doc_id int32 18 2.25M | text stringlengths 245 2.96k | source stringlengths 38 44 | __index_level_0__ int64 18 2.25M |
|---|---|---|---|
944,954 | The 1972 Formula One season completely failed to capitalise on the promise March showed in 1970-71. Three distinct models of the car were used, beginning with the 721, which was a development of the 711. Peterson and Niki Lauda then drove the disappointing experimental 721X factory cars (using an Alfa Romeo transverse gearbox and intended to have a low polar-moment, anticipating in some ways the much more successful Tyrrell 005/006 series). Frank Williams ran regular 711 and 721 customer cars for Henri Pescarolo and Carlos Pace. The 721X was deemed to be a disaster and abandoned, but the team saw a way out; customer Mike Beuttler and his backers ordered an F1 car, and the team produced the 721G in nine days (the "G" stood for "Guinness Book Of Records" as the car was built so quickly) by fitting a Cosworth DFV and larger fuel tanks to the 722 F2 chassis (not as desperate an experiment as it may have sounded -- John Cannon commissioned a Formula 5000 car which was built to a very similar scheme). The 721G was light and quick, and the works team soon built their own chassis. The 721G set the trend for future March F1 cars, which for the rest of the 1970s were essentially scaled-up F2 chassis. Meanwhile, March was going from strength to strength in Formula Two and Formula Three. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1347020 | 944,452 |
752,384 | Eddington also investigated the interior of stars through theory, and developed the first true understanding of stellar processes. He began this in 1916 with investigations of possible physical explanations for Cepheid variable stars. He began by extending Karl Schwarzschild's earlier work on radiation pressure in Emden polytropic models. These models treated a star as a sphere of gas held up against gravity by internal thermal pressure, and one of Eddington's chief additions was to show that radiation pressure was necessary to prevent collapse of the sphere. He developed his model despite knowingly lacking firm foundations for understanding opacity and energy generation in the stellar interior. However, his results allowed for calculation of temperature, density and pressure at all points inside a star (thermodynamic anisotropy), and Eddington argued that his theory was so useful for further astrophysical investigation that it should be retained despite not being based on completely accepted physics. James Jeans contributed the important suggestion that stellar matter would certainly be ionized, but that was the end of any collaboration between the pair, who became famous for their lively debates. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2274 | 751,982 |
1,436,088 | Application of FIM, like FEM, is limited by the materials which can be fabricated in the shape of a sharp tip, can be used in an ultra high vacuum (UHV) environment, and can tolerate the high electrostatic fields. For these reasons, refractory metals with high melting temperature (e.g. W, Mo, Pt, Ir) are conventional objects for FIM experiments. Metal tips for FEM and FIM are prepared by electropolishing (electrochemical polishing) of thin wires. However, these tips usually contain many asperities. The final preparation procedure involves the in situ removal of these asperities by field evaporation just by raising the tip voltage. Field evaporation is a field induced process which involves the removal of atoms from the surface itself at very high field strengths and typically occurs in the range 2-5 V/Å. The effect of the field in this case is to reduce the effective binding energy of the atom to the surface and to give, in effect, a greatly increased evaporation rate relative to that expected at that temperature at zero fields. This process is self-regulating since the atoms that are at positions of high local curvature, such as adatoms or ledge atoms, are removed preferentially. The tips used in FIM is sharper (tip radius is 100~300 Å) compared to those used in FEM experiments (tip radius ~1000 Å). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11774 | 1,435,281 |
685,572 | In 1905, after the experiences of the Spanish–American War, President Theodore Roosevelt appointed a new fortifications board, under Secretary of War William Howard Taft. They updated some standards and reviewed the progress on the Endicott Board's program. Most of the changes recommended by this board were technical; such as adding more searchlights, electrification (lighting, communications, and projectile handling), and more sophisticated optical aiming techniques. The board also recommended fortifications in territories acquired from Spain: Cuba and the Philippines, as well as Hawaii, and a few other sites. Defenses in Panama were authorized by the Spooner Act of 1902. The Taft Program fortifications differed slightly in battery construction and had fewer numbers of guns at a given location than those of the Endicott Program. Due to the rapid development of dreadnought battleships, a new 14-inch gun was introduced in a few locations and improved models of other weapons were also introduced. By the beginning of World War I, the United States had a coastal defense system that was equal to any other nation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13422946 | 685,215 |
1,050,146 | The Euler characteristic of a closed surface is a purely topological concept, whereas the index of a vector field is purely analytic. Thus, this theorem establishes a deep link between two seemingly unrelated areas of mathematics. It is perhaps as interesting that the proof of this theorem relies heavily on integration, and, in particular, Stokes' theorem, which states that the integral of the exterior derivative of a differential form is equal to the integral of that form over the boundary. In the special case of a manifold without boundary, this amounts to saying that the integral is 0. But by examining vector fields in a sufficiently small neighborhood of a source or sink, we see that sources and sinks contribute integer amounts (known as the index) to the total, and they must all sum to 0. This result may be considered one of the earliest of a whole series of theorems establishing deep relationships between geometric and analytical or physical concepts. They play an important role in the modern study of both fields. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1267288 | 1,049,600 |
2,131,592 | The name “Road safety” have conveyed that in this field the activities need to concentrate on items that properly belong to roads and, by extension, to the roads authorities, keeping a reduced scope of activities in a number of different areas, in spite of their potentially significant contributions. For example, in the UK, Burrough, (1991) indicates that only one-third of the target reduction will be delivered by road safety engineering measures while Koornstra ( 2002) indicates “The contribution of local road engineering to the fatality reductions between 1980 and 2000 are estimated to be 4% for Sweden, 10% for Britain, and 5% for the Netherlands”. Whereas TEC (2003), quotes a research from the Imperial College, London that indicates than the progress in medical technology and care made a significant contribution to the 45% fall of fatalities during the last 20 years, and account for 700 lives saved annually in the UK, and further puts forward that the lack of consideration of the benefits coming from the medical area, suggests that road safety is probably less effective that thought. It is remarkable that implicitly the author of the research doesn't consider medical activities as a component of a road safety management system. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=541504 | 2,130,367 |
2,078,627 | In the year of 2001, the 1st French-Russian Meeting on New trends in Solid State Physics in Clermont-Ferrand, France which was sponsored by Valéry Giscard d'Estaing started a series of annual meetings of world leading experts in solid state physics. Further meetings have been held in Clermont-Ferrand on a yearly basis from 2002 to 2006 to be followed by Meetings in Rome in 2007, 2008, 2009 and 2010 with constantly increasing number of participating scientists. Shortly after the 2010 annual meeting, a group of researchers working in different countries decided to create a private organization which main goal would be bringing together a strong international team providing a stimulating research environment and working atmosphere. Another mission of MIFP was reunification of the Russian scientists who spread all over the world after the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. With a support from Dr. Giuseppe Eramo, University of Rome II Tor Vergata, MIFP was founded on 1 July 2010, and Prof. Alexey Kavokin, University of Southampton, was appointed its Scientific director. The institute started function within the campus of the University of Rome II Tor Vergata, and moved to Marino, Rome later that year. Starting from the year 2011, the yearly scientific meetings became Annual MIFP March Meetings gathering scientists working not only in Solid state physics but in a great variety of fields. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=35722587 | 2,077,428 |
1,646,971 | He has published using fluid-mechanical principles in applications to the Earth sciences: in meteorology, oceanography and geology. He was a member of the Editorial Board of the Journal of Fluid Mechanics (1970–1992), the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society (series A) (1994–99), The Proceedings of the Royal Society (series A) (2015-2020) and Geomechanics and Geophysics for Geo-energy and Georesources (2014 — ) and has been on the Council of the Royal Society (2001–03). He was Chairman of a Royal Society Working Group on bioterrorism, which produced a Report entitled 'Making the UK Safer', on 21 April 2004. He was also chair of the European Academies Science Advisory Committee (EASAC) Working Group which produced a report of the European Parliament and President on carbon capture and storage. He was awarded the 2011 Bakerian lecture for his research into geological fluid dynamics. Since 1990 he has held a part-time Professorship at the University of New South Wales in Sydney, Australia. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4388876 | 1,646,040 |
245,947 | Anamorphic format is the cinematography technique of shooting a widescreen picture on standard 35 mm film or other visual recording media with a non-widescreen native aspect ratio. It also refers to the projection format in which a distorted image is "stretched" by an anamorphic projection lens to recreate the original aspect ratio on the viewing screen (not to be confused with anamorphic widescreen, a different video encoding concept that uses similar principles but different means). The word "anamorphic" and its derivatives stem from the Greek "anamorphoun" ("to transform"), compound of "morphé" ("form, shape") with the prefix "aná" ("back, against"). In the late 1990s and 2000s, anamorphic lost popularity in comparison to "flat" (or "spherical") formats such as Super 35 with the advent of digital intermediates; however, in the years since digital cinema cameras and projectors have become commonplace, anamorphic has experienced a considerable resurgence of popularity, due in large part to the higher base ISO sensitivity of digital sensors, which facilitates shooting at smaller apertures. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10515524 | 245,820 |
1,862,667 | The first possible case of MPAL was reported in 1906 by Leonard Findlay at the Glasgow Royal Infirmary. Describing the diagnosis and post-mortem study, Findlay noted that in addition to the lymphocytes there was "other variety, which is in a much smaller proportion, varies, like the myelocyte, much in shape and size." He reported:In conclusion, then, there seems no doubt, not only from the condition of the blood during life but also from the pathological findings, that we are dealing here with a hyperplasia of both the myeloid and adenoid tissues. The definitive cases came into light in 1980 after two separate reports, one from Western Infirmary, Glasgow, and the other from William N. Wishard Memorial Hospital (now the Sidney & Lois Eskenazi Hospital), Indianapolis. By 1981, the distinction was clearer when monoclonal antibodies were used to identify the cancer cells. Following three cases from St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Tennessee, the name "acute leukaemia with mixed lymphoid and myeloid phenotype" was introduced. The World Health Organization in its "WHO Classification of Tumors of Haematopoietic and Lymphoid Tissues" (2008) adopted the name "mixed-phenotype acute leukemia" to include leukemias of ambiguous lineage, acute undifferentiated leukemias and natural killer lymphoblastic leukemias. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=62922260 | 1,861,598 |
1,365,874 | The required change in orbital populations can be achieved by electron transfer with a photocatalyst sensitive to lower energy visible light. Yoon demonstrated the efficient intra- and intermolecular [2+2] cycloadditions of activated olefins: particularly enones and styrenes. Enones, or electron-poor olefins, were discovered to react via a radical-anion pathway, utilizing diisopropylethylamine as a transient source of electrons. For this electron-transfer, [Ru(bipy)] was discovered to be an efficient photocatalyst. The anionic nature of the cyclization proved to be crucial: performing the reaction in acid rather than with a lithium counterion favored a non-cycloaddition pathway. Zhao et al. likewise discovered that a still different cyclization pathway is available to chalcones with a samarium counterion. Conversely, electron-rich styrenes were found to react via a radical-cation mechanism, utilizing methyl viologen or molecular oxygen as a transient electron sink. While [Ru(bipy)] proved to be a competent catalyst for intramolecular cyclizations using methyl viologen, it could not be used with molecular oxygen as an electron sink or for intermolecular cyclizations. For intermolecular cyclizations, Yoon et al. discovered that the more strongly oxidizing photocatalyst [Ru(bpm)] and molecular oxygen provided a catalytic system better suited to access the radical cation necessary for the cycloaddition to occur. [Ru(bpz)], a still more strongly oxidizing photocatalyst, proved to be problematic because although it could catalyze the desired [2+2] cycloaddition, it was also strong enough to oxidize the cycloadduct and catalyze the retro-[2+2] reaction. This comparison of photocatalysts highlights the importance of tuning the redox properties of a photocatalyst to the reaction system as well as demonstrating the value of polypyridyl compounds as ligands, due to the ease with which they can be modified to adjust the redox properties of their complexes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41278027 | 1,365,118 |
938,731 | In some places, there is no clear source of perchlorate, and it may be naturally occurring. Natural perchlorate on Earth was first identified in terrestrial nitrate deposits of the Atacama Desert in Chile as early as the 1880s and for a long time considered a unique perchlorate source. The perchlorate released from historic use of Chilean nitrate based fertilizer which the U.S.imported by the hundreds of tons in the early 19th century can still be found in some groundwater sources of the United States. Recent improvements in analytical sensitivity using ion chromatography based techniques have revealed a more widespread presence of natural perchlorate, particularly in subsoils of Southwest USA, salt evaporites in California and Nevada, Pleistocene groundwater in New Mexico, and even present in extremely remote places such as Antarctica. The data from these studies and others indicate that natural perchlorate is globally deposited on Earth with the subsequent accumulation and transport governed by the local hydrologic conditions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=611177 | 938,230 |
2,243,148 | Metallo-intercalators have a variety of potential therapeutic applications as a result of their structural diversity and universal photooxidative properties. One possible therapeutic application of metallo-intercalators is to combat cancerous tumor cells within the body by targeting specific mismatched DNA base pairs; the ability to modify the ligands bound to the metal center allows for a high degree of specificity in the binding interactions between the metallo-intercalator and the DNA sequence. For example, the ligand 5,6-chrysenequinone diimine (chrysi) and its analogues are designed to be too wide to fit inside the normal span of the base pairs of B-DNA, causing it to bind instead to the wider portions of the helix at destabilized sites of mismatched bases. After intercalation, the sample can be photoactivated by absorbing energy during irradiation with short wavelength light. This activation causes the metallo-intercalator's photooxidative properties to induce a cleavage of the sugar phosphate backbone at the site of mismatch through a radical mechanism. Even in the absence of irradiation, the interactions between the metallo-intercalator and DNA can substantially decrease the proliferation of cells containing DNA with mismatched base pairs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=45692219 | 2,241,877 |
383,614 | After being absent from PC Data's charts during the final months of 1997, "Diablo" took 13th place in the rankings for February 1998. It remained in the top 20 for another month, dropped out in April and reappeared in June. It returned to the top 10 from July through October, rising to #3 in August. For the first half of 1998, it was the United States' 14th-best-selling computer release. At the time, Jason Ocampo of "Computer Games Strategy Plus" called "Diablo" one of the charts' " 'perennial' inhabitants", and compared its longevity to that of "Myst" and "NASCAR Racing 2". The game's average sale price during the January–June period was $36; by October, it had fallen to $26. "Diablo" finished 11th for the year in the United States, with sales of 354,961 units and revenues of $9.57 million in the region. In August 1998, "Diablo" received a "Gold" sales award from the Verband der Unterhaltungssoftware Deutschland (VUD), indicating sales of at least 100,000 units across Germany, Austria and Switzerland. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18985454 | 383,419 |
158,345 | Researchers Greg Fahy and William F. Rall helped to introduce vitrification to reproductive cryopreservation in the mid-1980s. As of 2000, researchers claim vitrification provides the benefits of cryopreservation without damage due to ice crystal formation. The situation became more complex with the development of tissue engineering as both cells and biomaterials need to remain ice-free to preserve high cell viability and functions, integrity of constructs and structure of biomaterials. Vitrification of tissue engineered constructs was first reported by Lilia Kuleshova, who also was the first scientist to achieve vitrification of oocytes, which resulted in live birth in 1999. For clinical cryopreservation, vitrification usually requires the addition of cryoprotectants before cooling. Cryoprotectants are macromolecules added to the freezing medium to protect cells from the detrimental effects of intracellular ice crystal formation or from the solution effects, during the process of freezing and thawing. They permit a higher degree of cell survival during freezing, to lower the freezing point, to protect cell membrane from freeze-related injury. Cryoprotectants have high solubility, low toxicity at high concentrations, low molecular weight and the ability to interact with water via hydrogen bonding. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19349845 | 158,264 |
1,539,721 | There are currently limited conservation efforts in place across the world. Because "P. bicolor" are similar to "P. terribilis," many conservation efforts are applicable to both species. Captive-breeding programs have appeared across the world. In South America, Tatamá National Park in Colombia contains and protects hundreds of endangered and endemic species, including "P. bicolor." In the United States, the Baltimore National Aquarium has been engaged in a captive-breeding program. While this has preserved numbers of the species, complications have arisen. Most notably, researchers studying "P. bicolor" in captivity have noticed a significant reduction of batrachotoxins present on the skin. Without predators in the captive environment, "P. bicolor" does not need to produce the toxin. This presents significant difficulty to any potential reintroduction plans, as without the toxin to protect the frogs from predators, "P. bicolor" will have no defense against predation. Additional measures have been taken to prevent the spread of "Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis," too. Without an active cure for the disease, preventative measures such as bleaching researchers feet have been put into place to limit the spread of the disease to areas historically known to be "Bd" free. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5495985 | 1,538,848 |
1,679,253 | In addition to mouse models, a study using ferrets reveals more about ASPM and its role in determining cortical size and thickness. The researchers from this study chose ferrets over mouse models due to incongruencies between "Aspm" effects in mice versus ASPM effects in humans - humans with microcephaly due to this gene mutation tend to have significantly reduced brain sizes (about 50% reduction), whereas the analogous mutation in mice only results in mild brain size reduction. Ferrets also show more similarities to humans in terms of brain structure; ferrets' brains have gyrification in high amounts similar to humans, different from the relatively smooth brains of mice. As a result, there is less cortical surface area in mice compared to that of ferrets and humans. In this 2018 study, researchers targeted "Aspm" exon 15, where a mutation in humans is linked to severe cases of microcephaly. With a loss of function in "Aspm", ferrets with "Aspm" mutations saw a 40% decrease in overall brain size coupled with no reduction in body size, similar to the effects of loss of ASPM in humans. The study also looked at the neurodevelopmental pathways and mechanisms leading to neurogenesis in the KO ferrets compared to the WT controls, specifically studying three different neuron progenitor cell (NPC) types, all of which express the mitotic marker Ki-67 and undergo radial glial migration to the cortical plate. They found that outer subventricular zone (OSVZ) NPCs were largely displaced, especially frontally and dorsally which mirrors the effects seen in cortical volume reductions due to ASPM KO. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=431433 | 1,678,310 |
387,466 | In two important papers in 1810 and 1811, Laplace first developed the characteristic function as a tool for large-sample theory and proved the first general central limit theorem. Then in a supplement to his 1810 paper written after he had seen Gauss's work, he showed that the central limit theorem provided a Bayesian justification for least squares: if one were combining observations, each one of which was itself the mean of a large number of independent observations, then the least squares estimates would not only maximise the likelihood function, considered as a posterior distribution, but also minimise the expected posterior error, all this without any assumption as to the error distribution or a circular appeal to the principle of the arithmetic mean. In 1811 Laplace took a different non-Bayesian tack. Considering a linear regression problem, he restricted his attention to linear unbiased estimators of the linear coefficients. After showing that members of this class were approximately normally distributed if the number of observations was large, he argued that least squares provided the "best" linear estimators. Here it is "best" in the sense that it minimised the asymptotic variance and thus both minimised the expected absolute value of the error, and maximised the probability that the estimate would lie in any symmetric interval about the unknown coefficient, no matter what the error distribution. His derivation included the joint limiting distribution of the least squares estimators of two parameters. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=344783 | 387,271 |
876,639 | The general population remained uninformed of any breakthroughs concerning biological warfare. This included new production plants for anthrax, brucellosis, and anti-crop agents, as well as the development of the cluster bomb. The U.S. public was also unaware of ongoing studies, particularly the environmental and open-air experiments that were taking place. One of the more controversial experiments was conducted in 1951, when a disproportionate number of African Americans were exposed to the fungus "Aspergillus fumigatus", to see if they were more susceptible to infection. Some scientists reasoned that such knowledge would help them prepare a defense against a more deadly form of the fungus. The same year, workers at the Norfolk Supply Center in Norfolk, Virginia, were unknowingly exposed to "Aspergillus fumigatus" spores. Another case of human research was the biodefense medical research program, Operation Whitecoat. This decade-long experiment on volunteer Seventh Day Adventist servicemen exposed them to tularaemia via aerosols. They were then treated with antibiotics. The goal of the experiment, unknown to the volunteers, was to standardize tularaemia bomb-fill for attacks on civilian populations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10548751 | 876,177 |
1,255,365 | Tye returned to MIT in 2012 as an assistant professor at the university's Picower Institute for Learning and Memory. Her research has focused on answering questions on how the same neural mechanism in the amygdala of the brain can regulate such different behavioral responses to negative and positive environmental cues. Using optogenetics to control neurons by modulating how they transmit signals in the brain, her work seeks to determine whether there are different neuronal networks in the amygdala that communicate with either the fear or reward circuits of the brain. Through this research, Tye and colleagues were able to identify distinct populations of neurons that have different functions, morphology and genetics and were able to confirm that these differences are associated with separate roles in processing information that leads to either positive or negative reinforcement. Her work has contributed to the understanding of social behaviors such as reward-seeking and anxiety, and provided insights into the basis of psychiatric diseases. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=48542628 | 1,254,682 |
748,232 | Similar criticism regarding the standardisation as well as consistency in the use of TTM is also raised in a recent review on travel interventions. With regard to travel interventions only stages of change and sometimes decisional balance constructs are included. The processes used to build the intervention are rarely stage-matched and short cuts are taken by classifying participants in a pre-action stage, which summarises the precontemplation, contemplation and preparation stage, and an action/maintenance stage. More generally, TTM has been criticised within various domains due to the limitations in the research designs. For example, many studies supporting the model have been cross-sectional, but longitudinal study data would allow for stronger causal inferences. Another point of criticism is raised in a 2002 review, where the model's stages were characterized as "not mutually exclusive". Furthermore, there was "scant evidence of sequential movement through discrete stages". While research suggests that movement through the stages of change is not always linear, a study of smoking cessation conducted in 1996 demonstrated that the probability of forward stage movement is greater than the probability of backward stage movement. Due to the variations in use, implementation and type of research designs, data confirming TTM are ambiguous. More care has to be taken in using a sufficient amount of constructs, trustworthy measures, and longitudinal data. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1906107 | 747,834 |
918,506 | Black hat hackers, like all hackers, usually know a lot about getting into computer networks and getting around security protocols. They also create malware, which is software that lets them access computer networks, monitor their victims' online activities, or lock their victims' devices. Black hat hackers can be involved in cyber espionage or protest, in addition to pursuing personal or financial gain. Cybercrime may be an addictive experience for some. Black hat hackers can be novices just getting their feet wet by spreading malware to experienced criminals who steal data, particularly login credentials, financial information, and personal information. This information is then sold by many on the dark web. Other hackers modify or destroy data in addition to stealing it. The big data breaches that make headlines every year are the work of black hat hackers. In a data breach, hackers steal the credit card, login, and Social Security numbers of customers, patients, and constituents, as well as their financial and personal information. The hackers can then use this information to smear a business or government agency, sell it on the dark web, or extort money from businesses, government agencies, or individuals. The United States experienced a record number of 1,862 data breaches in 2021, according to the Identity Theft Resource Center's 2021 Data Breach Report. Data breaches have been on the rise for some time. From 2013 to 2014, black hat hackers broke into Yahoo and stole 3 billion customer records, possibly the largest ever. In addition, the adult website Adult Friend Finder was hacked in October 2016 and over 412 million customer records were taken. A data breach that occurred between May and July of 2017 exposed more than 145 million customer records, making the national credit bureau Equifax another victim of black hat hackers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=997497 | 918,023 |
53,944 | Admission to medical school in the United States is highly competitive, and in the United States there were 21,869 matriculants to medical school out of 53,371 applicants (≈41%) in 2019. Before entering medical school, students are not required to complete a four-year undergraduate degree (see admission criteria at Yale University, Emory University, Cornell University, University of Chicago, and others), but they must take the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT). Before graduating from a medical school and being awarded the Doctor of Medicine degree, students are required to take the United States Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE) Step 1 and the clinical knowledge Step 2 exam. As of 2020, the requirement of the Clinical Skills portion of the Step 2 exam was removed. The MD degree is typically earned in four years and is an undergraduate vocational degree. Following the awarding of the MD, physicians who wish to practice in the United States are required to complete at least one internship year (PGY-1) and pass the USMLE Step 3. In order to receive board eligible or board accredited status in a specialty of medicine such as general surgery or internal medicine, physicians undergo additional specialized training in the form of a residency. Those who wish to further specialize in areas such as cardiology or infectious diseases then complete a fellowship. Depending upon the physician's chosen field, residencies and fellowships involve an additional three to eight years of training after obtaining the MD. This can be lengthened with additional research years, which can last one, two, or more years. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=428966 | 53,924 |
1,382,949 | At the time that Regulus began development, the US Navy was looking for ways that it could deliver nuclear weapons using its own resources. In the late 1940s, the Navy had planned a class of supercarriers, with the first ordered as . These ships would be large enough to carry strategic bombers of the size required to carry the nuclear weapons of the time, the specification of which crystallised into the Douglas A-3 Skywarrior. However, the difficulty in designing carrier-based aircraft of the required size to carry nuclear weapons, but capable of operating from the deck of a carrier, which became more of an issue when "United States" was cancelled, led to the Navy looking at other options for nuclear weapons delivery, and focusing on the concept of submarine launched nuclear missiles, with Regulus a prime candidate. The missile was designed to be able to accommodate the W5 nuclear warhead, before it underwent a redesign to allow carriage of the W27 thermonuclear warhead. The capability of submarines to carry nuclear weapons was seen as significant, as it was possible for submarines to remain undetected on station, with the threat of nuclear retaliation potentially ever present without their presence being known. So, in 1953, the US Navy, with the success of the test programme conducted using "Tunny" and "Barbero", ordered a pair of larger missile submarines capable of carrying twice the number of missiles each. Originally planned as sisters to the attack submarine , the two boats, and , were converted while under construction through the addition of a section containing the missile hangar onto the bow (as opposed to an external installation in the original Regulus boats). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=59895854 | 1,382,183 |
1,586,616 | Cancer is the result of somatic mutations which provide cancer cells with a selective growth advantage. Recently it has been very important to determine the novel mutations. Genomics and proteomics techniques are used worldwide to identify mutations related to each specific cancer and their treatments. Computational tools are used to predict growth and surface antigens on cancerous cells. There are publications explaining a targeted approach for assessing mutations and cancer risk. Algorithm CanPredict was used to indicate how closely a specific gene resembles known cancer-causing genes. Cancer immunology has been given so much importance that the data related to it is growing rapidly. Protein–protein interaction networks provide valuable information on tumorigenesis in humans. Cancer proteins exhibit a network topology that is different from normal proteins in the human interactome. Immunoinformatics have been useful in increasing success of tumour vaccination. Recently, pioneering works have been conducted to analyse the host immune system dynamics in response to artificial immunity induced by vaccination strategies. Other simulation tools use predicted cancer peptides to forecast immune specific anticancer responses that is dependent on the specified HLA. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3112875 | 1,585,722 |
662,470 | Bone marrow transplants are the most common and well established cell transplantation therapies. The first recording of a successful bone marrow transplant, dates back to 1956 by dr. E Donnall Thomas, who treated a leukemia patient with their twin-siblings bone marrow. In general, for patients presenting damaged or destroyed bone marrow, for example after chemotherapy and/or radiation for acute myeloid leukemia (AML), bone marrow derived cells can be infused into the patients blood stream. Here the injected cells are able to home into the affected bone marrow, integrate, proliferate and recover or re-establish its biological function "e.g." the haematopoiesis. Annually an estimated 18,000 patients require potentially life-saving bone marrow transplants in the US. For a long time, bone marrow transplantation was the only clinically applicable method of cell transplantation, however, since the 1990s, cell therapy has been investigated for a wide scale of pathologies and disorders. Cell therapy provided a novel approach to effectuate therapeutic efficacy. Previously, medical agents could only be effective by directing and inducing the patients own cells. However, in many diseases and disorders, cell are compromised by "e.g." senescence, limited blood supply (ischemia), inflammation, or simply a reduction in the number of cells. Cell therapy offers a new strategy that supports the introduction of new and active cells to restore previously compromised or deteriorated tissue- and organ structures. As such, in recent times, cell therapy has been recognized as an important field in the treatment of human disease, and investigations are ongoing in articular cartilage, brain tissue, spine, heart, cancers, etc. As a consequence cell therapy as a strategy has been attracting significant investments by commercial entities which suggest strong prospects for future growth. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2285013 | 662,125 |
1,620,149 | In 1941 tunneling in southeastern Moniteau County uncovered a deposit of Pleistocene fossils near Enon. The remains were left behind by creatures like horses, tapirs, a sloth and two nearly complete turtle carapaces. In 1945 Dr. M. G. Mehl of the University of Missouri and his students discovered peccary fossils in the same cave that preserved the fossils discovered in 1820. In 1951 more than two hundred bones and teeth were excavated from a swampy area of a farm slightly southwest of Vienna belonging to a man named Andrew Buschmann. From 1956 to 1957 a variety of mammal fossils were excavated from a fissure in the ground of Ralls County about 4 miles north of the town of Perry. The bones were the disarticulated remains of bears, deer, mice, and a kind of eastern wood rat not currently found in the area of the fossil discovery. More recently, in 1989, the Pennsylvanian sea lily, "Delocrinus missouriensis", was designated the Missouri state fossil. In 2004, "Hypsibema missouriensis" was designated the state dinosaur. This dinosaur occurrence is associated with clay beds in an area of anomalous geology which may be a graben and associated paleokarst which may be associated with the Reelfoot Rift System to the southeast. Known as the Chronister Vertebrate site, the age of which is Campanian of the Upper Cretaceous, the site has yielded the only known dinosaur fossils in Missouri. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37799098 | 1,619,234 |
670,605 | The FCC collaboration has identified the technological advancements required for reaching the planned energy and intensity and performs technology feasibility assessments for critical elements of future circular colliders (i.e. high-field magnets, superconductors, Radio-frequency cavities cryogenic and vacuum system, power systems, beam screen system, a.o). The project needs to advance these technologies to meet the requirements of a post-LHC machine but also to ensure the large-scale applicability of these technologies that could lead to their further industrialization. The study also provides an analysis of the infrastructure and operation cost that could ensure the efficient and reliable operation of a future large-scale research infrastructure. Strategic R&D has been identified in the CDR over the coming years will concentrate on minimising construction costs and energy consumption, whilst maximising the socio-economic impact with a focus on benefits for industry and training. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=47278268 | 670,254 |
1,659,876 | Brazil's economic boom between 2004 and 2012 translated into higher government and business spending on research and development (R&D). Gross domestic expenditure on R&D (GERD) almost doubled to PPP$35.5 billion (in 2011 dollars). Most of this growth occurred between 2004 and 2010, when GERD climbed from 0.97% to 1.16% of GDP. In 2012, GERD stood at 1.15% of GDP. Since 2010, the government sector alone has been driving up R&D intensity, since the non-government contribution has actually declined from 0.57% to 0.52% of GDP (2012). Preliminary figures for 2013 indicate slight growth in government spending and a constant contribution from the business sector (relative to GDP). Business research expenditure is likely to contract from 2015 onwards until the economy shows signs of recovery. Even the most optimistic analysts do not expect this to happen before 2016. Fixed capital investment in Brazil is expected to decline further in 2015, especially in the manufacturing sector. This trend will certainly affect industrial research spending. The Petrobrás crisis is expected to have a major impact on investment in R&D, since it alone has accounted for about 10% of the country's annual fixed capital investment in recent years. The cuts to the federal budget announced in 2015 and other austerity measures should also affect government spending on R&D. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1525228 | 1,658,943 |
1,070,867 | NML's aim was to develop instructional materials designed to help prepare young people to meaningfully participate in the new media environment. As Jenkins explained it: "The NML conceptual framework includes an understanding of challenges, new media literacies, and participatory forms. This framework guides thinking about how to provide adults and youth with the opportunity to develop the skills, knowledge, ethical framework, and self-confidence needed to be full participants in the cultural changes which are taking place in response to the influx of new media technologies, and to explore the transformations and possibilities afforded by these technologies to reshape education." Jenkins introduces a range of social skills and cultural competencies that are fundamental for meaningful participation in a participatory culture. The new media literacies areas given particular definitions by this project (as listed here) include: appropriation (education), collective intelligence, distributed cognition, judgment, negotiation, networking, performance, simulation, transmedia navigation, participation gap, the transparency problem, and the ethics problem. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1423953 | 1,070,313 |
34,811 | Early nutritional scientists such as the German Carl von Voit believed that protein was the most important nutrient for maintaining the structure of the body, because it was generally believed that "flesh makes flesh." Karl Heinrich Ritthausen extended known protein forms with the identification of glutamic acid. At the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station a detailed review of the vegetable proteins was compiled by Thomas Burr Osborne. Working with Lafayette Mendel and applying Liebig's law of the minimum in feeding laboratory rats, the nutritionally essential amino acids were established. The work was continued and communicated by William Cumming Rose. The understanding of proteins as polypeptides came through the work of Franz Hofmeister and Hermann Emil Fischer in 1902. The central role of proteins as enzymes in living organisms was not fully appreciated until 1926, when James B. Sumner showed that the enzyme urease was in fact a protein. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23634 | 34,799 |
1,278,247 | Molecular genetic testing of SCAs must be able to differentiate samples with the pathogenic allele from those without and be able to accurately measure the number of repeats in repeat expansion disorders. Capillary electrophoresis (CE) is one method that has met these criteria and is recommended by the EMQN. Another method that is common is polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE). Both methods require amplification of all loci of interest for a given test. Amplification is done using polymerase chain reactions or PCR. The choice of primers can allow either for a single gene to be amplified or for many genes to amplified for use in a multiplex assay which can save time in cases where a panel of many tests may be required. PAGE and CE both use timed cycles of electricity to draw pieces of DNA through a porous polymer, separating analytes by a combination of ionic mobility, size and mass. CE is advantageous over PAGE in that molecular weight measurements like mass spectrometry can be used with analytes, whereas PAGE requires the use of Southern blot to allow comparison to a sequencing ladder. For repeat lengths within the range where interruptions are relevant, assays like CE and PAGE will not determine if the strain is pathogenic and additional testing will be required. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54421246 | 1,277,554 |
2,195,287 | MacDonnell was the first surgeon to operate using general anaesthesia in Ireland. He was scheduled to perform the amputation of an arm from an 18-year-old woman, Mary Kane on 31 December 1846. The day before the surgery he read an article in the "British and Foreign Medical Review" entitled "On a new means of rendering surgical operations painless" which described the use of ether inhalation during surgery in the United States and London. He postponed the amputation to construct an ether dispenser and conduct experiments on himself. On 1 January 1847, he performed the amputation with the assistance of four surgeons, including Carmichael, successfully anaesthetising the patient for the procedure. The surgery was watched by fellow doctors and medical students. Later that evening he reported the procedure as "Amputation of the arm, performed at the Richmond Hospital, without pain", submitted to the "Dublin Medical Press" for publication. He recognised that his apparatus was crude and not fit for long operations, and proposed that experiments should be conducted on animals to further establish the ratio of air and ether to be used on patients. He was appointed to a committee of the Surgical Society of Ireland created to further examine the application of ether in surgery, which reported on 20 January 1847. They warned of the dangers of using ether on patients with pulmonary or cardiac conditions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=68639731 | 2,194,037 |
149,491 | The Spanish Grand Prix had been moved to being the final Grand Prix in Europe of the year, and at the Jerez circuit near Seville in southern Spain, the Coloni team was back in action and with Franco Forini staying on for a third event with the Osella team the field was up to 28 cars. The battle for pole position was between the two Williams-Honda with World Championship leader Nelson Piquet (in an active Williams) on pole ahead of challenger Nigel Mansell (who chose to use the passive car). The two Ferraris of Gerhard Berger and Michele Alboreto were third and fourth with Ayrton Senna fifth in his Lotus-Honda. Teo Fabi was sixth in his Benetton-Ford with Alain Prost (McLaren), Thierry Boutsen (Benetton) and the two Brabhams of Riccardo Patrese and Andrea de Cesaris rounding off the top 10. In the race Piquet took the lead but Mansell dived ahead at the end of the first lap and began to pull away from the Brazilian. Senna was third with the two Ferraris and Boutsen chasing. The top five did not change for the first half of the race with Senna at the front of a train of cars. At the pitstops Mansell was away and gone before Senna arrived but Piquet was slower and found himself stuck in fourth place behind Senna and Prost. He challenged Prost but got it wrong and spun back to sixth place. Senna had decided to go through without a stop and those behind him were left to battle with one another while Mansell drove on to victory. Senna's gamble did not pay off because his tires deteriorated quickly and eventually Piquet, Boutsen and Prost were all able to get ahead. Senna then dropped back behind Johansson as well. Piquet then made a mistake and ran wide but Boutsen also made a mistake and spun and so Prost was second with Johansson third, Piquet fourth, Senna fifth and Philippe Alliot sixth in his Larrousse Lola. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1139093 | 149,424 |
83,800 | Kingsley's novel was tremendously popular; it was translated into several European languages and remained continuously in print for the rest of the century. It promoted the romantic vision of Hypatia as "the last of the Hellenes" and was quickly adapted into a broad variety of stage productions, the first of which was a play written by Elizabeth Bowers, performed in Philadelphia in 1859, starring the writer herself in the titular role. On 2 January 1893, a much higher-profile stage play adaptation "Hypatia", written by G. Stuart Ogilvie and produced by Herbert Beerbohm Tree, opened at the Haymarket Theatre in London. The title role was initially played by Julia Neilson, and it featured an elaborate musical score written by the composer Hubert Parry. The novel also spawned works of visual art, including an 1867 image portraying Hypatia as a young woman by the early photographer Julia Margaret Cameron and an 1885 painting by Charles William Mitchell showing a nude Hypatia standing before an altar in a church. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38375 | 83,766 |
783,147 | The volley tactic next appeared in early 16th century Europe when the Ottoman Janissaries clashed with European forces at the Battle of Mohács on 29 August 1526. The Janissaries equipped with 2000 "tüfenks" (usually translated as musket) "formed nine consecutive rows and they fired their weapons row by row," in a "kneeling or standing position without the need for additional support or rest." Contrary to the popular belief that the Ottomans' success at Mohács was due to their artillery, a view which many later historians have supported, contemporary European and Ottoman sources on the battle attribute their success to the Janissaries' successful deployment of handheld firearms. However the usage of arquebuses in this battle is disputed and they may have been small cannons instead. According to a German source, 90% of the Janissaries were equipped with handheld firearms while on campaign by 1532. The Janissaries' prowess declined early in the 17th century as troop standards dropped and the drill was abandoned. According to the author of "The Laws of the Janissaries (Kavanin-i Yenigeriyan)", by 1606 members of the Janissaries were faced with supply issues so that they "were no longer given powder for the drills and that the soldiers used the wick for their candles and not for their muskets." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=33076634 | 782,728 |
1,112,067 | Compared to the Earth, the atmosphere of Mars is about 100 times thinner. As a result, if a landing craft were to descend into Mars' atmosphere, it would decelerate at a much lower altitude, and depending on the object's mass, may not have enough time to reach terminal velocity. In order to deploy super- or subsonic decelerators, velocity must be below a threshold or they will not be effective. Therefore, technologies must be developed so that a landing craft can be decelerated enough to allow adequate time for other necessary landing processes to be carried out before landing. Mars' atmosphere varies significantly over the course of a Mars year, which prevents engineers from being able to develop a system for EDL common among all missions. Frequently-occurring dust storms increase lower atmospheric temperature and lessen atmospheric density, which, coupled with the extremely variable elevations on Mars' surface, forces a conservative selection of a landing site in order to allow for sufficient craft deceleration. With Mars EDL sequences only lasting about 5–8 minutes, the associated systems must be unquestionably reliable. Ideally, this would be verified by data obtained by carrying out large-scale tests of various components of the EDL systems on Earth-based testing. However, the costs of reproducing environments in which this data would be relevant in terms of Mars' environment are considerably high, resulting in testing being purely ground-based or simulating results of tests involving technologies derived from past missions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=32506368 | 1,111,501 |
1,947,511 | Piecuch is an elected member of the International Academy of Quantum Molecular Science (2018), an elected Fellow of the Royal Society of Chemistry (2016), an elected Distinguished Fellow of the Kosciuszko Foundation Collegium of Eminent Scientists (2015), an elected Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (2011), an elected Fellow of the American Physical Society (2008), an Elected Member of the European Academy of Sciences, Arts and Humanities in Paris, France (2003), and a recipient of a number of other awards and honors, including, in addition to the title of the University Distinguished Professor that he received in 2007, the Lawrence J. Schaad Lectureship in Theoretical Chemistry at Vanderbilt University (2017), the S.R. Palit Memorial Lecture at the Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science (Kolkata, India, 2007), the Invitation Fellowship of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (2005), the QSCP Promising Scientist Prize of Centre de Mécanique Ondulatoire Appliquée, France, for "Scientific and Human Endeavour and Achievement" (2004), the Alfred P. Sloan Research Fellowship (2002–2004), the Wiley–International Journal of Quantum Chemistry Young Investigator Award (2000), three awards from the Polish Chemical Society for Research (1983, 1986, 1992), the award from the Minister of National Education of Poland (1989), and two awards from the Polish Academy of Sciences (1982). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39731430 | 1,946,398 |
939,797 | When carbon dioxide concentrations are elevated indoors relative to outdoor concentrations, it is only an indicator that ventilation is inadequate to remove metabolic products associated with human occupancy. Plants require carbon dioxide to grow and release oxygen when they consume carbon dioxide. A study published in the journal "Environmental Science & Technology" considered uptake rates of ketones and aldehydes by the peace lily ("Spathiphyllum clevelandii") and golden pothos ("Epipremnum aureum") Akira Tani and C. Nicholas Hewitt found "Longer-term fumigation results revealed that the total uptake amounts were 30–100 times as much as the amounts dissolved in the leaf, suggesting that volatile organic carbons are metabolized in the leaf and/or translocated through the petiole." It is worth noting the researchers sealed the plants in Teflon bags. "No VOC loss was detected from the bag when the plants were absent. However, when the plants were in the bag, the levels of aldehydes and ketones both decreased slowly but continuously, indicating removal by the plants." Studies done in sealed bags do not faithfully reproduce the conditions in the indoor environments of interest. Dynamic conditions with outdoor air ventilation and the processes related to the surfaces of the building itself and its contents as well as the occupants need to be studied. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=219736 | 939,296 |
2,188,872 | In 1987 Hans Lehrach and Günther Zehetner founded the "Reference Library / Primary Database (RLDB)" at the Imperial Cancer Research Fund (ICRF) in London. The RLDB distributed macroarrays generated at the ICRF to research groups worldwide. The macroarrays consisted of clones of genomic and cDNA libraries transferred to 22 × 22 cm nylon filters with the help of robots which have been developed by Zehetner at the ICRF. The first-generation machines achieved a 1/100 mm resolution employing two-phase stepper motors in a half-step modus with 400 steps per rotation. These robots achieved spotting densities of more than 400 dots per square centimeter having been programmed for a spatial resolution of 0.015 mm over a moving length of 600 mm. A second generation of robots engineered 1991 to 1992 achieved already a spotting density of up to 2500 dots per square centimeter utilizing linear motors. Experimental results done with the standardized materials were reported back by researches and collected in the "Primary Database". In January 1990 Zehetner was appointed as Associated Scientist at the ICRF under the then Director General Sir Walter Bodmer. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39848784 | 2,187,623 |
1,001,141 | Chloroplasts have their own genome, which encodes a number of thylakoid proteins. However, during the course of plastid evolution from their cyanobacterial endosymbiotic ancestors, extensive gene transfer from the chloroplast genome to the cell nucleus took place. This results in the four major thylakoid protein complexes being encoded in part by the chloroplast genome and in part by the nuclear genome. Plants have developed several mechanisms to co-regulate the expression of the different subunits encoded in the two different organelles to assure the proper stoichiometry and assembly of these protein complexes. For example, transcription of nuclear genes encoding parts of the photosynthetic apparatus is regulated by light. Biogenesis, stability and turnover of thylakoid protein complexes are regulated by phosphorylation via redox-sensitive kinases in the thylakoid membranes. The translation rate of chloroplast-encoded proteins is controlled by the presence or absence of assembly partners (control by epistasy of synthesis). This mechanism involves negative feedback through binding of excess protein to the 5' untranslated region of the chloroplast mRNA. Chloroplasts also need to balance the ratios of photosystem I and II for the electron transfer chain. The redox state of the electron carrier plastoquinone in the thylakoid membrane directly affects the transcription of chloroplast genes encoding proteins of the reaction centers of the photosystems, thus counteracting imbalances in the electron transfer chain. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=209455 | 1,000,623 |
141,531 | To relieve wartime demand for the radial aero-engines used in the M3, a new version was developed using twin Cadillac V8 automobile engines and twin Hydra-Matic transmissions operating through a transfer case. This version of the tank was quieter, cooler and roomier; the automatic transmission also simplified crew training. The new model (initially called M4 but redesignated M5 to avoid confusion with the M4 Sherman) featured a redesigned hull with a raised rear deck over the engine compartment, sloped glacis plate and driver's hatches moved to the top. Although the main criticism from units using the Stuarts was that it lacked firepower, the improved M5 series kept the same 37 mm gun. The M5 gradually replaced the M3 in production from 1942 and, after the M7 project proved unsatisfactory, was succeeded by the Light Tank M24 in 1944. Total M5 and M5A1 tank production was 8,884; an additional 1,778 M8 75 mm howitzer motor carriages based on the M5 chassis with an open-top turret were produced. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=335691 | 141,473 |
1,662,988 | XMRV is a murine leukemia virus (MLV) that formed through the recombination of the genomes of two parent MLVs known as preXMRV-1 and preXMRV-2. MLVs belong to the virus family Retroviridae and the genus gammaretrovirus and have a single-stranded RNA genome that replicates through a DNA intermediate. The name XMRV was given because the discoverers of the virus initially thought that it was a novel potential human pathogen that was related to but distinct from MLVs. The XMRV particle is approximately spherical and 80 to 100 nm in diameter.Several XMRV genomic sequences have been published to date. These sequences are almost identical, an unusual finding as retroviruses replicate their genomes with relatively low fidelity, leading to divergent viral sequences in a single host organism. In 2010 the results of phylogenetic analyses of XMRV and related murine retroviruses led a group of researchers to conclude that XMRV "might not be a genuine human pathogen". Xenotropic viruses (xenos Gr. foreign; tropos Gr. turning) were initially discovered in the New Zealand Black (NZB) mouse and later found to be present in many other mouse strains including wild mice. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9686427 | 1,662,053 |
586,662 | "Ross River virus" can be easily prevented through small behavioural mechanisms which should be of high importance in tropical areas and during participation of outdoor activities. Firstly, insect repellent should be rigorously used as to prevent bites from insects that specifically include mosquitoes which are vectors that carry the disease. A study in tropical Australia shows a very narrow 95% confidence interval of 0.20–1.00 for a decrease in "Ross River virus" risk as a result of increased use of insect repellent, suggesting a strong correlation between the two. Following, burning citronella candles are based on the same principle, that it repels insects that are vectors of the virus. Burning such candles also show a strong correlation with decreased "Ross River virus" risk shown in the same study with a narrow 95% confidence interval of 0.10–0.78. Secondly, wearing light coloured clothing decrease the risk of "Ross River virus" three-fold. This is again based on the repelling of vectors such as mosquitoes through the use of bright colours. Lastly, high risk areas should be minimised by mechanisms of prevention that are applied within households. For example, screens should be fitted to windows and doors to prevent entry of insects carrying the virus and potential breeding areas such as open water containers or water holding plants should be removed. Therefore, specific climatic environments should be assessed for high risk factors and the appropriate precautions should be taken in response. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1581104 | 586,362 |
237,833 | In 1939, German chemist Otto Hahn reported his discovery of fission, achieved by the splitting of uranium with neutrons that produced the much lighter element barium. This eventually led to the realization among Russian scientists, and their American counterparts, that such reaction could have military significance. The discovery excited the Russian physicists, and they began conducting their independent investigations on nuclear fission, mainly aiming towards power generation, as many were skeptical of possibility of creating an atomic bomb anytime soon. Early efforts were led by Yakov Frenkel (a physicist specialised on condensed matter), who did the first theoretical calculations on continuum mechanics directly relating the kinematics of binding energy in fission process in 1940. Georgy Flyorov's and Lev Rusinov's collaborative work on thermal reactions concluded that 3-1 neutrons were emitted per fission only days after similar conclusions had been reached by the team of Frédéric Joliot-Curie. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1217440 | 237,714 |
750,591 | In the 1950s, nuclear power partially replaced diesel-electric propulsion. The sailing of the first nuclear-powered submarine, the USN in 1955 was soon followed by similar British, French and Russian boats. Equipment was also developed to extract oxygen from sea water. These two innovations, together with inertial navigation systems, gave submarines the ability to remain submerged for weeks or months, and enabled previously impossible voyages such as the crossing of the North Pole beneath the Arctic ice cap by the USS "Nautilus" in 1958. Most of the naval submarines built since that time in the United States and the Soviet Union and its successor state the Russian Federation have been powered by nuclear reactors. The limiting factors in submerged endurance for these vessels are food supply and crew morale in the space-limited submarine. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4551386 | 750,193 |
544,327 | Dennett has proposed that our sense that our experiences are single events is illusory and that, instead, at any one time there are "multiple drafts" of sensory patterns at multiple sites. Each would only cover a fragment of what we think we experience. Arguably, Dennett is claiming that consciousness is not unified and there is no phenomenal binding problem. Most philosophers have difficulty with this position (see Bayne) but some physiologists agree with it. In particular, the demonstration of perceptual asynchrony in psychophysical experiments by Moutoussis and Zeki, when color is perceived before orientation of lines and before motion by 40 and 80 ms, respectively, constitutes an argument that, over these very short time periods, different attributes are consciously perceived at different times, leading to the view that at least over these brief periods of time after visual stimulation, different events are not bound to each other, leading to the view of a disunity of consciousness, at least over these brief time intervals. Dennett's view might be in keeping with evidence from recall experiments and change blindness purporting to show that our experiences are much less rich than we sense them to be – what has been called the Grand Illusion. However, few, if any, other authors suggest the existence of multiple partial "drafts". Moreover, also on the basis of recall experiments, Lamme has challenged the idea that richness is illusory, emphasizing that phenomenal content cannot be equated with content to which there is cognitive access. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=941613 | 544,045 |
944,464 | Ronald K. Machtley, a former Navy captain and U.S. Representative, was hired as president in 1996. When Machtley arrived he immediately began working with faculty, students and the board of trustees to ensure the future of Bryant. He announced an ambitious capital campaign and plans to build new facilities and upgrade old ones. Under the Machtley administration, Bryant has built a new library, athletic center, communications and IT complex, residence hall, interfaith center, upgraded all athletic fields, and completely renovated the main classroom building and the student union. The school also changed its name to Bryant University in 2004. Its selectivity has increased, and the days of budget deficits are gone. The university endowment in 2007 totaled $171 million, a net increase of $169 million in just 10 years. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1680840 | 943,962 |
1,252,487 | "Super corals" were defined as those that did not bleach during natural bleaching events when sea temperatures were high. Gates identified these so-called "super corals" as a potential mechanism for preventing coral extinction. Gates said, "I just cannot bear the idea that future generations may not experience a coral reef. The mission is to start solving the problem, not just to study it." In 2013, she won the Paul G. Allen Ocean Challenge, a $10,000 prize that allowed her to improve the resilience of vulnerable coral reef ecosystems. For the proposal, Gates joined Madeleine van Oppen, and used genetic selection to boost resilience to environmental stress. They did this by exposing cross-bred corals to successively warmer and more acidic experimental tanks. In the laboratory, they took resistant corals and collected their reproductive products after spawning, raised their offspring in the lab, and tested for increased temperature resistance. Gates was awarded the University of Hawaii Board of Regents Medal for Excellence in Research. "Coral Assisted Evolution, a" $4 million research project, was funded by the Paul G. Allen Frontiers Group. This supported Gates' research for four years from 2016, developing "super corals" that can withstand climate change. Whilst Gates was concerned about playing with nature, she could not sit by and watch species become extinct without acting. In 2016, Gates was named by Hawaii Business as one of the top 20 leaders of Hawaii. She explored whether non-super corals could be encouraged to take on new symbionts to improve their ability to withstand high temperatures. If Gates' project is successful, it could save the US$9.9 trillion. In 2018, the foundation supported a coral reef map, that allowed scientists to monitor corals in unprecedented detail. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58903443 | 1,251,809 |
2,109,450 | The system consists of all vital components for monitoring and controlling the discharge from the vessel's oily water separator. The white box includes a stainless steel cage with a locked door. The bilge water from the oily water separator is pumped through the white box and analyzed by an oil content meter. A flow switch secures that there is flow through the oil content meter and a flow meter counts the accumulated discharged overboard volume. If the door is opened, the oil content exceeds the legal limit of 15 parts per million (PPM) or the flow to the oil content meter is lost the three way valve will immediately redirect the bilge water back to the bilge water holding tank. All components inside the system are connected to a digital recorder mounted in the engine control room that records the oil content, three way valve position, flow through oil content meter, accumulated discharged volume, door position together with the vessels geographical position and time. The chief engineer possesses the key and when locked, the system cannot be tampered with and equally importantly provides the evidence that the vessel has been compliant. The recorder data is stored in an encrypted format and can be presented to any official body such as Port State Control, United States Coast Guard, Vetting or Classification society officials to prove that the vessel has been compliant to MARPOL 73/78 (the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution From Ships) or any national regulation, and that no illegal discharge has been made. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30313801 | 2,108,236 |
401,592 | As part of the Rensselaer Plan, the Institute recently completed a major project to improve its athletic facilities with the East Campus Athletic Village. The plan included construction of a new and much larger 4,842‑seat football stadium, a basketball arena with seating for 1,200, a new 50-meter pool, an indoor track and field complex, new tennis courts, new weight rooms and a new sports medicine center. The Institute broke ground on 26 August 2007, and construction of the first phase is expected to last two years. The estimated cost of the project is $78 million for phase one and $35–$45 million for phase two. Since the completion of the new stadium, the bleachers on the Class of '86 football field on the central campus have been removed and the field has become an open space. In the future the new space could be used for expansions of the academic buildings, but for now members of the campus planning team foresee a "historic landscape with different paths and access ways for students and vehicles alike". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=194026 | 401,393 |
1,312,972 | As part of the Rensselaer Plan, the Institute recently completed a major project to improve its athletic facilities with the East Campus Athletic Village. The plan included construction of a new and much larger 4,842‑seat football stadium, a basketball arena with seating for 1,200, a new 50-meter pool, an indoor track and field complex, new tennis courts, new weight rooms and a new sports medicine center. The Institute broke ground on August 26, 2007, and construction of the first phase is expected to last two years. The estimated cost of the project is $78 million for phase one and $35–$45 million for phase two. Since the completion of the new stadium, the bleachers on the Class of '86 football field on the central campus have been removed and the field has become an open space. In the future the new space could be used for expansions of the academic buildings, but for now members of the campus planning team foresee a "historic landscape with different paths and access ways for students and vehicles alike". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23170884 | 1,312,252 |
277,586 | Most emulators just emulate a hardware architecture—if operating system firmware or software is required for the desired software, it must be provided as well (and may itself be emulated). Both the OS and the software will then be interpreted by the emulator, rather than being run by native hardware. Apart from this interpreter for the emulated binary machine's language, some other hardware (such as input or output devices) must be provided in virtual form as well; for example, if writing to a specific memory location should influence what is displayed on the screen, then this would need to be emulated. While emulation could, if taken to the extreme, go down to the atomic level, basing its output on a simulation of the actual circuitry from a virtual power source, this would be a highly unusual solution. Emulators typically stop at a simulation of the documented hardware specifications and digital logic. Sufficient emulation of some hardware platforms requires extreme accuracy, down to the level of individual clock cycles, undocumented features, unpredictable analog elements, and implementation bugs. This is particularly the case with classic home computers such as the Commodore 64, whose software often depends on highly sophisticated low-level programming tricks invented by game programmers and the "demoscene". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18943937 | 277,436 |
1,180,106 | Embryonic diapause (from late 19th century English: dia- ‘through’ + pause- 'delay') (aka delayed implantation in mammals) is an evolutionary reproductive strategy used by several animal species across a number of kingdoms, including approximately 130 different mammals, which takes place in order to ensure the survival of offspring. The process occurs at the blastocyst stage of embryo development in most species, and is characterized by a dramatic reduction or complete cessation of mitotic activity, arresting most often in the G or G phase of division. In placental embryonic diapause, the embryonic blastocyst does not immediately implant in the uterus after sexual reproduction has created the zygote, but rather remains in this non-dividing state of dormancy until conditions allow for attachment to the uterine wall to proceed as normal. As a result, the normal gestation period is extended for a species-specific time. Organisms which undergo embryonic diapause are able to synchronize the birth of all offspring to the most favorable conditions for reproductive success, irrespective of when mating took place. As timing and environment are important, many different factors can induce embryonic diapause, such as the time of year, temperature, lactation and supply of food. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1166782 | 1,179,482 |
704,269 | In June 2019, the Korean government confirmed the Third Energy Master Plan, also called a constitutional law of the energy sector and renewed every five years. Its goal is to achieve sustainable growth and enhance the quality of life through energy transition. There are five major tasks to achieve this goal. First, with regards to consumption, the goal is to improve energy consumption efficiency by 38% compared to the level of 2017 and to reduce energy consumption by 18.6% below the BAU level by 2040. Second, with respect to generation, the task is to bring a transition towards a safe and clean energy mix by raising the share of renewable energy in power generation (30~35% by 2040) and by implementing a gradual phase-out of nuclear power and a drastic reduction of coal. Third, regarding the systems, the task is to raise the share of distributed generation nearby where demand is created with renewables and fuel cells and to enhance the roles and responsibility of local governments and residents. Fourth, with regards to the industry, the task is to foster businesses related to renewables, hydrogen, and energy efficiency as a future energy industry, to help the conventional energy industry develop higher value-added businesses, and to support the nuclear power industry to maintain its main ecosystem. The fifth task is to improve the energy market system of electricity, gas, and heat in order to promote energy transition and is to develop an energy big data platform in order to create new businesses. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39208945 | 703,901 |
1,438,351 | Specific changes have also been installed in its search for relevance to the national and local health needs, as well as in keeping with international trends. It put more emphasis on science and art in the teaching of all courses, in order to produce graduates who shall internalize science and art and use them as the bases of medical practice. The curricular structure was made more flexible, allowing the student to participate in directing his learning and providing him adequate time for self-study and greater exposure to non-hospital settings of training. It shifted emphasis of the curricular content to topics, which were directly related to the national and local health and medical problem and issues. A uniform teaching method was utilized for all courses, which fostered the development of problem-solving skills in health and medicine. Through its continued excellence in the field of medical education, the College of Medicine was granted level II accreditation by the PAASCU for a three-year period. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9105054 | 1,437,541 |
1,532,273 | Phosgene, notably used as a chemical weapon during World War I, is also used as an industrial reagent and building block in synthesis of pharmaceuticals and other organic compounds. Because of safety issues, phosgene is almost always produced and consumed within the same plant and extraordinary measures are made to contain this gas. In low concentrations, phosgene’s odor resembles freshly cut hay or grass. Because of this, the gas may not be noticed and symptoms may appear slowly. Phosgene directly reacts with amine, sulfhydryl, and alcohol groups, adversely affecting cell macromolecules and metabolism. The direct toxicity to the cells leads to an increase in capillary permeability. Furthermore, when phosgene hydrolyzes it forms hydrochloric acid, which can damage the cell surface and cause cell death in the alveoli and bronchioles. The hydrochloric acid triggers an inflammatory response that attracts neutrophils to the lungs, which causes pulmonary edema. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=36597555 | 1,531,406 |
1,776,275 | Through its action as a progestogen, CPA has been found to significantly increase prolactin secretion and to induce extensive lobuloalveolar development of the mammary glands of female rhesus macaques. In accordance, a study found that CPA, in all cases, induced full lobuloalveolar development of the breasts in transgender women treated with the medication in combination with estrogen for a prolonged period of time. Pregnancy-like breast hyperplasia was observed in two of the subjects. In contrast, the same study found that men with prostate cancer treated with a non-progestogenic antiandrogen like flutamide or bicalutamide and no estrogen produced moderate but incomplete lobuloalveolar development of the breasts. Based on the above research, it was concluded by the study authors that combined estrogenic and progestogenic action is required in transgender women for fully mature female-like histologic breast development (i.e., that includes complete lobuloalveolar maturation). Also, it was observed that lobuloalveolar maturation reverses upon discontinuation of CPA after surgical castration, similarly to the case of mammary gland involution in postpartum women, indicating that continued progestogen treatment is necessary to maintain the histology. It should be noted however that although these findings may have important implications in the context of lactation and breastfeeding, epithelial tissue accounts for approximately only 10% of breast volume with the bulk of the breasts (80–90%) being represented by stromal or adipose tissue, and it is uncertain to what extent, if any, that development of lobuloalveolar structures (a type of epithelial tissue) contributes to breast size or shape. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=59460499 | 1,775,276 |
898,797 | The first major research project in which Kuznets was involved was the study of long series of economic dynamics in the USA undertaken in the mid-1920s. The collected data covered the period from 1865 to 1925, and for some indices achieved 1770. Applying for the analysis of time series approximating Gompertz and logistic curves, Kuznets found that the characteristics of the curves with reasonable accuracy described the majority of economic processes. Fitting trend curves to data and analysis of the time series, comparison of theoretical and empirical levels, allowed him to identify medium-term extended cycles of economic activity, which lasted 15–25 years and had an intermediate position between the Kondratyev "long waves" and short business cycles. Aspiring to determine the nature of these cycles, Kuznets analyzed the dynamics of population, the construction industry performance, capital, national income data and other variables. These movements became known among economists and economic historians as "Kuznets cycles", and alternatively as "long swings" in the economy's growth rate (following the work of Moses Abramovitz [1912–1999]). Kuznet cycles are special case of Kondratiev wave. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=276820 | 898,322 |
1,440,841 | The order of the rhythmic models and the distribution of the poems and "magic names" are decided by the performers, but the sequence of pitches in the 51 moments is fixed. Though the 1968 "Paris version" used by the Collegium Vocale Köln at the world première has been published (as No. 24½ in Stockhausen's catalog), the 1977 "Singcircle version" (directed by Gregory Rose) has been well documented in , and both versions have been performed throughout the world. Singcircle performances include the Round House on 21 November 1977, a 1977 BBC Promenade Concert at the Royal Albert Hall, in Liverpool's Anglican Cathedral as part of the 1980 Hope Street Festival, and at the Barbican in 1985, with the composer at the mixing desk. Singcircle's performance at the 2005 City of London Festival was recorded and broadcast on BBC Radio 3's "Hear and Now" on 20 August 2005. In 2003, Paul Hillier made a "Copenhagen version" for the Theatre of Voices, which he directed. This version, too, has been performed on tour, and a recording has been released on CD. Other groups that have performed "Stimmung" include the London Sinfonietta Voices, Ensemble Belcanto, Neue Vocalsolisten Stuttgart, the Aquarius Consort, and the Dunedin Consort, according to the performance database of Universal Edition. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=802711 | 1,440,031 |
1,088,380 | EZH2 function is highly dependent upon its recruitment by the PRC2 complex. In particular, WD40-repeat protein embryonic ectoderm development (EED) and zinc finger protein suppressor of zeste 12 (SUZ12) are needed to stabilize the interaction of EZH2 with its histone substrate Recently, two isoforms of EZH2 generated from alternative splicing have been identified in humans: EZH2α and EZH2β. Both isoforms contain elements that have been identified as important for EZH2 function including the nuclear localization signal, the EED and SUZ12 binding sites as well as the conserved SET domain. Most studies have thus far focused on the longer isoform EZH2α, but EZH2β, which lacks exons 4 and 8, has been shown to be active. Furthermore, PRC2/EZH2β complexes act on distinct genes from that of its PRC2/EZH2α counterpart suggesting that each isoform may act to regulate a specific subset of genes. Additional evidence suggests that EZH2 may also be capable of lysine methylation independent of association with PRC2, when EZH2 is highly upregulated. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14134041 | 1,087,821 |
1,745,913 | "A Word of Science" largely abandons the "bleeps and clonks" of the group's previous material in favour of mellow grooves influenced by 1970s funk, resulting in a combination of soul, funk and hip hop. Nonetheless, the group's dark, bleep techno origins surface on the bass-heavy "A Case of Funk" and the reused singles "Aftermath" and "Dextrous." Writer John Bush writes that the other tracks "expand the sound of bleep into several intriguing directions." According to Andrew Harrison of "Select", the album maintains the minimalist aspect of the group's "Brit-techno" but enriches it with the funk elements and "a perverse sense of what's now possible." According to AllMusic's Sean Cooper, the record bridges electro, New York house, acid house, Detroit techno, London rave and soul with "the burgeoning eclecticism of the years to come." The record regularly changes between musical styles and tempos, and also features a heavy emphasis on bass. Although regarded as a techno album, the sound of "A Word of Science" has been described as a precursor to trip hop music. In "Drum 'n' Bass: The Rough Guide", writer Peter Shapiro writes of the innovative style: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13410729 | 1,744,928 |
1,080,592 | The synthetic utility of the chiral C2-symmetric Cu(II) catalysts was truly revealed in the formation of the C17 stereocenter of the CD ring fragment of (+)-azaspiracid-1, a very potent toxin (cytotoxic to mammalian cells) produced in minute quantities by multiple shellfish species including mussels, oysters, scallops, clams, and cockles. As shown in Figure 19, the reaction that establishes the C17 stereocenter is catalyzed by 1 mol % Cu(II) complex 2 (Figure 15), and the authors note that it can be conducted on a 20 g scale and still give very good yields and excellent enantioselectivities. Furthermore, the product can be easily converted into the corresponding Weinreb amide, without any loss of selectivity, allowing for the facile introduction of the C14 methyl group. Thus, this novel catalytic enantioselective process developed by Evans and coworkers can be easily integrated into complex synthesis projects, particularly early on in the synthesis, when high yields and enantioselectivites are of utmost importance. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1256768 | 1,080,036 |
939,684 | The 1.6 GW EPR reactor is being built in Olkiluoto Nuclear Power Plant, Finland. A joint effort of French AREVA and German Siemens AG, it will be the largest pressurized water reactor (PWR) in the world. The Olkiluoto project has been claimed to have benefited from various forms of government support and subsidies, including liability limitations, preferential financing rates, and export credit agency subsidies, but the European Commission's investigation didn't find anything illegal in the proceedings. However, as of August 2009, the project is "more than three years behind schedule and at least 55% over budget, reaching a total cost estimate of €5 billion ($7 billion) or close to €3,100 ($4,400) per kilowatt". Finnish electricity consumers interest group ElFi OY evaluated in 2007 the effect of Olkiluoto-3 to be slightly over 6%, or €3/MWh, to the average market price of electricity within Nord Pool Spot. The delay is therefore costing the Nordic countries over 1.3 billion euros per year as the reactor would replace more expensive methods of production and lower the price of electricity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10838742 | 939,183 |
391,606 | Many studies have focused on the mechanism of QD cytotoxicity using model cell cultures. It has been demonstrated that after exposure to ultraviolet radiation or oxidation by air, CdSe QDs release free cadmium ions causing cell death. Group II–VI QDs also have been reported to induce the formation of reactive oxygen species after exposure to light, which in turn can damage cellular components such as proteins, lipids and DNA. Some studies have also demonstrated that addition of a ZnS shell inhibits the process of reactive oxygen species in CdSe QDs. Another aspect of QD toxicity is that there are, in vivo, size-dependent intracellular pathways that concentrate these particles in cellular organelles that are inaccessible by metal ions, which may result in unique patterns of cytotoxicity compared to their constituent metal ions. The reports of QD localization in the cell nucleus present additional modes of toxicity because they may induce DNA mutation, which in turn will propagate through future generation of cells, causing diseases. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=511547 | 391,411 |
1,620,333 | Design and construction was carried out jointly by General Electric and MIT. When first demonstrated in June 1929, the system had eight phase-shifting transformers to represent synchronous machines. Other elements included 100 variable line resistors, 100 variable reactors, 32 fixed capacitors, and 40 adjustable load units. The analyzer was described in a 1930 paper by H.L Hazen, O.R. Schurig and M.F. Gardner. The base quantities for the analyzer were 200 volts, and 0.5 amperes. Sensitive portable thermocouple-type instruments were used for measurement. The analyzer occupied four large panels, arranged in a U-shape, with tables in front of each section to hold measuring instruments. While primarily conceived as an educational tool, the analyzer saw considerable use by outside firms, who would pay to use the device. American Gas and Electric Company, the Tennessee Valley Authority, and many other organizations studied problems on the MIT analyzer in its first decade of operation. In 1940 the system was moved and expanded to handle more complex systems. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38433617 | 1,619,418 |
654,258 | Life-cycle assessment (LCA) is a systematic, phased approach to assessing the environmental aspects and potential impacts that are associated with a product, process or service. "Life cycle" refers to the major activities connected with the product's life-span, from its manufacture, use, and maintenance, to its final disposal, and also including the acquisition of raw material required to manufacture the product. Thus a method for assessing the environmental impacts of freshwater consumption was developed. It specifically looks at the damage to three areas of protection: human health, ecosystem quality, and resources. The consideration of water consumption is crucial where water-intensive products (for example agricultural goods) are concerned that need to therefore undergo a life-cycle assessment. In addition, regional assessments are equally as necessary as the impact of water use depends on its location. In short, LCA is important as it identifies the impact of water use in certain products, consumers, companies, nations, etc. which can help reduce the amount of water used. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18962147 | 653,914 |
522,242 | PMUs measure voltages and currents at principal intersecting locations (critical substations) on a power grid and can output accurately time-stamped voltage and current phasors. Because these phasors are truly synchronized, synchronized comparison of two quantities is possible in real time. These comparisons can be used to assess system conditions-such as; frequency changes, MW, MVARs, kVolts, etc. The monitored points are preselected through various studies to make extremely accurate phase angle measurements to indicate shifts in system (grid) stability. The phasor data is collected either on-site or at centralized locations using Phasor Data Concentrator technologies. The data is then transmitted to a regional monitoring system which is maintained by the local Independent System Operator (ISO). These ISO's will monitor phasor data from individual PMU's or from as many as 150 PMU's — this monitoring provides an accurate means of establishing controls for power flow from multiple energy generation sources (nuclear, coal, wind, etc.). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5199213 | 521,970 |
153,132 | The kinetic process of destabilisation can be rather long (up to several months or even years for some products) and it is often required for the formulator to use further accelerating methods in order to reach reasonable development time for new product design. Thermal methods are the most commonly used and consists in increasing temperature to accelerate destabilisation (below critical temperatures of phase and degradation). Temperature affects not only the viscosity, but also interfacial tension in the case of non-ionic surfactants or more generally interactions forces inside the system. Storing a dispersion at high temperatures enables simulation of real life conditions for a product (e.g. tube of sunscreen cream in a car in the summer), but also to accelerate destabilisation processes up to 200 times including vibration, centrifugation and agitation are sometimes used. They subject the product to different forces that pushes the particles / film drainage. However, some emulsions would never coalesce in normal gravity, while they do under artificial gravity. Moreover, segregation of different populations of particles have been highlighted when using centrifugation and vibration. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=354618 | 153,062 |
167,161 | In 1964, America's Jim Ryun became the first high-school runner to break four minutes for the mile, running 3:59.0 as a junior and a then American record 3:55.3 as a senior in 1965. Tim Danielson (1966) and Marty Liquori (1967) also came in under four minutes, but Ryun's high-school record stood until Alan Webb ran 3:53.43 in 2001. Ten years later, in 2011, Lukas Verzbicas became the fifth high-schooler under four minutes. In 2015, Matthew Maton and Grant Fisher became the sixth and seventh high-schoolers to break four minutes, both running 3:59.38 about a month apart. Webb was the first high schooler to run sub-4 indoors, running 3:59.86 in early 2001. On 6 February 2016, Andrew Hunter significantly improved upon Webb's mark, running 3:58.25 on the same New York Armory track and 3:57.81 two weeks later. Hunter achieved the 4-minute mile mark outdoors later in the season at the Prefontaine Classic. At that same meet Michael Slagowski ran his second sub-4-minute of the season. Reed Brown dipped under the barrier on 1 June 2017, running the 4th fastest high school mile time ever recorded in a race: 3:59.30. In 2020, Leo Daschbach clocked 3:59.54 during the Quarantine Clasico, moving to ninth on the all time list. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=88791 | 167,074 |
1,501,724 | Electrophysiological recording studies of cerebellar cortex have helped to better understand the role that PCs play in the eyeblink CR learning process. McCormick and Thompson (1984b) recorded PC activity during eyeblink training and found cell populations that discharged in a pattern apparently related the behavioral CR, while other PC populations discharged in patterns that coincided with either presentation of the CS or US. Similar results were found by Berthier and Moore (1986) with single unit recording of PCs in lobule HVI. They found that populations of neurons fire in relation to various aspects of eyeblink training, including CS and US presentation and CR execution. (Berthier and Moore, 1986; Gould and Steinmetz, 1996). Recently, similar stimulus- and response-related PC activity has been found in ANT (Green and Steinmetz, 2005). Finally, electrophysiological recordings of PCs in HVI and ANT have revealed a difference in the overall population responses of PCs. The majority of PCs show excitatory patterns of activity during eyeblink conditioning in HVI (Berthier and Moore, 1986; Gould and Steinmetz, 1996; Katz and Steinmetz, 1997), and inhibitory patterns of activity in ANT (Green and Steinmetz, 2005). In a single unit recording study where the individual Purkinje cells were shown to be located in the area controlling blinks and to receive climbing fibre input on US presentations, only inhibitory responses were found. In a recent study of similarly characterized Purkinje cells which were followed for up to more than fifteen hours, it was found that repeated presentations of the CS and US caused the gradual development of a pause in Purkinje cell firing. This pause response, called a Purkinje cell CR, was also obtained when direct mossy fibre stimulation was used as the CS and direct climbing fibre stimulation as the US. Unpaired presentations of the CS and US caused extinction of the Purkinje cell CR. When paired presentations were reintroduced after extinction, Purkinje cell CRs reappeared rapidly, mirroring the "savings" phenomenon demonstrated at the behavioral level. Purkinje cell CRs were also adaptively timed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=487945 | 1,500,878 |
1,704,965 | Howe's private fortunes were never stable, and between 1766 and 1775, he was forced to mortgage land and sell slaves to generate funds. In 1770, Howe was able to purchase Kendal Plantation on the Cape Fear River, a rice plantation, but in 1775, he mortgaged it for around £214. While the causes of Howe's financial misfortunes are unknown, several contemporary critics held that the cause was Howe's need to keep up appearances among the ruling elite, while Josiah Martin, Tryon's successor as Royal Governor, believed Howe's misfortunes were evidence of his potential for malfeasance with the public money. In particular, Martin believed that Howe was intentionally under-staffing Fort Johnston in order to pocket excess funds the colonial assembly had appropriated for the garrison there, which was a common form of embezzlement among previous commanders and other royal officials. Howe, as a legislator and public official, had a poor working relationship with Martin, and Martin deprived him of his appointed offices – the captaincy of Fort Johnston and his position with the provincial exchequer – shortly after the new governor's arrival. A legislative confrontation in 1770 over the Provincial Assembly's attempts to pass a law authorizing attachment of real property in North Carolina owned by persons living in England placed Howe in direct confrontation with Martin, who preferred a requirement that colonial subjects seek relief from courts in England rather than in North Carolina. Martin believed that Howe's virulent opposition to the new governor's policies was driven by Howe's anger at being deprived of his valuable appointed positions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=691304 | 1,704,009 |
65,411 | Biopolitical activist Jeremy Rifkin and biologist Stuart Newman accept that biotechnology has the power to make profound changes in organismal identity. They argue against the genetic engineering of human beings because they fear the blurring of the boundary between human and artifact. Philosopher Keekok Lee sees such developments as part of an accelerating trend in modernization in which technology has been used to transform the "natural" into the "artefactual". In the extreme, this could lead to the manufacturing and enslavement of "monsters" such as human clones, human-animal chimeras, or bioroids, but even lesser dislocations of humans and non-humans from social and ecological systems are seen as problematic. The film "Blade Runner" (1982) and the novels "The Boys From Brazil" (1976) and "The Island of Doctor Moreau" (1896) depict elements of such scenarios, but Mary Shelley's 1818 novel "Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus" is most often alluded to by critics who suggest that biotechnologies could create objectified and socially unmoored people as well as subhumans. Such critics propose that strict measures be implemented to prevent what they portray as dehumanizing possibilities from ever happening, usually in the form of an international ban on human genetic engineering. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30299 | 65,386 |
2,052,907 | Three reactor types have been used to study deCOx reactions: semi-batch, batch, and continuous types. Semi-batch and continuous mode reactors have the benefit of purging COx formed throughout the duration of a reaction, which could lead to catalyst deactivation if not removed. Continuous mode reactors are similar to the processes used in industry settings as this format would be the most amenable to producing large quantities of product at a reasonable rate. The types of gases used in deCOx studies have included pure hydrogen, inert gases, and mixtures of the two. Though the use of hydrogen is not strictly necessary in these reactions, it does facilitate the production of higher yields of hydrocarbon products. However, with Ni-based catalysts there is a limit to this effect; if the partial pressure of hydrogen is too high, it will decrease the yield of desired products. The rate at which the reaction occurs is highly dependent upon the reaction conditions and the catalyst utilized. Though it is known that deoxygenation via deCOx generally proceeds at a higher rate with increased temperatures, alternate reactions may also occur which could lead to catalyst deactivation. The reaction route does not appear to be dependent on the type of solvents utilized. However, the nature of the solvent can influence the activity of the catalyst. Those solvents with low | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=46873924 | 2,051,725 |
2,035,666 | He was born in Sioux City, Iowa and grew up in Glendale, California. From 1940 to 1942, Jennings worked on a survey crew for the Union Pacific Railroad. He served with the United States Army in Europe during World War II. With the aid of the GI Bill, Jennings enrolled at the University of California at Davis with the aim of earning a degree in dairy science. He earned a Bachelor, Masters and PhD, eventually becoming a professor emeritus. His interest in flavor chemistry led him to investigate technologies such as gas chromatography to help investigate the chemistry behind the flavor. This led to technological innovations in support of gas chromatography including the production of fused silica (glass) capillary columns for separation of chemical compounds through this specialized analytical chemistry technique. Jennings and a graduate student began manufacturing capillary columns for gas chromatography; originally operating out of a garage, they went on to form a manufacturing company J & W Scientific based in Folsom, CA. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=46318715 | 2,034,493 |
863,320 | Early blood culture methods were labour-intensive. One of the first known procedures, published in 1869, recommended that leeches be used to collect blood from the patient. A microbiology textbook from 1911 noted that decontamination of the draw site and equipment could take over an hour, and that due to a lack of effective methods for preserving blood, the cultures would sometimes have to be prepared at the patient's bedside. In addition to subculturing the broth, some protocols specified that the blood be mixed with melted agar and the mixture poured into a petri dish. In 1915, a blood culture collection system consisting of glass vacuum tubes containing glucose broth and an anticoagulant was described. Robert James Valentine Pulvertaft published a seminal work on blood cultures in 1930, specifying—among other insights—an optimal blood-to-broth ratio of 1:5, which is still accepted today. The use of SPS as an anticoagulant and preservative was introduced in the 1930s and 40s and resolved some of the logistical issues with earlier methods. From the 1940s through the 1980s, a great deal of research was carried out on broth formulations and additives, with the goal of creating a growth medium that could accommodate all common bloodstream pathogens. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1250090 | 862,860 |
1,058,999 | Yogo City was briefly known as Hoover City, after Jake Hoover. Hoover was part of a partnership that had been placer mining for gold and is credited as the discoverer of Yogo Sapphires. For several years, he also owned a ranch in nearby Pig-Eye Basin. He later prospected for gold in Alaska and was a deep-sea fishing guide in Seattle before eventually returning to the Judith Basin. Western painter C.M. Russell arrived in the area in 1880 as a young cowhand and was hired by Hoover. Russell stated that he learned most of his frontier skills from Hoover, and the two men remained lifelong friends. Millie Ringold, a former slave born in 1845, settled in Fort Benton, Montana after having worked as a nurse and servant for an army general. When gold was discovered at Yogo Creek, Ringold sold her boarding house in Fort Benton and left for the Yogo gold fields, setting up a hotel, restaurant, and saloon in Yogo City where she sang and played music. Ringold later cooked for the English mine, but also worked her own gold claims, even after gold mining was on the decline. She was known as a superb cook and ultimately died in Yogo City in 1906, the last resident of the community. The nearby town of Utica was featured in Russell's 1907 painting "A Quiet Day In Utica", which was originally known as "Tinning a Dog". Hoover, Ringold, store owner Charles Lehman, and Russell himself are all depicted in the painting, placed between the hitching post and door of the general store. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=33521256 | 1,058,449 |
183,951 | The initial collapse of a solar-mass protostellar nebula takes around 100,000 years. Every nebula begins with a certain amount of angular momentum. Gas in the central part of the nebula, with relatively low angular momentum, undergoes fast compression and forms a hot hydrostatic (not contracting) core containing a small fraction of the mass of the original nebula. This core forms the seed of what will become a star. As the collapse continues, conservation of angular momentum means that the rotation of the infalling envelope accelerates, which largely prevents the gas from directly accreting onto the central core. The gas is instead forced to spread outwards near its equatorial plane, forming a disk, which in turn accretes onto the core. The core gradually grows in mass until it becomes a young hot protostar. At this stage, the protostar and its disk are heavily obscured by the infalling envelope and are not directly observable. In fact the remaining envelope's opacity is so high that even millimeter-wave radiation has trouble escaping from inside it. Such objects are observed as very bright condensations, which emit mainly millimeter-wave and submillimeter-wave radiation. They are classified as spectral Class 0 protostars. The collapse is often accompanied by bipolar outflows—jets—that emanate along the rotational axis of the inferred disk. The jets are frequently observed in star-forming regions (see Herbig–Haro (HH) objects). The luminosity of the Class 0 protostars is high — a solar-mass protostar may radiate at up to 100 solar luminosities. The source of this energy is gravitational collapse, as their cores are not yet hot enough to begin nuclear fusion. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=212374 | 183,854 |
119,378 | The continuing popularity of "Star Wars" and other science fiction franchises were relevant in cinematic CGI at this time, as Lucasfilm and Industrial Light & Magic became known as the "go-to" house by many other studios for topnotch computer graphics in film. Important advances in chroma keying ("bluescreening", etc.) were made for the later films of the original trilogy. Two other pieces of video would also outlast the era as historically relevant: Dire Straits' iconic, near-fully-CGI video for their song "Money for Nothing" in 1985, which popularized CGI among music fans of that era, and a scene from Young Sherlock Holmes the same year featuring the first fully CGI character in a feature movie (an animated stained-glass knight). In 1988, the first shaders – small programs designed specifically to do shading as a separate algorithm – were developed by Pixar, which had already spun off from Industrial Light & Magic as a separate entity – though the public would not see the results of such technological progress until the next decade. In the late 1980s, Silicon Graphics (SGI) computers were used to create some of the first fully computer-generated short films at Pixar, and Silicon Graphics machines were considered a high-water mark for the field during the decade. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18567210 | 119,329 |
1,522,345 | The river was an abundant source for fish, edible plants, and water, and the Albany Post Road (present-day US Route 9) is one of the Hudson Valley's oldest north–south routes. In 1697 the land along the kill was part of Water Lot 3 of Dutchess County's Nine Partner Patent. The earliest use of the site by colonists is estimated to have been around the 1750s. The saw mill, according to the study, was present in 1774. The grist mill was owned by Jeremiah Rogers, a militia officer serving on Long Island during the Revolution. The family burial ground, across the kill, has the graves of Rogers, his son and daughter, and his grandson. The property changed ownership multiple times in the 1800s. James Roosevelt owned the land as part of his estate in the 1820s, and by the 1860s a farmhouse and stone terraces were constructed along the stream by Moses Beach. In the 1890s the Webendorfer family of Long Island refurbished the farmhouse and built barns, a tenant house, and other structures. From 1919 until its destruction around 1940, St. Andrew-on-Hudson used the Webendorfer house as a rest home. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=52318792 | 1,521,484 |
156,330 | Headwear is an important component of cap-and-gown, and the academic costume is not complete without it. The headwear will vary with the level of academic achievement and, to some extent, on the individual academic institution's specifications. For caps, the mortarboard is recommended in the Code, and the material required to match the gown. The exception—velvet—is reserved for the doctor's degree only, seen in the form of a multiple-sided (4, 6, or 8) tam, but the four-sided mortarboard-shaped tam in velvet is what the Code seems to recommend here. The only colour called for is black, in all cases. The tassel worn on the mortarboard or a tam seems to provide, by tradition, the greatest opportunity for latitude in American academic dress. It has been black, or represented the university's colours, or the colours of the specific college, or the discipline. The tassel has also been used to indicate membership in national honour societies or other awards. There is at some colleges and universities a practice of moving the tassel from one side to the other on graduating, but this is a modern innovation that would be impractical out of doors due to the vagaries of the wind. For doctoral and masters students, the tassel commonly begins and remains on the left. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=337921 | 156,258 |
201,882 | A 2017 experiment at the JINR, producing Nh and Nh via the Am+Ca reaction as the daughters of Mc and Mc, avoided this problem by removing the quartz surface, using only PTFE. No nihonium atoms were observed after chemical separation, implying an unexpectedly large retention of nihonium atoms on PTFE surfaces. This experimental result for the interaction limit of nihonium atoms with a PTFE surface disagrees significantly with previous theory, which expected a lower value of 14.00 kJ/mol. This suggests that the nihonium species involved in the previous experiment was likely not elemental nihonium but rather nihonium hydroxide, and that high-temperature techniques such as vacuum chromatography would be necessary to further probe the behaviour of elemental nihonium. Bromine saturated with boron tribromide has been suggested as a carrier gas for experiments on nihonium chemistry; this oxidises nihonium's lighter congener thallium to thallium(III), providing an avenue to investigate the oxidation states of nihonium, similar to earlier experiments done on the bromides of group 5 elements, including the superheavy dubnium. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=77474 | 201,779 |
1,812,804 | The discovery of msDNA has led to broader questions regarding where reverse transcriptase originated, as genes encoding for reverse transcriptase (not necessarily associated with msDNA) have been found in prokaryotes, eukaryotes, viruses and even archaea. After a DNA fragment coding for the production of msDNA in "E. coli" was discovered, it was conjectured that bacteriophages might have been responsible for the introduction of the RT gene into "E. coli". These discoveries suggest that reverse transcriptase played a role in the evolution of viruses from bacteria, with one hypothesis stating that, with the help of reverse transcriptase, viruses may have arisen as a breakaway msDNA gene that acquired a protein coat. Since nearly all RT genes function in retrovirus replication and/or the movement of transposable elements, it is reasonable to imagine that retrons might be mobile genetic elements, but there has been little supporting evidence for such a hypothesis, save for the observed fact that msDNA is widely yet sporadically dispersed among bacterial species in a manner suggestive of both horizontal and vertical transfer. Since it is not known whether retron sequences "per se" represent mobile elements, retrons are functionally defined by their ability to produce msDNA while deliberately avoiding speculation about other possible activities. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5649173 | 1,811,771 |
1,466,552 | Galileo Galilei's development of the telescope and his observations further challenged the idea that the heavens were made from a perfect, unchanging substance. Adopting Copernicus's heliocentric hypothesis, Galileo believed the Earth was the same as other planets. Though the reality of the famous Tower of Pisa experiment is disputed, he did carry out quantitative experiments by rolling balls on an inclined plane; his correct theory of accelerated motion was apparently derived from the results of the experiments. Galileo also found that a body dropped vertically hits the ground at the same time as a body projected horizontally, so an Earth rotating uniformly will still have objects falling to the ground under gravity. More significantly, it asserted that uniform motion is indistinguishable from rest, and so forms the basis of the theory of relativity. Except with respect to the acceptance of Copernican astronomy, Galileo’s direct influence on science in the 17th century outside Italy was probably not very great. Although his influence on educated laymen both in Italy and abroad was considerable, among university professors, except for a few who were his own pupils, it was negligible. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3114255 | 1,465,729 |
1,294,865 | As early as 1973, the Den Uyl cabinet discussed a high-speed railway line in the Netherlands. It was not until 1988 that the Nederlandse Spoorwegen (NS) started three HSL projects, namely HSL-Zuid, HSL-Oost, and HSL-Noord (Zuiderzeelijn). The overall plan, called Rail 21, was approved in 1989, coinciding with the 150th anniversary of the first railway in the Netherlands (1839). HSL-Zuid was constructed between 2000 and 2006, and began operating in 2009. HSL-Oost was cancelled in 2001, HSL-Noord was cancelled in 2007. The Hanzelijn (constructed 2006–2012) partially took over HSL-Noord's role in connecting the west and north of the country through Lelystad and Zwolle, and has been built to be eventually upgraded to 200 km/h, but so far trains on this track are not running at high speeds yet. New plans for a HSL-Noord, now dubbed 'Lelylijn' instead of 'Zuiderzeelijn', were unveiled in 2019; a feasibility study, with the support of all national political parties, is underway and expected to be finished in late 2020. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23576548 | 1,294,154 |
623,962 | The Government of Odisha has allotted about 936 acres of Government land for permanent campus of the institute. In addition, the State Government is acquiring about 16 acres of private land at its own cost to make the land contiguous. The Foundation Stone of the permanent campus at Arugul, on the outskirts of Bhubaneswar was laid on 12 February 2009. Construction of 4-lane access road from the National Highway 5 and provision of water and electric supply to the campus by the State Government have made considerable progress. The Government of Odisha has also agreed to provide 75 acres of land along the Puri-Konark coastline to set up an Innovation Centre for Climate Change. The site near Jatni Railway Station on the East Coast Railway is 35 kilometres from Biju Patnaik Airport Bhubaneswar. The land is picturesque with Barunai Hill on one side and a reserve forest nearby. The site is at 20° 10' N and 85° 42' E. A total of of land has been allocated towards the self-contained campus for nearly 10,000 students and 1,100 faculty. A science park is being set up as a part of this institution to support industry oriented research activities. The institute has started operating in its new campus at Arugul from academic year 2015–16. The campus construction began on 14 August 2011, Chief minister Naveen Patnaik laid the foundation stone of the IIT campus at Aragul village near Jatni. The campus master plan has been prepared by Vastunidhi Architects, Noida. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19941911 | 623,630 |
1,213,026 | Building science is the science and technology-driven collection of knowledge in order to provide better indoor environmental quality (IEQ), energy-efficient built environments, and occupant comfort and satisfaction. "Building physics, architectural science", and "applied physics" are terms used for the knowledge domain that overlaps with building science. In building science, the methods used in natural and hard sciences are widely applied, which may include controlled and quasi-experiments, randomized control, physical measurements, remote sensing, and simulations. On the other hand, methods from social and soft sciences, such as case study, interviews & focus group, observational method, surveys, and experience sampling, are also widely used in building science to understand occupant satisfaction, comfort, and experiences by acquiring qualitative data. One of the recent trends in building science is a combination of the two different methods. For instance, it is widely known that occupants’ thermal sensation and comfort may vary depending on their sex, age, emotion, experiences, etc even in the same indoor environment. Despite the advancement in data extraction and collection technology in building science, objective measurements alone can hardly represent occupants' state of mind such as comfort and preference. Therefore, researchers are trying to measure both physical contexts and understand human responses to figure out complex interrelationships. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3482223 | 1,212,374 |
696,870 | Bolstered by its success in Japan, Nintendo soon turned its attention to foreign markets. As a new console manufacturer, Nintendo had to convince a skeptical public to embrace its system. To this end, Nintendo entered into negotiations with Atari to release the Famicom outside Japan as the Nintendo Enhanced Video System, with plans to release the system by the end of 1983. Though the two companies reached a tentative agreement, with final contract papers to be signed at the 1983 Summer Consumer Electronics Show (CES), Atari refused to sign at the last minute, after seeing Coleco, one of its main competitors in the market at that time, demonstrating a prototype of "Donkey Kong" for its forthcoming Coleco Adam home computer system. Coleco had licensed "Donkey Kong" for the ColecoVision home console, but Atari had the exclusive computer license for the game. Although the game had been originally produced for the ColecoVision and could thus automatically be played on the backward compatible Adam computer, Atari took the demonstration as a sign that Nintendo was also dealing with Coleco. Though the issue was cleared up within a month, by then Atari's financial problems stemming from the North American video game crash of 1983 coupled with the departure of Atari CEO Ray Kassar left the company unable to follow through with the deal in time to make the target launch.<ref name="Turner/Nutt 11"></ref> | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1571248 | 696,506 |
1,589,308 | In the early 1980s, the Finnish National Board of Navigation began looking for a replacement for the aging "Karhu"-class icebreakers "Karhu", "Murtaja" and "Sampo" which had been built in the late 1950s and were no longer wide enough to escort modern merchant ships. Furthermore, the old icebreakers were expensive to operate and, despite their small size, required a relatively large crew of 53. The development of the new class of icebreakers, dubbed "Karhu II" in the preliminary papers, intensified when Wärtsilä opened a new ice model test facility in 1983. The first new icebreaker, "Otso", was ordered from Wärtsilä Helsinki shipyard on 19 March 1984 with a price of FIM 235 million and commissioned in January 1986. The second ship, identical to the first one, was ordered in December 1985 and delivered to the owners on 29 January 1987. Her name, "Kontio", is one of the many epithets for bear in the Finnish language. Afterwards, the three "Karhu" class icebreakers were decommissioned and sold. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=28011820 | 1,588,414 |
204,300 | Regarding the 1930s NBER definition quoted above, one could argue that its specificity to metal is obsolete, as it is quite common today for particular lathes, milling machines, and machining centers (definitely machine tools) to work exclusively on plastic cutting jobs throughout their whole working lifespan. Thus the NBER definition above could be expanded to say "which employs a tool to work on metal "or other materials of high hardness"". And its specificity to "operating by other than hand power" is also problematic, as machine tools can be powered by people if appropriately set up, such as with a treadle (for a lathe) or a hand lever (for a shaper). Hand-powered shapers are clearly "the 'same thing' as shapers with electric motors except smaller", and it is trivial to power a micro lathe with a hand-cranked belt pulley instead of an electric motor. Thus one can question whether power source is truly a key distinguishing concept; but for economics purposes, the NBER's definition made sense, because most of the commercial value of the existence of machine tools comes about via those that are powered by electricity, hydraulics, and so on. Such are the vagaries of natural language and controlled vocabulary, both of which have their places in the business world. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=191490 | 204,195 |
918,468 | In rhodopsin, the aldehyde group of retinal is covalently linked to the amino group of a lysine residue on the protein in a protonated Schiff base (-NH=CH-). When rhodopsin absorbs light, its retinal cofactor isomerizes from the 11-cis to the all-trans configuration, and the protein subsequently undergoes a series of relaxations to accommodate the altered shape of the isomerized cofactor. The intermediates formed during this process were first investigated in the laboratory of George Wald, who received the Nobel prize for this research in 1967. The photoisomerization dynamics has been subsequently investigated with time-resolved IR spectroscopy and UV/Vis spectroscopy. A first photoproduct called photorhodopsin forms within 200 femtoseconds after irradiation, followed within picoseconds by a second one called bathorhodopsin with distorted all-trans bonds. This intermediate can be trapped and studied at cryogenic temperatures, and was initially referred to as prelumirhodopsin. In subsequent intermediates lumirhodopsin and metarhodopsin I, the Schiff's base linkage to all-trans retinal remains protonated, and the protein retains its reddish color. The critical change that initiates the neuronal excitation involves the conversion of metarhodopsin I to metarhodopsin II, which is associated with deprotonation of the Schiff's base and change in color from red to yellow. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=250540 | 917,985 |
1,550,162 | In 2006, Subramanian joined Oregon State University as the Milton Harris Chair Professor of Materials Science, where his research is dedicated to the design and synthesis of novel functional materials for emerging applications in energy, environment, and electronics. He and his team, at Oregon State University, work on various topics such as pigments, thermoelectrics, high-temperature superconductivity, magnetoresistivity, solid fast ion conductors, high-K dielectrics, and topological insulators. In 2009, his team discovered a novel durable blue pigment, YInMn Blue, the first discovery of a new blue pigment since cobalt was discovered in 1802. Subramanian has given numerous public lectures all over the world on YInMn Blue, including TEDxSalem and TEDxUNC. This discovery has been featured in various international media outlets (such as The New York Times, TIME, National Geographic, Smithsonian, Bloomberg Businessweek, and WBUR), and has attracted global attention from corporations and museums, like Nike, Crayola, and the Harvard Art Museum. In June 2021, Subramanian provided YInMn Blue to Sir Martyn Poliakoff for use in the "Periodic Videos" educational web series. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=48479271 | 1,549,281 |
1,646,321 | An imbalance between the relative influence between the emotional and executive systems is posited to be responsible for the heightened levels of risk-taking and emotionality observed in adolescents. Specifically, dopamine-rich regions related to motivation, including the ventral striatum which has been shown to represent the appetitive value of a stimulus, show increased signaling in adolescent years. This is suggested to be indicative of maturation in this region. In contrast, it is known that regions of the brain known to be involved with modulation of emotional affect on executive function, including the vlPFC, as well as the entire ventrolateral frontostriatal network, do not fully mature until late adolescence to early adulthood. Recent research has shown that adolescents are less capable of inhibiting responses to pre-potent stimuli. Additionally, the ventral striatum and frontolateral prefrontal cortex showed patterns of activity that are more connected with each other during adolescence than early adulthood. While it is accepted that adolescents are less able to inhibit responding to tempting stimuli, it is unclear the specific neural mechanism that modulates this phenomenon. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41420328 | 1,645,391 |
756,594 | Total cerebral and gray matter volumes peak during the ages from 10–20 years (earlier in girls than boys), whereas white matter and ventricular volumes increase. There is a general pattern in neural development of childhood peaks followed by adolescent declines (e.g. synaptic pruning). Consistent with adult findings, average cerebral volume is approximately 10% larger in boys than girls. However, such differences should not be interpreted as imparting any sort of functional advantage or disadvantage; gross structural measures may not reflect functionally relevant factors such as neuronal connectivity and receptor density, and of note is the high variability of brain size even in narrowly defined groups, for example children at the same age may have as much as a 50% differences in total brain volume. Young girls have on average relative larger hippocampal volume, whereas the amygdalae are larger in boys. However, multiple studies have found a higher synaptic density in males: a 2008 study reported that men had a significantly higher average synaptic density of 12.9 × 108 per cubic millimeter, whereas in women it was 8.6 × 108 per cubic millimeter, a 33% difference. Other studies have found an average of 4 billion more neurons in the male brain, corroborating this difference, as each neuron has on average 7,000 synaptic connections to other neurons. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3763482 | 756,191 |
1,648,989 | The 1947 nuclear stockpile consisted of nuclear weapons components, not weapons. Meeting with Truman in April 1947, Lilienthal informed him that not only were there no assembled weapons, there were only a few sets of components and no fully trained bomb-assembly teams. By August 1946, Sandia Base held electrical and mechanical assemblies for about 50 Fat Man bombs, but there were only nine fissile cores in storage. The stockpile of cores grew to 13 in 1947, and 53 in 1948. Oppenheimer noted that the bombs were "still largely the haywire contraptions that were slapped together in 1945". With a half-life of only 140 days, the polonium-beryllium modulated neutron initiators had to be periodically removed from the plutonium pits, tested, and, if necessary, replaced. The cores had to be stored separately from the high-explosive blocks that would surround them in the bomb because they generated enough heat to melt the plastic explosive over time. The heat could also affect the cores themselves, provoking a phase transition to a different allotrope of plutonium. They had to be periodically inspected by technicians wearing gloves and respirators. The bomb's electrical power for its radar fuzes and detonators came from a pair of lead-acid batteries similar to those used in cars. These had to be charged 24 hours before use. After a few days the bomb had to be partially disassembled so they could be re-charged (and, only three days after that, replaced). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29079065 | 1,648,057 |
912,716 | Nowadays, the MIC is used in antimicrobial susceptibility testing. The MIC is reported by providing the susceptibility interpretation next to each antibiotic. The different susceptibility interpretations are: S (Sensitive), I (Intermediate), and R (Resistant). These interpretations were created and implemented by the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI). In clinics, more often than not, exact pathogens cannot be easily determined by symptoms of the patient. Then, even if the pathogen is determined, different serotypes of pathogens, such as "Staphylococcus aureus," have varying levels of resistance to antimicrobials. As such, it is difficult to prescribe correct antimicrobials. The MIC is determined in such cases by growing the pathogen isolate from the patient on plate or broth, which is later used in the assay. Thus, knowledge of the MIC will provide a physician valuable information for making a prescription. Accurate and precise usage of antimicrobials is also important in the context of multidrug-resistant bacteria. Microbes such as bacteria have been gaining resistance to antimicrobials they were previously susceptible to. Usage of incompatible levels of antimicrobials provides the selective pressure that has driven the direction and evolution of resistance of bacterial pathogens. This has been seen at sub-MIC levels of antibiotics. As such, it is increasingly important to determine the MIC in order to make the best choice in prescribing antimicrobials. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5600471 | 912,237 |
1,311,025 | Ripley's "The Races of Europe" was rewritten in 1939 by Harvard physical anthropologist Carleton S. Coon. Coon, a 20th-century craniofacial anthropometrist, used the technique for his "The Origin of Races" (New York: Knopf, 1962). Because of the inconsistencies in the old three-part system (Caucasoid, Mongoloid, Negroid), Coon adopted a five-part scheme. He defined "Caucasoid" as a pattern of skull measurements and other phenotypical characteristics typical of populations in Europe, Central Asia, South Asia, West Asia, North Africa, and Northeast Africa (Ethiopia, and Somalia). He discarded the term "Negroid" as misleading since it implies skin tone, which is found at low latitudes around the globe and is a product of adaptation, and defined skulls typical of sub-Saharan Africa as "Congoid" and those of Southern Africa as "Capoid". Finally, he split "Australoid" from "Mongoloid" along a line roughly similar to the modern distinction between sinodonts in the north and sundadonts in the south. He argued that these races had developed independently of each other over the past half-million years, developing into Homo Sapiens at different periods of time, resulting in different levels of civilization. This raised considerable controversy and led the American Anthropological Association to reject his approach without mentioning him by name. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39480604 | 1,310,307 |
129,841 | After completing his assignment as a back-up member for ISS Expedition 5 in 2002, Kelly was assigned as commander of STS-118 aboard "Endeavour". After the Space Shuttle "Columbia" disaster, STS-118 was delayed until August 2007. STS-118 launched on August 8, 2007. During the launch, the orbiter was struck by nine pieces of foam from the external tank just as "Columbia" had been on its final, fatal mission. The underside of "Endeavour" was examined by cameras on the robotic arm and the ISS, and was assessed to not be dangerously damaged. The Shuttle successfully docked with the ISS on August 10. "Endeavour"'s crew successfully added a truss segment, an external spare-parts platform, and a control moment gyroscope and to the ISS. The mission was extended to 14 days while testing a new system that enabled docked shuttles to draw electrical power from the station. During the mission, four EVAs to install the new equipment were completed. The mission was ended a day early because of the approach of Hurricane Dean towards Houston. STS-118 completed 201 orbits, and landed on August 21, 2007, at the Kennedy Space Center, after 12 days, 17 hours, 55 minutes, and 34 seconds. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=614906 | 129,789 |
362,110 | Whereas genes determine the general characteristics of patterns and their type, the presence of environmental factors result in the slight differentiation of each fingerprint. However, the relative influences of genetic and environmental effects on fingerprint patterns are generally unclear. One study has suggested that roughly 5% of the total variability is due to small environmental effects, although this was only performed using total ridge count as a metric. Several models of finger ridge formation mechanisms that lead to the vast diversity of fingerprints have been proposed. One model suggests that a buckling instability in the basal cell layer of the fetal epidermis is responsible for developing epidermal ridges. Additionally, blood vessels and nerves may also serve a role in the formation of ridge configurations. Another model indicates that changes in amniotic fluid surrounding each developing finger within the uterus cause corresponding cells on each fingerprint to grow in different microenvironments. For a given individual, these various factors affect each finger differently preventing two fingerprints from being identical while still retaining similar patterns. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=84777 | 361,920 |
1,590,713 | The most important factors influencing the overall speed at which glider can fly around a given course is the average strength of the rising air the pilot chooses for climbing and the directness of the route chosen around the course (no credit is given for deviations, but a detour to reach stronger lift can often more than make up in speed for the extra distance travelled). Experienced pilots typically pass by relatively weak lift, selecting only the strongest lift for climbing. However, being too selective runs the risk of getting too low to the ground and being forced to accept any available sources of rising air (no matter how weak) in order to avoid "landing out". This can cost the competitor valuable time. The best pilots also are expert at getting the most out of each source of lift by maneuvering their glider quickly to the center of the lift where the rate of climb is greatest. They also are highly skilled as using a wide variety of information (weather forecasts, terrain features, clouds, other gliders on course) to estimate what conditions are likely to be like ahead on course and adapt their flying tactics to maximize their overall speed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2487812 | 1,589,819 |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.