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877,880 | Grids are a form of distributed computing composed of many networked loosely coupled computers acting together to perform large tasks. For certain applications, distributed or grid computing can be seen as a special type of parallel computing that relies on complete computers (with onboard CPUs, storage, power supplies, network interfaces, etc.) connected to a computer network (private or public) by a conventional network interface, such as Ethernet. This is in contrast to the traditional notion of a supercomputer, which has many processors connected by a local high-speed computer bus. This technology has been applied to computationally intensive scientific, mathematical, and academic problems through volunteer computing, and it is used in commercial enterprises for such diverse applications as drug discovery, economic forecasting, seismic analysis, and back office data processing in support for e-commerce and Web services. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=49373 | 877,418 |
1,184,628 | In 1961–1963, the famous historian of polar expeditions published a series of studies on the Bellingshausen's report card. Thus, the new primary source that proved the Russian priority over Antarctic lands was released. The map was presumably made by the expedition officers for the report to Traversay, or even to Alexander I. In the 1980-1990s, Belov's argumentation was accepted by foreign specialists. The map included 15 pages and had coloured remarks on different ice conditions. According to Belov, every time when Bellingshausen used the phrase "sploshnoi led" it actually meant that the expedition faced not with ordinary ice fields but with the shores of the Antarctic continent. As Bulkeley calculated, Bellingshausen described meetings with "sploshnoi led" 12 times, using this term 16 times in the reports, and around 33 times in his book. According to Belov, the expedition simultaneously opened the continent, and conducted an extended research on it. Conclusions of Belov were repeated in the book of Alexey Tryoshnikov, and in the research conducted by and "Russian geographic discoveries and studies from ancient times to 1917" () where the authors reproduced the map of the "ice shore" and ice classification compiled by Novosilsky. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=40880361 | 1,184,000 |
1,510,983 | The best way to manage "P. cactorum" is by implementing an integrated management plan. The combination of soil fumigation and proper cultural controls will be the best option for plant health. Recommended chemical controls products include fosetyl-Al, metalaxyl, and etridiazole. Prevention and sanitation are crucial because this pathogen is usually transmitted through cuts or injuries on the plant. The spores are easily transported through irrigation water and will splash to nearby plants. Elevating your plants above the ground can help to prevent infection. The pathogen thrives in moist soils therefore it is important to avoid very saturated soils as much as possible and one should work to prepare their soil for adequate drainage during the wet periods. Soil drainage and low soil pH may help to reduce the disease. Fertilizer regimen methods have been used to control against "P. cactorum". These fertilizers include organic materials that release ammonia, nitrous acid, and amendments to reduce the pH to less than 4. The use of raised beds and a carefully managed drip irrigation system will be important cultural practices that can be implemented. There are some form of biological controls that have been found to be somewhat successful with "Enterobacter aerogenes" and "Trichoderma". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11069040 | 1,510,133 |
757,083 | Intravenously administered glucocorticoids, such as prednisone, are the standard of care in acute GvHD and chronic GVHD. The use of these glucocorticoids is designed to suppress the T-cell-mediated immune onslaught on the host tissues; however, in high doses, this immune-suppression raises the risk of infections and cancer relapse. Therefore, it is desirable to taper off the post-transplant high-level steroid doses to lower levels, at which point the appearance of mild GVHD may be welcome, especially in HLA mis-matched patients, as it is typically associated with a graft-versus-tumor effect.. Cyclosporine and tacrolimus are calcineurin inhibitors. The substances are structurally different but have the same mechanism of action. Cyclosporine binds to the cytosolic protein Peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerase A (known as cyclophilin), while tacrolimus binds to the cytosolic protein Peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerase FKBP12. These complexes inhibit calcineurin, block dephosphorylation of the transcription factor NFAT of activated T-cells and its translocation into the nucleus. Standard prophylaxis involves the use of cyclosporine for six months with methotrexate. Cyclosporin levels should be maintained above 200 ng/ml. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=575888 | 756,679 |
252,115 | The E-7 was the next major production variant, entering service and seeing combat at the end of August 1940. One of the limitations of the earlier Bf 109Es was their short range of 660 km (410 mi) and limited endurance, as the design was originally conceived as a short-range interceptor. The E-7 rectified this problem as it was the first Bf 109 subtype to be able to carry a drop tank, usually the standardized Luftwaffe 300 L (80 US gal) capacity unit mounted on a centre-line rack under the fuselage, which increased its range to 1,325 km (820 mi). Fuel from the drop tank was pumped to the internal fuel tank via a large fuel line that ran up and along the inside starboard wall of the cockpit, with a clear sight glass located in the fuel line's main span so the pilot could easily see the flow of fuel and know when the tank was empty. Alternatively, a bomb could be fitted and the E-7 could be used as a "Jabo" fighter-bomber. Previous Emil subtypes were progressively retrofitted with the necessary fittings for carrying a drop tank from October 1940. Early E-7s were fitted with the 1,100 PS DB 601A or 1,175 PS DB 601Aa engine, while late-production ones received 1,175 PS DB 601N engines with improved altitude performance – the latter was designated as E-7/N. A total of 438 E-7s of all variants were built. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=24983642 | 251,982 |
867,437 | Lake Okeechobee is an ideal habitat for cyanobacteria because its shallow, sunny, and laden with nutrients from Florida's agriculture. The Okeechobee Waterway connects the lake to the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico through the St. Lucie River and the Caloosahatchee respectively. This means that harmful algal blooms are carried down the estuaries as water is released during the wet summer months. In July 2018 up to 90% of Lake Okeechobee was covered in algae. Water draining from the lake filled the region with a noxious odor and caused respiratory problems in some humans during the following month. To make matters worse, harmful red tide blooms are historically common on Florida's coasts during these same summer months. Cyanobacteria in the rivers die as they reach saltwater but their nitrogen fixation feeds the red tide on the coast. Areas at the mouth of the estuaries such as Cape Coral and Port St. Lucie therefore experience the compounded effects of both types of harmful algal bloom. Cleanup crews hired by authorities in Lee County - where the Caloosahatchee meets the Gulf of Mexico - removed more than 1700 tons of dead marine life in August 2018. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18348855 | 866,977 |
1,212,353 | Historian Paul Forman, in his seminal 1987 article, proposed that not only had military funding of science greatly expanded the scope and significance of American physics, it also initiated "a qualitative change in its purposes and character." Historians of science were beginning to turn to the Cold War relationship between science and the military for detailed study, and Forman's “distortionist critique” (as Roger Geiger has described it) served to focus the ensuing debates. Forman and others (e.g., Robert Seidel, Stuart Leslie, and for the history of the social sciences, Ron Robin) view the influx of military money and the focus on applied rather than basic research as having had, at least partially, a negative impact on the course of subsequent research. In turn, critics of the distortionist thesis, beginning with Daniel Kevles, deny that the military "seduced American physicists from, so to speak, a 'true basic physics'." Kevles, as well as Geiger, instead view the effects of military funding relative to such funding simply being absent—rather than put to alternate scientific use. Most recent scholarship has moved toward a tempered version of Forman's thesis, in which scientists retained significant autonomy despite the radical changes brought about by military funding. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4999816 | 1,211,701 |
438,409 | Another major area of research for logical theory was software engineering. Research projects such as the Knowledge Based Software Assistant and Programmer's Apprentice programs applied logical theory to validate the correctness of software specifications. They also used them to transform the specifications into efficient code on diverse platforms and to prove the equivalence between the implementation and the specification. This formal transformation driven approach is often far more effortful than traditional software development. However, in specific domains with appropriate formalisms and reusable templates the approach has proven viable for commercial products. The appropriate domains are usually those such as weapons systems, security systems, and real time financial systems where failure of the system has excessively high human or financial cost. An example of such a domain is Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) design—the process for designing the chips used for the CPUs and other critical components of digital devices. An error in a chip is catastrophic. Unlike software, chips can't be patched or updated. As a result, there is commercial justification for using formal methods to prove that the implementation corresponds to the specification. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1151991 | 438,195 |
2,197,991 | In bioconjugation (forming a stable covalent link between a biomolecule and a functional payloads, such as fluorescent dyes, cytotoxic agents, or tracers), linking of the payload was classically achieved using maleimide heterobifunctional reagents (for example, see SMCC). However, when administered into living organisms, maleimide-containing bioconjugates were found to be relatively unstable and lose the payload in the blood circulation due to reversibility of the addition reaction between maleimide moiety and cysteine residue of a protein (retro Michael addition). Due to increased stability of bioconjugates obtained with analogous APN-based payloads (a schematic reaction is shown in the Figure 2 below), their use is often preferable when high selectivity and biostability are especially important: namely for the preparation of antibody−drug conjugates and other biologics. Standard procedure for APN protein labeling consists in incubation of a protein containing free cysteine residues with an APN-functionalized probe in PBS buffer at pH 7.5-9.0 at room temperature for 2–12 hours, followed by an optional step of purification of the resulting bioconjugate using size exclusion chromatography or ultrafiltration. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54069873 | 2,196,740 |
285,618 | On 24 March 2011, Shanghai-based Commercial Aircraft Corporation of China (Comac) and Bombardier Inc. signed a framework agreement for a long-term strategic cooperation on commercial aircraft. The intention was to break the near-duopoly of Airbus and Boeing. Aircraft covered by the programme included the Bombardier CRJ-series, CSeries and Q-series; and the Comac ARJ21 and Comac C919. In January 2012, the firm began manufacturing simple structures, such as flight controls for the CRJ series, from its first facility in Africa, near Casablanca, Morocco. On 30 September 2013, it broke ground on its permanent facility, due to open late 2014. In October, a joint development deal between Bombardier and a South Korean consortium consisting of Korea Aerospace Industries and Korean Air Lines was revealed, to develop a 90-seater turboprop regional airliner, targeting a 2019 launch date. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=81581 | 285,464 |
1,888,091 | While all mechanistic aspects of this behavior have yet to be elucidated (e.g., evidence indicates differential gene expression is involved, but the specifics have yet to be determined), many of the physiological aspects of paraheliotropic movement, at least in "Phaseolus vulgaris" (the common bean), are well understood. In this plant, daily leaf movements are influenced by two main factors: an endogenous circadian oscillator and light-induced signals. Physically, the movement is carried out by turgor-dependent changes in the volume of cortical parenchyma cells (called motor cells) in a turgor-sensitive part of the plant called the pulvinus, located at the juncture of the leaf base and the petiole. The cumulative effect of volume-changes in these motor cells manifests itself on the tissue/organ level as a swelling or shrinking of one or both sides of the pulvinus, which results in the reorientation of the adjacent leaf. Potassium and chloride have been shown to be the major osmolytes involved in the process, and plasma membrane-located proton pumps and ion transporters have been shown to play a critical role in creating osmotic potential. The hormones IAA and ABA are also involved in the process and play antagonistic roles, with IAA inducing pulvinar swelling and ABA inducing pulvinar shrinking. Blue light has also been shown to induce rapid pulvinar shrinking. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57401142 | 1,887,008 |
747,769 | The final element of a choropleth map is the set of colors used to represent the different values of the variable. There are a variety of different approaches to this task, but the primary principle is that any order in the variable (e.g., low to high quantitative values) should be reflected in the perceived order of the colors (e.g., light to dark), as this will allow map readers to intuitively make "more vs. less" judgements and see trends and patterns with minimal reference to the legend. A second general guideline, at least for classified maps, is that the colors should be easily distinguishable, so the colors on the map can be unambiguously matched to those in the legend to determine the represented values. This requirement limits the number of classes that can be included; for shades of gray, tests have shown that when value alone is used (e.g., light to dark, whether gray or any single hue), it is difficult to practically use more than seven classes. If differences in hue and/or saturation are incorporated, that limit increases significantly to as many as 10-12 classes. The need for color discrimination is further impacted by color vision deficiencies; for example, color schemes that use red and green to distinguish values will not be useful for a significant portion of the population. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1506652 | 747,373 |
440,910 | Beginning in the late 1950s, English physicists Stan Evans and Gordon Robin began using the radioglaciology technique of radio-echo sounding (RES) to chart ice thickness. Subglacial lakes are identified by (RES) data as continuous and specular reflectors which dip against the ice surface at around x10 of the surface slope angle, as this is required for hydrostatic stability. In the late 1960s, they were able to mount RES instruments on aircraft and acquire data for the Antarctic Ice Sheet. Between 1971 and 1979, the Antarctic Ice Sheet was profiled extensively using RES equipment. The technique of using RES is as follows: 50-meter deep holes are drilled to increase the signal-to-noise ratio in the ice. A small explosion sets off a sound wave, which travels through the ice. This sound wave is reflected and then recorded by the instrument. The time it takes for the wave to travel down and back is noted and converted to a distance using the known speed of sound in ice. RES records can identify subglacial lakes via three specific characteristics: 1) an especially strong reflection from the ice-sheet base, stronger than adjacent ice-bedrock reflections; 2) echoes of constant strength occurring along the track, which indicate that the surface is very smooth; and 3) a very flat and horizontal character with slopes less than 1%. Using this approach, 17 subglacial lakes were documented by Kapista and his team. RES also led to the discovery of the first subglacial lake in Greenland and revealed that these lakes are interconnected. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2024699 | 440,695 |
1,274,813 | On 17 September 1996, three 509th B-2s dropped three inert GBU-36 weapons, the highly accurate Global Positioning System-Aided Munitions (GAM) which used the GPS-Aided Targeting System (GATS). The B-2s made the drops at the Nellis AFB, Nevada, bombing range. Range officials, inspecting the area after the releases, were astonished to find that the GBU-36s had fallen seven, four, and four feet, respectively, from the target. A month later, the 509th repeated this impressive feat—only this time, they used live weapons. On 8 October 1996, three B-2s revisited the Nellis range and released 16 2,000 lb. class GBU-36 bombs from an altitude of 40,000 feet. Again, amazed range personnel discovered all sixteen projectiles hit close enough to their targets to be confirmed as 16 kills. The results so impressed USAF Chief of Staff General Ronald Fogleman that he announced at a mid-December press conference the 509th and the B-2 would reach limited (conventional) operational capability on 1 January 1997. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4761168 | 1,274,121 |
2,061,429 | The book received a positive review from David Oshinsky in the "New York Times". It also received a positive review in the "Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine", where Michael Fitzpatrick wrote that Allen "does not ignore the history of vaccine disasters. He includes the fiasco in the US military in 1942, when yellow fever vaccine contaminated with hepatitis B caused 100 deaths, and the mass vaccination against smallpox in New York in 1947 that caused six deaths (four more than the outbreak itself). In the Cutter incident in the 1950s, inadequately inactivated polio vaccine caused 164 cases of paralysis and 10 deaths. While acknowledging these failures, Allen pays tribute to immunization authorities — such as Henry Kempe and Bob Chen — who have campaigned to improve vaccine safety." Another favorable review appeared in "The Guardian", where Mark Honigsbaum wrote, "One of the joys of reading Allen's well-researched but never boring 500-page history is that he pricks both camps, taking a critical look at both the anti-vaccinists' championing of pseudo-science and the medical establishment's repeated tendency to downplay the genuine dangers of vaccine side-effects." It was also reviewed in the "Journal of Clinical Investigation", where William A. Paxton wrote that it was "a timely and heavily researched book that intelligently and thoughtfully takes the reader through the fusion of the above factors [i.e. the history of vaccine development]." Another review appeared in the "New England Journal of Medicine", written by Samuel L. Katz of Duke University's Medical School. Katz wrote, "...I found his [Allen's] writing well balanced, and he includes more information about opponents of vaccines than one usually finds in similar sources." In addition, Rebecca Skloot of the "Columbia Journalism Review" wrote that, until Allen's book was published, "no book had so carefully and clearly catalogued the history of immunization". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=40208289 | 2,060,242 |
272,957 | Generally speaking, the structure of materials is different from one another. Metallic materials have different structures compared to polymer or ceramics, and even within the same class of materials, different structures might have existed at different temperatures. The difference in the structure includes the difference in grains (for example, their sizes, shapes, distributions), their crystalline or amorphous nature, and even dislocation and/or vacancy contents that are prone to change following a deformation. So, since creep is a time-dependent process and differs from one material to another, all these parameters must be considered in materials selection for a specific application. For instance, materials with low-dislocation content are among the suitable candidates for creep resistance. In other words, the dislocation glide and climb can be reduced if the proper material is selected (for example, ceramic materials are very popular in this case). In terms of vacancies, it's noteworthy to mention that the vacancy content not only depends on the chosen material but also on the component's service temperature. Vacancy-diffusion-controlled processes that promote creep can be categorized into grain boundary diffusion (Coble creep) and lattice diffusion (Nabarro–Herring creep). Therefore, the properties of dislocations and vacancies, their distributions throughout the structure, and their potential change due to long-time exposure to stress and temperature must be considered seriously in materials selection for components design. Therefore, the role of dislocations, vacancies, wide range of obstacles that can retard the dislocation motion, including grain boundaries in polycrystalline materials, solute atoms, precipitates, impurities, and strain fields originating from other dislocations or their pile-ups which increase the lifetime of materials and make them more resistive with respect to creep are always at the top list of materials selection and component design. For instance, different types of vacancies in ceramic materials have different charges stemming from their dominant chemical boding. So, existing or newly-formed vacancies must be charge-balanced to maintain the overall neutrality of the final structure. Besides paying attention to individual dislocation and vacancy contents, the correlation between them is also worth exploring since dislocation's ability to climb depends heavily on how many vacancies are available in its vicinity. To recap, materials must be selected and developed that possess low dislocation and vacancy contents to have a practical creep resistance component. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=681241 | 272,809 |
1,808,802 | While working in the laboratory Lee had started to pursue her own research projects. She published four papers in her own name and contributed to 26 others. Twice she declined to be listed as a co-author of a paper published by Pearson, arguing that she had only done the arithmetic. She was in the process of establishing a reputation as a statistician. For her dissertation she had developed a statistical model that estimated the cranial volume of living humans from external skull measurements. Her research on the statistical analysis of within species variation, a branch of evolutionary biology, continued until 1910 and led her to publish a succession of papers in the "Biometrika" from 1902 onwards. Lee's work also contributed to the preparation of tabulated functions, which were frequently used by contemporary statisticians and biologists. Her first and second publication on tabulated functions was published in the "Reports" of the British Science Association in 1896 and 1899. Later works on the subject were published in the "Biometrika" between 1914 and 1927. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39502937 | 1,807,781 |
1,270,661 | In 1853 the Pacific Railroad Exploration survey became the first to write about Arizona's petrified forest. In 1873 the Smithsonian sent an expedition through Fort Wingate to the petrified forest to collect samples of the eponymous petrified wood. In 1900 the United States Geological Survey dedicated a report to the local petrified forest. The author expressed deep concern about the future prospects of the fossils because many people were taking specimens both small and large. The report encouraged swift action to preserve the spectacular fossils. In 1906, action was taken to declare Petrified Forest officially a national monument. In 1915, Charles Schuchert made a significant discovery of fossil footprints at the Grand Canyon. Charles W. Gilmore visited the Grand Canyon area during the 1920s to collect specimens of these footprints for the Smithsonian Institution. The Smithsonian was also interested in acquiring Permian-aged footprints, which are abundant in the area. He also wanted to create an exhibit and interpretive center for Paleozoic tracks at Hermit Trail. Gilmore's fruitful research into the area's Paleozoic trace fossils resulted in many publications. In 1938, the fossil cast of a jellyfish was discovered in one of the Grand Canyon's Proterozoic rocks. This was the oldest known jellyfish fossil ever discovered. In 1957 Stokes described the ichnogenus "Pteraichnus" from the Morrison Formation of Arizona. These tracks were likely left by pterosaurs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37799161 | 1,269,970 |
1,033,422 | The Foreign Legion was heavily involved in World War II, playing a large role in the Middle East and the North African campaign. The 6th Foreign Infantry Regiment was established by consolidating battalions stationed in Syria into a single battalion on October 15, 1939. Around the beginning of the war the primary training camp of the Legion was located at Saïda, however by October 1939, another training camp was established at Bacarès near the Spanish border. The facility at Bacarès was re-purposed as training facility from an internment camp for Spanish refugees from the Spanish Civil War. Foreign Legion Forces being trained at these locations were provided inadequate arms and equipment – mostly surplus World War I-era equipment – which demonstrates the degree of low regard which the Foreign Legion by French military authorities. The 13th Foreign Legion Demi-Brigade was raised in February 1940 for the purpose of deploying to Finland. By February 1940, over 84,000 foreigners had volunteered to serve France which led to great organizational difficulties for the Foreign Legion. During this time a large number of recruits in the Legion were Spanish Republicans and East European Jews, many of whom held their personal ideologies very close to their hearts causing difficulty in their assimilation into the Foreign Legion. Not only did political refugees from Spain and East Europe prove difficult to assimilate into the Legion, but so did many of the reservist, former Legionnaires who returned to the Legion when called up as they were no longer young men and had families to look after. Most of the Foreign Legion remained in training until the Germans launched their offensive against France on May 10, 1940. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8868718 | 1,032,886 |
1,526,932 | Development of this first climate model was based on Smagorinsky's belief that individual inquiry would be inadequate for addressing such a complex problem. He realized that it would take large-scale numerical modeling with teams of scientists using commonly shared high-speed computers to achieve such a breakthrough. As stated in the "Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society" in 1992, "Dr. Smagorinsky's almost relentless pursuit of excellence at Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory set a standard for other laboratories and centers that have contributed immensely to the growth of meteorology as a science" throughout the world. Michael MacCracken, President of International Association of Meteorology and Atmospheric Sciences, wrote following Smagorinsky's death that "From its earliest days, GFDL has been world renowned, with an outstanding set of scientists doing outstanding work that attracted scientists from around the world to come to learn and collaborate – and then return to their home countries or other institutions as outstanding scientists. Not only a whole new scientific field of investigation, but a community of scientists capable of doing it well has been created." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5194620 | 1,526,068 |
652,511 | Perchlorate (ClO) is a strong oxidizer, so it has the potential of being used for rocket fuel and as a source of oxygen for future missions. Also, when mixed with water, perchlorate can greatly lower freezing point of water, in a manner similar to how salt is applied to roads to melt ice. So, perchlorate may be allowing small amounts of liquid water to form on the surface of Mars today. Gullies, which are common in certain areas of Mars, may have formed from perchlorate melting ice and causing water to erode soil on steep slopes. Perchlorates have also been detected at the landing site of the "Curiosity" rover, nearer equatorial Mars, and in the martian meteorite EETA79001, suggesting a "global distribution of these salts". Only highly refractory and/or well-protected organic compounds are likely to be preserved in the frozen subsurface. Therefore, the MOMA instrument planned to fly on the 2022 ExoMars rover will employ a method that is unaffected by the presence of perchlorates to detect and measure sub-surface organics. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=453566 | 652,169 |
1,184,625 | On August 9, 1948, discussion regarding the role of Russia in the discovery of Antarctica moved to a political dimension. At that day the USA officially urged countries that pretended on Antarctic territories (Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway and Britain) to unite and create a condominium of eight powers. Soviet interests were not taken into consideration. On January 29, 1949, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union decided to attract international attention to the Soviet claims to Antarctic territories. On February 10, 1949, Russian Geographical Society held a meeting where the president of the Society Lev Berg read the report. The following resolution, based on his speech, was very discreet. It stated that Russian sailors just "discovered in 1821 the Peter I Island, Alexander Island, Traversay Islands, and others". Thus, the question was raised regarding the Soviet development of Antarctica and scientific research on the discovery of the Ice Continent. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=40880361 | 1,183,997 |
897,373 | A neutron interacting with the semiconductor lattice will displace its atoms. This leads to an increase in the count of recombination centers and deep-level defects, reducing the lifetime of minority carriers, thus affecting bipolar devices more than CMOS ones. Bipolar devices on silicon tend to show changes in electrical parameters at levels of 10 to 10 neutrons/cm², CMOS devices aren't affected until 10 neutrons/cm². The sensitivity of the devices may increase together with increasing level of integration and decreasing size of individual structures. There is also a risk of induced radioactivity caused by neutron activation, which is a major source of noise in high energy astrophysics instruments. Induced radiation, together with residual radiation from impurities in used materials, can cause all sorts of single-event problems during the device's lifetime. GaAs LEDs, common in optocouplers, are very sensitive to neutrons. The lattice damage influences the frequency of crystal oscillators. Kinetic energy effects (namely lattice displacement) of charged particles belong here too. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1041641 | 896,900 |
543,568 | The pathophysiology of CRS can be attributed to two broad categories of "hemodynamic factors" such as low cardiac output, elevation of both intra-abdominal and central venous pressures, and non-hemodynamic factors or "cardiorenal connectors" such as neurohormonal and inflammatory activation. It was previously believed that low cardiac output in heart failure patients result in decreased blood flow to the kidneys which can lead to progressive deterioration of kidney function. As a result, diuresis of these patients will result in hypovolemia and pre-renal azotemia. However, several studies did not find an association between kidney dysfunction and cardiac output or other hemodynamic parameters. In addition, CRS has been observed in patients with diastolic dysfunction who have normal left ventricular systolic function. Therefore, there must be additional mechanisms involved in the progression of CRS. Elevated intra-abdominal pressures resulting from ascites and abdominal wall edema may be associated with worsening kidney functions in heart failure patients. Several studies have shown that as a result of this increased intra-abdominal pressure there is increased central venous pressure and congestion of the kidneys' veins, which can lead to worsening kidney function. In addition, many neurohormonal and inflammatory agents are implicated in the progression of CRS. These include increased formation of reactive oxygen species, endothelin, arginine vasopressin, and excessive sympathetic activity which can result in myocardial hypertrophy and necrosis. Other cardiorenal connectors include renin-angiotensin-system activation, nitric oxide/reactive oxygen species imbalance, inflammatory factors and abnormal activation of the sympathetic nervous system, which can cause structural and functional abnormalities in both heart and/or the kidney. There is a close interaction within these cardiorenal connectors as well as between these factors and the hemodynamic factors which makes the study of CRS pathophysiology complicated. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=24748182 | 543,288 |
872,442 | Markovich. These are approaches based on variable bandwidth and long-tailed kernel estimators; on the preliminary data transform to a new random variable at finite or infinite intervals, which is more convenient for the estimation and then inverse transform of the obtained density estimate; and "piecing-together approach" which provides a certain parametric model for the tail of the density and a non-parametric model to approximate the mode of the density. Nonparametric estimators require an appropriate selection of tuning (smoothing) parameters like a bandwidth of kernel estimators and the bin width of the histogram. The well known data-driven methods of such selection are a cross-validation and its modifications, methods based on the minimization of the mean squared error (MSE) and its asymptotic and their upper bounds. A discrepancy method which uses well-known nonparametric statistics like Kolmogorov-Smirnov's, von Mises and Anderson-Darling's ones as a metric in the space of distribution functions (dfs) and quantiles of the later statistics as a known uncertainty or a discrepancy value can be found in. Bootstrap is another tool to find smoothing parameters using approximations of unknown MSE by different schemes of re-samples selection, see e.g. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8092200 | 871,982 |
1,167,138 | Nuclear astrophysics is an interdisciplinary part of both nuclear physics and astrophysics, involving close collaboration among researchers in various subfields of each of these fields. This includes, notably, nuclear reactions and their rates as they occur in cosmic environments, and modeling of astrophysical objects where these nuclear reactions may occur, but also considerations of cosmic evolution of isotopic and elemental composition (often called chemical evolution). Constraints from observations involve multiple messengers, all across the electromagnetic spectrum (nuclear gamma-rays, X-rays, optical, and radio/sub-mm astronomy), as well as isotopic measurements of solar-system materials such as meteorites and their stardust inclusions, cosmic rays, material deposits on Earth and Moon). Nuclear physics experiments address stability (i.e., lifetimes and masses) for atomic nuclei well beyond the regime of stable nuclides into the realm of radioactive/unstable nuclei, almost to the limits of bound nuclei (the drip lines), and under high density (up to neutron star matter) and high temperature (plasma temperatures up to ). Theories and simulations are essential parts herein, as cosmic nuclear reaction environments cannot be realized, but at best partially approximated by experiments. In general terms, nuclear astrophysics aims to understand the origin of the chemical elements and isotopes, and the role of nuclear energy generation, in cosmic sources such as stars, supernovae, novae, and violent binary-star interactions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5470137 | 1,166,520 |
1,264,161 | Hydrothermal vents are located where the tectonic plates are moving apart and spreading. This allows water from the ocean to enter into the crust of the earth where it is heated by the magma. The increasing pressure and temperature forces the water back out of these openings, on the way out, the water accumulates dissolved minerals and chemicals from the rocks that it encounters. There are generally three kinds of vents that occur and are all characterized by its temperature and chemical composition. Diffuse vents release clear water typically up to 30 °C. White smoker vents emit a milky coloured water that are approximately 200-330 °C, black smoker vents generally release water hotter than the others between 300-400 °C. The waters from black smokers are darkened by the precipitates of sulfide that are accumulated. Due to the absence of sunlight at these ocean depths, energy is provided by chemosynthesis where symbiotic bacteria and archaea form the bottom of the food chain and are able to support a variety of organisms such as Riftia pachyptila and Alvinella pompejana. These organisms use this symbiotic relationship in order to use and obtain the chemical energy that is released at these hydrothermal vent areas. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58817607 | 1,263,473 |
203,939 | On January 30, 2012, Sandia announced that it successfully test-fired a self-guided dart that can hit targets at . The dart is long, has its center of gravity at the nose, and is made to be fired from a small-caliber smoothbore gun. It is kept straight in flight by four electromagnetically actuated fins encased in a plastic puller sabot that falls off when the dart leaves the bore. The dart cannot be fired from conventional rifled barrels because the gyroscopic stability provided by rifling grooves for regular bullets would prevent the self-guided bullet from reliably turning towards a target when in flight, so fins are responsible for stabilizing rather than spinning. A laser designator marks a target, which is tracked by the dart's optical sensor and 8-bit CPU. The guided projectile is kept cheap because it does not need an inertial measurement unit, since its small size allows it to make the fast corrections necessary without the aid of an IMU. The natural body frequency of the bullet is about 30 hertz, so corrections can be made 30 times per second in flight. Muzzle velocity with commercial gunpowder is (Mach 2.1), but military customized gunpowder can increase its speed and range. Computer modeling shows that a standard bullet would miss a target at by , while an equivalent guided bullet would hit within . Accuracy increases as distances get longer, since the bullet's motions settle more the longer it is in flight. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=155558 | 203,834 |
1,420,230 | Due to its material properties, Terfenol-D is excellent for use in the manufacturing of low frequency, high powered underwater acoustics. Its initial application was in naval sonar systems. It sees application in magnetomechanical sensors, actuators, and acoustic and ultrasonic transducers due to its high energy density and large bandwidth capabilities, e.g. in the SoundBug device (its first commercial application by FeONIC). Its strain is also larger than that of another normally used material (PZT8), which allows Terfenol-D transducers to reach greater depths for ocean explorations than past transducers. Its low Young’s Modulus brings some complications due to compression at large depths, which are overcome in transducer designs that may reach 1000 ft in depth and only lose a small amount of accuracy of around 1 dB. Due to its high temperature range, Terfenol-D is also useful in deep hole acoustic transducers where the environment may reach high pressure and temperatures like oil holes. Terfenol-D may also be used for hydraulic valve drivers due to its high strain and high force properties. Similarly, Magnetostrictive actuators have also been considered for use in fuel injectors for diesel engines because of the high stresses that can be produced. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1545150 | 1,419,431 |
803,669 | During most of the T's production run, its fuel tank was mounted to the frame beneath the front seat. Because Ford relied on gravity to feed fuel to the carburetor rather than a fuel pump, a Model T could not climb a steep hill when the fuel level was low. The immediate solution was to climb steep hills in reverse. In 1926, the fuel tank was moved forward and upward, under the cowl, behind the dashboard on most models, which improved the gravity feed. Less than surprisingly installing an after market fuel pump was a near ubiquitous modification made to the Ford's original, extremely spartan, engine design. The engine is in many ways a half-manufacture even by the standards of its day when it came to internal combustion engine thermal efficiency and refined running characteristics, which are necessary to lengthen the unit's life span and also to make the most of resources used to manufacture the entire car. The Model T components were made to wide tolerances to accommodate manufacturing techniques of the day to produce reliable devices, and in making these components, the Ford Motor Company engineers used, from a modern perspective, extremely high levels of over tolerance to assure endurance of the end product. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1108601 | 803,240 |
566,915 | The game underwent several changes throughout production. Initial pre-production concepts included Ellie discovering information about other immune people. Later in development, the game had five days in Seattle instead of three, including an additional side story wherein Ellie traveled to the Seraphite island, which was intended to humanize the Seraphite characters more. An earlier version of the farm sequence featured a playable sequence of Ellie hunting a boar; gameplay, art, and performance was completed, but the sequence was cut for pacing purposes and is instead referenced in Ellie's journal. In an earlier draft, Joel had a girlfriend named Esther, who was originally mentioned as part of a live performance of some scenes from the first game called "The Last of Us: One Night Live" (2014). In the drafts, Esther lived in a town about two hours away from Jackson. In an early version of a flashback, Ellie and Joel traveled to Esther and found that she had been bitten; her death triggered a conversation between Ellie and Joel about a cure. The character was later scrapped as the writers felt she was established too quickly, and was more relevant to Joel's arc than Ellie's. A love letter from Esther remained for some time afterwards, but was eventually cut from the final game. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=64504979 | 566,625 |
1,256,446 | Anderson then spent two years, 1965–1967, in the laboratory of Marshall Nirenberg at the National Institutes of Health, where he helped finish the decipherment of the genetic code. Nirenberg rewarded his efforts by allowing him to make the first public presentation of the final genetic code before an audience of approximately 2,000 scientists at the April 1966 meeting of FASEB in Atlantic City. After his successful post-doctoral fellowship with Nirenberg, Anderson was given his own laboratory in the NIH in July 1967. He made clear from the beginning that his goal was to develop a way to give a normal gene to children with a genetic defect in order to cure the genetic disease. He, therefore, decided to begin by studying human disease on the molecular level. Over his career he has published more than 400 research papers, 39 editorials, and 5 books, and has received numerous awards and honors including 5 honorary doctorate degrees. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=769598 | 1,255,762 |
1,622,587 | Another common-path interferometer useful in lens testing and fluid flow diagnostics is the point diffraction interferometer (PDI), invented by Linnik in 1933. The reference beam is generated by diffraction from a small pinhole, about half the diameter of the Airy disk, in a semitransparent plate. Fig. 1 illustrates an aberrated wavefront focused onto the pinhole. The diffracted reference beam and the transmitted test wave interfere to form fringes. The common-path design of the PDI brings to it a number of important advantages. (1) Only a single laser path is required rather than the two paths required by the Mach-Zehnder or Michelson designs. This advantage can be very important in large interferometric setups such as in wind tunnels that have long optical paths through turbulent media. (2) The common-path design uses fewer optical components than double path designs, making alignment much easier, as well as reducing cost, size, and weight, especially for large setups. (3) While the accuracy of a double path design is dependent on the precision with which the reference element is figured, careful design enables the generated reference beam of the PDI to be of guaranteed precision. A disadvantage is that the amount of light getting through the pinhole depends on how well the light can be focused onto the pinhole. If the incident wavefront is severely aberrated, very little light may get through. The PDI has seen use in various adaptive optics applications. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=35152689 | 1,621,671 |
1,990,415 | Ekklesia, a United Kingdom theological think-tank accused Truth in Science and the advocates of intelligent design of misrepresenting the bible, and that creationism and intelligent design are not on par with accepted scientific theories. According to one Ekklesia contributor, Geologist and Anglican vicar Michael Roberts, the material on the Truth in Science website is carefully packaged to hide its young Earth creationist roots. Simon Barrow, Ekklesia's co-director, outlined his critique of intelligent design creationism, and pseudo-scientific explanations for the universe: "Creationism and ID are in no way comparable to scientific theories of origins and have no place in the modern science classroom. They also distort mature Christian understandings of the universe as coming into being through the whole world process, not through reversals or denials of that process. The roots of creationism, whether in its ‘hard’ form, or in attenuated ID ideas, lie not in science but in misinterpretations of the Bible. Claims that such notions can be justified from a ‘literal’ reading of Genesis are nonsensensical. This book has not one, but two ‘creation stories’. They differ widely in detail, are highly figurative, and were written to combat fatalistic Ancient Near East cosmogonies by stressing the underlying goodness of the world as a gift of God, not to comment on modern scientific matters" -- "Ekklesia, 25 September 2006." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8480391 | 1,989,272 |
297,978 | Norway participates in the F-35 program as a Level 3 partner in the system development and demonstration phase, with a view to enabling its industry to compete for industrial opportunities. Norwegian National Deputy Rune Fagerli, the country's sole representative on the Joint Strike Fighter program, told SPACE.com that the Norwegian Royal Ministry of Defence has pledged $125 million in preparation to replace a fleet of F-16 jets that have about 12 years left of operation. "By getting involved here on the ground level, we can try and address the needs of Norway into this capable fighter early," said Fagerli, a colonel. For example, Norwegian F-16s are fitted with drag chutes because of wet, slippery runways. Likewise, international cooperation in aircraft development could also yield aircraft from cooperating nations that fit well together during combat. Fagerli also mentioned that Norwegian pilots currently fly missions over Afghanistan in F-16s alongside Danish and Dutch aviators. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=28702755 | 297,818 |
2,011,788 | It has been demonstrated that photoluminescence spectra can be recorded utilizing a modified PSTM instrument. Coupling photoluminescence spectroscopy to PSTM allows the observation of emission from local nanoscopic regions of a sample and provides an understanding of how the photoluminescent properties of a material change due to surface morphology or chemical differences in an inhomogeneous sample. In this experiment, a 442 nm He-Cd laser beam under total internal reflection was used as an excitation source. The signal from the optical fiber was first passed through a monochromator before reaching a photomultiplier tube to record the signal. Photoluminescence spectra were recorded from local regions of a ruby crystal sample. A subsequent publication successfully demonstrated the use of PSTM to record the fluorescence spectrum of a Cr ion implanted sapphire cryogenically cooled under liquid nitrogen. This technique allows characterization of individual surface features of semiconductor samples whose photoluminescent properties are highly temperature dependent and must be studied at cryogenic temperatures. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50229484 | 2,010,635 |
143,759 | Such a hastened strategy may become topical in the case of late detection of a potential hazard, and also, if required, in providing the possibility for some additional action. Conventional concave reflectors are practically inapplicable to the high-concentrating geometry in the case of a giant shadowing space target, which is located in front of the mirrored surface. This is primarily because of the dramatic spread of the mirrors' focal points on the target due to the optical aberration when the optical axis is not aligned with the Sun. On the other hand, the positioning of any collector at a distance to the target much larger than its size does not yield the required concentration level (and therefore temperature) due to the natural divergence of the sunrays. Such principal restrictions are inevitably at any location regarding the asteroid of one or many unshaded forward-reflecting collectors. Also, in the case of secondary mirrors use, similar to the ones found in Cassegrain telescopes, would be prone to heat damage by partially concentrated sunlight from primary mirror. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=174069 | 143,701 |
1,338,717 | Biddle emphasized in June 2003 that hardware vendors and software developers were vital to NGSCB. Microsoft publicly demonstrated NGSCB for the first time at WinHEC 2003, where it protected data in memory from an attacker; prevented access to—and alerted the user of—an application that had been changed; and prevented a remote administration tool from capturing an instant messaging conversation. Despite Microsoft's desire to demonstrate NGSCB on hardware, software emulation was required for as few hardware components were available. Biddle reiterated that NGSCB was a set of evolutionary enhancements to Windows, basing this assessment on preserved backward compatibility and employed concepts in use before its development, but said the capabilities and scenarios it would enable would be revolutionary. Microsoft also revealed its multi-year roadmap for NGSCB, with the next major development milestone scheduled for the Professional Developers Conference, indicating that subsequent versions would ship concurrently with pre-release builds of Windows Vista; however, news reports suggested that NGSCB would not be integrated with Windows Vista when release, but it would instead be made available as separate software for the operating system. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=59524 | 1,337,984 |
1,232,078 | Tooth extraction is the major risk factor for development of MRONJ. Prevention including the maintenance of good oral hygiene, comprehensive dental examination and dental treatment including extraction of teeth of poor prognosis and dentoalveolar surgery should completed prior to commencing any medication which is likely to cause osteonecrosis (ONJ). Patients with removable prostheses should be examined for areas of mucosal irritation. Procedures which are likely to cause direct osseous trauma, e.g. tooth extraction, dental implants, complex restoration, deep root planning, should be avoided in preference of other dental treatments. There are limited data to support or refute the benefits of a drug holiday for osteoporotic patients receiving antiresorptive therapy. However, a theoretical benefit may still apply for those patients with extended exposure histories (>4 yr), and current recommendations are for a 2 month holiday for those at risk. There was low quality evidence suggesting taking antibiotics prior to the dental extraction, as well as the use of post operative techniques for wound closure lowered the risk of patients developing medication-related osteonecrosis of the jaw compared with the usual standard care received for regular dental extractions. Post operative wound closure has been suggested to prevent the contamination of the underlying bone. More evidence is needed to assess the use of antibiotics prior to treatment and the use of wound closure to prevent contamination of the bone, as the quality of evidence evaluated was low. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19269097 | 1,231,416 |
1,318,501 | Radiolabeling is a technique used to track the passage of a molecule that incorporates a radioisotope through a reaction, metabolic pathway, cell, tissue, organism, or biological system. The reactant is 'labeled' by replacing specific atoms by their isotope. Replacing an atom with its own radioisotope is an intrinsic label that does not alter the structure of the molecule. Alternatively, molecules can be radiolabeled by chemical reactions that introduce an atom, moiety, or functional group that contains a radionuclide. For example, radio-iodination of peptides and proteins with biologically useful iodine isotopes is easily done by an oxidation reaction that replaces the hydroxyl group with iodine on tyrosine and histadine residues. Another example is to use chelators such DOTA that can be chemically coupled to a protein; the chelator in turn traps radiometals thus radiolabeling the protein. This has been used for introducing Yttrium-90 onto a monoclonal antibody for therapeutic purposes and for introducing Gallium-68 onto the peptide Octreotide for diagnostic imaging by PET imaging. (See DOTA uses.) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8355163 | 1,317,776 |
1,876,551 | The summer of 1977-78 was characterised by a build-up of extreme fire danger in most areas of southern Australia. There were 606 outbreaks of fire in Victoria, of which 77 occurred over a period of three days from 15–17 January. Lightning caused most of these in the alpine areas of the State. Many were controlled quickly but eight developed into major fires and stage 2 of the State Disaster Plan was enacted. Then the Army and Airforce were called to assist 850 Forests Commission staff and employees. A notable feature was the very important part played by military helicopters such as the Bell 204 Huey in moving crews and supplies. This was probably the first time large military helicopters had been used to support Australian firefighters on such a scale. Five small firebombers also dropped over 100,000 litres of retardant, 8 smaller helicopters and a number of light fixed wing aircraft were deployed. The cost of fire suppression for the year 1977-78 was an unprecedented $3.3 million. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57882206 | 1,875,473 |
362,694 | Niels Bohr (1923) incorporated Langmuir’s model that the periodicity in the properties of the elements might be explained by the electronic structure of the atom. His proposals were based on the then current Bohr model of the atom, in which the electron shells were orbits at a fixed distance from the nucleus. Bohr's original configurations would seem strange to a present-day chemist: sulfur was given as 2.4.4.6 instead of 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p (2.8.6). Bohr used 4 and 6 following Alfred Werner's 1893 paper. In fact, the chemists believed in atoms long before the physicists. Langmuir began his paper referenced above by saying,«…The problem of the structure of atoms has been attacked mainly by physicists who have given little consideration to the chemical properties which must ultimately be explained by a theory of atomic structure. The vast store of knowledge of chemical properties and relationships, such as is summarized by the Periodic Table, should serve as a better foundation for a theory of atomic structure than the relatively meager experimental data along purely physical lines... These electrons arrange themselves in a series of concentric shells, the first shell containing two electrons, while all other shells tend to hold eight.…»The valence electrons in the atom were described by Richard Abegg in 1904. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=67211 | 362,504 |
1,543,738 | Historically, Task Network Modeling stems from queuing theory and modeling of engineering reliability and quality control. Art Siegel, a psychologist, first though of extending reliability methods into a Monte Carlo simulation model of human-machine performance (Siegel & Wolf, 1969). In the early 1970s, the U.S. Air Force sponsored the development of SAINT (Systems Analysis of Integrated Networks of Tasks), a high-level programming language specifically designed to support the programming of Monte Carlo simulations of human-machine task networks (Wortman, Pritsker, Seum, Seifert, & Chubb, 1974). A modern version of this software is Micro Saint Sharp (Archer, Headley, & Allender, 2003). This family of software spawned a tree of special-purpose programs with varying degrees of commonality and specificity with Micro Saint. The most prominent of these is the IMPRINT series (Improved Performance Research Integration Tool) sponsored by the U.S. Army (and based on MANPRINT) which provides modeling templates specifically adapted to particular human performance modeling applications (Archer et al., 2003). Two workload-specific programs are W/INDEX (North & Riley, 1989) and WinCrew (Lockett, 1997). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=47152350 | 1,542,865 |
1,411,133 | The surface of Venus contains over 200 channel systems and named valles, that resemble terrestrial rivers. These channels vary in length and width and are commonly found in planar regions of the planet. Channel length and width ranges from the minimum resolution of Magellan imaging to over 6800 km long (Baltis Vallis) and up to 30 km wide. Their global distribution is not uniform, and tend to concentrate around the equatorial region, near volcanic structures. Venusian valles also show characteristics of flows, such as levees on the margins and downstream narrowing and shallowing. Channels also do not contain tributaries, despite their large scale. However, because of the high surface temperature of Venus, liquid water is unstable, making their comparison with terrestrial rivers difficult. These features are similar to lava flows on other terrestrial planets, which has led to the conclusion that these valleys likely formed from volcanic flows. This is also suggested by the evidence of cooled lava flows filling the valles. Channels likely formed in very short timescales (1–100 years), indicating very fast movement and erosion of lavas. Venusian channels are classified by morphology and include three types: simple, complex, and compound. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=46265008 | 1,410,340 |
134,156 | The Biosphere 2 Science Advisory Committee, chaired by Tom Lovejoy of the Smithsonian Institution, in its report of August 1992 reported: "The committee is in agreement that the conception and construction of Biosphere 2 were acts of vision and courage. The scale of Biosphere 2 is unique and Biosphere 2 is already providing unexpected scientific results not possible through other means (notably the documented, unexpected decline in atmospheric oxygen levels.) Biosphere 2 will make important scientific contributions in the fields of biogeochemical cycling, the ecology of closed ecological systems, and restoration ecology." Columbia University assembled outside scientists to evaluate the potential of the facility after they took over management, and concluded the following: "A group of world-class scientists got together and decided the Biosphere 2 facility is an exceptional laboratory for addressing critical questions relative to the future of Earth and its environment." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=216362 | 134,101 |
1,250,940 | 1. d4 d5 2. c4 c6 3. Nf3 Nf6 4. e3 e6 5. Nc3 a6 6. c5 b6 7. cxb6 Nbd7 8. Na4 Nxb6 9. Bd2 Nxa4 10. Qxa4 Qb6 11. Rc1 Bd7 12. Ne5 Qxb2 13. Nxd7 Nxd7 14. Bd3 Rb8 15. Ke2 Rb6 16. Rb1 Qa3 17. Qxa3 Bxa3 18. Rxb6 Nxb6 19. Rb1 Nd7 20. Bxa6 Ke7 21. Rb3 Bd6 22. Bb7 c5 23. a4 Bb8 24. Rb5 Ba7 25. dxc5 Nxc5 26. Bb4 Kd6 27. a5 Kc7 28. Bxc5 Bxc5 29. Bxd5 Kd6 30. Bb7 Ba7 31. a6 Rd8 32. Rb2 Rd7 33. Rd2+ Ke7 34. Rc2 Rd6 35. Rc7+ Rd7 36. Rc2 Rd6 37. f4 f5 38. Rc8 Rd8 39. Rc7+ Rd7 40. Rc3 Rd6 41. Rc7+ Rd7 42. Rc3 Rd6 43. h4 g6 44. Rc2 h5 45. Rc3 Rb6 46. Rc7+ Kd6 47. Rg7 Rb2+ 48. Kd3 Ra2 49. Rxg6 Ra3+ 50. Kc4 Bxe3 51. Bd5 Bxf4 52. Rxe6+ Kc7 53. Rc6+ Kb8 54. Rg6 Bc7 55. Bb7 Ka7 56. Rg5 Bd8 57. Rxh5 Bxh4 58. Rxf5 Kb6 59. Rb5+ Kc7 60. Rb3 Ra5 61. Kd4 Bf2+ 62. Ke4 Kd6 63. Rd3+ Ke6 64. Bc8+ Ke7 65. Rd5 Ra4+ 66. Kf5 Bg3 67. Rd7+ Kf8 68. a7 Bf2 69. Ba6 1-0 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18398938 | 1,250,262 |
711,608 | The bayonet light bulb mount is the standard fitting in many former members of the British Empire including the United Kingdom, Australia, India, Ireland, and New Zealand, Hong Kong, as well as parts of the Middle East and Africa (although not Canada, which primarily uses Edison screw sockets along with the United States and Mexico). The standard size is B22d-2, often referred to in the context of lighting as simply BC or B22. Older installations in some other countries, including France and Greece use this base. First developed by St. George Lane Fox-Pitt in the UK and improved upon by the Brush Electric Company from the late 1870s onward, standard bulbs have two pins on opposite sides of the cap; however, some specialized bulbs have three pins (cap designation B22d-3) to prevent use in domestic light fittings. Examples of three-pin bulbs are found in mercury street lamps and fireglow bulbs in some older models of electric radiative heater. Older railway carriages in the UK also made use of a 3 pin bulb base to discourage theft. Bayonet cap bulbs are also very common worldwide in applications where vibration may loosen screw-mount bulbs, such as automotive lighting and other small indicators, and in many flashlights. In many other countries the Edison screw (E) base is used for lighting. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4912409 | 711,236 |
762,622 | In addition to being used by the US, UK and other Commonwealth forces, the M1 was supplied under the Lend-Lease program to the Free French Forces (653), USSR (400) and Brazil (57). Guns captured by the Germans were given the designations 5.7 cm PaK 209(e) and 5.7 cm PaK 202(a). The Israel Defense Forces employed the 6-pounder in the 1950s in brigade-level anti-tank battalions and battalion-level anti-tank platoons (the latter formations were disbanded in 1953). By late 1955, the Israel Defense Forces possessed 157 pieces and 100 more were purchased from the Netherlands in 1956, too late to enter service before the Suez Crisis. Some of those are described as "57-mm guns, nearly identical to the 6-pounders and firing the same ammunition", which apparently makes them US-built M1 guns. The gun was also used by the Pakistani Army; numerous examples can still be seen as "gate guards" outside army bases in Pakistan. The Irish Army acquired six 6-pounder anti-tank guns in the late 1940s. The US 57 mm M1 gun is popular with modern-day cannoneers, as there is a relatively good supply of shell casings and projectiles. The gun is also reportedly still in active military use with some South American countries, and in coastal defence emplacements of outlying island garrisons of the Republic of China Army. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1834136 | 762,214 |
187,200 | Power electronics can be used to help utilities adapt to the rapid increase in distributed residential/commercial solar power generation. Germany and parts of Hawaii, California, and New Jersey require costly studies to be conducted before approving new solar installations. Relatively small-scale ground- or pole-mounted devices create the potential for a distributed control infrastructure to monitor and manage the flow of power. Traditional electromechanical systems, such as capacitor banks or voltage regulators at substations, can take minutes to adjust voltage and can be distant from the solar installations where the problems originate. If voltage on a neighborhood circuit goes too high, it can endanger utility crews and cause damage to both utility and customer equipment. Further, a grid fault causes photovoltaic generators to shut down immediately, spiking the demand for grid power. Smart grid-based regulators are more controllable than far more numerous consumer devices. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1001628 | 187,103 |
1,262,561 | Interferons, a subclass of cytokines, are produced in the body during illnesses such as influenza in order to help fight the infection. They are responsible for many of the symptoms of influenza infections, including fever, muscle aches, fatigue, and headaches. Many patients report influenza-like symptoms hours after taking interferon beta that usually improve within 24 hours, being such symptoms related to the temporary increase of cytokines. This reaction tends to disappear after 3 months of treatment and its symptoms can be treated with over-the-counter nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, such as ibuprofen, that reduce fever and pain. Another common transient secondary effect with interferon-beta is a functional deterioration of already existing symptoms of the disease. Such deterioration is similar to the one produced in MS patients due to heat, fever or stress (Uhthoff's phenomenon), usually appears within 24 hours of treatment, is more common in the initial months of treatment, and may last several days. A symptom specially sensitive to worsening is spasticity. Interferon-beta can also reduce numbers of white blood cells (leukopenia), lymphocytes (lymphopenia) and neutrophils (neutropenia), as well as affect liver function. In most cases these effects are non-dangerous and reversible after cessation or reduction of treatment. Nevertheless, recommendation is that all patients should be monitored through laboratory blood analyses, including liver function tests, to ensure safe use of interferons. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2858017 | 1,261,873 |
516,623 | Interferons, a subclass of cytokines, are produced in the body during illnesses such as influenza in order to help fight the infection. They are responsible for many of the symptoms of influenza infections, including fever, muscle aches, fatigue, and headaches. Many patients report influenza-like symptoms hours after taking interferon beta that usually improve within 24 hours, being such symptoms related to the temporary increase of cytokines. This reaction tends to disappear after 3 months of treatment and its symptoms can be treated with over-the-counter nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, such as ibuprofen, that reduce fever and pain. Another common transient secondary effect with interferon-beta is a functional deterioration of already existing symptoms of the disease. Such deterioration is similar to the one produced in MS patients due to heat, fever or stress (Uhthoff's phenomenon), usually appears within 24 hours of treatment, is more common in the initial months of treatment, and may last several days. A symptom specially sensitive to worsening is spasticity. Interferon-beta can also reduce numbers of white blood cells (leukopenia), lymphocytes (lymphopenia) and neutrophils (neutropenia), as well as affect liver function. In most cases these effects are non-dangerous and reversible after cessation or reduction of treatment. Nevertheless, recommendation is that all patients should be monitored through laboratory blood analyses, including liver function tests, to ensure safe use of interferons. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=382139 | 516,354 |
1,477,287 | Interferons, a subclass of cytokines, are produced in the body during illnesses such as influenza in order to help fight the infection. They are responsible of many of the symptoms of influenza infections, including fever, muscle aches, fatigue, and headaches. Many patients report influenza-like symptoms hours after taking interferon-beta that usually improve within 24 hours, being such symptoms related to the temporary increase of cytokines. This reaction tends to disappear after 3 months of treatment and its symptoms can be treated with over-the-counter nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, such as ibuprofen, that reduce fever and pain. Another common transient secondary effect with interferon-beta is a functional deterioration of already existing symptoms of the disease. Such deterioration is similar to the one produced in MS patients due to heat, fever or stress (Uhthoff's phenomenon), usually appears within 24 hours of treatment, is more common in the initial months of treatment, and may last several days. A symptom specially sensitive to worsening is spasticity. Interferon-beta can also reduce numbers of white blood cells (leukopenia), lymphocytes (lymphopenia) and neutrophils (neutropenia), as well as affect liver function. In most cases these effects are non-dangerous and reversible after cessation or reduction of treatment. Nevertheless, recommendation is that all patients should be monitored through laboratory blood analyses, including liver function tests, to ensure safe use of interferons. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7663818 | 1,476,455 |
461,731 | On 18 October 2008, "XMM-Newton" suffered an unexpected communications failure, during which time there was no contact with the spacecraft. While some concern was expressed that the vehicle may have suffered a catastrophic event, photographs taken by amateur astronomers at the Starkenburg Observatory in Germany and at other locations worldwide showed that the spacecraft was intact and appeared on course. A weak signal was finally detected using a antenna in New Norcia, Western Australia, and communication with "XMM-Newton" suggested that the spacecraft's Radio Frequency switch had failed. After troubleshooting a solution, ground controllers used NASA's antenna at the Goldstone Deep Space Communications Complex to send a command that changed the switch to its last working position. ESA stated in a press release that on 22 October, a ground station at the European Space Astronomy Centre (ESAC) made contact with the satellite, confirming the process had worked and that the satellite was back under control. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=227960 | 461,504 |
953,250 | In addition to patients and their families, doctors also are confronted with ethical questions. In addition to patient life, doctors have to consider medical resource allocations. They have to decide whether one patient is a worthwhile investment of limited resources versus another. Current ethical guidelines are vague since they center on moral issues of ending medical care but disregard discrepancies between those who understand possible treatments and how the patient's wishes are understood and integrated into the final decision. Physicians often ignore treatments they deem ineffective, causing them to make more decisions without consulting the patient or representatives. However, when they decide against medical treatment, they must keep the patient or representatives informed even if they discourage continued life support. Whether the physician decides to continue to terminate life support therapy depends on their own ethical beliefs. These beliefs concern the patient's independence, consent, and the efficacy and value of continued life support. In a prospective study conducted by T J Predergast and J M Luce from 1987 to 1993, when physicians recommended withholding or withdrawing life support, 90% of the patients agreed to the suggestion and only 4% refused. When the patient disagreed with the physician, the doctor complied and continued support with one exception. If the doctor believed the patient was hopelessly ill, they did not fulfill the surrogate's request for resuscitation. In a survey conducted by Jean-Louis Vincent MD, PhD in 1999, it was found that of European intensivists working in the Intensive Care Unit, 93% of physicians occasionally withhold treatment from those they considered hopeless. Withdrawal of treatment was less common. For these patients, 40% of the physicians gave large doses of drugs until the patient died. All of the physicians were members of the European Society of Intensive Care Medicine. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=261763 | 952,745 |
1,226,494 | Paper microfluidics (sometimes called lab on paper) is the use of paper substrates in microfabrication to manipulate fluid flow for different applications. Paper microfluidics have been applied in paper electrophoresis and immunoassays, the most notable being the commercialized pregnancy test, ClearBlue. Advantages of using paper for microfluidics and electrophoresis in bio-MEMS include its low cost, biodegradability, and natural wicking action. A severe disadvantage of paper-based microfluidics is the dependency of the rate of wicking on environmental conditions such as temperature and relative humidity. Paper-based analytical devices are particularly attractive for point-of-care diagnostics in developing countries for both the low material cost and emphasis on colorimetric assays which allow medical professionals to easily interpret the results by eye. Compared to traditional microfluidic channels, paper microchannels are accessible for sample introduction (especially forensic-style samples such as body fluids and soil), as well as its natural filtering properties that exclude cell debris, dirt, and other impurities in samples. Paper-based replicas have demonstrated the same effectiveness in performing common microfluidic operations such as hydrodynamic focusing, size-based molecular extraction, micro-mixing, and dilution; the common 96- and 384-well microplates for automated liquid handling and analysis have been reproduced through photolithography on paper to achieve a slimmer profile and lower material cost while maintaining compatibility with conventional microplate readers. Techniques for micropatterning paper include photolithography, laser cutting, ink jet printing, plasma treatment, and wax patterning. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19081158 | 1,225,834 |
2,049,842 | In 1931, Nankai Committee of Sociology and Economics, together with Economic Studies under the School of Arts, formed the School of Economics, and the committee started to take on the role of an educational facility as well. From 1931 onwards, Nankai Institute of Economics made progress with impressive research results and its research conditions improved because of it. In the spring of 1934, the department of education of the nationalist government refused to register the School of Economics as an official institution and demanded its reorganization because the name of the school violated the regulations about "organizing university". Nankai University, therefore, had to withdraw the use of the name "School of Economics" in its official documents, and reuse the "Business School". The Economic Studies, which was previously subordinate to the School of Arts, was affiliated to the Business School. Meanwhile, because of other regulations on the establishment of institutes, the university set up "the Economic Department of Business School Institute", i.e., "Nankai Institute of Economics" (abbreviated NKIE). Later, Nankai did not follow up on the regulations of the government's department of education. Although it kept the accepted names in its official reports to the government, the university remained using the "School of Economics" and "Nankai Institute of Economics" in other occasions. The journal "Nankai Index" was created in the same year, and it received much attention from the academia in China and in other countries, because the journal was a reflection of Chinese economy at that period. In July 1935, NKIE started to accept postgraduate students, which were the first ones educated in China to receive master's degree of economics that were officially admitted by the department of education. In 1935, six institutions, including NKIE, Peking Union Medical College, Yenching University, Tsinghua University, University of Nanking, and China's Association for Mass Education, jointly established the "Association of Northern China's Countrysides Establishment", which was funded by the Rockefeller Foundation. He Lian was appointed as the chairman of the association and Fang Xianting the secretary. NKIE was then responsible for the training of people who could manage local governments, their financial problems and other cooperation organizations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=56956514 | 2,048,661 |
93,493 | In August 1981, the program received a boost when British Aerospace (BAe) and McDonnell Douglas signed a memorandum of understanding, marking the UK's re-entry into the program. The British government was enticed by the lower cost of acquiring Harriers promised by a large production run, and the fact that the U.S. was shouldering the expense of development. Under the agreement, BAe was relegated to the position of a subcontractor, instead of the full partner status that would have been the case had the UK not left the program. Consequently, the company received, in man-hours, 40% of the airframe work-share. Aircraft production took place at McDonnell Douglas' facilities in suburban St. Louis, Missouri, and manufacturing by BAe at its Kingston and Dunsfold facilities in Surrey, England. Meanwhile, 75% work-share for the engine went to Rolls-Royce, which had absorbed Bristol Siddeley, with the remaining 25% assigned to Pratt & Whitney. The two companies planned to manufacture 400 Harrier IIs, with the USMC expected to procure 336 aircraft and the RAF to procure 60. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18940560 | 93,452 |
97,411 | The proposed production F-23 configuration (DP231 for the F119 engine and DP232 for the F120 engine) for full-scale development, or Engineering and Manufacturing Development (EMD), would have differed from the YF-23 prototypes in several ways. Instead of a single weapons bay, the EMD design would instead have two tandem bays in the lengthened forward fuselage, with the fore bay designed for short range AIM-9 missiles; an M61 rotary cannon would be installed on the left side of the forward fuselage. The aircraft's overall length was slightly increased, volume was expanded, the nose was enlarged to accept mission systems, including the radar, and the forebody chines were less pronounced and raised to the same height as the leading edge of the wing. The deletion of thrust reversers enabled the engine nacelles to have a smaller, more rounded cross-section and the space between them filled in to preserve area-ruling. The inlet design changed from the porous panels to a semicircular compression bump. The fuselage and empennage trailing edge pattern would also have fewer serrations and the engine thrust lines were toed in at 1.5° off center. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=547733 | 97,370 |
1,904,205 | Ma researches how the human brain represents and processes uncertainty. A large portion of his academic work is devoted to the construction of Bayesian inference models which describe how an observer arrives at beliefs about things in the world from noisy information. This modeling spans the range of describing the behavior of an observer, for example how an observer might infer two sensory inputs arise from a common source, to the activity of a population of neurons implementing the Bayesian operations. A complementary line of inquiry is studying encoding strategies in working memory, specifically highlighting the relationships between the role of noisy representations of objects in the brain and the number that can be recalled correctly. Broadly, his modeling focuses can be described as examining encoding models, decision rules, and probabilistic computations. In recent years, his work has focused on planning and thinking ahead in complex decision problems. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54462558 | 1,903,111 |
91,585 | Although the Green Revolution has been able to improve agricultural output in some regions in the world, there was and is still room for improvement. As a result, many organizations continue to invent new ways to improve the techniques already used in the Green Revolution. Frequently quoted inventions are the System of Rice Intensification, marker-assisted selection, agroecology, and applying existing technologies to agricultural problems of the developing world. Current challenges for nations trying to modernize their agriculture include closing the urban-rural income gap, integration of smallholders into value chains, and maintaining competitiveness in the market. However, in low-income countries, chronic problems such as poverty and hunger cause agricultural modernization efforts to be constrained. It is projected that global populations by 2050 will increase by one-third and as such will require a 70% increase in the production of food. Therefore, the Second Green Revolution will likely focus on improving tolerances to pests and disease in addition to technological input use efficiency. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=72727 | 91,545 |
2,181,184 | Philippe Clerc was born in Lausanne, Switzerland, on 26 April 1955. In 1970 he attended secondary school at the Collège Calvin in Geneva. From 1974 to 1979 he studied natural science at the University of Geneva. His interest in lichenology was initiated after seeing an article about lichens and air pollution in the newspaper "Tribune de Genève". To get more information about this topic, he met with professor Gilbert Turian, who informed him he would have to learn the lichen species, and lent him books and a microscope to continue his studies. Clerc completed a master's degree in biology in 1979 under the supervision of Turian. Clerc's first scientific publications, completed about this time, were on the use of lichens as bioindicators for air pollution in the Valais region of Switzerland. After this he attended the University of Bern, where from 1979–1981 he was assistant professor, and then from 1981–1986 a research assistant at the Institute of Cryptogams. Clerc initiated studies of the beard lichen genus "Usnea" after the Eduard Frey lichen collection had been acquired by the university. Pursuing these studies, he visited the collection of Polish lichenologist Józef Motyka in Lublin, an authority on the genus. In 1984, Clerc's first publications on this genus appeared. – around the same time he received his secondary education certificate, which qualified him to teach biology. He earned a PhD in 1986, with Klaus Ammann as his supervisor. His thesis was titled "Taxonomie et systématique du genre "Usnea" en Europe – Études préliminaires pour une monographie" ("Taxonomy and Systematics of the Genus "Usnea" in Europe – Preliminary Studies for a Monograph"). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=68839255 | 2,179,938 |
1,979,057 | Although much national attention focused on Mourning and Mutombo, the star of the team arguably was senior guard Mark Tillmon. A starter in his freshman and sophomore years, he had slumped during his junior season and been relegated to the bench. This year, he returned to form, starting all 31 games. In December 1989, he scored 27 points against North Carolina and 29 against Virginia Tech. During the five-game stretch from the victory over Northern Iowa on December 29, 1989, through the defeat of DePaul on January 13, 1990, he averaged 26 points a game, including a career-high 39 points against Providence. As the season wore on, he had 26 points at Villanova, 25 versus Seton Hall, and 20 at St. John's. In the rematch at Providence in February, he tied the career-high 39-point performance he had set against them a month and a half earlier, including connecting on a Georgetown-record seven three-point shots – a record destined to be matched only once over the next 18 years. He scored in double figures in 10 of his final 11 games. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41228743 | 1,977,919 |
1,597,236 | It is instinctive for all animals to live a life according to fitness (Parker 1974). Animals will do what they can to improve their fitness and therefore survive long enough to produce offspring. However when resources are not in abundance, this can be challenging; eventually, animals will begin to compete for resources. The competition for resources can be dangerous and for some animals, deadly. Some animals have developed adaptive traits that increase their chances of survival when competing for resources. This trait is Resource Holding Potential (RHP) (Parker 1974). Resource Holding Potential, or Resource Holding Power, is the term defining the motivation an individual has to continue to fight, work, or endure through situations that others may give up during. Animals that use RHP often evaluate the conditions of the danger they face. These animals have the ability to assess the RHP of their opponent in relation to their own (Francesca Gherardi 2006). Generally, the animal with the higher RHP survives and wins the disputes they encounter (Lindström and Pampoulie 2005). The determinations of who has the higher RHP can vary. In some cases, the robust size of the animal will establish one’s dominance. However, RHP can also be measured by prior residency and knowledge of resource quality (Lindström and Pampoulie 2005). In this case, RHP is not about the direct dangers that come with standing one’s ground; sometimes, an animal will use RHP to determine if their current living status is worth protecting. With that being said, RHP does not take does not so much focus on the physical ability of the individual to fight, but instead focuses on the motivation of the individual. RHP does not always determine if the individual will prevail (Hurd 2006). RHP along with other variables including the value of the resource and the aggressiveness (or daring) of the individual all help to determine how likely it is that an individual will initiate and prevail in a fight. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2268669 | 1,596,337 |
20,010 | In 1925, it was established that when 7-dehydrocholesterol is irradiated with light, a form of a fat-soluble vitamin is produced (now known as D). Alfred Fabian Hess stated: "Light equals vitamin D." Adolf Windaus, at the University of Göttingen in Germany, received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1928 for his work on the constitution of sterols and their connection with vitamins. In 1929, a group at NIMR in Hampstead, London, were working on the structure of vitamin D, which was still unknown, as well as the structure of steroids. A meeting took place with J.B.S. Haldane, J.D. Bernal, and Dorothy Crowfoot to discuss possible structures, which contributed to bringing a team together. X-ray crystallography demonstrated the sterol molecules were flat, not as proposed by the German team led by Windaus. In 1932, Otto Rosenheim and Harold King published a paper putting forward structures for sterols and bile acids which found immediate acceptance. The informal academic collaboration between the team members Robert Benedict Bourdillon, Otto Rosenheim, Harold King, and Kenneth Callow was very productive and led to the isolation and characterization of vitamin D. At this time, the policy of the Medical Research Council was not to patent discoveries, believing the results of medical research should be open to everybody. In the 1930s, Windaus clarified further the chemical structure of vitamin D. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=24998247 | 20,002 |
1,111,963 | From 1993 to 2007, doctors at Kaiser Permanente Medical Care Program hospitals, Brigham Women's Hospital, and Beth Israel-Deaconess Medical Center conducted a nested case-control study in an effort to create a better quantitative method for determining risk factors for neonatal early-onset sepsis. The study examined over 600,000 live births of infants born less than or equal to 34 weeks gestation. The study used measures of health available at the time of birth such as highest intrapartum maternal temperature, rupture of membranes, whether or not the mother has group b streptococcus, and if the mother was given any intrapartum antibiotics. Intrapartum prophylaxis is a strategy for "the secondary prevention of early-onset GBS disease in newborns" that could lead to EOS. The Sepsis Risk Calculator (SRS) is meant to be another clinical measure that physicians can use in conjunction with physical examination. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25662965 | 1,111,397 |
328,245 | Required to tender by the end of April 1947, work began on receipt of Specification B.35/46 at Avro, led by technical director Roy Chadwick and chief designer Stuart Davies; the type designation was "Avro 698". As was obvious to the design team, conventional aircraft could not satisfy the specification. No worthwhile information about high-speed flight was available from the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE) or the US. Avro were aware that Alexander Lippisch had designed a delta-wing fighter and considered the same delta configuration would be suitable for their bomber. The team estimated that an otherwise conventional aircraft, with a swept wing of 45°, would have doubled the weight requirement. Realising that swept wings increase longitudinal stability, the team deleted the tail (empennage) and the supporting fuselage, it thus became a swept-back flying wing with only a rudimentary forward fuselage and a fin (vertical stabilizer) at each wingtip. The estimated weight was now only 50% over the requirement; a delta shape resulted from reducing the wingspan and maintaining the wing area by filling in the space between the wingtips, which enabled the specification to be met. Although Alexander Lippisch is generally credited as the pioneer of the delta wing, Chadwick's team had followed its own logical design process. The initial design submission had four large turbojets stacked in pairs buried in the wings on either side of the centreline. Outboard of the engines were two bomb bays. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44070 | 328,071 |
934,623 | Modern researchers often criticize historical works of ethnomusicology as showing gender-biased research and androcentric theoretical models that do not reflect reality. There are many reasons for this issue. Historically, ethnomusicological fieldwork often focused on the musical contributions of men, in line with the underlying assumption that male-dominated musical practices were reflective of musical systems of a society as a whole. Other gender-biased research may have been attributed to the difficulty in acquiring information on female performers without infringing upon cultural norms that may not have accepted or allowed women to perform in public (reflective of social dynamics in societies where men dominate public life and women are mostly confined to the private sphere.). Finally, men have traditionally dominated fieldwork and institutional leadership positions and tended to prioritize the experiences of men in the cultures they studied. With a lack of accessible female informants and alternative forms of collecting and analyzing musical data, ethnomusicological researchers such as Ellen Koskoff believe that we may not be able to fully understand the musical culture of a society. Ellen Koskoff quotes Rayna Reiter, saying that bridging this gap would explain the "seeming contradiction and internal workings of a system for which we have only half the pieces." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=80077 | 934,129 |
1,168,603 | In the case of decentralization at on-site level and clusters of buildings, the whole wastewater system is located within private premises. The costs and responsibility for the design, construction, operation and maintenance is the responsibility of the owner. In many cases specialized companies might execute the operation and maintenance procedures. The local authorities issue permits and may provide support for the operation and management in the form of collecting wastes, issuing certificates/licenses for standardized treatment equipment, or for selected qualified private companies. From regulatory point of view, the control of the quality of treated effluent for reuse, discharge or disposal is entirely the responsibility of local or national government authorities. This might be a challenge if a large number of systems must be controlled and inspected. It is in the owner's interest to operate and maintain the system properly, especially in the case of reuse of the treated effluent. Most often the operational problems are associated with clogging of the treatment facilities as result of irregular removal of the sludge or hydraulic overloading due to increased number of population served or increased water consumption. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=53547575 | 1,167,985 |
862,962 | In 1984 he started another company, "Activenture", which adapted optical disc technology for computer use. In early 1985 it was renamed "KnowledgeSet" and released the first computer encyclopedia in June 1985, a CD-ROM version of Grolier's "Academic American Encyclopedia" named "The Electronic Encyclopedia", later acquired by Banta Corporation. Kildall's final business venture, known as "Prometheus Light and Sound" (PLS) and based in Austin, Texas, developed a modular PBX communication system that integrated land-line telephones with mobile phones (called "Intelliphone") to reduce the then-high online costs and to remotely connect with home appliances. It included a UUCP-based store and forward system to exchange emails and files between the various nodes and was planned to include TCP/IP support at a later point in time. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12740 | 862,502 |
859,718 | The occurrence of high scores in modern times is mainly due to the continuous development of the employed match air rifles from spring-piston type designs into single-stroke pneumatic and then regulated pre-charged pneumatic (PCP) designs. Modern PCP match rifles from the leading manufacturers all feature regulated PCP powerplants to minimize shot-to-shot output pressure variations and hence muzzle velocity inconsistency, mechanical or electronic match triggers offering low shot development time (at low lock times factors like the dwell time of the pellet in the barrel become influential), shoot practically recoilless and vibration free, exhibit minimal movement and balance shifts and can be tailored by an adjustable aluminum stock and other user interfaces like the non-magnifying target shooting diopter and globe sighting line and various accessories to the individual shooters personal preferences to promote comfortable and accurate shooting from a standing position. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2452530 | 859,260 |
133,110 | Neoteny is seen in domesticated animals such as dogs and mice. This is because there are more resources available, less competition for those resources, and with the lowered competition the animals expend less energy obtaining those resources. This allows them to mature and reproduce more quickly than their wild counterparts. The environment that domesticated animals are raised in determines whether or not neoteny is present in those animals. Evolutionary neoteny can arise in a species when those conditions occur, and a species becomes sexually mature ahead of its "normal development". Another explanation for the neoteny in domesticated animals can be the selection for certain behavioral characteristics. Behavior is linked to genetics which therefore means that when a behavioral trait is selected for, a physical trait may also be selected for due to mechanisms like linkage disequilibrium. Often, juvenile behaviors are selected for in order to more easily domesticate a species; aggressiveness in certain species comes with adulthood when there is a need to compete for resources. If there is no need for competition, then there is no need for aggression. Selecting for juvenile behavioral characteristics can lead to neoteny in physical characteristics because, for example, with the reduced need for behaviors like aggression, there is no need for developed traits that would help in that area. Traits that may become neotenized due to decreased aggression may be a shorter muzzle and smaller general size among the domesticated individuals. Some common neotenous physical traits in domesticated animals (mainly dogs, pigs, ferrets, cats, and even foxes) include floppy ears, changes in the reproductive cycle, curly tails, piebald coloration, fewer or shortened vertebra, large eyes, rounded forehead, large ears, and shortened muzzle. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21922 | 133,057 |
2,076,136 | In the 1920s, Picasso's relationship with Vollard grew closer: a series of etchings made by Picasso in 1927 on the theme of the artist and his model was acquired by the dealer to illustrate "The Unknown Masterpiece" by Honoré de Balzac, published in 1931. It was then that Vollard commissioned a series of prints that the artist produced between 1930 and 1937, and which was published in 1939: the "Vollard Suite". It is a set of one hundred prints—most of them etchings and some drypoint—of diverse subject matter, divided into several sequences; the largest (about forty) revolve around the theme "The sculptor's workshop", centered on the relationship between a sculptor, his model and his work, an autobiographical reference in which the model is Marie-Thérèse Walter, his partner at the time; another group revolves around the theme of "The Rape", while there are several dedicated to the figure of "The Minotaur", among which stands out "Blind Minotaur in the Dark", considered one of the best of the series; there are also three portraits of Vollard. At the same time, in 1931 he illustrated for the publisher Albert Skira "The Metamorphoses" by Ovid. In 1935 he made "La minotauromaquia", an etching on copper plate, where he takes up again the figure of the minotauro; it is considered one of the stylistic precedents of "Guernica". Between 1936 and 1937 he illustrated "Historia natural" by Buffon (published in 1942), again commissioned by Vollard, a set of thirty-one sugar etchings in a realistic style. In 1937, he made "Sueño y mentira de Franco", a set of eighteen small vignette-like images engraved on two copper plates, as a denunciation against the Spanish Civil War and against Francisco Franco; a thousand copies were printed and sold at the Pabellón de la República Española of the Exposición Internacional de París of that year. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=72166508 | 2,074,939 |
1,723,752 | The new charter awarded to the University of London in 1858 broke the exclusive connection between the University and the affiliated schools and colleges. The change was strongly objected to by UCL, with the proprietors passing motions saying "That this meeting … understanding that the Senate [of the University of London] proposes that collegiate education shall no longer be necessary for candidates for degrees in arts and laws, desires to express is disapproval of the proposed change, as one likely to be injurious to the cause of regular and systematic education, and as not only lowering the value, but altering the very meaning, of an English University degree" and "That University College having been pointed out in 1835 by the address of the House of Commons to the Crown, as the future University of London and having chiefly waived its claims to that high dignity in order to promote the public welfare, has peculiar right to object to a change which will destroy the essential character of that university constitution on the faith of which it consented to surrender its position". George Grote objected to the resolutions, noting their similarity to the objections raised against allowing dissenters to take degrees. Despite the objections of UCL (and other colleges), the new charter was passed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9771300 | 1,722,782 |
74,610 | The concept has been used to analyze hostile situations such as wars and arms races (see prisoner's dilemma), and also how conflict may be mitigated by repeated interaction (see tit-for-tat). It has also been used to study to what extent people with different preferences can cooperate (see battle of the sexes), and whether they will take risks to achieve a cooperative outcome (see stag hunt). It has been used to study the adoption of technical standards, and also the occurrence of bank runs and currency crises (see coordination game). Other applications include traffic flow (see Wardrop's principle), how to organize auctions (see auction theory), the outcome of efforts exerted by multiple parties in the education process, regulatory legislation such as environmental regulations (see tragedy of the commons), natural resource management, analysing strategies in marketing, even penalty kicks in football (see matching pennies), energy systems, transportation systems, evacuation problems and wireless communications. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=45337 | 74,583 |
1,460,757 | At the word, sentence, and paragraph level, the patient is tested on level of linguistic skill (phonological, morphological, syntactic, lexical, semantic). Part C is used to assess the ability of the subject to translate material between given pairs of their known languages. There are currently 65 available languages for Part B and 160 language pairs available for Part C. The specifics and associated cultures of each languages were accounted for and the materials of these sections were adapted accordingly rather than being directly translated. An example follows where, in a Friulian and English pair, the English stimuli included “mat, cat, bat, hat” and the Friulian counterpart (which included 4 words that differed solely by one initial phoneme) was represented as “‘cjoc, c¸oc, poc, toc’ (drunk, log, chicory, piece).” The response of the patients are recorded and processed with computer programs that indicate the percentage of correct answers for each linguistic skill. Thus, with the BAT, the assessment of bilingual aphasia allows a direct comparison of the knowledge and performance of each of the patient’s languages to determine the severity of the aphasia. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25181073 | 1,459,935 |
18,743 | The maximum effective point target range of an M4 carbine with M855 rounds is , with a maximum effective area target range of . These mark the greatest distances the rounds can be expected to accurately hit the target, not the ranges that they have terminal effectiveness against them. Because the M855 is yaw dependent it requires instability in flight to deform upon hitting the target. It is the most stable in flight between , potentially lessening its effectiveness if it strikes an enemy between those distances. In addition to this, tests have shown that 5.56 mm bullets fragment most reliably when traveling faster than . From full-length rifle and machine gun barrels, rounds exhibit velocities above out to . An M855 fired from a shorter barreled M4 carbine exhibits a bullet velocity of at range. Even if it impacts at optimum speeds, 70 percent of 5.56 mm bullets will not begin to yaw until of tissue penetration. 15 percent more begin to yaw after that distance, so up to 85 percent of rounds that hit do not start to fragment until nearly 5 in of penetration. Against small statured or thin combatants, the M855 has little chance of yawing before passing through cleanly and leaving a wound cavity no bigger than the bullet itself. The factors of impact angle and velocity, instability distance, and penetration before yaw reduce the round's predictable effectiveness considerably in combat situations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=35022 | 18,736 |
1,270,837 | Johannes Rebmann (January 16, 1820 – October 4, 1876) was a German missionary, linguist, and explorer credited with feats including being the first European, along with his colleague Johann Ludwig Krapf, to enter Africa from the Indian Ocean coast. In addition, he was the first European to find Kilimanjaro. News of Rebmann's discovery was published in the Church Missionary Intelligencer in May 1849, but disregarded as mere fantasy for the next twelve years. The Geographical Society of London held that snow could not possibly occur let alone persist in such latitudes and considered the report to be the hallucination of a malaria-stricken missionary. It was only in 1861 that researchers began their efforts to measure Kilimanjaro. Expeditions to Tanzania between 1861 and 1865, led by the German Baron Karl Klaus von der Decken, confirmed Rebmann’s report. Together with his colleague Johann Ludwig Krapf they were also the first Europeans to visit and report Mount Kenya. Their work there is also thought to have had effects on future African expeditions by Europeans, including the exploits of Sir Richard Burton, John Hanning Speke, and David Livingstone. After losing most of his eyesight and entering into a brief marriage, he died of pneumonia. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10594099 | 1,270,146 |
1,479,670 | The 8th edition of UCLA’s publication on Selected Reports in Ethnomusicology published in 1990 was devoted to Issues in Organology. The first paper in the journal written by Sue Carole DeVale entitled “Organizing Organology” attempted to provide a more comprehensive system for defining the study of organology, particularly within the context of ethnomusicology. DeVale defines organology as “the science of sound instruments”. The word choice in this definition is very intentional- DeVale avoids the use of the term “music” or “musical” but rather "sound" because the function of some instruments, such as the Balinese slit drum, serves to signal an event rather than aid in a musical performance. She also defines three primary branches-classificatory, analytical, and applied- that serve as the basis for the study of organology. The classificatory branch essentially encompasses all of the ways in which musical instruments have been categorized, both cross-culturally and through cultural-specific systems. The analytical branch contains the body of work done on analyzing specific aspects of sound instruments and the cultural context/implications of the instruments. The applied branch is the aspects of organology that exist within the realm of museum work that involves the preservation of musical instruments, as well as instrument making. Devale also emphasizes throughout the paper the importance of the connections which exist between the three branches, as it is often essential to consider aspects of organology within all of three branches when doing work or research of any kind within the field. She states that “these branches are independent in theory, but in practice, research and processes conducted with and on instruments and their sounds continuously flow between them and permeate the whole.” | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=190908 | 1,478,837 |
544,503 | Most systems are usually constructed from diameter, smooth-walled (so they do not easily trap condensation moisture and mold), rigid or semi-rigid plastic, plastic-coated metal pipes or plastic pipes coated with inner antimicrobial layers, buried underground where the ambient earth temperature is typically all year round in the temperate latitudes where most humans live. Ground temperature becomes more stable with depth. Smaller diameter tubes require more energy to move the air and have less earth contact surface area. Larger tubes permit a slower airflow, which also yields more efficient energy transfer and permits much higher volumes to be transferred, permitting more air exchanges in a shorter time period, when, for example, you want to clear the building of objectionable odors or smoke but suffer from poorer heat transfer from the pipe wall to the air due to increased distances. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4813788 | 544,221 |
650,146 | Coren worked on left-handedness and its causes and consequences, with his co-researchers, Diane F. Halpern, Clare Porac, and Alan Searleman. Specifically his research led him to believe that left-handedness could be a marker for various psychological and physical problems. The media became interested in this work when findings began to emerge indicating that left-handedness was often associated with difficult or stressful births. Research showing that left-handers were much more susceptible to accident-related injuries because the constructed world and most machinery and tools are designed for the safety and convenience of right-handers evoked a great deal of interest and press coverage. However the work that caused the largest stir and the most controversy was a series of studies in collaboration with Diane F. Halpern which showed that left-handers have shorter life spans, often dying younger because of accidents or problems associated with a compromised immune system (possibly a long-term consequence of birth stress related trauma). Although originally the source of much controversy, with confirming data coming from a number of other laboratories, these conclusions have become well enough accepted to appear in basic psychological textbooks. The discovery of a possible genetic basis of left-handedness suggests that there may be two types of left-handers, natural left-handers and a separate group who arrive at their left-handedness because of birth stress and are more susceptible to immune system related problems. Coren has suggested that in addition to genetics and birth stress other mechanisms might also contribute to the appearance of left-handedness, such as hormonal factors as in the Geschwind–Galaburda hypothesis. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4962128 | 649,805 |
2,028,615 | The presence of perchlorates in the soil makes growing vegetables on Mars especially difficult. Since there is no ozone layer on Mars, UV rays penetrate to the surface of the planet. Perchlorates become toxic when exposed to UV light, destroying bacteria within minutes of exposure. Research suggests that the iron oxides and hydrogen peroxide present in the soil on Mars increases the toxicity of perchlorates. The high level of perchlorates found on Mars (0.05 wt %) is concentrated enough that it would be toxic for humans and crops, and could be used for rocket fuel. Studies indicate that low concentrations of aqueous perchlorates inhibit the height, weight, chlorophyll content and oxidizing power of plants. One plant, E. crassipes, seems to have a high tolerance to perchlorates and might be an ideal plant for growing on Mars. Perchlorates can accumulate in the tissue of plants if grown in a contaminated medium. Since even trace amounts interfere with thyroid functions in humans, the presence of perchlorates in Martian soils is a significant issue that needs to be addressed before colonization occurs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=60527646 | 2,027,447 |
2,017,067 | After Klein completed her postdoctoral work, she was recruited to Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, Missouri in 2003. At WUSM, Klein was appointed, and still holds, professorships in the Departments of Medicine, Pathology & Immunology, and Neuroscience. After Klein arrived at WUSM, she founded the Center for Neuroimmunology and Neuroinfectious Diseases and now directs the center. In order to train the next leaders in neuroimmunology, Klein also developed a neuroimmunology basic and translational science research program where scientists work to probe the neuroimmune mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of brain related diseases. In 2017, Klein was named the Vice Provost and Assistant Dean for Graduate Education for the Division of Biology and Biomedical Sciences. In addition to promoting departmental collaborations and ensuring that graduate students are supported in their pursuits of a variety of different career paths, Klein is focusing on improving diversity and equity in the program by recruiting students from underrepresented groups. These goals are in line with Klein's past achievements and involvements in advocating for diversity and equity in science. She is the co-director of the Amgen Scholars Program at Washington University ensuring that a diverse group of undergraduate students have the opportunity to experience science in top labs. Further, as the president of the Academic Women’s Network at the Washington University School of Medicine, Klein promotes career development and mentorship for women in science. Klein has conducted research on gender bias in conference organization, highlighting the fact that conference committee composition matters in the selection of diverse speakers. Klein reports that “naming the problem is the first step in solving it”, suggesting that conducting quantitative studies on gender bias in scientific meetings, hiring, acceptances, grant awards etc. will be the first step towards actually solving these issues and increasing representation in science. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=63543418 | 2,015,905 |
1,995,245 | Resonant interactions were first considered and described by Henri Poincaré in the 19th century, in the analysis of perturbation series describing 3-body planetary motion. The first-order terms in the perturbative series can be understood for form a matrix; the eigenvalues of the matrix correspond to the fundamental modes in the perturbated solution. Poincare observed that in many cases, there are integer linear combinations of the eigenvalues that sum to zero; this is the original "resonant interaction". When in resonance, energy transfer between modes can keep the system in a stable phase-locked state. However, going to second order is challenging in several ways. One is that degenerate solutions are difficult to diagonalize (there is no unique vector basis for the degenerate space). A second issue is that differences appear in the denominator of the second and higher order terms in the perturbation series; small differences lead to the famous "small divisor problem". These can be interpreted as corresponding to chaotic behavior. To roughly summarize, precise resonances lead to scattering and mixing; approximate resonances lead to chaotic behavior. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=65312394 | 1,994,102 |
1,116,923 | The effect achieved a small degree of popularity in television in the late 1980s and 1990s. On Sunday, January 22, 1989 the "Super Bowl" XXIII halftime show and a specially produced commercial for "Diet Coke" were telecast using this effect. In the commercial, objects moving in one direction appeared to be nearer to the viewer (actually in front of the television screen) and when moving in the other direction, appeared to be farther from the viewer (behind the television screen). Forty million pairs of paper-framed 3D viewing "glasses" were distributed by Coca-Cola USA for the event (though they were originally produced and intended for a May 1988 3D episode of "Moonlighting" that never finished production due to a writer's strike). The right eye's filter was grayed purple (resembling red wine color), while the left was very light amber (resembling white wine color). These colors complemented each other to produce the Pulfrich effect while avoiding distortion in the broadcast's natural colors. The commercial was in this case restricted to objects (such as refrigerators and skateboarders) moving down a steep hill from left to right across the screen, a directional dependency determined by which eye was covered by the darker filter. The commercial was said to be created using Nuoptix 3D technology to create the Pulfrich effect. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=790468 | 1,116,350 |
65,839 | Brain tissue consumes a large amount of energy in proportion to its volume, so large brains place severe metabolic demands on animals. The need to limit body weight in order, for example, to fly, has apparently led to selection for a reduction of brain size in some species, such as bats. Most of the brain's energy consumption goes into sustaining the electric charge (membrane potential) of neurons. Most vertebrate species devote between 2% and 8% of basal metabolism to the brain. In primates, however, the percentage is much higher—in humans it rises to 20–25%. The energy consumption of the brain does not vary greatly over time, but active regions of the cerebral cortex consume somewhat more energy than inactive regions; this forms the basis for the functional brain imaging methods of PET, fMRI, and NIRS. The brain typically gets most of its energy from oxygen-dependent metabolism of glucose (i.e., blood sugar), but ketones provide a major alternative source, together with contributions from medium chain fatty acids (caprylic and heptanoic acids), lactate, acetate, and possibly amino acids. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3717 | 65,814 |
324,323 | Over the years, the Marconi companies gained a reputation for being technically conservative, in particular by continuing to use inefficient spark-transmitter technology, which could be used only for radio-telegraph operations, long after it was apparent that the future of radio communication lay with continuous-wave transmissions which were more efficient and could be used for audio transmissions. Somewhat belatedly, the company did begin significant work with continuous-wave equipment beginning in 1915, after the introduction of the oscillating vacuum tube (valve). The New Street Works factory in Chelmsford was the location for the first entertainment radio broadcasts in the United Kingdom in 1920, employing a vacuum tube transmitter and featuring Dame Nellie Melba. In 1922, regular entertainment broadcasts commenced from the Marconi Research Centre at Great Baddow, forming the prelude to the BBC, and he spoke of the close association of aviation and wireless telephony in that same year at a private gathering with Florence Tyzack Parbury, and even spoke of interplanetary wireless communication. In 1924, the Marconi Company co-established the Unione Radiofonica Italiana (now RAI). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12104 | 324,151 |
1,464,240 | These processes were the foundation of later HTL technologies that attracted research interest especially during the 1970s oil embargo. It was around that time that a high-pressure (hydrothermal) liquefaction process was developed at the Pittsburgh Energy Research Center (PERC) and later demonstrated (at the 100 kg/h scale) at the Albany Biomass Liquefaction Experimental Facility at Albany, Oregon, US. In 1982, Shell Oil developed the HTU™ process in the Netherlands. Other organizations that have previously demonstrated HTL of biomass include Hochschule für Angewandte Wissenschaften Hamburg, Germany, SCF Technologies in Copenhagen, Denmark, EPA’s Water Engineering Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA, and Changing World Technology Inc. (CWT), Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA. Today, technology companies such as Licella/Ignite Energy Resources (Australia), Arbios Biotech, a Licella/Canfor joint venture, Altaca Energy (Turkey), Circlia Nordic (Denmark), Steeper Energy (Denmark, Canada) continue to explore the commercialization of HTL. Construction has begun in Teesside, UK, for a catalytic hydrothermal liquefaction plant that aims to process 80,000 tonnes per year of mixed plastic waste by 2022. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38754240 | 1,463,417 |
1,534,363 | The virion is a flexible filament (worm-like chain) about 6 nm in diameter and 900 nm long. Several thousand copies of a small (50 amino-acid residues) elongated alpha-helical major coat protein subunit (the product of gene 8, or p8) in an overlapping shingle-like array form a hollow cylinder enclosing the circular single-stranded DNA genome. Each p8 subunit has a collection of basic residues near the C-terminus of the elongated protein and acidic residues near the N-terminus; these two regions are separated by about 20 hydrophobic (non-polar) residues. The shingle-like arrangement places the acidic residues of p8 near the outside surface of the cylinder, where they cause the virus particle to be negatively-charged; non-polar regions near non-polar regions of neighbouring p8 subunits, where non-polar interactions contribute to a notable physical stability of the virus particle; and basic residues near the centre of the cylinder, where they interact with the negatively-charged DNA phosphates at the core of the virion. Longer (or shorter) DNA molecules can be packaged, since more (or fewer) p8 subunits can be added during assembly as required to protect the DNA, making the phage useful for genetic studies. (This effect should not be confused with polyphage, which can package several separate and distinct DNA molecules). About 5 copies each of four minor proteins cap the two ends of the virion. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=35226694 | 1,533,495 |
376,333 | For the 14th round of the season in Europe, Frentzen took his first pole in 2 years, ahead of Coulthard and Häkkinen. At the start, Frentzen led Häkkinen and Coulthard into the first corner, but at the back Damon Hill suffered an electrical failure, causing Alexander Wurz to hit Pedro Diniz, which caused his Sauber to flip. There was a slight drizzle after 15 laps, and unlike others, Häkkinen pitted for wets. This was too early, and he lost a lot of time and had to pit again for dries. He rejoined a lap down. Irvine was stuck for 30 seconds on three wheels during his fuel stop, when his team couldn't find the fourth wheel. With a half of the race gone, Frentzen was leading Coulthard and Ralf. Frentzen's race cruelly ended with an electrical failure after his first stop. It started raining by then, and new leader Coulthard spun off and retired. This gave the lead to Ralf until he suffered a puncture, which dropped him to fifth. On the wet track, Fisichella inherited the lead, only to spin off himself and retire. The next leader was Johnny Herbert in the Stewart. The track dried out and Herbert won, ahead of Jarno Trulli's Prost and Rubens Barrichello's second Stewart. Late in the race, Irvine made a mistake while running sixth, and gave sixth to Häkkinen, who then went on to pass Marc Gené for fifth. Gené's teammate Luca Badoer was running 4th with 13 laps to go but had a gearbox failure, thus denying him of a points finish. Häkkinen thus took a two-point lead over Irvine going into the last two races. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1137692 | 376,138 |
1,106,739 | The study of protein folding began in 1910 with a famous paper by Harriette Chick and C. J. Martin, in which they showed that the flocculation of a protein was composed of two distinct processes: the precipitation of a protein from solution was "preceded" by another process called denaturation, in which the protein became much less soluble, lost its enzymatic activity and became more chemically reactive. In the mid-1920s, Tim Anson and Alfred Mirsky proposed that denaturation was a reversible process, a correct hypothesis that was initially lampooned by some scientists as "unboiling the egg". Anson also suggested that denaturation was a two-state ("all-or-none") process, in which one fundamental molecular transition resulted in the drastic changes in solubility, enzymatic activity and chemical reactivity; he further noted that the free energy changes upon denaturation were much smaller than those typically involved in chemical reactions. In 1929, Hsien Wu hypothesized that denaturation was protein unfolding, a purely conformational change that resulted in the exposure of amino acid side chains to the solvent. According to this (correct) hypothesis, exposure of aliphatic and reactive side chains to solvent rendered the protein less soluble and more reactive, whereas the loss of a specific conformation caused the loss of enzymatic activity. Although considered plausible, Wu's hypothesis was not immediately accepted, since so little was known of protein structure and enzymology and other factors could account for the changes in solubility, enzymatic activity and chemical reactivity. In the early 1960s, Chris Anfinsen showed that the folding of ribonuclease A was fully reversible with no external cofactors needed, verifying the "thermodynamic hypothesis" of protein folding that the folded state represents the global minimum of free energy for the protein. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4173711 | 1,106,175 |
280,124 | Any score of 24 or more (out of 30) indicates a normal cognition. Below this, scores can indicate severe (≤9 points), moderate (10–18 points) or mild (19–23 points) cognitive impairment. The raw score may also need to be corrected for educational attainment and age. Even a maximum score of 30 points can never rule out dementia and there is no strong evidence to support this examination as a stand-alone one-time test for identifying high risk individuals who are likely to develop Alzheimer's. Low to very low scores may correlate closely with the presence of dementia, although other mental disorders can also lead to abnormal findings on MMSE testing. The presence of purely physical problems can also interfere with interpretation if not properly noted; for example, a patient may be physically unable to hear or read instructions properly or may have a motor deficit that affects writing and drawing skills. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1585251 | 279,973 |
2,143,994 | Some years later, further research was carried out in relation to 3D FPM approximations in (Ortega, Oñate & Idelsohn, 2007). This work focused on constructing robust approximations regardless of the characteristics of the local support. To this end, local automatic adjusting of the weighting function and other approximation parameters were proposed. Further 3D applications of the method involved compressible aerodynamics flows with adaptive refinement (Ortega, Oñate & Idelsohn, 2009) and moving/deforming boundary problems (Ortega, Oñate & Idelsohn, 2013). In these works, the FPM showed satisfactory robustness and accuracy, and capabilities to address practical computations. Among other achievements, it was demonstrated that a complete regeneration of the model discretization could be an affordable solution strategy, even in large simulation problems. This result presents new possibilities for the meshless analysis of moving/deforming domain problems. The FPM was also applied with success to adaptive shallow water problems in (Ortega, Oñate, Idelsohn & Buachart, 2011) and (Buachart, Kanok-Nukulchai, Ortega & Oñate, 2014). A proposal to exploit meshless advantages in high-Reynolds viscous flow problems is presented in (Ortega, Oñate, Idelsohn & Flores, 2014a). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50991882 | 2,142,763 |
279,021 | A consequence of these evolutionarily selected sequences is that proteins are generally thought to have globally "funneled energy landscapes" (a term coined by José Onuchic) that are largely directed toward the native state. This "folding funnel" landscape allows the protein to fold to the native state through any of a large number of pathways and intermediates, rather than being restricted to a single mechanism. The theory is supported by both computational simulations of model proteins and experimental studies, and it has been used to improve methods for protein structure prediction and design. The description of protein folding by the leveling free-energy landscape is also consistent with the 2nd law of thermodynamics. Physically, thinking of landscapes in terms of visualizable potential or total energy surfaces simply with maxima, saddle points, minima, and funnels, rather like geographic landscapes, is perhaps a little misleading. The relevant description is really a high-dimensional phase space in which manifolds might take a variety of more complicated topological forms. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=52085 | 278,871 |
1,172,986 | The 1970s were a particularly fruitful period for Wuorinen, who taught at the Manhattan School of Music from 1971 to 1979. Chamber works during this decade include his first two string quartets, the "Six Pieces for Violin and Piano", "Fast Fantasy" for cello and piano, and two large works for the Tashi Ensemble, "Tashi" and "Fortune". Works for orchestra include "Grand Bamboula" for strings, "A Reliquary for Igor Stravinsky," which incorporates the elder master's last sketches, the "Second Piano Concerto," and the "Concerto for Amplified Violin and Orchestra", which caused a scandal at its premiere at the Tanglewood Festival with Paul Zukofsky and the BSO conducted by Michael Tilson Thomas. In 1976 Wuorinen completed his "Percussion Symphony", a five-movement work for 24 players including two pianos for the New Jersey Percussion Ensemble and his longtime colleague Raymond Des Roches, as well as his opera subtitled "a baroque burlesque", "The W. of Babylon" with an original libretto by Renaud Charles Bruce. The New Jersey Percussion Ensemble had also performed and recorded Wuorinen's composition "Ringing Changes" in collaboration with the Group for Contemporary Music prior to the Percussion Symphony, setting the stage for this challenging larger-scale work. The ensemble, created by Raymond Des Roches, recorded the Percussion Symphony, which was released in 1978 by Nonesuch. In the late 1970s Wuorinen became interested in the work of the mathematician Benoit Mandelbrot and with a grant from the Rockefeller Foundation he conducted sonic experiments at Bell Labs in New Jersey. In an interview with Richard Burbank, Wuorinen is quoted as saying: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=341837 | 1,172,367 |
1,032,109 | For the 1994 season, Minardi repositioned itself. Half of the company's shares were acquired by a consortium led by Giuseppe "Beppe" Lucchini, whose Formula 1 team BMS Scuderia Italia had stopped operating at the end of 1993. Minardi's opportunities improved significantly. That also affected the engine. Although Minardi's agreement with TWR for the supply of HB-III engines also extended to 1994, with the financial support of Lucchini, Minardi managed to conclude a contract directly with Cosworth, so that on the one hand the detour via TWR and on the other hand the team became superfluous Gained access to HB-VII and HB-VIII engines; the latter was from the German Grand Prix in action. The chassis was initially the M193 known from the previous year, which was gradually developed into the M194 in the first half of the season. Pilots were the experienced Italians Michele Alboreto, who contested his last Formula 1 season here, and Pierluigi Martini. Regardless of the significantly more powerful engine compared to the HB III, Minardi in 1994 was unable to match the performance of the previous year. Both drivers finished in the points once each with the old car – Martini was fifth in Spain and Alboreto sixth in Monaco –; with the M194, on the other hand, only two championship points could be brought in, as Martini in France finished fifth. In contrast, the drivers did not score any more points in the second half of the season. Minardi ended the season in 10th place in the constructors' championship with five points. That put the team ahead of Larrousse and Simtek. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=68931039 | 1,031,573 |
423,882 | The initial notion of Frames or Scripts as they were also called is that they would establish the context for a problem and in so doing automatically reduce the possible search space significantly. The idea was also adopted by Schank and Abelson who used it to illustrate how an AI system could process common human interactions such as ordering a meal at a restaurant. These interactions were standardized as Frames with slots that stored relevant information about each Frame. Slots are analogous to object properties in object-oriented modeling and to relations in entity-relation models. Slots often had default values but also required further refinement as part of the execution of each instance of the scenario. I.e., the execution of a task such as ordering at a restaurant was controlled by starting with a basic instance of the Frame and then instantiating and refining various values as appropriate. Essentially the abstract Frame represented an object class and the frame instances an object instance. In this early work, the emphasis was primarily on the static data descriptions of the Frame. Various mechanisms were developed to define the range of a slot, default values, etc. However, even in these early systems there were procedural capabilities. One common technique was to use "triggers" (similar to the database concept of triggers) attached to slots. A trigger is simply procedural code that have attached to a slot. The trigger could fire either before and/or after a slot value was accessed or modified. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9924067 | 423,675 |
10,124 | Most of the components for Little Boy left San Francisco on the cruiser on 16 July and arrived on Tinian on 26 July. Four days later the ship was sunk by a Japanese submarine. The remaining components, which included six uranium-235 rings, were delivered by three C-54 Skymasters of the 509th Group's 320th Troop Carrier Squadron. Two Fat Man assemblies travelled to Tinian in specially modified 509th Composite Group B-29s. The first plutonium core went in a special C-54. In late April, a joint targeting committee of the Manhattan District and USAAF was established to determine which cities in Japan should be targets, and recommended Kokura, Hiroshima, Niigata, and Kyoto. At this point, Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson intervened, announcing that he would be making the targeting decision, and that he would not authorize the bombing of Kyoto on the grounds of its historical and religious significance. Groves therefore asked Arnold to remove Kyoto not just from the list of nuclear targets, but from targets for conventional bombing as well. One of Kyoto's substitutes was Nagasaki. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19603 | 10,120 |
1,263,517 | Goldschmidt is usually referred to as a "non-Darwinian"; however, he did not object to the general microevolutionary principles of the Darwinians. He veered from the synthetic theory only in his belief that a new species develops suddenly through discontinuous variation, or macromutation. Goldschmidt presented his hypothesis when neo-Darwinism was becoming dominant in the 1940s and 1950s, and strongly protested against the strict gradualism of neo-Darwinian theorists. His ideas were accordingly seen as highly unorthodox by most scientists and were subjected to ridicule and scorn. However, there has been a recent interest in the ideas of Goldschmidt in the field of evolutionary developmental biology, as some scientists, such as Günter Theißen and Scott F. Gilbert, are convinced he was not entirely wrong. Goldschmidt presented two mechanisms by which hopeful monsters might work. One mechanism, involving "systemic mutations", rejected the classical gene concept and is no longer considered by modern science; however, his second mechanism involved "developmental macromutations" in "rate genes" or "controlling genes" that change early development and thus cause large effects in the adult phenotype. These kinds of mutations are similar to those considered in contemporary evolutionary developmental biology. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1643013 | 1,262,829 |
934,230 | As with antibiotic therapy and other methods of countering bacterial infections, endotoxins are released by the bacteria as they are destroyed within the patient (Jarisch–Herxheimer reaction). This can cause symptoms of fever; in extreme cases toxic shock (a problem also seen with antibiotics) is possible. Janakiraman Ramachandran argues that this complication can be avoided in those types of infection where this reaction is likely to occur by using genetically engineered bacteriophages which have had their gene responsible for producing endolysin removed. Without this gene, the host bacterium still dies but remains intact because the lysis is disabled. On the other hand, this modification stops the exponential growth of phages, so one administered phage means at most one dead bacterial cell. Eventually these dead cells are consumed by the normal house-cleaning duties of the phagocytes, which utilize enzymes to break down the whole bacterium and its contents into harmless proteins, polysaccharides and lipids. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=682382 | 933,738 |
1,942,157 | The trunk is short and heavily built, with broad and flattened ribs. The ribcage is deepest at the shoulders and gradually becomes shallower, forming a straight, constant slope, similar to "Cartorhynchus" but in contrast to the more rounded underside seen in other ichthyosauromorphs. An extensive gastral rib basket runs along the underside in two parallel series on each side. Particularly, the inner of the two series are composed of flat, overlapping triangular pieces of bone that resemble the condition in hupehsuchians. The cervical and dorsal vertebrae bear tall, vertical neural spines that are broadened so as to leave little space between each spine. This resembles the condition in Hupehsuchia, but is unlike the well-spaced, posteriorly inclined spines of basal ichthyopterygians. The caudal neural spines in contrast are lower than they are wide and have rounded tips. The tail itself is very long and slender, composed of at least 67 caudal vertebrae, and does not appear to have had a fluke. The haemal arches possess a unique morphology, where only the ninth pair and onwards are fused distally, however unlike other diapsids they are not V- or Y-shaped in cranial view, but U-shaped. Small dermal ossicles were reported from the cervical region, ranging in size between 2–5 mm, and curiously resemble the pelvic ossicles of saurosphargids. There are no ossicles present over the neural spines, unlike in hupehsuchians. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50616736 | 1,941,046 |
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