single-use plastics. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=47503 | 379,563 |
850,134 | The body of the man, Michael Faherty, was found in the living room of his home on 22 December 2010. The scene was searched by forensic experts from the Gardaí and the fire service, and a post-mortem was carried out by pathologist Grace Callagy. Callagy noted that Faherty had suffered from Type 2 diabetes and hypertension, but had not died from heart failure. Callagy concluded that the "extensive nature of the burns sustained precludes determining the precise cause of death". In September 2011, the west Galway coroner informed an inquiry into the death that he had searched medical literature, and referred to Professor Bernard Knight's book on forensic pathology, which states that a high number of alleged incidents of spontaneous human combustion had taken place near an open fireplace or chimney. Benjamin Radford, deputy editor of the science magazine "Skeptical Inquirer", questioned why the coroner had "conclusively ruled out" other possible explanations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2220692 | 849,682 |
152,974 | The P 256 was to meet a "Luftwaffe" requirement issued 27 February 1945. It was designed to carry a crew of three (pilot, radar operator, and navigator), with pilot and radar operator together under the canopy, while the navigator was in the fuselage, an idea copied from Arado. Departing from centerline thrust, it was to have two Heinkel HeS 011 engines of each, podded under the wings in the fashion of the Me 262. The low-mounted wing was unswept, and had an aspect ratio of 5.8:1. Designed armament was four MK 108 cannon in the nose. A field conversion kit was to retrofit two MK 108s in a "Schräge Musik" configuration. A fighter-bomber variant would have carried two bombs. Its loaded weight would have included of fuel, giving a wing loading of . Maximum speed was achieved at , maximum range at . Endurance with fuel was calculated as 2.6 hours. Its electronics would have included FuG 24SE with ZVG 24, FuG 29, FuG 25a or c, and FuG 244 "Bremen" with "Gnome" weapon triggers. Criticized for having poor cross-sectional area and unduly large tail surfaces, it was not adopted. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=182288 | 152,904 |
1,482,780 | The men's 200 metres at the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, South Korea had an entry list of 72 competitors from 59 nations, with ten qualifying heats (72), five quarterfinal races (40) and two semifinals (16), before the final (8) took off on Wednesday September 28, 1988. The maximum number of athletes per nation had been set at 3 since the 1930 Olympic Congress. The event was won by Joe DeLoach of the United States, beating his teammate and defending champion Carl Lewis by 0.04 seconds in the final. The defeat ended Lewis's hopes of repeating his 1984 quadruple, despite running the final under his own Olympic record time. It was the United States' 14th victory in the men's 200 metres. Lewis was the seventh man to win multiple medals in the event, matching Andy Stanfield for the best result to that point (a gold and a silver). Robson da Silva earned Brazil's first medal in the event with his bronze. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8144912 | 1,481,944 |
1,266,987 | The SLOWPOKE-2 reactors (most numerous of SLOWPOKE-family reactors) originally used 93% highly enriched uranium in the form of 28% uranium-aluminium alloy with aluminium cladding, and then in 1985 a new low enriched uranium design (~19.9 % enriched) was commissioned using ceramic UO fuel. The core is an assembly of about 200-300 fuel pins, only 22 cm diameter and 23 cm high, surrounded by a fixed beryllium annulus and a bottom beryllium slab. Criticality is maintained as the fuel burns up by adding beryllium plates in a tray on top of the core. The reactor core sits in a pool of regular light-water, 2.5 m diameter by 6 m deep, which provides cooling via natural convection. In addition to passive cooling, the reactor has a high degree of inherent safety; that is, it can regulate itself through passive, natural means, such as the chain reaction slowing down if the water heats up or forms bubbles. These characteristics are so dominant, in fact, that the SLOWPOKE-2 reactor is licensed to operate unattended overnight (but monitored remotely). Most SLOWPOKES are rated at a nominal 20 kW, although operation at higher power for shorter durations is possible. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2807861 | 1,266,297 |
1,994,430 | Sonophoresis, also known as phonophoresis, was dated back all the way to the 1950s in its first mention in a published report. This report showcased that a hydrocodone injection yielded better outcomes for bursitis when combined with an ultrasound massage. Following this, a series of publications from several investigators showed the increased therapeutic effect when combining ultrasound with hydrocortisone injections for various other disease states, further demonstrating the novelty of sonophoresis. However, while some researchers provided evidence that ultrasound had a positive effect on the transdermal permeation of drugs, others contradicted this information by displaying research that showed no quantitative effect using ultrasound. These early studies mainly investigated the combination of therapeutics with high-frequency sonophoresis (HFS), which can be categorized into frequencies greater than 0.7 MHz. High frequency sonophoresis usually includes a range between 0.7 – 16 MHz. Studies evolved and HFS was continually studied for four decades until a greater understanding of a mechanism of action, cavitation, was discovered. Cavitational effects are inversely proportional to the frequency of the ultrasound applied, which led to further studies of low-frequency sonophoresis (LFS) for use in transdermal drug delivery due to studies showing greater efficacy in enhancing skin permeability in comparison to HFS. Low-frequency sonophoresis usually includes a range between 20 and 100 kHz. For this reason, currently HFS focuses on topical applications for penetration through the stratum corneum, whereas LFS focuses on transdermal drug delivery applications. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6547312 | 1,993,287 |
1,011,860 | Diffuse clouds are of astronomical interest because they play a primary role in the evolution and thermodynamics of ISM. Observation of the abundant atomic hydrogen in 21 cm has shown good signal-to-noise ratio in both emission and absorption. Nevertheless, HI observations have a fundamental difficulty when they are directed at low mass regions of the hydrogen nucleus, as the center part of a diffuse cloud: the thermal width of the hydrogen lines are of the same order as the internal velocities of structures of interest, so cloud components of various temperatures and central velocities are indistinguishable in the spectrum. Molecular line observations in principle do not suffer from this problem. Unlike HI, molecules generally have excitation temperature "T" ≪ "T", so that emission is very weak even from abundant species. CO and OH are the most easily studied candidate molecules. CO has transitions in a region of the spectrum (wavelength < 3 mm) where there are not strong background continuum sources, but OH has the 18 cm emission, line convenient for absorption observations. Observation studies provide the most sensitive means of detections of molecules with subthermal excitation, and can give the opacity of the spectral line, which is a central issue to model the molecular region. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=737798 | 1,011,339 |
951,628 | George Devol applied for the first robotics patents in 1954 (granted in 1961). The first company to produce a robot was Unimation, founded by Devol and Joseph F. Engelberger in 1956. Unimation robots were also called "programmable transfer machines" since their main use at first was to transfer objects from one point to another, less than a dozen feet or so apart. They used hydraulic actuators and were programmed in "joint coordinates", i.e. the angles of the various joints were stored during a teaching phase and replayed in operation. They were accurate to within 1/10,000 of an inch (note: although accuracy is not an appropriate measure for robots, usually evaluated in terms of repeatability - see later). Unimation later licensed their technology to Kawasaki Heavy Industries and GKN, manufacturing Unimates in Japan and England respectively. For some time Unimation's only competitor was Cincinnati Milacron Inc. of Ohio. This changed radically in the late 1970s when several big Japanese conglomerates began producing similar industrial robots. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=147918 | 951,123 |
295,527 | Technical lettering is the process of forming letters, numerals, and other characters in technical drawing. It is used to describe, or provide detailed specifications for an object. With the goals of legibility and uniformity, styles are standardized and lettering ability has little relationship to normal writing ability. Engineering drawings use a Gothic sans-serif script, formed by a series of short strokes. Lower case letters are rare in most drawings of machines. ISO Lettering templates, designed for use with technical pens and pencils, and to suit ISO paper sizes, produce lettering characters to an international standard. The stroke thickness is related to the character height (for example, 2.5mm high characters would have a stroke thickness - pen nib size - of 0.25mm, 3.5 would use a 0.35mm pen and so forth). The ISO character set (font) has a seriffed one, a barred seven, an open four, six, and nine, and a round topped three, that improves legibility when, for example, an A0 drawing has been reduced to A1 or even A3 (and perhaps enlarged back or reproduced/faxed/ microfilmed &c). When CAD drawings became more popular, especially using US American software, such as AutoCAD, the nearest font to this ISO standard font was Romantic Simplex (RomanS) - a proprietary shx font) with a manually adjusted width factor (over ride) to make it look as near to the ISO lettering for the drawing board. However, with the closed four, and arced six and nine, romans.shx typeface could be difficult to read in reductions. In more recent revisions of software packages, the TrueType font ISOCPEUR reliably reproduces the original drawing board lettering stencil style, however, many drawings have switched to the ubiquitous Arial.ttf. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=171414 | 295,367 |
1,108,006 | In 1984, Martin Peng proposed an alternate arrangement of magnet coils that would greatly reduce the aspect ratio while avoiding the erosion issues of the compact tokamak: a spherical tokamak. Instead of wiring each magnet coil separately, he proposed using a single large conductor in the center, and wiring the magnets as half-rings off of this conductor. What was once a series of individual rings passing through the hole in the center of the reactor was reduced to a single post, allowing for aspect ratios as low as 1.2. The ST concept appeared to represent an enormous advance in tokamak design. The proposal came during a period when US fusion research budgets were dramatically smaller. ORNL was provided with funds to develop a suitable central column built out of a high-strength copper alloy called "Glidcop". However, they were unable to secure funding to build a demonstration machine. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=67952883 | 1,107,442 |
1,123,808 | Traditional deficit and disease models of child psychiatry have been criticized as rooted in the medical model which conceptualizes adjustment problems in terms of disease states. It is said by these critics that these normative models explicitly characterize problematic behavior as representing a disorder within the child or young person and these commentators assert that the role of environmental influences on behavior has become increasingly neglected, leading to a decrease in the popularity of, for example, family therapy. There are criticisms of the medical model approach from within and without the psychiatric profession (see references): it is said to neglect the role of environmental, family, and cultural influences, to discount the psychological meaning of behavior and symptoms, to promote a view of the "patient" as dependent and needing to be cured or cared for and therefore undermines a sense of personal responsibility for conduct and behavior, to promote a normative conception based on adaptation to the norms of society (the ill person must adapt to society), and to be based on the shaky foundations of reliance on a classificatory system that has been shown to have problems of validity and reliability (Boorse, 1976; Jensen, 2003; Sadler et al. 1994; Timimi, 2006). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11743428 | 1,123,234 |
1,230,378 | Nutrition education programs within schools try to create behaviors that prevent students from potentially becoming obese, developing diabetes and cardiovascular issues, and forming negative emotional issues by educating students on the aspects of a healthy diet, emphasizing the consumption of lower fat dairy options and both fruits and vegetables. As most children eat between one and two of their meals at school, school-based nutrition education programs offer opportunities for students to practice making healthy eating decisions. However, due to influences outside of the school environment such as home, cultural, and social environments, there may be a lack of visible desired behavior changes. The National Center for Health Statistics October 2017 data brief, found that the prevalence of obesity among youth ages 2–19 has increased from 13.9 to 18.5 percent from 1999 to 2016. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30643499 | 1,229,716 |
2,085,086 | Electrostatic spray ionization (ESTASI) is an ambient ionization method for mass spectrometry (MS) analysis of samples located on a flat or porous surface, or inside a microchannel. It was developed in 2011 by Professor Hubert H. Girault’s group at the École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) in Switzerland. In a typical ESTASI process, a droplet of a protic solvent containing analytes is deposited on a sample area of interest which itself is mounted to an insulating substrate. Under this substrate and right below the droplet, an electrode is placed and connected with a pulsed high voltage (HV) to electrostatically charge the droplet during pulsing. When the electrostatic pressure is larger than the surface tension, droplets and ions are sprayed. ESTASI is a contactless process based on capacitive coupling. One advantage of ESTASI is, that the electrode and sample droplet act contact-less avoiding thereby any oxidation or reduction of the sample compounds at the electrode surface, which often happens during standard electrospray ionization (ESI). ESTASI is a powerful new ambient ionization technique that has already found many applications in the detection of different analytes, such as organic molecules, peptides and proteins with molecule weight up to 70 kDa. Furthermore, it was used to couple MS with various separation techniques including capillary electrophoresis and gel isoelectric focusing, and it was successfully applied under atmospheric pressure to the direct analysis of samples with only few preparation steps. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41188349 | 2,083,885 |
860,498 | By the 1980s, U.S. policy makers and industrial managers were forced to take note that America's dominance in the field of machine tool manufacturing evaporated, in what was named the machine tool crisis. Numerous projects sought to counter these trends in the traditional CNC CAM area, which had begun in the US. Later when Rapid Prototyping Systems moved out of labs to be commercialized, it was recognized that developments were already international and U.S. rapid prototyping companies would not have the luxury of letting a lead slip away. The National Science Foundation was an umbrella for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the US Department of Energy, the US Department of Commerce NIST, the US Department of Defense, Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), and the Office of Naval Research coordinated studies to inform strategic planners in their deliberations. One such report was the 1997 "Rapid Prototyping in Europe and Japan Panel Report" in which Joseph J. Beaman founder of DTM Corporation [DTM RapidTool pictured] provides a historical perspective: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10579736 | 860,040 |
1,222,862 | Clonal hematopoiesis of indeterminate potential, or CHIP, is a common aging-related phenomenon in which hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) or other early blood cell progenitors contribute to the formation of a genetically distinct subpopulation of blood cells. As the name suggests, this subpopulation in the blood is characterized by a shared unique mutation in the cells' DNA; it is thought that this subpopulation is "clonally" derived from a single founding cell and is therefore made of genetic "clones" of the founder. The establishment of a clonal population may occur when a stem or progenitor cell acquires one or more somatic mutations that give it a competitive advantage in hematopoiesis over the stem/progenitor cells without these mutations. Alternatively, clonal hematopoiesis may arise without a driving mutation, through mechanisms such as neutral drift in the stem cell population. Clonal hematopoiesis may occur in people who are completely healthy but has also been found in people with hematologic diseases. The clonal population may vary in size depending on the person, where it can be less than 2% of the blood or, at the other end, can sometimes grow close to 100%. The incidence of clonal hematopoiesis has been found to rise dramatically with age. Recent studies have demonstrated that less than 1% of the population under age 40 but approximately 10-20% of the population over age 70 has observable clonal hematopoiesis. Having clonal hematopoiesis has been linked to a more than 10-fold increased risk of developing a blood cancer, though the overall likelihood is still low. Clonal hematopoiesis does not typically give rise to noticeable symptoms, but does lead to increased risk of cardiovascular disease. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=53925411 | 1,222,203 |
2,044,674 | In order to investigate the brain activity of music students while composing, the study group Beisteiner selected two methods: Cortical DC-potentials of the EEG and MEG. In the experiment, the students had to solve tasks regarding different elements of composition, employing the dodecaphony of Arnold Schönberg. (1) Theme, basic row (2) Inversion (3) Retrograde (4) Retrograde Inversion. It was shown that such synthetic composing takes place mainly in the right hemisphere (parieto-temporally right). However, the analytical processing led to a predominantly left hemispherical preponderance (left temporal). The investigation of tonal versus atonal sequences of tones was also studied: The first three chords of a cadenza were delivered. By this a harmonious context is introduced, in whose succession a so-called target tone could be either harmonious or disharmonious. The results show a specific P300m (the MEG analog of the EEG's P300) upon the non-harmonious target tones. A P300 occurs, when in a sequence of tones surprisingly other stimuli are intermingled, so called oddballs, here chords that do not fit into the cadenza. This method enables one to directly test whether a music student understands harmony or not, a "marker" to test the ‘feel of harmony’ at conservatories. The study group Beisteiner also provided the pre-operative analysis of patients scheduled for surgery (with fMRI, MEG and DC-EEG). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=49596807 | 2,043,493 |
1,786,017 | Stimulation of PAK1 activity is accompanied by a series of cellular processes that are fundamental to living systems. Being a nodular signaling molecule, PAK1 operates to converging station of a large number of signals triggered by proteins on the cell surface as well as upstream activators, and translates into specific phenotypes. At the biochemical level, these activities are regulated by the ability of PAK1 to phosphorylate its effector interacting substrates, which in-turn set-up a cascade of biochemical events cumulating into a cellular phenotypic response. In addition, PAK1 action is also influenced by its scaffolding activity. Examples of PAK1-regulated cellular processes include dynamic of actin and microtubule fibers, critical steps during cell cycle progression, motility and invasion, redox and energy metabolism, cell survival, angiogenesis, DNA-repair, hormone sensitivity, and gene expression. Functional implications of the PAK1 signaling are exemplified by its role in oncogenesis, viral pathogenesis, cardiovascular dysregulation, and neurological disorders. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14021340 | 1,785,012 |
346,889 | For a well designed cell the largest overpotential is the reaction overpotential for the four-electron oxidation of water to oxygen at the anode; electrocatalysts can facilitate this reaction, and platinum alloys are the state of the art for this oxidation. Developing a cheap, effective electrocatalyst for this reaction would be a great advance, and is a topic of current research; there are many approaches, among them a 30-year-old recipe for molybdenum sulfide, graphene quantum dots, carbon nanotubes, perovskite, and nickel/nickel-oxide. Tri‐molybdenum phosphide (Mo3P) has been recently found as a promising nonprecious metal and earth‐abundant candidate with outstanding catalytic properties that can be used for electrocatalytic processes. The catalytic performance of Mo3P nanoparticles is tested in the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER), indicating an onset potential of as low as 21 mV, H2 formation rate, and exchange current density of 214.7 µmol s−1 g−1 cat (at only 100 mV overpotential) and 279.07 µA cm−2, respectively, which are among the closest values yet observed to platinum. The simpler two-electron reaction to produce hydrogen at the cathode can be electrocatalyzed with almost no overpotential by platinum, or in theory a hydrogenase enzyme. If other, less effective, materials are used for the cathode (e.g. graphite), large overpotentials will appear. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3206764 | 346,708 |
736,696 | Due to the signal attenuation caused by construction materials, the satellite based Global Positioning System (GPS) loses significant power indoors affecting the required coverage for receivers by at least four satellites. In addition, the multiple reflections at surfaces cause multi-path propagation serving for uncontrollable errors. These very same effects are degrading all known solutions for indoor locating which uses electromagnetic waves from indoor transmitters to indoor receivers. A bundle of physical and mathematical methods are applied to compensate for these problems. Promising direction radio frequency positioning error correction opened by the use of alternative sources of navigational information, such as inertial measurement unit (IMU), monocular camera Simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) and WiFi SLAM. Integration of data from various navigation systems with different physical principles can increase the accuracy and robustness of the overall solution. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13431137 | 736,308 |
394,061 | With the introduction of personal computers in the 1980s, Seiko began to develop computers in the form of watches. The Data 2000 watch (1983) came with an external keyboard for data-entry. Data was synced from the keyboard to the watch via electro-magnetic coupling (wireless docking). The name comes from its ability to store 2000 characters. Its memory was tiny, at only 112 digits. It was released in 1984, in gold, silver and black. These models were followed by many others by Seiko during the 1980s, most notably the "RC Series". The RC-1000 Wrist Terminal was the first Seiko model to interface with a computer, and was released in 1984, subsequently priced at around £100, providing 2 KB of storage and a two-line 12-character display, transferring data from a computer using an RS232C interface. It was developed by Seiko Epson and was powered by a computer on a chip and was compatible with most of the popular PCs of that time, including Apple II, II+ and IIe, BBC Micro, Commodore 64, IBM PC, NEC 8201, Tandy Color Computer, Model 1000, 1200, 2000 and TRS-80 Model I, III, 4 and 4p. The RC-20 Wrist Computer was released in 1985, under the joint brand name "Seiko Epson". This was followed by the RC-4000 and RC-4500. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=28825877 | 393,866 |
1,355,726 | The United States Department of Defense maintains a larger number of domestic and foreign military bases than all other countries combined. Closing redundant military bases in the United States often has a negative economic impact on local communities. Analysts at the Pentagon respond to budget limitations by identifying installations that have become obsolete for various reasons. Sometimes the needs for the location are no longer prevalent in defense strategies or the installation's facilities have fallen into disrepair. That is the case with the smaller Reserve and National Guard facilities that dot every state. The personnel on the committees responsible for determining closures also observe the economic impact that their decisions will have on the communities surrounding the installations. If 40,000 people are employed because of the installation, either directly or indirectly, it is more likely that that facility will remain open, but only if there is nowhere for the 40,000 people that would lose their jobs. Those people could end up on welfare, thus becoming just as much of a draw on revenue as they were as employees. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1794929 | 1,354,978 |
1,045,245 | The Continuous Lower Energy, Emissions, and Noise (CLEEN) program is a public-private partnership under NextGen to accelerate development and commercial deployment of more-efficient technologies and sustainable alternative fuels. The first five-year agreement with manufacturers produced jet engine, wing, and aerodynamic technologies; automation and flight management systems; fuels; and materials from 2010 to 2015. One result of this effort is General Electric's Twin Annular Pre-mixing Swirler II Combustor, which reduces nitrogen oxide emissions by more than 60 percent compared to the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) nitrogen oxide standard adopted in 2004. A second five-year agreement started in 2015 aimed to lower cumulative noise levels, reduce fuel consumption, cut nitrogen oxide emissions, and speed commercialization of alternative jet fuels. Both phases are estimated to save the aviation industry 36.4 billion gallons of fuel by 2050, reducing airline costs by $72.8 billion and lowering carbon dioxide emissions by 424 million metric tons. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12942905 | 1,044,700 |
293,443 | The use of magnetic fields as a means to control the flow of an electrical current was spurred by the invention of the Audion by Lee de Forest in 1906. Albert Hull of General Electric Research Laboratory, USA, began development of magnetrons to avoid de Forest's patents, but these were never completely successful. Other experimenters picked up on Hull's work and a key advance, the use of two cathodes, was introduced by Habann in Germany in 1924. Further research was limited until Okabe's 1929 Japanese paper noting the production of centimeter-wavelength signals, which led to worldwide interest. The development of magnetrons with multiple cathodes was proposed by A. L. Samuel of Bell Telephone Laboratories in 1934, leading to designs by Postumus in 1934 and Hans Hollmann in 1935. Production was taken up by Philips, General Electric Company (GEC), Telefunken and others, limited to perhaps 10 W output. By this time the klystron was producing more power and the magnetron was not widely used, although a 300W device was built by Aleksereff and Malearoff in the USSR in 1936 (published in 1940). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20861 | 293,285 |
1,626,626 | The uplift of the Rocky Mountains persisted into the early part of the Cenozoic era. They were surrounded by rainforests at this point in prehistory. Areas in the state with lower elevation became the sites of vast lakes. Fish, insects, and leaves would end up entombed in sediments deposited by these lakes. After the start of the Cenozoic, early Paleocene turtles left behind fossils near modern Golden. The Coloradan flora of the ensuing Eocene epoch left behind plant fossils like ferns, palm leaves, and petrified wood. Animal life of northwestern Colorado during the Eocene included the primitive horse "Eohippus", early titanotheres, and uintatheres. A rich flora grew in Colorado during the Oligocene. At least 150 different kinds of plants from this epoch are preserved in what is now the Florissant beds of Colorado. Among the members of this flora were sequoia trees with trunks up to feet in diameter. More than a thousand different kinds of insect have been documented among the same beds. Beetles were among the Florissant insects. A diverse mammalian fauna inhabited this ancient forest. Members included animals resembling giant pigs, rhinoceroses, and titanotheres. During the Pliocene, Colorado was home to creatures like rhinoceroses and giant pig-like animals. The state's modern prairies formed during the Quaternary. Colorado was shaken by volcanic eruptions. The state's climate gradually cooled as the Cenozoic proceeded. The rainforests gave way to "sequoia" forests and grasslands. Pleistocene Colorado had a diverse mammal fauna. Among them were "Archidiskodon", a relative of modern elephants. Bison, camels, horses, and mammoths also inhabited the state at this time. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37799146 | 1,625,708 |
1,734,240 | As food technology grew from the individual family farm to the factory level, including the slaughterhouse for meat and poultry processing, the cannery for canned foods, and bakeries for bread, the need to have personnel trained for the food industry did also. Literature such as Upton Sinclair's "The Jungle" in 1906 about slaughterhouse operations would be a factor in the establishment of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) later that year. The United States Department of Agriculture was also interested in food technology, and research was already being done at agricultural colleges in the United States, including the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, the University of Wisconsin–Madison, and the University of California, Berkeley. By 1935, two MIT professors, Samuel C. Prescott and Bernard E. Proctor decided that it was time to hold an international conference regarding this. A detailed proposal was presented to MIT President Karl Taylor Compton in 1936 was presented with $1500 of financial aid from MIT for a meeting to be held from June 30 to July 2, 1937, with Compton asking how many people would be in attendance at this meeting. Prescott replied with "fifty or sixty people". 500 people actually attended the event. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7302129 | 1,733,263 |
13,874 | The 20th century brought a host of innovations. In physics, the discovery of nuclear fission in the Atomic Age led to both nuclear weapons and nuclear power. Computers were invented and later shifted from analog to digital in the Digital Revolution. Information technology, particularly optical fiber and optical amplifiers led to the birth of the Internet, which ushered in the Information Age. The Space Age began with the launch of Sputnik 1 in 1957, and later the launch of crewed missions to the moon in the 1960s. Organized efforts to search for extraterrestrial intelligence have used radio telescopes to detect signs of technology use, or "technosignatures", given off by alien civilizations. In medicine, new technologies were developed for diagnosis (CT, PET, and MRI scanning), treatment (like the dialysis machine, defibrillator, pacemaker, and a wide array of new pharmaceutical drugs), and research (like interferon cloning and DNA microarrays). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29816 | 13,869 |
217,903 | In the early 2000s, Russia had authorized the export of Pero passive electronically scanned array radar designed by Tikhomirov, to China. The Pero antenna can be easily integrated into the existing N001VEP radar system with no significant modification by simply replacing the original slotted planar array, and thus results in increased performance. The Pero upgrade, lets the radar simultaneously engage 6 aerial targets, or 4 ground targets. The radar with Pero antenna is named as Panda radar. China, however, did not accept the offer when Russia offered the Pero upgrade package because Tikhomirov's competitor Phazotron offered China a brand new phased array radar that supposedly performed better, rumored to be Zhuk-MSF. In addition to the easy of integration, the advantage of Pero passive electronically scanned array equipped Panda radar was its weight. All other radars offered for Su-30MK2 upgrade increase weight significantly that the center of the gravity of the aircraft is altered, resulting in the need to modify the airframe and redesign the flight control system. Such problems does not exist if Panda radar is adopted because it only increases the weight by a mere 20 kg, which will be compensated by the redesign of SILS-30 HUD to reduce its weight by 20 kg, thus balancing out the weight increase of the radar. This claim of Timkhomirov design bureau is confirmed by both the Sukhoi design bureau and Russkaya Avionika bureau, which claimed to media reporters at 2006 Zhuhai Airshow in China that such modification had already been successfully completed. China, however, had not made a final decision by the end of 2007, and many Russian and Chinese sources have claimed that domestic Chinese HUDs of Western origin perform better and weigh much less, and China thus planned to adopt their own avionics in the next incremental upgrade, but such claims have yet to be confirmed by western sources and official sources of Chinese and Russian governments. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7541645 | 217,795 |
1,304,749 | Sensitive measurement of stable nitrogen isotope ratios in "Gelidium" species collected in southern Monterey Bay between 1878 and 2018 showed a pattern of changes that matched with changes in the California current and provided support for a theory about the end of the local fishing industry. Nitrogen isotope ratios are well established as a measure of nutrient productivity in aquatic ecosystems. The California current runs along coastal California and correlation with information on fish catches indicates that an increase in nutrient-rich cold water is important for fish productivity, notably sardines. The California current has only been measured since 1946. The correlations with the "Gelidium" nitrogen ratios allowed the California current to be projected back into the nineteenth century and compared with historical records of fish catches. The data matched, notably for the highest sardine catches through the 1930s and then the sudden decrease from 1945 to 1950 that ended the Monterey cannery industry. This information supports the theory that environmental changes as well as overfishing caused the collapse of the local fishery business. More broadly, this suggests that elemental analysis of historical samples of macroalgae can provide evidence of primary productivity processes. The species used included specimens of "G. coulteri", "G. robustum", "G. purpurascens", "G. pusillum" and "G. arborescens" collected over a 140-year timespan from the 6 km coastline between Point Pinos, Pacific Grove and Cannery Row, Monterey in California, US. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15974799 | 1,304,033 |
1,098,516 | The daily requirement for humans to remain in nitrogen balance is relatively small. The median human adult requirement for good quality protein is approximately 0.65 gram per kilogram body weight per day and the 97.5 percentile is 0.83 grams per kilogram body weight per day. Children require more protein, depending on the growth phase. A 70 kg adult human who was in the middle of the range would require approximately 45 grams of protein per day to be in nitrogen balance. This would represent less than 10% of kilocalories in a notional 2,200 kilocalorie ration. William Cumming Rose and his team studied the essential amino acids, helping to define minimum amounts needed for normal health. For adults, the recommended minimum amounts of each essential amino acid varies from 4 to 39 milligrams per kilogram of body weight per day. To be of good quality, protein only needs to come from a wide variety of foods; there is neither a need to mix animal and plant food together nor a need to complement specific plant foods, such as rice and beans. The notion that such specific combinations of plant protein need to be made to give good quality protein stems from the book "Diet for a Small Planet". Plant protein is often described as incomplete, suggesting that they lack one or more of the essential amino acids. Apart from rare examples, such as Taro, each plant provides an amount of all the essential amino acids. However, the relative abundance of the essential amino acids is more variable in plants than that found in animals, which tend to be very similar in essential amino acid abundance, and this has led to the misconception that plant proteins are deficient in some way. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=571570 | 1,097,956 |
1,183,659 | Trichothecenes are mycotoxins produced by molds that frequently contaminate stores of grain products. This makes trichothecene contamination a significant public health problem, and many areas have strict limits on permitted trichothecene content. For example, in the European Union, only .025 ppm of T-2 toxin is permissible in bakery products intended for human consumption. The molds that can produce trichothecenes grow well in dark, temperate places with high moisture content. Therefore, one of the best ways to prevent trichothecene contamination in food products is to store the resources in the proper conditions to prevent the growth of molds. For example, it is generally advised to only store grains in areas with a moisture content of less than 15%. However, if an area has already been contaminated with trichothecene toxins, there are a variety of possible decontamination strategies to prevent further exposure. Treatment with 1% sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) in 0.1M sodium hydroxide (NaOH) for 4–5 hours has been shown to inhibit the biological activity of T-2 toxin. Incubation with aqueous ozone at approximately 25 ppm has also been shown to degrade a variety of trichothecenes through a mechanism involving oxidation of the 9, 10 carbon double bond. UV exposure has also been shown to be effective under the right conditions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3687230 | 1,183,033 |
1,770,270 | Centrifuge tests can also be used to obtain experimental data to verify a design procedure or a computer model. The rapid development of computational power over recent decades has revolutionized engineering analysis. Many computer models have been developed to predict the behavior of geotechnical structures during earthquakes and other loads. Before a computer model can be used with confidence, it must be proven to be valid based on evidence. The meager and unrepeatable data provided by natural earthquakes, for example, is usually insufficient for this purpose. Verification of the validity of assumptions made by a computational algorithm is especially important in the area of geotechnical engineering due to the complexity of soil behavior. Soils exhibit highly non-linear behavior, their strength and stiffness depend on their stress history and on the water pressure in the pore fluid, all of which may evolve during the loading caused by an earthquake. The computer models which are intended to simulate these phenomena are very complex and require extensive verification. Experimental data from centrifuge tests is useful for verifying assumptions made by a computational algorithm. If the results show the computer model to be inaccurate, the centrifuge test data provides insight into the physical processes which in turn stimulates the development of better computer models. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=34119149 | 1,769,275 |
109,720 | The M110A2 is an improved version of the original M110 rifle with M-LOK rails, an improved gas system, new suppressor, and adjustable stock. This fills the gap of semi-automatic sniper rifles as most all of the M110A1 rifles issued were the SMDR variant and not designed for sniper work. The M110A2 was first seen at AUSA 2021 where it was displayed alongside a 14.5" SOCOM M110 rechambered for 6.5 Creedmoor. The M110A2 was later seen at the 2022 Best Ranger Competition being used by a Ranger-qualified 101st Airborne Division soldier. The M110A2 is shorter than the original M110 and lighter as well at , which is comparable to the M110A1 SDMR's weight of with no attachments save an unloaded magazine. The decreased overall length does not come at the cost of barrel length as the M110A2 still has a barrel. KAC had a 5 year $13 million contract in 2020 to supply the Army with M110 rifles and this was amended in 2022 to include the M110A2 version of the rifle. The Navy and Marine Corps, which had previously been interested in the M110A1 CSASS, decided to instead pursue an M110 SASS PIP (Product Improvement Program) for FY2021 based on findings indicating improved range and lethality with the PIP compared to the M110A1 CSASS. Funding for subsequent fiscal years has been devoted to this PIP. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3119489 | 109,675 |
32,049 | Von Neumann was the first person to axiomatically define an abstract Hilbert space whereas it was previously defined as the Lp space. He defined it as a complex vector space with a Hermitian scalar product, with the corresponding norm being both separable and complete. In the same papers he also defined several other abstract inequalities such as the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality that were previously only defined for Euclidean spaces. He continued with the development of the spectral theory of operators in Hilbert space in 3 seminal papers between 1929 and 1932. This work cumulated in his Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics which among two other books by Stone and Banach in the same year were the first monographs on Hilbert space theory. Previous work by others showed that a theory of weak topologies could not be obtained by using sequences, and von Neumann was the first to outline a program of how to overcome the difficulties, which resulted in him defining locally convex spaces and topological vector spaces for the first time. In addition several other topological properties he defined at the time (he was among the first mathematicians to apply new topological ideas from Hausdorff from Euclidean to Hilbert spaces) such as boundness and total boundness are still used today. For twenty years von Neumann was considered the 'undisputed master' of this area. These developments were primarily prompted by needs in quantum mechanics where von Neumann realized the need to extend the spectral theory of Hermitian operators from the bounded to the unbounded case. Other major achievements in these papers include a complete elucidation of spectral theory for normal operators, the first abstract presentation of the trace of a positive operator, a generalisation of Riesz's presentation of Hilbert's spectral theorems at the time, and the discovery of Hermitian operators in a Hilbert space, as distinct from self-adjoint operators, which enabled him to give a description of all Hermitian operators which extend a given Hermitian operator. In addition he wrote a paper detailing how the usage of infinite matrices, common at the time in spectral theory, was inadequate as a representation for Hermitian operators. His work on operator theory lead to his most profound invention in pure mathematics, the study of von Neumann algebras and in general of operator algebras. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15942 | 32,038 |
69,939 | Technically, in the mid-1970s, the 4.85×49mm round was seen as superior to the then existing version of 5.56mm M193 round in use by the US (for the M16/M16A1) and by other forces. (This was the expressed view of trials team members whilst demonstrating the XL64E5 prototype at the British Army School of Infantry at Warminster.) Development of small-arms munitions have a long and continuous life and it was estimated by the trials specialists from Enfield that this weapon would ultimately be superior in the 4.85mm configuration. For the 4.85mm round, both propellant and projectile were at the beginning of their respective development curves. Also, weight for weight, more rounds of ammunition could be carried by an individual soldier – a considerable advantage on the battlefield. It was regarded as probable at the time that the argument for the 5.56mm standard within NATO had more to do with the economics involved. Over the lifetime of a small-arms weapon type, far more money is spent on the munitions than the weapons themselves. If the 5.56mm supporters had lost the argument in favour of a British 4.85mm round, the economic impact would have been very large and political pressure undoubtedly played a part in the final decision. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=84350 | 69,912 |
575,000 | Mangroves are woody halophytes that form intertidal forests and provide many important ecosystem services including coastal protection, nursery grounds for coastal fish and crustaceans, forest products, recreation, nutrient filtration and carbon sequestration. Mangroves are located in 105 countries, as well as in the special administrative areas of China (Hong Kong and Macau), the four French overseas provinces of Martinique, Guiana, Guadeloupe and Mayotte and the contested area of Somaliland. They grow along coastlines in subtropical and tropical waters, depending mainly on temperature, but also vary with precipitation, tides, waves and water flow. Because they grow at the intersection between land and sea, they have semi-terrestrial and marine components, including unique adaptations including aerial roots, viviparous embryos, and highly efficient nutrient retention mechanisms. Globally, mangroves stored 4.19 ± 0.62 Pg (CI 95%) of carbon in 2012, with Indonesia, Brazil, Malaysia and Papua New Guinea accounting for more than 50% of the global stock. 2.96 ± 0.53 Pg of the global carbon stock is contained within the soil and 1.23 ± 0.06 Pg in the living biomass. Of this 1.23 Pg, approximately 0.41 ± 0.02 Pg is in the belowground biomass in the root system and approximately 0.82 ± 0.04 Pg is in the aboveground living biomass. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=36995466 | 574,706 |
483,395 | Evolved High Speed Packet Access, HSPA+, HSPA (Plus) or HSPAP, is a technical standard for wireless broadband telecommunication. It is the second phase of HSPA which has been introduced in 3GPP release 7 and being further improved in later 3GPP releases. HSPA+ can achieve data rates of up to 42.2 Mbit/s. It introduces antenna array technologies such as beamforming and multiple-input multiple-output communications (MIMO). Beam forming focuses the transmitted power of an antenna in a beam towards the user's direction. MIMO uses multiple antennas at the sending and receiving side. Further releases of the standard have introduced dual carrier operation, i.e. the simultaneous use of two 5 MHz carriers. HSPA+ is an evolution of HSPA that upgrades the existing 3G network and provides a method for telecom operators to migrate towards 4G speeds that are more comparable to the initially available speeds of newer LTE networks without deploying a new radio interface. HSPA+ should not be confused with LTE though, which uses an air interface based on orthogonal frequency-division modulation and multiple access. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11728415 | 483,148 |
1,863,504 | He currently lives with his wife in Fort Walton Beach, Florida and works for The United States Air Force as an aeronautical engineer doing research with the Air Force at Eglin Air Force Base. He is married with no children, and has two dogs. He was born in Oxnard, California on March 24, 1963. His family moved around the country for a few years as dad worked for Western Electric When he was about 4 years old, they settled in Kernersville, North Carolina on a 56-acre farm with horses, cows, chickens, ... he attended North Carolina State University from 1981 to 1985 when he graduated second in his class with his BS in Aeronautical Engineering. Then he accepted is job with McDonnell Douglas in St. Louis, Missouri working in fighter aircraft fuel system research. Two years later he switched to the aerodynamics department, where he has since worked on the YF-23, F/A-18, AV-8B, T-45, and research in the Phantom Works. The company merged with Boeing in 1997, so along the way he became a Boeing employee. In 2004 he left his job at Boeing to work for Jacobs Engineering at Eglin Air Force Base performing research on small unmanned air vehicles. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31879975 | 1,862,434 |
1,155,311 | The Association was founded in 1831 and modelled on the German Gesellschaft Deutscher Naturforscher und Ärzte. It was founded during post-war reconstruction after the Peninsula war to improve the advancement of science in England. The prime mover (who is regarded as the main founder) was Reverend William Vernon Harcourt, following a suggestion by Sir David Brewster, who was disillusioned with the elitist and conservative attitude of the Royal Society. Charles Babbage, William Whewell and J. F. W. Johnston are also considered to be founding members. The first meeting was held in York (at the Yorkshire Museum) on Tuesday 27 September 1831 with various scientific papers being presented on the following days. It was chaired by Viscount Milton, President of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society, and "upwards of 300 gentlemen" attended the meeting. The "Preston Mercury" recorded that those gathered consisted of "persons of distinction from various parts of the kingdom, together with several of the gentry of Yorkshire and the members of philosopher societies in this country". The newspaper published the names of over a hundred of those attending and these included, amongst others, eighteen clergymen, eleven doctors, four knights, two Viscounts and one Lord. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=373118 | 1,154,701 |
1,407,098 | Discovery science is usually a complex process, and consequently does not follow a simple linear cause and effect pattern. This means that outcomes are uncertain, and it is expected to have disappointing results as a fundamental part of discovery science. In particular, this may apply to medicine for the critically ill, where disease syndromes may be complex and multi-factorial. In psychiatry, studying complex relationships between brain and behaviour requires a large-scale science. This calls for a need to conceptually switch from hypothesis-driven studies to hypothesis-generating research which is discovery-based. Normally, discovery-based approaches for research are initially hypothesis-free, however, hypothesis testing can be elevated to a new level that effectively supports traditional hypothesis-driven studies. Researchers hope that combining integrative analyses of data from a range of different levels can result in new classification approaches to enable personalised interventions. Some biologists, such as Leroy Hood, have suggested that the model of ‘discovery science’ is a model which certain research fields are heading towards. For example, it is believed that more information about gene function can be discovered, through the evolution of data-mining tools. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2780651 | 1,406,308 |
1,144,529 | Arden Park-East Boston (a National Historic district comprising Arden Park Boulevard and East Boston Boulevard, running for three blocks east of Woodward near the New Center Area) is noted for mansions built by the industrial giants of the 1910s and 1920s. Residents included the Dodge Brothers, J. L. Hudson, and Fred Fisher, the founder of Fisher Body. Fisher's residence on Arden Park (George D. Mason, 1918, with additions in 1923) is constructed of Indiana limestone in the Italian Villa style. It features elaborate stone carvings and intricate ironwork and was the subject of a 1926 "Fortune Magazine" discussion of "the harmony of materials and proportion in residential architecture." The nearby Boston-Edison neighborhood (comprising four residential blocks west of Woodward) features several Kahn residences, including the Benjamin Siegal residence (1915), the James Couzens house (1910), and one of Kahn's rare stucco residences, the Ernest Venn house (1908). Additional architecturally significant homes in the neighborhood include the Sebastian S. Kresge house, the Berry Gordy house, and one of the Henry Ford houses. Many architecturally distinctive homes are also located near the University of Detroit Mercy on the city's North end such as those in Palmer Woods and Sherwood Forest historic districts. The Cathedral of the Most Blessed Sacrament is located near this corridor along Woodward Avenue. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8692117 | 1,143,928 |
807,318 | As of April 20, 2020 there has been over 43 contract tracing apps available globally. Countries are in the process of creating their own methods of digitally tracing coronavirus status (symptoms, confirmed infected, exposed). Apple and Google are working together on a shared solution that helps with contract tracing around the world. Since this is a global pandemic with no end in sight, the restriction of some fundamental rights and freedoms may be ethically justifiable. It may be unethical to not use these tracing solutions to slow the spread. The European Convention on Human Rights, the United Nations International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and the United Nations Siracusa Principles all indicate when it is ethical to restrict the rights of the population to prevent the spread of infectious disease. All three documents cite that the circumstances for restricting rights must be time-bound, meet standards of necessity, proportionality, and scientific validity. We must evaluate if the gravity of the situation justifies the potential negative impact, if the evidence shows that the technology will work, is timely, will be adopted by enough people and yields accurate data and insights, and evaluate if the technology will only be temporary. These three documents also provide guidelines on how to ethically develop and design technologies. The development and design guidelines are important for being effective and for security reasons. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=699052 | 806,888 |
249,834 | The land price is costly for acquisition in India. Dedication of land for the installation of solar arrays must compete with other needs. The amount of land required for utility-scale solar power plants is about for every 40–60 MW generated. One alternative is to use the water-surface area on canals, lakes, reservoirs, farm ponds and the sea for large solar-power plants. Due to better cooling of the solar panels and the sun tracking system, the output of solar panels is enhanced substantially. These water bodies can also provide water to clean the solar panels. Floating solar plants installation cost has reduced steeply by 2018. In January 2019, Indian Railways announced the plan to install 4 GW capacity along its tracks. Highways and railways may also avoid the cost of land nearer to load centres, minimising transmission-line costs by having solar plants about 10 meters above the roads or rail tracks. Solar power generated by road areas may also be used for in-motion charging of electric vehicles, reducing fuel costs. Highways would avoid damage from rain and summer heat, increasing comfort for commuters. By using high efficiency monocrystalline silicon modules in a earth mount solar array, the cost of module supporting structures and the land requirement are reduced drastically without reduction in electricity generation. Earth mounted solar arrays can withstand category 4 hurricane. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11291159 | 249,702 |
1,751,906 | In 1883 Takaki learned of a very high incidence of beriberi among cadets on a training mission from Japan to Hawaii, via New Zealand and South America that lasted for 9 months. On board, 169 men out of 376 developed the disease and 25 died. Takaki made a petition to Emperor Meiji to fund an experiment with an improved diet for the seamen that included more barley, meat, milk, bread and vegetables. He succeeded, and in 1884, another mission took the same route, but this time only sixteen beriberi cases among 333 seamen were reported. This experiment convinced the Imperial Japanese Navy that poor diet was the prime factor in beriberi, and the disease was soon eliminated from the fleet. Takaki's success occurred ten years before Christiaan Eijkman, working in Batavia, advanced his theory that beriberi was caused by a nutritional deficiency, with his later identification of vitamin B earning him the 1929 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4190274 | 1,750,919 |
191,208 | There are questions regarding the environmental and economic values of ecosystem services. Some people may be unaware of the environment in general and humanity's interrelatedness with the natural environment, which may cause misconceptions. Although environmental awareness is rapidly improving in our contemporary world, ecosystem capital and its flow are still poorly understood, threats continue to impose, and we suffer from the so-called 'tragedy of the commons'. Many efforts to inform decision-makers of current versus future costs and benefits now involve organizing and translating scientific knowledge to economics, which articulate the consequences of our choices in comparable units of impact on human well-being. An especially challenging aspect of this process is that interpreting ecological information collected from one spatial-temporal scale does not necessarily mean it can be applied at another; understanding the dynamics of ecological processes relative to ecosystem services is essential in aiding economic decisions. Weighting factors such as a service's irreplaceability or bundled services can also allocate economic value such that goal attainment becomes more efficient. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1855357 | 191,109 |
350,726 | Alpha-tocopherol transfer protein is coded by the TTPA gene on chromosome 8. The binding site for RRR-α-tocopherol is a hydrophobic pocket with a lower affinity for beta-, gamma-, or delta-tocopherols, or for the stereoisomers with an S configuration at the chiral 2 site. Tocotrienols are also a poor fit because the double bonds in the phytic tail create a rigid configuration that is a mismatch with the α-TTP pocket. A rare genetic defect of the TTPA gene results in people exhibiting a progressive neurodegenerative disorder known as ataxia with vitamin E deficiency (AVED) despite consuming normal amounts of vitamin E. Large amounts of alpha-tocopherol as a dietary supplement are needed to compensate for the lack of α-TTP The role of α-TTP is to move α-tocopherol to the plasma membrane of hepatocytes (liver cells), where it can be incorporated into newly created very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) molecules. These convey α-tocopherol to cells in the rest of the body. As an example of a result of the preferential treatment, the US diet delivers approximately 70 mg/d of γ-tocopherol and plasma concentrations are on the order of 2–5 µmol/L; meanwhile, dietary α-tocopherol is about 7 mg/d but plasma concentrations are in the range of 11–37 µmol/L. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54104 | 350,543 |
227,727 | In 1942, the Germans first started deploying the initial B/C low UHF-band version of the Lichtenstein radar, and in extremely limited numbers, using a 32-dipole element "Matratze" (mattress) antenna array. This late date, and slow introduction, combined with the capture of a Ju 88R-1 night fighter equipped with it in April 1943 when flown to RAF Dyce, Scotland, by a defecting Luftwaffe crew, allowed British radio engineers to develop jamming equipment to counter it. A race developed with the Germans attempting to introduce new sets and the British attempting to jam them. The early Lichtenstein B/C was replaced by the similar UHF-band Lichtenstein C-1, but when the German night fighter defected and landed in Scotland in April 1943, that radar was quickly jammed. The low VHF-band SN-2 unit that replaced the C-1 remained relatively secure until July 1944, but only at the cost of using huge, eight-dipole element "Hirschgeweih" (stag's antlers) antennae that slowed their fighters as much as 25 mph, making them easy prey for British night fighters that had turned to the offensive role. The capture in July 1944 of a Ju 88G-1 night fighter of NJG 2 equipped with an SN-2 Lichtenstein set, flown by mistake into RAF Woodbridge, revealed the secrets of the later, longer-wavelength replacement for the earlier B/C and C-1 sets. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=164906 | 227,610 |
1,789,610 | IRE has been in use against prostate cancer since 2011, partly in form of clinical trials, compassionate care or individualized treatment approach. As for all other ablation technologies and also most conventional methods, no studies employed a randomized multi-center approach or targeted cancer-specific mortality as endpoint. Cancer-specific mortality or overall survival are notoriously hard to assess for prostate cancer, as the trials require more than a decade and usually several treatment types are performed during the years making treatment-specific survival advantages difficult to quantify. Therefore, the results of ablation-based treatments and focal treatments in general usually use local recurrences and functional outcome (quality of life) as endpoint. In that regard, the clinical results collected so far and listed in Table 3 shown encouraging results and uniformly state IRE as a safe and effective treatment (at least for focal ablation) but all warrant further studies. The largest cohort presented by Guenther et al. with up to 6-year follow-up is limited as a heterogeneous retrospective analysis and no prospective clinical trial. Therefore, despite that several hospitals in Europe have been employing the method for many years with one private clinic even listing more than one thousand treatments as of June 2020, IRE for prostate cancer is currently not recommended in treatment guidelines. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=40142982 | 1,788,604 |
1,591,231 | After the end of the Lord's Test, Miller attended a concert and party, before returning to the team hotel after dawn the next morning, just before breakfast. Bradman noticed this and addressed him as "Keith", rather than his nickname "Nugget". Australia was due to play Surrey at The Oval on the same day. Bradman won the toss and elected to field. Instead of deploying him to his usual slips position, the Australian skipper sent Miller to field on the fine leg boundary as a punishment for his late night out. Between overs, the banished player had to walk to the opposite end of the ground to be in position for the bowler from the other end. One of the spectators felt sorry for him and lent his bicycle, which the Australian used to cycle around the edge of the ground between overs. Soon after, Bradman brought his all rounder into a fielding position closer to the centre. Miller eventually scored nine in his only innings and was asked to bowl just one over in the second innings, as Australia completed victory by ten wickets. He had a quiet period on the field during July; his cricket generated fewer media stories than his celebrity appearances at social functions and classical music concerts during this time. The match against Surrey was immediately followed by a match against Gloucestershire in Bristol, where Miller scored 51, featuring in a partnership of 136 with Morris (290). Australia piled on 7/774 declared, its largest score of the season, before proceeding to victory by an innings and 363 runs. Acting captain Hassett allowed Miller to rest and he did not bowl during the match. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18325173 | 1,590,337 |
239,523 | Gradually, the hydrogen burning in the shell around the solar core will increase the mass of the core until it reaches about 45% of the present solar mass. At this point, the density and temperature will become so high that the fusion of helium into carbon will begin, leading to a helium flash; the Sun will shrink from around 250 to 11 times its present (main-sequence) radius. Consequently, its luminosity will decrease from around 3,000 to 54 times its current level, and its surface temperature will increase to about . The Sun will become a horizontal giant, burning helium in its core in a stable fashion, much like it burns hydrogen today. The helium-fusing stage will last only 100 million years. Eventually, it will have to again resort to the reserves of hydrogen and helium in its outer layers. It will expand a second time, becoming what is known as an asymptotic giant. Here the luminosity of the Sun will increase again, reaching about 2,090 present luminosities, and it will cool to about . This phase lasts about 30 million years, after which, over the course of a further 100,000 years, the Sun's remaining outer layers will fall away, ejecting a vast stream of matter into space and forming a halo known (misleadingly) as a planetary nebula. The ejected material will contain the helium and carbon produced by the Sun's nuclear reactions, continuing the enrichment of the interstellar medium with heavy elements for future generations of stars and planets. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6139438 | 239,403 |
1,126,416 | USEC began working with the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) in 2000 to resume gas centrifuge enrichment operation activities at the Portsmouth site, including use of previously constructed portions of the Portsmouth Gaseous Diffusion Plant and the former GCEP facilities. USEC sited its Lead Cascade Test Program on the Portsmouth site in late 2002. The Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) granted Materials License SNM-7003 this demonstration facility, known as the "American Centrifuge Lead Cascade Facility", in 2004. The license permitted to facility to possess up to 250 kilograms of uranium hexafluoride (UF6) and consist of up to 240 operating, full-scale centrifuge machines arranged in a cascade configuration. Lead Cascade operations using prototype machines commenced in August 2007 at the facilities located southwest of the gaseous diffusion process buildings. The Lead Cascade facilities included the X-3001 (PB1) Process Building, which housed the operating centrifuge machines, associated process piping, instrumentation and controls, computer systems, and auxiliary support equipment. The X-3001 building, and identical X-3002 immediately east of X-3001, were developed as part of the GCEP program. X-3001 is a single story building with 87 feet high ceilings and comprises four 630 x 104 feet bays; each bay is equipped with an overhead traveling crane. The prototype centrifuges, facility, and equipment were used for development and testing; other than minimal chemical samples, no enriched UF6 was withdrawn from the cascade. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12653614 | 1,125,839 |
100,724 | Arizona is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity". The university's research expenditure in fiscal year 2018 was $687.1 million. Arizona is the fourth most awarded public university by NASA for research. The UA was awarded over $325 million for its Lunar and Planetary Laboratory (LPL) to lead NASA's 2007–08 mission to Mars to explore the Martian Arctic, and $800 million for its OSIRIS-REx mission, the first in U.S. history to sample an asteroid. The LPL's work in the "Cassini" spacecraft orbit around Saturn is larger than any other university globally. The U of A laboratory designed and operated the atmospheric radiation investigations and imaging on the probe. The UA operates the HiRISE camera, a part of the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. While using the HiRISE camera in 2011, UA alumnus Lujendra Ojha and his team discovered proof of liquid water on the surface of Mars—a discovery confirmed by NASA in 2015. UA receives more NASA grants annually than the next nine top NASA-Jet Propulsion Laboratory-funded universities combined. , the UA's Lunar and Planetary Laboratory is actively involved in ten spacecraft missions: "Cassini" VIMS; Grail; the HiRISE camera orbiting Mars; the "Juno" mission orbiting Jupiter; Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO); Maven, which will explore Mars' upper atmosphere and interactions with the Sun; Solar Probe Plus, a historic mission into the Sun's atmosphere for the first time; Rosetta's VIRTIS; WISE; and OSIRIS-REx, the first U.S. sample-return mission to a near-Earth asteroid, which launched on September 8, 2016. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=32015 | 100,679 |
1,156,316 | DNA diameter is about 2 nm, while the length of a stretched single molecule may be up to several dozens of centimetres depending on the organism. Many features of the DNA double helix contribute to its large stiffness, including the mechanical properties of the sugar-phosphate backbone, electrostatic repulsion between phosphates (DNA bears on average one elementary negative charge per each 0.17 nm of the double helix), stacking interactions between the bases of each individual strand, and strand-strand interactions. DNA is one of the stiffest natural polymers, yet it is also one of the longest molecules. This means that at large distances DNA can be considered as a flexible rope, and on a short scale as a stiff rod. Like a garden hose, unpacked DNA would randomly occupy a much larger volume than when it is orderly packed. Mathematically, for a non-interacting flexible chain randomly diffusing in 3D, the end-to-end distance would scale as a square root of the polymer length. For real polymers such as DNA, this gives only a very rough estimate; what is important, is that the space available for the DNA "in vivo" is much smaller than the space that it would occupy in the case of a free diffusion in the solution. To cope with volume constraints, DNA can pack itself in the appropriate solution conditions with the help of ions and other molecules. Usually, DNA condensation is defined as "the collapse of extended DNA chains into compact, orderly particles containing only one or a few molecules". This definition applies to many situations in vitro and is also close to the definition of DNA condensation in bacteria as "adoption of relatively concentrated, compact state occupying a fraction of the volume available". In eukaryotes, the DNA size and the number of other participating players are much larger, and a DNA molecule forms millions of ordered nucleoprotein particles, the nucleosomes, which is just the first of many levels of DNA packing. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=28268694 | 1,155,706 |
1,396,241 | Failure of the small intestine would be life-threatening due to the inability to absorb nutrients, fluids, and electrolytes from food. Without these essential substances and the ability to maintain energy balances, homeostasis cannot be maintained and one's prognosis will be dismal. Causes of intestinal failure may be clinically complex, and may result from a combination of nutritional, infectious, traumatic, and metabolic complications that affect ordinary anatomy and physiology. Many underlying conditions that serve as precursors to failure are genetic or congenital in nature. For example, severe inflammation, ulceration, bowel obstruction, fistulation, perforation, or other pathologies of Crohn's disease may severely compromise intestinal function. Despite the danger these conditions may pose in themselves, they may lead to even further, more serious complications that necessitate replacement of the diseased intestine. The single leading cause for an intestinal transplant is affliction with short bowel syndrome, oftentimes a secondary condition of some other form of intestinal disease. Short-bowel syndrome was the cause for 73% of American intestinal transplantations in 2008, followed by functional bowel problems for 15% and other causes representing 12% of cases. Natural SBS is mercifully rare, estimated to be 3 per 100,000 births. Surgical removal is the most common cause, performed as a treatment for various gastroenterological and congenital conditions such as Crohn's disease, necrotizing enterocolitis, mesenteric ischemia, motility disorder, omphalocele/gastroschisis, tumors, and volvulus. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=46300441 | 1,395,470 |
986,151 | Other studies suggest that social exchange between individuals is a vital adaptation to the human brain, going as far to say that the human mind could be equipped with a neurocognitive system specialized for reasoning about social exchange.This adaption is predicted to evolve when two parties are both better off than they were before by mutually exchanging things they value less for things they value more. However, selection will only favor social exchange when both parties benefit. Consequently, the existence of cheaters—those who fail to deliver fair benefits—threatens the evolution of exchange. Using evolutionary game theory, it has been shown that adaptations for social exchange can be favored and stably maintained by natural selection, but only if they include design features that enable them to detect cheaters, and cause them to channel future exchanges to reciprocators and away from cheaters. Thus, humans use social contracts to lay the benefits and losses each party will be receiving (if you accept benefit B from me, then you must satisfy my requirement R). Humans have evolved an advanced cheater detection system, equipped with proprietary problem-solving strategies that evolved to match the recurrent features of their corresponding problem domains. Not only do humans need to determine that the contract was violated, but also if the violation was intentionally done. Therefore, systems are specialized to detect contract violations that imply intentional cheating. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2452832 | 985,636 |
759,810 | The environment of space is lethal without appropriate protection: the greatest threat in the vacuum of space derives from the lack of oxygen and pressure, although temperature and radiation also pose risks. The effects of space exposure can result in ebullism, hypoxia, hypocapnia, and decompression sickness. In addition to these, there is also cellular mutation and destruction from high energy photons and sub-atomic particles that are present in the surroundings. Decompression is a serious concern during the extra-vehicular activities (EVAs) of astronauts. Current Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU) designs take this and other issues into consideration, and have evolved over time. A key challenge has been the competing interests of increasing astronaut mobility (which is reduced by high-pressure EMUs, analogous to the difficulty of deforming an inflated balloon relative to a deflated one) and minimising decompression risk. Investigators have considered pressurizing a separate head unit to the regular 71 kPa (10.3 psi) cabin pressure as opposed to the current whole-EMU pressure of . In such a design, pressurization of the torso could be achieved mechanically, avoiding mobility reduction associated with pneumatic pressurization. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1614102 | 759,404 |
727,120 | Although turbidity purports to measure approximately the same water quality property as TSS, the latter is more useful because it provides an actual weight of the particulate material present in the sample. In water quality monitoring situations, a series of more labor-intensive TSS measurements will be paired with relatively quick and easy turbidity measurements to develop a site-specific correlation. Once satisfactorily established, the correlation can be used to estimate TSS from more frequently made turbidity measurements, saving time and effort. Because turbidity readings are somewhat dependent on particle size, shape, and color, this approach requires calculating a correlation equation for each location. Further, situations or conditions that tend to suspend larger particles through water motion (e.g., increase in a stream current or wave action) can produce higher values of TSS not necessarily accompanied by a corresponding increase in turbidity. This is because particles above a certain size (essentially anything larger than silt) are not measured by a bench turbidity meter (they settle out before the reading is taken), but contribute substantially to the TSS value. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1010088 | 726,738 |
2,008,808 | The predominant means of investigating nutriepigenetics involves varying the nutritional conditions to which a subject is exposed to and monitoring the effects thereafter. Restricting caloric and protein intake are the two most common methods. A pregnant rodent may have their caloric intake reduced up to 30-50% of normal intake. Protein restricted rodents are given 8-9% casein, as opposed to control rats that are fed 20% casein. Micronutrients, such as zinc and iron, may also be restricted to investigate the effects on offspring. Additionally, rats fed diets lacking or including methyl donors are often used to study the effects of diet on epigenomics, as variations within the methylation of DNA are common means of silencing or expressing genes. Supplementing maternal mice with folic acid, vitamin B12, choline and betaine leads to increased levels of DNA methylation at CpG sites and causes a coat color change. This is an example of epigenetically modifiable loci called a “metastable epiallele”, of which only a few have been identified. The above is an example of the “agouti” gene locus, whereby the insertion of a transposable element upstream to the Agouti gene is hypermethylated from the supplementation and causes a change in the mice's coat color. Diets containing higher carbohydrate and fat content attempt to mimic typical Western-style diets may also be used in nutriepigenetic studies. Another method used is “catch-up”, where offspring of rats born to mothers subjected to various diets are subsequently cross-fostered to mothers fed normal diets. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30932051 | 2,007,656 |
1,362,906 | Space physics can be traced to the Chinese who discovered the principle of the compass, but did not understand how it worked. During the 16th century, in "De Magnete", William Gilbert gave the first description of the Earth's magnetic field, showing that the Earth itself is a great magnet, which explained why a compass needle points north. Deviations of the compass needle magnetic declination were recorded on navigation charts, and a detailed study of the declination near London by watchmaker George Graham resulted in the discovery of irregular magnetic fluctuations that we now call magnetic storms, so named by Alexander Von Humboldt. Gauss and William Weber made very careful measurements of Earth's magnetic field which showed systematic variations and random fluctuations. This suggested that the Earth was not an isolated body, but was influenced by external forces – especially from the Sun and the appearance of sunspots. A relationship between individual aurora and accompanying geomagnetic disturbances was noticed by Anders Celsius and Olof Peter Hiorter in 1747. In 1860, Elias Loomis (1811–1889) showed that the highest incidence of aurora is seen inside an oval of 20 - 25 degrees around the magnetic pole. In 1881, Hermann Fritz published a map of the "isochasms" or lines of constant magnetic field. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4724840 | 1,362,153 |
54,815 | Hume elaborates more on the last principle, explaining that, when somebody observes that one object or event consistently produces the same object or event, that results in "an expectation that a particular event (a 'cause') will be followed by another event (an 'effect') previously and constantly associated with it". Hume calls this principle "custom", or "habit", saying that "custom...renders our experience useful to us, and makes us expect, for the future, a similar train of events with those which have appeared in the past". However, even though custom can serve as a guide in life, it still only represents an expectation. In other words: Experience cannot establish a necessary connection between cause and effect, because we can imagine without contradiction a case where the cause does not produce its usual effect…the reason why we mistakenly infer that there is something in the cause that necessarily produces its effect is because our past experiences have habituated us to think in this way. Continuing this idea, Hume argues that "only in the pure realm of ideas, logic, and mathematics, not contingent on the direct sense awareness of reality, [can] causation safely…be applied—all other sciences are reduced to probability". He uses this scepticism to reject metaphysics and many theological views on the basis that they are not grounded in fact and observations, and are therefore beyond the reach of human understanding. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7925 | 54,792 |
620,510 | The constant battle between armour and armor-piercing round has led to continuous development of the main battle tank design. The evolution of American anti-tank weapons can be traced back to requirements to combat Soviet tanks. In the late 1980s, it was thought that the protection level of the Future Soviet Tank (FST) could exceed 700 mm of rolled homogeneous armour equivalence at its maximum thickness, which was effectively immune against the contemporary M829 armour piercing fin stabilized discarding sabot. In the 1980s the most immediate method available to NATO to counter Soviet advances in armour technology was the adoption of a 140 mm main gun, but this required a redesigned turret that could incorporate the larger breech and ammunition, and it also required some sort of automatic loader. Although the 140 mm gun was considered a real interim solution it was decided after the fall of the Soviet Union that the increase in muzzle energy it provided was not worth the increase in weight. Resources were therefore spent on research into other programs that could provide the needed muzzle energy. One of the most successful alternative technologies remains electrothermal-chemical ignition. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10382 | 620,195 |
1,515,063 | The first inter-city railway passenger service in the world was the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, opened in 1830. By 1860, the UK had 10,000 miles of track and employed 180,000 people. Despite being the pioneer, British railways (and European railways in general) were much safer than American lines and consequently had fewer injuries, although early injury rates were still high by modern standards. Furthermore, British lines did not pass through vast, thinly populated regions. Medical infrastructure was already well developed in the country. Railway companies still employed surgeons. Page at the London and North Western has already been mentioned. Another example is Thomas Bond who was retained as surgeon by both the Great Eastern and Great Western Railways. However, Bond's function for the railways was primarily as medico-legal consultant regarding injury claims rather than practical surgery. He did, however, treat the injured of an overturned train on which he was himself a passenger. Bond's last major work for the railways was investigations in connection with the Slough rail accident of 1900. Bond also wrote a lengthy article on railway injuries for Heath's "Dictionary of Practical Surgery". There is a similar picture with James O. Fletcher, surgeon to the Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire and Great Northern Railways, who wrote the book "Railways in Their Medical Aspects". Fletcher's book discusses numerous cases where he examined or treated patients post-surgery and discusses medico-legal issues at length. However, he does not cite a single example of his own, or railway colleagues', emergency surgery. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23667782 | 1,514,212 |
215,555 | would combine the Standard Model and grand unification, particularly for the models with 15 Weyl fermions per generation, without the necessity of right-handed sterile neutrinos by adding new gapped topological phase sectors consistent with the nonperturbative global anomaly cancellation and cobordism constraints (especially from the baryon minus lepton number B−L, the electroweak hypercharge Y, and the mixed gauge-gravitational anomaly such as a Z/"16"Z class anomaly). Gapped topological phase sectors are constructed via symmetry extension, whose low energy contains unitary Lorentz invariant topological quantum field theories (TQFTs), such as four dimensional noninvertible, five dimensional noninvertible, or five dimensional invertible entangled gapped phase TQFTs. Alternatively, there could also be right-handed sterile neutrinos, gapless unparticle physics, or some combination of more general interacting conformal field theories, to cancel the mixed gauge-gravitational anomaly. In either case, this implies a new high-energy physics frontier beyond the conventional zero dimensional particle physics that relies on new types of topological forces and matter, including gapped extended objects such as line and surface operators or conformal defects, whose open ends carry deconfined fractionalized particle or anyonic string excitations. A physical characterization of these gapped extended objects require extensions of mathematical concepts such as cohomology, cobordism, or categories into particle physics. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12610 | 215,447 |
1,916,593 | After receiving his Ph.D, he began working at the Carnegie Institution's Department of Embryology in Baltimore for two years. After his short time there, he accepted a faculty position at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine. Beachy began focusing on the Drosophila hedgehog gene, for which he's known for, in 1990. The gene's name originated because fly embryos look spikey if the hedgehog gene is faulty or mutated. The hedgehog gene's main function is to create protein signals in specific cells. These signals, in turn, allow for the formation of embryonic tissues. They do this by instructing neighboring cells to become a certain type of differentiated cell or to simply divide. In other words, this gene is responsible for the development of the appendages and body segments in Drosophila or fruit flies. Humans and other invertebrates have hedgehog genes that behave slightly different than the same gene in the fruit fly. In vertebrates, the hedgehog gene codes for the fingers and toes on the limbs. It also functions in organizing the brain and the spinal cord. Consequently, mutated hedgehog genes often cause birth defects. Also, if it is activated later in life, certain cancers can be triggered and begin to spread. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8742839 | 1,915,494 |
1,436,578 | In his studies of chemical informatics, Swamidass introduced three new kernels: Tanimoto, MinMax, and Hybrid, based on the idea of molecular fingerprints. He studied the properties and tradeoffs of these kernels, and also discussed their applications in terms of predicting mutagenicity, toxicity, and anti-cancer activity on three publicly available data sets. In 2013, he demonstrated that artificial intelligence algorithms can predict metabolic transformations of xenobiotic molecules, and highlighted the role of these processes in the safety, efficacy, and dose of medicines. He also developed and explored algorithms regarding fast exact searches of chemical fingerprints in linear and sub-linear time. He, along with co-authors developed a novel screening method, Influence Relevance Voter (IRV), and provided its advantages over other SVMs and other methods. Moreover, he focused his study to highlight opportunities and obstacles for deep learning in biology and medicine. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=69182555 | 1,435,769 |
514,065 | On 21 May 2009, a T-38 Talon from the test pilot school on a training flight crashed 12 miles north of Edwards AFB, killing the student pilot Major Mark Paul Graziano and severely injuring the student navigator Major Lee Vincent Jones. An accident investigation determined that the crash was caused when the aircraft's rudder operating mechanism disconnected the flight controls from the rudder actuators and caused the rudder to deflect 30° to the left. This induced an uncontrollable yaw and a resulting roll, causing the aircraft to depart controlled flight, a condition that is unrecoverable in the T-38. The report stated that contributing factors to the crash were a structural fatigue failure or structural break in a critical component or bolt, and a maintenance error in which a nut or cotter pin did not properly secure a bolt connecting two critical components. Citing two historical cases of rudder failure, the report concluded that maintenance error was the more likely cause. The investigation concluded, "insufficient supervisory oversight and a lack of discipline of the training process" in the maintenance unit existed in relation to the mishap aircraft. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=610257 | 513,799 |
1,650,105 | Netter is one of about a dozen new medical schools established in anticipation of increased demand for medical professionals following the passage of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act and the aging of the baby boomer generation. Upon opening, it had a strong message that highlighted its desire for graduates to pursue primary care. However, over the years, as students started to match into competitive residencies such as orthopedics, plastic surgery, ophthalmology, dermatology, general surgery, etc. at some of the top programs in the country, students are now encouraged to go into any field of medicine that they think will best suit them. Some students have been able to score in the top 99% percentile on Step 1 with similar success on their Step 2-CK. In addition, students are encouraged to engage in research that would aid in their application process to more competitive specialties. In its most recent years, Quinnipiac set up a home residency program that is based out of St. Vincent's Medical Center (Bridgeport). And as years pass and the reputation of Frank Netter graduates grows, more and more opportunities and career directions will be paved for those that come later on. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=40099075 | 1,649,173 |
26,463 | The Habitable Mobility Platform would be a large pressurized rover used to transport crews across large distances. NASA has developed multiple pressurized rovers including the Space Exploration Vehicle built for the Constellation program which was fabricated and tested. In the 2020 flight manifest it was referred to as the Mobile Habitat suggesting it could fill a similar role to the ILREC Lunar Bus. It would be ready for the crew to use on the surface but could also be autonomously controlled from the Gateway or other locations. Mark Kirasich, who is the acting director of NASA's Advanced Exploration Systems, has stated that the current plan is to partner with JAXA and Toyota to develop a closed cabin rover to support crews for up to 14 days (currently known as Lunar Cruiser). "It's very important to our leadership at the moment to involve JAXA in a major surface element", he said. "... The Japanese, and their auto industry, have a very strong interest in rover-type things. So there was an idea to — even though we have done a lot of work — to let the Japanese lead development of a pressurized rover. So right now, that's the direction we're heading in". In regards to the SEV, Senior Lunar Scientist Clive Neal said "Under Constellation NASA had a sophisticated rover put together, It's pretty sad if it's never going to get to the Moon". but also said that he understands the different scopes of the Constellation Program and Artemis program and the focus on international collaboration. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=60758751 | 26,453 |
2,242,699 | In 1975, Ann M. Anderson described a new ichnospecies of "Petalichnus" from the Table Mountain Sandstone of South Africa, "P. capensis", Ordovician in time. Its ichnospecific name "capensis" refers to the type locality in the Cape Province of South Africa. Anderson noted that "P. capensis" was larger than the rest of the "Petalichnus" ichnospecies, as well as the presence of an unusual median drag line for the ichnogenus (although this was not present in all the specimens). However, in 1999, Simon J. Braddy and John E. Almond formally reclassified some specimens of "Petalichnus capensis" to "Palmichnium" due to the possession of four tracks and a medium line, the rest of the specimens were referred to "Petalichnus brandenburgensis". The trackway of "P. capensis" is defined as medium-sized (largest track 13.6 cm, 5.4 in wide) and consists of several symmetrical series of four tracks, each formed by a simple oval or tear-shaped mark with small impressions on the sides, sometimes bilobed (divided into two lobes) and intermittent formed by closely spaced series. These tracks were located at a low angle with respect to the sometimes present median line, which is believed to be due to the telson ("tail") touching the substrate. The bilobed marks is thought to be "eight"-shaped due to the long spines of the sixth appendage of an onychopterellid eurypterid, presumably "Onychopterella augusti", using a swimming stroke-like motion. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15331437 | 2,241,428 |
219,891 | ADS was developed as a non-lethal weapon. According to Department of Defense policy, non-lethal weapons "are explicitly designed and primarily employed so as to incapacitate personnel or material, while minimizing fatalities, permanent injury to personnel, and undesired damage to property and the environment." ADS has applications for crowd control and perimeter defense, and filling "the gap between shouting and shooting." Other crowd control methods – including pepper spray, tear gas, water cannons, slippery foam and rubber bullets – carry implicit dangers of temporary or permanent injury or accidental death, and often leave residue or residual material. Combinations of acoustic and optical system platforms with ADS can be used to effectively communicate to, warn of escalation of force, introduce optical and auditory deterrents and step function the escalation of transmitted force from relatively benign to ultimately forced dispersal of a crowd, or to deny them from an area or access to an area. A group of people can theoretically be dispersed or induced to leave an area in a manner unlikely to damage personnel, non-involved civilians (no stray bullets), or to nearby buildings or the environment. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=953399 | 219,782 |
596,818 | The LWMMG is designed to fill the gap between 7.62 mm and .50 BMG machine guns. The weapon uses the .338 Norma Magnum round, giving it greater lethality and double the range of the 7.62 NATO round. The LWMMG has a rate of fire of 500 rounds per minute, an effective range of 1,700 meters (1,860 yards), and a maximum range of 5,642 meters (6,170 yards). It weighs 24 pounds (10.8 kg), making it only slightly heavier than the M240L, and lighter than the M240B. The .338NM bullet has over of muzzle energy and is four times more powerful than the 7.62 NATO at 1,000 meters. An individual round is twice as heavy (45.5 grams compared to 24 grams), as are each belt link (8 grams compared to 4 grams). For each weapon to fire for one minute, the standard LWMMG weighing plus a belt of 500 .338NM rounds would weigh , while an M240B weighting plus a belt of 800 7.62 NATO rounds would weigh . The LWMMG is operated by a gas-operated, long-stroke piston with a rotating bolt located under the barrel and fires from an open bolt. It uses “Short Recoil Impulse Averaging” technology, patented by General Dynamics and previously used on their XM806 machine gun, where the entire barrel, barrel extension, gas system, and bolt assembly recoil inside the outer housing. The LWMMG is equipped with a quick-change barrel, quad picatinny rails, collapsible stock, and can be used by dismounted troops or mounted on a platform. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=35841962 | 596,513 |
303,594 | The Curtiss Model 75 was a private venture by the company, designed by former Northrop Aircraft Company engineer Don R. Berlin. The first prototype, constructed in 1934, featured all-metal construction with fabric-covered control surfaces, a Wright XR-1670-5 radial engine developing , and typical United States Army Air Corps armament of one and one machine gun firing through the propeller arc. Also typical of the time was the total absence of cockpit armor or self-sealing fuel tanks. The distinctive landing gear, which rotated 90° to fold the main wheels flat into the thin trailing portion of the wing, resting atop the lower ends of the maingear struts when retracted, was a Boeing-patented design for which Curtiss had to pay royalties. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=493939 | 303,432 |
1,649,708 | Like many rust diseases, "G. sabinae" requires two different hosts to complete its life cycle from year to year. Juniper is the winter host and pear is the most common summer host. Spores (called aeciospores) are produced from the fungal lantern-shaped growths which protrude from the blisters on the underside of the pear leaf which become airborne and infect junipers. This fungus overwinters in swellings or galls on infected twigs and branches of susceptible juniper plants. In the spring after a rain or heavy dew, the galls on the juniper produce tiny dark horn-like growths that become covered with an orange-brown gelatinous mass called telia. The corresponding stage on the pear trees is known as aecia. The telia and aecia release wind borne resting or hibernating spores (called teliospores and aeciospores) capable of infecting susceptible pear leaves and Juniper respectively. Spores produced from the fungus-induced swellings on juniper stems can be infectious up to 6 km. The disease causes a yellow-orange spot that turns bright red on leaves of pear trees. The disease can be particularly damaging on pear, resulting in complete defoliation and crop loss if not treated. The fungus feeds on the living cells of the host plant and is not capable of surviving on dead plant material, and so must either alternate with a different host or produce resting spores to pass the dormant season. Pear rust is a regulated disease in some countries. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11800151 | 1,648,776 |
1,270,623 | The earliest documentation of red snow was made by Aristotle. While he recognized that something must be contributing to the odd colouration, red snow was also commonly mistaken as mineral deposits or pollen up until the early 1900s. In 1819, samples of ‘red snow’ were brought back for examination with a returning Arctic expedition under Sir John Ross. The samples were sent to Robert Brown and Francis Bauer for examination. Both men came to different conclusions on how to classify the specimens. Brown believed the specimen to be a unicellular alga while Bauer declared it a new species of fungus, "Uredo nivalis". Over the next century, many researchers disputed over whether these organisms were lichen, plants, alga, or animal. It was not until the early 20th century when researchers finally began to agree on the algal nature of the organism and gave its currently known name, "Chlamydomonas nivalis". In 1968 "C. nivalis" was officially recognized as a collective taxon. Unfortunately, due to the lack of sequencing techniques, reliance on visually examining similarly looking snow alga, and complicated life cycle of this species, errors continued to be made in classifying this and other species of snow algae. Today, "C. nivalis" has become one of the most well-studied snow algae. Although its taxonomy is still being settled, the life cycle of this snow algae is now much better understood. The historical disputes about the classification and misclassification of specimens have resulted in a number of names from older publications that all mean to refer to "C. nivalis". These are: "Uredo nivalis", "Sphaerella nivalis", "Protococcus nivalis", and "Haematococcus nivalis". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4338212 | 1,269,932 |
1,385,467 | Computational/theoretical chemistry and biology methods are continuously pushing the horizon. Recently, DeepMind, which is a company specializing in the development of artificial intelligence (AI), created an AI system named AlphaFold. AlphaFold is the most advanced system to date that can accurately predict a protein's 3D structure from its amino acid sequence. The protein folding problem first began to emerge around the 1960s and ever since, scientists have struggled in determining methods to precisely predict the way a protein will fold solely based on the amino acid sequence. However, with recent advances in technology, AlphaFold has made a breakthrough in this long lasting issue. By utilizing a database with over 350,000 structures, AlphaFold can determine the shape of a protein in a few minutes with atomic accuracy. The ability to predict the structure of millions of unknown proteins can help to combat disease, find more effective medicines, and unlock other unknowns that govern life. This technological breakthrough will revolutionize future research and will have profound effects for the scientific community. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=51708210 | 1,384,700 |
870,500 | In early 1990, Aleph One introduced an upgrade board for Archimedes A300 and A400 series models featuring the ARM3 processor which had been designed by Acorn but was sold independently by VLSI Technology. Although the ARM2 employed by current models could reportedly be run at 20 MHz, it was only ever run at 8 MHz due to external limitations, these being the speed of the data bus and of the "relatively slow", but correspondingly relatively inexpensive, RAM devices in use. The ARM3 incorporated a 4 KB on-chip combined instruction and data cache, loosening such external constraints and thus permitting the processor to be run productively at the elevated 20 MHz frequency. With a processor running at this higher speed, the overall performance of a computer with the ARM3 upgrade was reported as double that of the machine without the upgrade ("on average, execution times were halved"), with programs performing input/output benefiting rather less ("a worst case of 30 percent improvement"). Original A300 and A400 series models, as opposed to the A400/1 series, required an upgrade to MEMC1a. One hundred percent compatibility with the ARM2 was claimed, and a facility was provided to disable the on-chip cache and to slow the clock to 8 Mhz in order to handle software that ran too fast with the ARM3 running at full speed, but as originally provided, the ARM3 was not compatible with the existing hardware floating point co-processor solution due to the introduction of a different co-processor interface in the device, this interface eventually being used by the FPA device. The upgrade was introduced at a price of £684.24, with the MEMC1a costing £57.50 for those users who needed it. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=63145 | 870,040 |
1,750,515 | ESPRESSO has been opened to the astronomical community in the 1-UT mode (one single telescope used), and is producing scientific data since October 24, 2018. On quiet stars it has already demonstrated radial-velocity precision of 25 cm/s over a full night. However, there have been some problems, for example, in light collecting efficiency which was around 30% lower than expected and required. And so, some fine-tuning, including replacing the parts causing the efficiency problem and subsequent re-testing, were to be done on the instrument before the full 4-UT mode was open to the scientific community in April 2019. A problem was discovered in the ESPRESSO charge-coupled device controllers, digital imaging hardware, where a differential nonlinearity issue has reduced the resolution obtainable more severely than was previously feared. The ESO detector team that determined the source of the problem is currently, working on a new version of the associated hardware in order to remedy this hopefully temporary setback. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29213543 | 1,749,529 |
334,812 | CGI has become common in sports telecasting. Sports and entertainment venues are provided with see-through and overlay content through tracked camera feeds for enhanced viewing by the audience. Examples include the yellow "first down" line seen in television broadcasts of American football games showing the line the offensive team must cross to receive a first down. CGI is also used in association with football and other sporting events to show commercial advertisements overlaid onto the view of the playing area. Sections of rugby fields and cricket pitches also display sponsored images. Swimming telecasts often add a line across the lanes to indicate the position of the current record holder as a race proceeds to allow viewers to compare the current race to the best performance. Other examples include hockey puck tracking and annotations of racing car performance and snooker ball trajectories. Sometimes CGI on TV with correct alignment to the real world has been referred to as augmented reality. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31626763 | 334,634 |
1,152,564 | In 2013, an 18-year-old woman with EIS was reported. DNA sequencing revealed a homozygous mutation in ESR1, the gene that encodes the ERα. Within the ligand-binding domain, the neutral polar glutamine 375 was changed to a basic, polar histidine. An "in vitro" assay of ERα-dependent gene transcription found that the EC for transactivation had been reduced by 240-fold relative to normal, non-mutated ERα, indicating an extreme reduction in the activity of the receptor. Clinical signs suggested a profile of complete estrogen insensitivity syndrome with a resemblance to ERα knockout mice. The patient presented with delayed puberty, including an absence of breast development (Tanner stage I) and primary amenorrhea, as well as intermittent pelvic pain. Examination revealed markedly enlarged ovaries with multiple hemorrhagic cysts as the cause of the lower abdominal pain. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8104482 | 1,151,954 |
40,947 | While myocarditis has many etiologies and a variable constellation of signs and symptoms, many causes do not have a specific treatment thus the primary focus is on supportive care and symptom management. In some cases of biopsy-proven myocarditis, the causative cell type may indicate condition specific treatments that are beneficial. These treatments typically consist of corticosteroids, or immunosuppressants. Eosinophilic myocarditis, giant cell myocarditis and cardiac sarcoidosis are usually responsive to immunosuppressive treatments; in the form of glucocorticoids with or without azathioprine and cyclosporine. Some of these immune mediated forms of myocarditis require an extended course (maintenance course) of immunosuppressive therapy. It is recommended to rule out drugs and parasites as potential causes of eosinophilic myocarditis as these common causes of the variant can be effectively treated with discontinuation of the offending drug or specific anti-parasitic treatment respectively. Empiric IV glucocorticoids are indicated in acute myocarditis with cardiogenic shock, heart failure, ventricular arrhythmias or high degree AV block that is suspected due to auto-immune disease; but the European Society of Cardiology also recommends subsequent viral genome testing of endomyocardial biopsy specimens due to risk of viral activation, which may necessitate discontinuation of immunosuppression therapy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=452461 | 40,932 |
588,168 | Grosseteste was already an elderly man, with an established reputation, when he became a bishop. As an ecclesiastical statesman, he showed the same fiery zeal and versatility of which he had given proof in his academic career; but the general tendency of modern writers has been to exaggerate his political and ecclesiastical services, and to neglect his performance as a scientist and scholar. The opinion of his own age, as expressed by Matthew Paris and Roger Bacon, was very different. His contemporaries, while admitting the excellence of his intentions as a statesman, lay stress upon his defects of temper and discretion. Grosseteste was known to equally critical towards everyone, and was known to often express his opinions regardless of status. Some of these conflicts involve the King, Abbot of Westminster and Pope Innocent. His morals were high and he recognised that even those of the church could be corrupt and worked to fight against that corruption. But they see in him the pioneer of a literary and scientific movement; not merely a great ecclesiastic who patronised learning in his leisure hours, but the first mathematician and physicist of his age. He anticipated, in these fields of thought, some of the striking ideas to which Roger Bacon subsequently gave a wider currency. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=94721 | 587,866 |
1,920,263 | Works by geographers and other scholars began focusing on humans and the environmental context, especially Carl O. Sauer at University of California, Berkeley. Other early scholars examining humans and nature interactions, such as William Denevan, Julian Steward, Eric Wolf, and Claude Lévi-Strauss. In terms of impact, however, Alfred W. Crosby's "The Columbian Exchange" (1972) was a major work, one of the first to deal with profound environmental changes touched off by European settlement in the New World. It examines a range of impacts of Europeans on Latin America, especial Page information ly during the period of European Contact, including epidemic disease and the importation of Old World animals and plants and the development of large-scale ranching and agriculture. He further developed the argument in "Ecological Imperialism" (2004). Archeologists such as Richard MacNeish conducted fieldwork uncovering the origins of agriculture in Mesoamerica and in the Andes, giving a long timeline for the human-wrought changes in the environment before the arrival of the Europeans. William Denevan specifically argued against the "pristine myth" of lack of human impact on the environment prior to 1492. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=65056762 | 1,919,161 |
1,735,084 | Alterations in the expression and function of OAT1 play important roles in intra- and inter-individual variability of the therapeutic efficacy and the toxicity of many drugs. As a result, the activity of OAT1 must be under tight regulation so as to carry out their normal functions. The regulation of OAT transport activity in response to various stimuli can occur at several levels such as transcription, translation, and posttranslational modification. Posttranslational regulation is of particular interest, because it usually happens within a very short period of time (minutes to hours) when the body has to deal with rapidly changing amounts of substances as a consequence of variable intake of drugs, fluids, or meals as well as metabolic activity. Post-translational modification is a process where new functional group(s) are conjugated to the amino acid side chains in a target protein through reversible or irreversible biochemical reactions. The common modifications include glycosylation, phosphorylation, ubiquitination, sulfation, methylation, acetylation, and hydroxylation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=28829284 | 1,734,107 |
936,172 | Exposure effects can range from mild skin irritation to birth defects, tumors, genetic changes, blood and nerve disorders, endocrine disruption, coma or death. Developmental effects have been associated with pesticides. Recent increases in childhood cancers in throughout North America, such as leukemia, may be a result of somatic cell mutations. Insecticides targeted to disrupt insects can have harmful effects on mammalian nervous systems. Both chronic and acute alterations have been observed in exposes. DDT and its breakdown product DDE disturb estrogenic activity and possibly lead to breast cancer. Fetal DDT exposure reduces male penis size in animals and can produce undescended testicles. Pesticide can affect fetuses in early stages of development, in utero and even if a parent was exposed before conception. Reproductive disruption has the potential to occur by chemical reactivity and through structural changes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=16534351 | 935,677 |
1,435,306 | Lattice Light-Sheet Microscopy combines high resolution and clarity at high image acquisition speed, without damaging samples through photobleaching. Photobleaching is a major and highly common problem in fluorescence microscopy wherein fluorescent tags will lose their ability to emit photons upon repeated excitation. Unlike common fluorescence microscopes, samples in a Lattice Light-Sheet Microscope experience photobleaching at a rate drastically reduced when compared to conventional techniques (In conventional techniques, this results in an image signal that gets weaker over the course of multiple excitations). This allows for longer exposures without loss of signal, which in turn allows for video to be captured at over longer periods of time. The Lattice method also has the ability to resolve 200 to 1000 planes per second, an extremely fast imaging rate that allows continuous video capture. This capture rate is one order of magnitude faster than Bessel beam excitation, and two orders of magnitude faster than Spinning Disk Confocal Microscopy. These two advantages combine to allow researchers to take very detailed movies over long periods of time. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44205022 | 1,434,500 |
218,914 | In 2009, Illumina released its first whole genome sequencers that were approved for clinical as opposed to research-only use and doctors at academic medical centers began quietly using them to try to diagnose what was wrong with people whom standard approaches had failed to help. In 2009, a team from Stanford led by Euan Ashley performed clinical interpretation of a full human genome, that of bioengineer Stephen Quake. In 2010, Ashley's team reported whole genome molecular autopsy and in 2011, extended the interpretation framework to a fully sequenced family, the West family, who were the first family to be sequenced on the Illumina platform. The price to sequence a genome at that time was $19,500USD, which was billed to the patient but usually paid for out of a research grant; one person at that time had applied for reimbursement from their insurance company. For example, one child had needed around 100 surgeries by the time he was three years old, and his doctor turned to whole genome sequencing to determine the problem; it took a team of around 30 people that included 12 bioinformatics experts, three sequencing technicians, five physicians, two genetic counsellors and two ethicists to identify a rare mutation in the XIAP that was causing widespread problems. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21647820 | 218,806 |
1,631,399 | Yosemite toads have several apparent adaptations to high elevation. Males live to be at least 12 years, and females until at least 15 years. Their longevity probably helps them outlast years of low snowpack that cause poor breeding conditions, and thus low metamorphic recruitment. They are largely diurnal in contrast to the majority of anurans, probably owing to the cold mountain temperatures. Aligning their activities with diel peaks in warmth allows them to absorb solar energy to catch and biosynthesize food. The high level of melanism in eggs and tadpoles (and possibly in adult females), as well as the tendency for tadpoles to congregate in the warm shallows, probably serves the same purpose. Similarly, the selection of shallow breeding sites by adults, and shallow water margins by tadpoles, probably reflects the intense pressure to metamorphose in a short season, and hence the importance of using high temperature for rapid development. The marked dichromatism between males and females is still an evolutionary mystery. One possible explanation sexual selection. Females could be sexually selecting for lighter coloration in males, as some kind of proxy for male fitness, or males could be signaling their maleness to attract females and ward off over-zealous males. Males of the Yosemite toad and many other bufonid species change into a lighter color during breeding (e.g. Western toads, American toads), and other notable high elevation bufonids outside North America are highly sexually dichromatic (e.g. golden toads, yellow toads, marbled toads). Another more likely hypothesis is that males and females occupy largely different habitats, and evolution has de-coupled camouflage between the sexes. Males spend disproportionately more time in shallow, brown, silty breeding ponds, where they are highly exposed to predators. In contrast, females quickly leave pond habitat for rocky upland habitat where disruptive coloration may be more suitable. More than 60% of adults toads found in upland habitat during the late summer are females, whereas less than 10% are males. In lowland breeding habitat, this pattern is reversed: 54% of adult toads are males, and only 19% are females. Regardless of which hypothesis is correct, their diurnal habits make color and pattern subject to increased selection. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12358621 | 1,630,477 |
284,202 | In 1878, Albert Neisser isolated and visualized "N. gonorrhoeae" diplococci in samples of pus from 35 men and women with the classic symptoms of genitourinary infection with gonorrhea – two of whom also had infections of the eyes. In 1882, Leistikow and Loeffler were able to grow the organism in culture. Then in 1883, Max Bockhart proved conclusively that the bacterium isolated by Albert Neisser was the causative agent of the disease known as gonorrhea by inoculating the penis of a healthy man with the bacteria. The man developed the classic symptoms of gonorrhea days after, satisfying the last of Koch's postulates. Until this point, researchers debated whether syphilis and gonorrhea were manifestations of the same disease or two distinct entities. One such 18th-century researcher, John Hunter, tried to settle the debate in 1767 by inoculating a man with pus taken from a patient with gonorrhea. He erroneously concluded that both syphilis and gonorrhea were indeed the same disease when the man developed the copper-colored rash that is classic for syphilis. Although many sources repeat that Hunter inoculated himself, others have argued that it was in fact another man. After Hunter's experiment other scientists sought to disprove his conclusions by inoculating other male physicians, medical students, and incarcerated men with gonorrheal pus, who all developed the burning and discharge of gonorrhea. One researcher, Ricord, took the initiative to perform 667 inoculations of gonorrheal pus on patients of a mental hospital, with zero cases of syphilis. Notably, the advent of penicillin in the 1940s made effective treatments for gonorrhea available. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=61837 | 284,049 |
1,163,684 | Modern electric power transmission systems consist of generating plants inter-connected by electrical circuits that operate at fixed transmission voltages controlled at substations. The grid voltages employed are largely dependent on the path length between these substations and 200-700 kV system voltages are common. There is a trend towards using higher voltages and lower line resistances to reduce transmission losses over longer and longer path lengths. Low line resistances produce a situation favourable to the flow of GIC. Power transformers have a magnetic circuit that is disrupted by the quasi-DC GIC: the field produced by the GIC offsets the operating point of the magnetic circuit and the transformer may go into half-cycle saturation. This produces harmonics in the AC waveform, localised heating and leads to higher reactive power demands, inefficient power transmission and possible mis-operation of protective measures. Balancing the network in such situations requires significant additional reactive power capacity. The magnitude of GIC that will cause significant problems to transformers varies with transformer type. Modern industry practice is to specify GIC tolerance levels on new transformers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9414169 | 1,163,067 |
1,621,149 | While Evanston and Chicago did not have the most oppressive Jim Crow laws in the country, in the post-War era the university and surrounding community remained highly conservative and resistant to changes in traditional social practices. Although as many as five black students were admitted every year, they were excluded from on-campus housing until the 1947 establishment of the euphemistically titled "International House" opened for black women. For example, when future mayor of Evanston, Lorraine H. Morton attended Northwestern in the early 1940s, she was not allowed to live in on-campus accommodations and had to board in a private home nearby. Asbury Hall was purchased in 1949 to likewise house black men, but a group of progressive white students also moved in despite the wishes of Snyder's administration to keep the student housing segregated. Asbury would become a center for civil rights activism with its students organizing letter-writing campaigns to recruit more African American and Jewish American students to Northwestern despite the quotas imposed on these groups by the admissions office. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10414221 | 1,620,234 |
12,663 | Completion requirements vary. Most Australian PhD programs do not have a required coursework component. The credit points attached to the degree are all in the product of the research, which is usually an 80,000-word thesis that makes a significant new contribution to the field. Recent pressure on higher degree by research (HDR) students to publish has resulted in increasing interest in Ph.D by publication as opposed to the more traditional Ph.D by dissertation, which typically requires a minimum of two publications, but which also requires traditional thesis elements such as an introductory exegesis, and linking chapters between papers. The PhD thesis is sent to external examiners who are experts in the field of research and who have not been involved in the work. Examiners are nominated by the candidate's university, and their identities are often not revealed to the candidate until the examination is complete. A formal oral defence is generally not part of the examination of the thesis, largely because of the distances that would need to be travelled by the overseas examiners; however, since 2016, there is a trend toward implementing this in many Australian universities. At the University of South Australia, PhD candidates who started after January 2016 now undertake an oral defence via an online conference with two examiners. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21031297 | 12,658 |
528,322 | Regulation of AI can be seen as positive social means to manage the AI control problem, i.e., the need to insure long-term beneficial AI, with other social responses such as doing nothing or banning being seen as impractical, and approaches such as enhancing human capabilities through transhumanism techniques like brain-computer interfaces being seen as potentially complementary. Regulation of research into artificial general intelligence (AGI) focuses on the role of review boards, from university or corporation to international levels, and on encouraging research into safe AI, together with the possibility of differential intellectual progress (prioritizing risk-reducing strategies over risk-taking strategies in AI development) or conducting international mass surveillance to perform AGI arms control. For instance, the 'AGI Nanny' is a proposed strategy, potentially under the control of humanity, for preventing the creation of a dangerous superintelligence as well as for addressing other major threats to human well-being, such as subversion of the global financial system, until a true superintelligence can be safely created. It entails the creation of a smarter-than-human, but not superintelligent, AGI system connected to a large surveillance network, with the goal of monitoring humanity and protecting it from danger." Regulation of conscious, ethically aware AGIs focuses on integrating them with existing human society and can be divided into considerations of their legal standing and of their moral rights. Regulation of AI has been seen as restrictive, with a risk of preventing the development of AGI. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=63451675 | 528,048 |
402,763 | The NEP represented a more market-oriented economic policy (deemed necessary after the Russian Civil War of 1918 to 1922) to foster the economy of the country, which had suffered severely since 1915. The Soviet authorities partially revoked the complete nationalization of industry (established during the period of war communism of 1918 to 1921) and introduced a mixed economy which allowed private individuals to own small and medium sized enterprises, while the state continued to control large industries, banks and foreign trade. In addition, the NEP abolished "prodrazvyorstka" (forced grain-requisition) and introduced "prodnalog": a tax on farmers, payable in the form of raw agricultural product. The Bolshevik government adopted the NEP in the course of the 10th Congress of the All-Russian Communist Party (March 1921) and promulgated it by a decree on 21 March 1921: "On the Replacement of "Prodrazvyorstka" by "Prodnalog"". Further decrees refined the policy. Other policies included monetary reform (1922–1924) and the attraction of foreign capital. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=40229586 | 402,563 |
827,549 | Roots, in particular, display observable swarm behavior, growing in patterns that exceed the statistical threshold for random probability, and indicate the presence of communication between individual root apexes. The primary function of plant roots is the uptake of soil nutrients, and it is this purpose which drives swarm behavior. Plants growing in close proximity have adapted their growth to assure optimal nutrient availability. This is accomplished by growing in a direction that optimizes the distance between nearby roots, thereby increasing their chance of exploiting untapped nutrient reserves. The action of this behavior takes two forms: maximization of distance from, and repulsion by, neighboring root apexes. The transition zone of a root tip is largely responsible for monitoring for the presence of soil-borne hormones, signaling responsive growth patterns as appropriate. Plant responses are often complex, integrating multiple inputs to inform an autonomous response. Additional inputs that inform swarm growth includes light and gravity, both of which are also monitored in the transition zone of a root's apex. These forces act to inform any number of growing "main" roots, which exhibit their own independent releases of inhibitory chemicals to establish appropriate spacing, thereby contributing to a swarm behavior pattern. Horizontal growth of roots, whether in response to high mineral content in soil or due to stolon growth, produces branched growth that establish to also form their own, independent root swarms. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=207874 | 827,105 |
1,623,979 | First, consider fixed transmitarrays. At each location on the surface of the structure, the unit cells are physically scaled or rotated in order to obtain the required amplitude and phase distribution. Thus, only one focusing direction is available. The aim is to approximate the ideal phase distribution, such as formula_4 for a feed located at formula_5, which can be achieved by discretising the surface of the transmitarray into several Fresnel zones. High aperture efficiency (55%) can be achieved at oblique angles of incidence using precision-machined double split ring slot unit cells. A switched-beam transmitarray covering the 57 – 66 GHz band has been reported. Three different types of unit cells were used, based on patches and coupling slots. Similarly, a 60 GHz design used unit cells with a 2-bit phase resolution and selected an optimal formula_1 ratio to widen the bandwidth. When formula_1 = 0.5, a scan loss of 2.2 dB was achieved at a 30° steering angle. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=62946879 | 1,623,063 |
460,305 | In 1944, Kartveli began working on a turbojet-powered replacement for the P-47 Thunderbolt piston-engined fighter. The initial attempts to redesign the P-47 to accommodate a jet engine proved futile due to the large cross-section of the early centrifugal compressor turbojets. Instead, Kartveli and his team designed a brand-new aircraft with a streamlined fuselage largely occupied by an axial compressor turbojet engine and fuel stored in rather thick unswept wings. On September 11, 1944, the United States Army Air Force released General Operational Requirements for a day fighter with a top speed of 600 mph (521 knots, 966 km/h), combat radius of 705 miles (612 nm, 1,135 km), and armament of either six 0.50 inch (12.7 mm) or four 0.60 inch (15.2 mm) machine guns. In addition, the new aircraft had to use the General Electric TG-180 axial turbojet which entered production as the Allison J35. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=442516 | 460,079 |
404,505 | While the issue of military funding was perhaps the most obvious explanation for Grothendieck's departure from the IHÉS, those who knew him say that the causes of the rupture ran more deeply. Pierre Cartier, a "visiteur de longue durée" ("long-term guest") at the IHÉS, wrote a piece about Grothendieck for a special volume published on the occasion of the IHÉS's fortieth anniversary. In that publication, Cartier notes that as the son of an antimilitary anarchist and one who grew up among the disenfranchised, Grothendieck always had a deep compassion for the poor and the downtrodden. As Cartier puts it, Grothendieck came to find Bures-sur-Yvette as ""une cage dorée"" ("a gilded cage"). While Grothendieck was at the IHÉS, opposition to the Vietnam War was heating up, and Cartier suggests that this also reinforced Grothendieck's distaste at having become a mandarin of the scientific world. In addition, after several years at the IHÉS, Grothendieck seemed to cast about for new intellectual interests. By the late 1960s, he had started to become interested in scientific areas outside mathematics. David Ruelle, a physicist who joined the IHÉS faculty in 1964, said that Grothendieck came to talk to him a few times about physics. Biology interested Grothendieck much more than physics, and he organized some seminars on biological topics. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2042 | 404,305 |
1,263,561 | The university's international dimension grew significantly during the 1990s, but was hampered by new training requirements for air-traffic controllers. ENAC participated in European projects such as EATCHIP (European Air Traffic Control Harmonization and Integration Program), and offered student-mobility programs through the Erasmus and Socrates programmes. The university began to welcome a growing number of foreign students, and formed close ties with foreign universities such as the Berlin Institute of Technology and the Technische Universität Darmstadt in Germany and the University of Tampere in Finland. At that time, ENAC created the Groupement des écoles d'aéronautique (GEA France) with the Institut supérieur de l'aéronautique et de l'espace (ISAE) and École nationale supérieure de mécanique et d'aérotechnique (ENSMA). The three "grandes écoles" of this network, in partnership with the DGAC and French companies such as EADS, Airbus, Thales, Eurocopter, and Safran), founded the Institut sino-européen d'ingénierie de l'aviation (Chinese-European Aviation Engineering Institute) in Tianjin in 2007, with master's and mastère spécialisé programs for Chinese students. During the 2000s, courses in English and activities focused on air navigation were developed. In 2009, the university and its alumni association organized the first aeronautical literary festival in Toulouse. ENAC became an ICAO center for training in aviation security in December 2010. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2008318 | 1,262,873 |
1,261,937 | On March 2, 1908 Nobel prize winning French physicist Gabriel Lippmann presented his ideas for "Photographie intégrale", based on insect eyes. He was probably also inspired by the barrier grid autostereograms of Frederic Ives and Eugène Estanave, representing Estanave at several presentations of Estanave's works at the French Academy of Sciences. Lippmann suggested to use a screen of tiny lenses. Spherical segments should be pressed into a sort of film with photographic emulsion on the other side. The screen would be placed inside a lightproof holder and on a tripod for stability. When exposed each tiny lens would function as a camera and record the surroundings from a slightly different angle than neighboring lenses. When developed and lit from behind the lenses should project the life-size image of the recorded subject in space. He could not yet present concrete results in March 1908, but by the end of 1908 he claimed to have exposed some Integral photography plates and to have seen the "resulting single, full-sized image". However, the technique remained experimental since no material or technique seemed to deliver the optical quality desired. At the time of his death in 1921 Lippmann reportedly had a system with only twelve lenses. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5291448 | 1,261,250 |
1,228,523 | Levels of "over 1000" and 750 mSv/h are reported from water within unit 2 (but outside the containment structure) and 3 respectively. Japan's Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency indicate that "The level of radiation is greater than 1,000 millisieverts. It is certain that it comes from atomic fission ... But we are not sure how it came from the reactor." The high radiation levels cause delays for technicians working to restore the water cooling systems for the troubled reactors. USAF technicians at Yokota AB complete the fabrication of compatibility valves to allow the connection of deployed pump systems to the existing infrastructure at Fukushima. An aerial video recorded by a Ground Self-Defense Force helicopter reveals, according to NHK, the clearest and most detailed view of the damaged plant to date. Significant observations include: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31167895 | 1,227,861 |
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