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856,266 | Boelcke fulfilled his childhood dream of a military career by joining the Imperial German Army on 15 March 1911. He pursued an early interest in aviation, learning to fly as World War I began. After duty as an aerial observer during 1914, he became one of the original fighter pilots during mid-1915. Flying the first true fighters, Boelcke, Max Immelmann, and several other early aces began shooting down enemy airplanes. Boelcke and Immelmann were the first German fighter pilots awarded Prussia's highest honor, the "Pour le Mérite". The German high command reassigned Boelcke after his 19th victory. During his forced grounding on staff duty, he helped transform the Army's (Flying Troop) air arm into the (Air Force). His innovative turn of mind codified his combat experiences into the first manual of fighter tactics distributed to an air force, the "Dicta Boelcke". The "Dicta" promulgated axioms for individual pilot success, as well as a requirement for teamwork directed by a formation's leader. Present-day tactics manuals stem from the "Dicta". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=193002 | 855,811 |
18,120 | In 1963, a Hercules achieved and still holds the record for the largest and heaviest aircraft to land on an aircraft carrier. During October and November that year, a USMC KC-130F (BuNo "149798"), loaned to the U.S. Naval Air Test Center, made 29 touch-and-go landings, 21 unarrested full-stop landings and 21 unassisted take-offs on at a number of different weights. The pilot, Lieutenant (later Rear Admiral) James H. Flatley III, USN, was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for his role in this test series. The tests were highly successful, but the aircraft was not deployed this way. Flatley denied that C-130 was tested for carrier onboard delivery (COD) operations, or for delivering nuclear weapons. He said that the intention was to support the Lockheed U-2, also being tested on carriers. The Hercules used in the test, most recently in service with Marine Aerial Refueler Squadron 352 (VMGR-352) until 2005, is now part of the collection of the National Museum of Naval Aviation at NAS Pensacola, Florida. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7697 | 18,114 |
1,186,664 | Recently, researchers have attempted to explain mechanisms implicated in selective auditory attention. In 2012, an assistant professor in residence of the Neurological Surgery and Physiology in the University of California San Francisco examined the selective cortical representation of attended speaker in multiple-talker speech perception. Edward Chang and his colleague, Nima Mesgarani undertook a study that recruited three patients affected by severe epilepsy, who were undergoing treatment surgery. All patients were recorded to have normal hearing. The procedure of this study required the surgeons to place a thin sheet of electrodes under the skull on the outer surface of the cortex. The activity of electrodes was recorded in the auditory cortex. The patients were given two speech samples to listen to and they were told to distinguish the words spoken by the speakers. The speech samples were simultaneously played and different speech phrases were spoken by different speakers. Chang and Mesgarani found an increase in neural responses in the auditory cortex when the patients heard words from the target speaker. Chang went on to explain that the method of this experiment was well-conducted as it was able to observe the neural patterns that tells when the patient's auditory attention shifted to the other speaker. This clearly shows the selectivity of auditory attention in humans. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=35988494 | 1,186,035 |
2,030,848 | Subsea Internet of Things (SIoT) is a network of smart, wireless sensors and smart devices configured to provide actionable operational intelligence such as performance, condition and diagnostic information. It is coined from the term The Internet of Things (IoT). Unlike IoT, SIoT focuses on subsea communication through the water and the water-air boundary. SIoT systems are based around smart, wireless devices incorporating Seatooth radio and Seatooth Hybrid technologies. SIoT systems incorporate standard sensors including temperature, pressure, flow, vibration, corrosion and video. Processed information is shared among nearby wireless sensor nodes. SIoT systems are used for environmental monitoring, oil & gas production control and optimisation and subsea asset integrity management. Some features of IoT's share similar characteristics to cloud computing. There is also a recent increase of interest looking at the integration of IoT and cloud computing. Subsea cloud computing is an architecture design to provide an efficient means of SIoT systems to manage large data sets. It is an adaption of cloud computing frameworks to meet the needs of the underwater environment. Similarly to fog computing or edge computing, critical focus remains at the edge. Algorithms are used to interrogate the data set for information which is used to optimise production. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54140411 | 2,029,680 |
728,044 | 𝔓 is small, and although a plausible reconstruction can be attempted for most of the 14 lines represented, the proportion of the text of the Gospel of John for which it provides a direct witness is necessarily limited, so it is rarely cited in textual debate. There has, however, been some contention as to whether the name (Jesus) in the 'missing' portions of recto lines 2 and 5 was originally written as ; in other words, was it contracted to or in accordance with otherwise universal Christian practice in surviving early Gospel manuscripts. On the assumption that the nomina sacra were absent from 𝔓, Roberts originally considered that the divine name was more likely to have been written in full, but later changed his mind. This latter view is also the view of Larry W. Hurtado, with Christopher M. Tuckett maintaining Roberts' original opinion. The verses included in 𝔓 are also witnessed in Bodmer Papyrus 𝔓 – usually dated to the beginning of the 3rd century CE – and there is also some overlap with 𝔓 and 𝔓 of the 7th and 2nd centuries respectively. No two of the four contain the same exact text as reconstructed for John 18:31–38, but 𝔓 seems to represent an example of the same proto-Alexandrian text-type. Kurt Aland described it as a "Normal text", and placed it in Category I, due to its age. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=848618 | 727,660 |
1,159,238 | The term ‘science diplomacy’ only began to emerge following the end of the Cold War, in the early 2000s, as a description of the need for new strategic partnerships at the country level to promote “activities of international cooperation and compromise on issues with a heavy scientific input”, on issues of global concern, such as biosafety. This involved the development of strategic scientific relations between historical or potential rival countries or blocs as a way to promote scientific cooperation to the extent that it could hedge against diplomatic failures and reduce the potential for conflict. As one UNCTAD researcher stated, “These activities and resulting networks offer excellent opportunities to share resources and hedge against diplomatic failures through exchanging experiences, opening countries up to better funding opportunities from international sources and sharing organisational capacity and expertise.” In the second half of the first decade of the twenty-first century, calls for the promotion of science diplomacy emerged in earnest, especially between the West and former Soviet Union countries. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31816142 | 1,158,623 |
986,880 | Cowry shells were first used in India as commodity money. The Indus Valley civilisation may have used metals of fixed weights such as silver for trade activities which is evident from the DK area of Mohenjo Daro from the late Harappan period (dated 1900–1800 BC or 1750 BC). D.D Kosambi proposed a connection between Mohenjodaro class IV silver pieces and class D pieces with the Punch marked coins based on their remarkable similarity and identity between D-class weights. The remarkable similarities between Punch marked coin symbols with those appearing in the Indus seals have also been highlighted. Chalcolithic unmarked gold disc discovered from Eran have been dated to 1000 BC and due to their lack of ornamental use, it has been proposed that it was utilized as an object of money A similar gold token piece from Pandu Rajar Dhibi has also been interpreted as a coin, it is hammered on the edges and bears parallel marks, although weighing 14 grams, a quarter of the piece is missing hence its full weight of 21 grams would conform to the ancient coinage weight standards of India and confirm the vedic literary references of circulation of gold tokens in that period. Similar interpretations have been made regarding the use of silver circular objects from the Gungeria hoard. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1449547 | 986,365 |
856,585 | Whilst surgical procedures exist to treat , current methods involve partial or complete removal of the lamina and segments of the spinal cord, leading to poor stability. Hence, orthopedic surgeons and neurosurgeons have been developing and researching other surgical techniques that reduce this side effect. Haruo Tsuji, in 1990, introduced a procedure known as Laminoplastie En-block expansive Laminoplasty as an alternative to laminectomy and since then, variations and further developments have been made on that procedure, with developments still being currently. This procedure involves a reconstruction of the vertebral lamina such that it creates a hinge on one side, allowing for decreased pressure on spinal nerve roots. Advances in this procedure involve finding ways to access the spinal cord with minimal incisions and to more effectively create hinges that replicate normal functioning of the spine. In addition to Laminoplasty, spinal fusion surgeries have also been of growing interest to orthopedic surgeons and neurosurgeons. This process involves connecting two vertebrae of the bones together to reduce pain or correct any spinal deformities. As such this form of surgery has the potential to treat the underlying cause of . However, these types of surgeries are difficult and dangerous to perform due to the sensitive nature of the spinal area. Additionally, these techniques are relatively new and thus, more research and advances in its methodology is still required for it to be considered a reliable and viable option to treat patients. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12730702 | 856,130 |
48,934 | An independent bomb damage assessment conducted by ImageSat International counted hits on 44 targets, with some targets being hit by more than one missile; these figures were determined using satellite images of the airbase 10 hours after the strike. However, the Russian defense ministry contends that the combat effectiveness of the attack was "extremely low"; only 23 missiles hit the base destroying six aircraft, and it did not know where the other 36 landed. Russian television news, citing a Syrian source at the airfield, said that nine planes were destroyed by the strikes (5 Su-22M3s, 1 Su-22M4, and 3 Mig-23ML) and that all planes were thought to have been out of action at the time. Al-Masdar News reported that 15 fighter jets were damaged or destroyed and that the destruction of fuel tankers caused several explosions and a large fire. Some observers conclude that the Russian government—and therefore also the Syrian government—was warned and Syria had enough time to move most of the planes to another base. The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights said the strike damaged over a dozen hangars, a fuel depot, and an air defense base. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31238 | 48,914 |
1,910,375 | SPADATS was developed by the SpaceTrack Research and Development Facility, also called the 496L System Program Office, at Hanscom Field in Bedford, Massachusetts. (Bendix, Sperry Rand and Hughes competed for SPADATS contract in the early 1962 on the basis of their prior experience in phased array technology.) It first operated at the Electronic Systems Command building at Hanscom and in 1963 was transferred to the Ent Air Force Base and then to the Cheyenne Mountain Complex in 1965 or 1966. From that point, the SpaceTrack Research and Development Facility continued to build and test new software, manage contracts for hardware and software, and operate as a backup facility. SPADATS was developed in assembly language and the hardware at all three locations was Philco 2000/Model 212 large scale transistor computers. Spiral Decay, a Special Perturbation Program, was used to model the motion of space objects re-entering the Earth's atmosphere. Project 437 used a second Special Perturbation Program called ESPOD. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37197970 | 1,909,277 |
1,144,242 | Pulsatile secretion is a biochemical phenomenon observed in a wide variety of cell and tissue types, in which chemical products are secreted in a regular temporal pattern. The most common cellular products observed to be released in this manner are intercellular signaling molecules such as hormones or neurotransmitters. Examples of hormones that are secreted pulsatilely include insulin, thyrotropin, TRH, gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and growth hormone (GH). In the nervous system, pulsatility is observed in oscillatory activity from central pattern generators. In the heart, pacemakers are able to work and secrete in a pulsatile manner. A pulsatile secretion pattern is critical to the function of many hormones in order to maintain the delicate homeostatic balance necessary for essential life processes, such as development and reproduction. Variations of the concentration in a certain frequency can be critical to hormone function, as evidenced by the case of GnRH agonists, which cause functional inhibition of the receptor for GnRH due to profound downregulation in response to constant (tonic) stimulation. Pulsatility may function to sensitize target tissues to the hormone of interest and upregulate receptors, leading to improved responses. This heightened response may have served to improve the animal's fitness in its environment and promote its evolutionary retention. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=47181909 | 1,143,641 |
1,820,695 | The men's hammer throw at the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, South Korea had an entry list of 30 competitors from 16 nations, with two qualifying groups before the final (12) took place on Monday September 26, 1988. The maximum number of athletes per nation had been set at 3 since the 1930 Olympic Congress. In the final round the eight highest-ranked competitors after three rounds qualified for the final three throws to decide the medals. The event was won by Sergey Litvinov of the Soviet Union, the nation's sixth victory in the event (second-most all-time behind the United States' seven). The Soviet team completed the medal sweep, with Yuriy Sedykh taking silver and Jüri Tamm bronze. It was the Soviets' third medal sweep in four Games, with only the boycotted 1984 Games missing. The 1988 team was the same as the 1980 squad, with Litvinov and Sedykh trading places. Litvinov and Tamm were the ninth and tenth men to earn multiple medals in the hammer throw, while Sedykh (the eighth man to do so) became the fourth to win three medals; his two golds and a silver trailed only John Flanagan's three gold medals in Olympic success. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14510097 | 1,819,658 |
277,692 | From many smaller detonations combined, the fallout for the entire launch of a Orion is equal to the detonation of a typical 10 megaton (40 petajoule) nuclear weapon as an air burst, therefore most of its fallout would be the comparatively dilute delayed fallout. Assuming the use of nuclear explosives with a high portion of total yield from fission, it would produce a combined fallout total similar to the surface burst yield of the "Mike" shot of Operation Ivy, a 10.4 Megaton device detonated in 1952. The comparison is not quite perfect as, due to its surface burst location, "Ivy Mike" created a large amount of early fallout contamination. Historical above-ground nuclear weapon tests included 189 megatons of fission yield and caused average global radiation exposure per person peaking at in 1963, with a residual in modern times, superimposed upon other sources of exposure, primarily natural background radiation, which averages globally but varies greatly, such as in some high-altitude cities. Any comparison would be influenced by how population dosage is affected by detonation locations, with very remote sites preferred. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=322533 | 277,542 |
362,925 | In expanding space, proper distances are dynamical quantities that change with time. An easy way to correct for this is to use comoving coordinates, which remove this feature and allow for a characterization of different locations in the universe without having to characterize the physics associated with metric expansion. In comoving coordinates, the distances between all objects are fixed and the instantaneous dynamics of matter and light are determined by the normal physics of gravity and electromagnetic radiation. Any time-evolution however must be accounted for by taking into account the Hubble law expansion in the appropriate equations in addition to any other effects that may be operating (gravity, dark energy, or curvature, for example). Cosmological simulations that run through significant fractions of the universe's history therefore must include such effects in order to make applicable predictions for observational cosmology. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5985207 | 362,735 |
896,423 | Nomograms flourished in many different contexts for roughly 75 years because they allowed quick and accurate computations before the age of pocket calculators. Results from a nomogram are obtained very quickly and reliably by simply drawing one or more lines. The user does not have to know how to solve algebraic equations, look up data in tables, use a slide rule, or substitute numbers into equations to obtain results. The user does not even need to know the underlying equation the nomogram represents. In addition, nomograms naturally incorporate implicit or explicit domain knowledge into their design. For example, to create larger nomograms for greater accuracy the nomographer usually includes only scale ranges that are reasonable and of interest to the problem. Many nomograms include other useful markings such as reference labels and colored regions. All of these provide useful guideposts to the user. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=271164 | 895,952 |
390,567 | The Iridium constellation – 95 communication satellites launched during the five-year period between 1997 and 2002 – provides a set of data points on the limits of self-removal. The satellite operator – Iridium Communications – remained operational over the two-decade life of the satellites (albeit with a company name change through a corporate bankruptcy during the period) and, by December 2019, had "completed disposal of the last of its 65 working legacy satellites." However, this process left 30 satellites with a combined mass of (, or nearly a third of the mass of this constellation) in LEO orbits at approximately altitude, where self-decay is quite slow. Of these satellites, 29 simply failed during their time in orbit and were thus unable to self-deorbit, while one – Iridium 33 – was involved in the 2009 satellite collision with the derelict Russian military satellite Kosmos-2251. No contingency plan was laid for the removal of satellites that were unable to remove themselves. In 2019, the Iridium CEO, Matt Desch, said that Iridium would be willing to pay an active-debris-removal company to deorbit its remaining first-generation satellites if it were possible for an unrealistically low cost, say " per deorbit, but [he] acknowledged that price would likely be far below what a debris-removal company could realistically offer. 'You know at what point [it’s] a no-brainer, but [I] expect the cost is really in the millions or tens of millions, at which price I know it doesn’t make sense." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=266344 | 390,372 |
456,115 | The current leading biological control method of hemlock woolly adelgid is "Sasajiscymnus tsugae", [originally called "Pseudoscymnus tsugae"]. "S. tsugae" is a black lady beetle that is relatively host-specific, feeding only on three known aldegid species, including HWA. This beetle was discovered in 1992 while feeding on hemlock woolly adelgid in its natural range of Japan. Since 1995, the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources's Bureau of Forestry has released hundreds of thousands of adult "S. tsugae" beetles into affected hemlock forests of the eastern United States to determine its effectiveness at controlling the spread of the adelgid. From 1995 to 1997, experiments in Connecticut and Virginia found that releasing adult "Sasajiscymnus tsugae" beetles into infested hemlock stands resulted in a 47 to 88% reduction in adelgid densities within 5 months of introduction. The beetle's lifecycle is in parallel to the lifecycle of the hemlock woolly adelgid. Both lay eggs in the spring and hatching occurs nearly simultaneously. When hatched, "S. tsugae" larvae are highly mobile and feed on hemlock woolly adelgid eggs and larvae. Each "S. tsugae" larva can effectively consume about 500 adelgid eggs or nearly 100 developing adelgid nymphs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4488063 | 455,892 |
1,672,161 | Sir Robert Macintosh (1897–1989) also achieved significant advances in techniques for tracheal intubation when he introduced his new curved laryngoscope blade in 1943. The Macintosh blade remains to this day the most widely used laryngoscope blade for orotracheal intubation. In 1949, Macintosh published a case report describing the novel use of a gum elastic urinary catheter as an endotracheal tube introducer to facilitate difficult tracheal intubation. Inspired by Macintosh's report, P. Hex Venn (who was at that time the anesthetic advisor to the British firm Eschmann Brothers & Walsh, Ltd.) set about developing an endotracheal tube introducer based on this concept. Venn's design was accepted in March 1973, and what became known as the Eschmann endotracheal tube introducer went into production later that year. The material of Venn's design was different from that of a gum elastic bougie in that it had two layers: a core of tube woven from polyester threads and an outer resin layer. This provided more stiffness but maintained the flexibility and the slippery surface. Other differences were the length (the new introducer was , which is much longer than the gum elastic bougie) and the presence of a 35° curved tip that let it be steered around obstacles. The concept of using a stylet for replacing or exchanging orotracheal tubes was introduced by Finucane and Kupshik in 1978, using a central venous catheter. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=28862297 | 1,671,219 |
1,640,365 | Ramsbottom gave 12 months notice of his resignation in September 1870. Shortly afterwards the Works Manager, Thomas Stubbs, died aged 34. Stubbs may have been Ramsbottom's intended successor. The Chairman of the LNWR, Richard Moon, contacted Webb and invited him to return to Crewe. In October 1870 Moon was able to inform Webb that his appointment as Locomotive Superintendent had been approved. Webb's salary was set at £2,000 for the first year, and £3,000 for the second and subsequent years. Webb took up his position on 1 October 1871. Webb became Chief Mechanical Engineer when the post of Locomotive Superintendent was renamed. It appears that this happened soon after Webb took up his duties. At the same time he also became President of the Crewe Mechanics' Institute, where he had for some time taught engineering drawing during his first stay at Crewe. Webb remained as CME of the LNWR until 1 July 1903, having tendered his resignation in November 1902. His successor, George Whale, was appointed in April 1903. Whale took over Webb's position somewhat earlier than planned, as Webb became seriously ill in June. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=746629 | 1,639,438 |
1,908,621 | Epigenetics may play a role in a wide array of vascular complications and in diabetes. The epigenetic variations involved with diabetes can change chromatin structure as well as gene expression. Regardless of whether glycemic control has been achieved through treatment these epigenetic mechanisms are lasting and do not change with the alteration of diet. The most common vascular complication in patients with Type 2 Diabetes is retinopathy which causes many patients to go blind. Studies showed that retinal damage persisted even after the reversal of hyperglycemia in dogs. Studies with streptozotocin injected Type 1 diabetes rats showed that the re-institution of glycemic control after a short period of hyperglycemia had protective effects in the eyes, including reduction in parameters of oxidant stress and inflammation. However, specimens with prolonged diabetes failed to show similar protection. It was then seen with endothelial cells (which line blood vessels) cultured in high glucose that there was a sustained increase in the expression of key extracellular and pro-fibrotic genes and persistently increased oxidant stress, after subsequent glucose normalization. These studies show that the deleterious effects of prior hyperglycemic exposure have long-lasting effects on target organs even after subsequent glycaemic control underscoring the beneficial effects of intensive glycemic control in diabetes. The persistence of these symptoms points to epigenesis as an underlying cause. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=35839849 | 1,907,524 |
1,471,180 | The main instrument on board QUESS is a "Sagnac effect" interferometer. This is a device which generates pairs of entangled photons, allowing one of each to be transmitted to the ground. This will allow QUESS to perform Quantum key distribution (QKD) – the transmission of a secure cryptographic key that can be used to encrypt and decrypt messages – to two ground stations. QKD theoretically offers truly secure communication. In QKD, two parties who want to communicate share a random secret key transmitted using pairs of entangled photons sent with random polarization, with each party receiving one half of the pair. This secret key can then be used as a one-time pad, allowing the two parties to communicate securely through normal channels. Any attempt to eavesdrop on the key will disturb the entangled state in a detectable way. QKD has been attempted on Earth, both with direct line-of-sight between two observatories, and using fibre optic cables to transmit the photons. However, fibre optics and the atmosphere both cause scattering which destroys the entangled state, and this limits the distance over which QKD can be carried out. Sending the keys from an orbiting satellite results in less scattering, which allows QKD to be performed over much greater distances. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=51347825 | 1,470,354 |
112,893 | Modern educational technology can improve access to education, including full degree programs. It enables better integration for non-full-time students, particularly in continuing education, and improved interactions between students and instructors. Learning material can be used for long-distance learning and are accessible to a wider audience. Course materials are easy to access. In 2010, 70.3% of American family households had access to the internet. In 2013, according to Canadian Radio-Television and Telecommunications Commission Canada, 79% of homes have access to the internet. Students can access and engage with numerous online resources at home. Using online resources can help students spend more time on specific aspects of what they may be learning in school but at home. Schools like the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) have made certain course materials free online. Although some aspects of a classroom setting are missed by using these resources, they are helpful tools to add additional support to the educational system. The necessity to pay for transport to the educational facility is removed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1944675 | 112,848 |
373,323 | A TASER device fires two small dart-like electrodes, which stay connected to the main unit by thin insulated copper wire as they are propelled by small compressed nitrogen charges. The cartridge contains a pair of electrodes and propellant for a single shot and is replaced after each use. Once fired the probes travel at per second, spread apart for every they travel, and must land at least apart from each other to complete the circuit and channel an electric pulse into the target person's body. They deliver a modulated electric current designed to disrupt voluntary control of muscles, causing "neuromuscular incapacitation". The effects of a TASER device may only be localized pain or strong involuntary long muscle contractions, based on the mode of use and connectivity of the darts. The TASER device is marketed as "less-lethal", since the possibility of serious injury or death exists whenever the weapon is deployed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=237746 | 373,128 |
432,894 | Discovery of echinocandins stemmed from studies on papulacandins isolated from a strain of "Papularia sphaerosperma" (Pers.), which were liposaccharide - i.e., fatty acid derivatives of a disaccharide that also blocked the same target, 1,3-β glucan synthase - and had action only on "Candida" spp. (narrow spectrum). Screening of natural products of fungal fermentation in the 1970s led to the discovery of echinocandins, a new group of antifungals with broad-range activity against "Candida" spp. One of the first echinocandins of the pneumocandin type, discovered in 1974, echinocandin B, could not be used clinically due to risk of high degree of hemolysis. Screening semisynthetic analogs of the echinocandins gave rise to cilofungin, the first echinofungin analog to enter clinical trials, in 1980, which, it is presumed, was later withdrawn for a toxicity due to the solvent system needed for systemic administration. The semisynthetic pneumocandin analogs of echinocandins were later found to have the same kind of antifungal activity, but low toxicity. The first of these newer echinocandins to be approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration was caspofungin, and later micafungin and anidulafungin were also approved. All these preparations have very low oral bioavailability, so they must be given intravenously to be useful. Echinocandins have become one of the first-line treatments for "Candida" before the species are identified, and even as antifungal prophylaxis in hematopoietic stem cell transplant patients. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9471292 | 432,681 |
1,918,503 | The architectural style of the Aula Magna is inspired by the classic Greco-Roman theatre, with a 1/4-circle structure and a fan-shaped ceiling, designed like an amphitheater or conch shell. On its exterior is a 43-meter truss, which was inspired by Le Corbusier's unrealised designs for the Palace of Soviets. The hall is an integral part of the larger Plaza Cubierta space. The building forms a main part of the view of the Plaza Cubierta, but the entrances are only visible from within the square itself; it is also written that as "[s]een from the Aula Magna, all the spaces and buildings that [comprise] the [Plaza Cubierta] expand, starting from the solidity of the main piece". It also includes designs that were innovative for the time, such as the suspended balcony, an orchestra pit, and the large and open proscenium. Additionally, it is not only a building but "an interior space within a larger interior-exterior space", placing it inseparably within its confines in the central complex, and "irreplaceable". A study published in 1955 by the Museum of Modern Art that looked at Latin American architecture also noted the hall was "covered but only partially enclosed". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58270674 | 1,917,403 |
733,288 | In general, the voltage sensing portion of the ion channel is responsible for the detection of changes in transmembrane potential that trigger the opening or closing of the channel. The S1-4 alpha helices are generally thought to serve this role. In potassium and sodium channels, voltage-sensing S4 helices contain positively-charged lysine or arginine residues in repeated motifs. In its resting state, half of each S4 helix is in contact with the cell cytosol. Upon depolarization, the positively-charged residues on the S4 domains move toward the exoplasmic surface of the membrane. It is thought that the first 4 arginines account for the gating current, moving toward the extracellular solvent upon channel activation in response to membrane depolarization. The movement of 10–12 of these protein-bound positive charges triggers a conformational change that opens the channel. The exact mechanism by which this movement occurs is not currently agreed upon, however the canonical, transporter, paddle, and twisted models are examples of current theories. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1258079 | 732,901 |
1,205,755 | Staudinger's groundbreaking elucidation of the nature of the high-molecular weight compounds he termed "Makromoleküle" paved the way for the birth of the field of polymer chemistry. Staudinger himself saw the potential for this science long before it was fully realized. "It is not improbable," Staudinger commented in 1936, "that sooner or later a way will be discovered to prepare artificial fibers from synthetic high-molecular products, because the strength and elasticity of natural fibers depend exclusively on their macro-molecular structure – i.e., on their long thread-shaped molecules." Staudinger founded the first polymer chemistry journal in 1940, and in 1953 received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for "his discoveries in the field of macromolecular chemistry." In 1999, the American Chemical Society and Gesellschaft Deutscher Chemiker designated Staudinger's work as an International Historic Chemical Landmark. His pioneering research has afforded the world myriad plastics, textiles, and other polymeric materials which make consumer products more affordable, attractive and enjoyable, while helping engineers develop lighter and more durable structures. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=788854 | 1,205,110 |
574,656 | For accurate identification and reproduction of musical intervals, scales, chords, rhythms, and other audible parameters a great deal of practice is often necessary. Exercises involving identification often require a knowledgeable partner to play the passages in question and to assess the answers given. Specialised music theory software can remove the need for a partner, customise the training to the user's needs and accurately track progress. Conservatories and university music departments often license commercial software for their students, such as Meludia, EarMaster, Auralia, and MacGAMUT, so that they can track and manage student scores on a computer network. A variety of free software also exists, either as browser-based applications or as downloadable executables. For example, free and open source software under the GPL, such as GNU Solfege, often provides many features comparable with those of popular proprietary products. Most ear-training software is MIDI-based, permitting the user to customise the instruments used and even to receive input from MIDI-compatible devices such as electronic keyboards. Interactive ear-training applications are also available for smartphones. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=413740 | 574,362 |
826,212 | In England and Wales, the pattern is more haphazard and often deficient in representation. The constitution of the London School of Economics, which unusually takes the legal form of a company limited by guarantee, currently requires its seventeen-member "Council" to have two student representatives, and three staff representatives. Anomalously, the King’s College London Act 1997 required a 38 member council with five ex-officio members, twenty lay appointees, eight elected by academics, three elected by students, and two by non-academic staff members, however this provision still remains to be put into effect on the "appointed day". Other universities have a broad variety of governance structures, although if there is not a special statute or constitution, the general rules are set by the Education Reform Act 1988. This says that university governing bodies with constitutions issued by the Privy Council should have between 12 and 24 members, with up to thirteen lay members, up to two teachers, up to two students, and between one and nine members co-opted by the others. The wide variations in governing bodies raise the question about staff or student voice should have any limit, given their fundamental expertise in university life. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=81513 | 825,768 |
2,001,933 | The first introductory chapter provides an overview of Indian history of Indian mathematics and its scholarship, and of the religious and linguistic context of early Sanskrit texts, which leads to important differences from Indian mathematics to other ancient mathematical cultures developing from administrative or scientific works. Chapter two discusses the Vedic period from 1500 to 500 BCE, and the Shulba Sutras, religious instructional texts with significant mathematical content that are generally attributed to this period, although (as the book discusses) the absence of concrete astronomical observations within these texts has made it impossible to date them precisely. Topics from this period include its methods for reckoning time, its fascination with large numbers, the beginnings of decimal numbering and integer factorization, geometric constructions using cords or ropes, the Pythagorean theorem, and accurate approximations to pi and the square root of two. This chapter also includes material on speculative links between Vedic India and ancient Mesopotamia, a pet theory of Plofker's advisor David Pingree, but it notes the weakness of evidence for these theories. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66223516 | 2,000,785 |
20,808 | In 1775, Hugh Williamson reported a series of experiments to the Royal Society on the shocks delivered by the electric eel; that same year the surgeon and anatomist John Hunter described the structure of the fish's electric organs. In 1791, Luigi Galvani published his discovery of bioelectromagnetics, demonstrating that electricity was the medium by which neurons passed signals to the muscles. Alessandro Volta's battery, or voltaic pile, of 1800, made from alternating layers of zinc and copper, provided scientists with a more reliable source of electrical energy than the electrostatic machines previously used. The recognition of electromagnetism, the unity of electric and magnetic phenomena, is due to Hans Christian Ørsted and André-Marie Ampère in 1819–1820. Michael Faraday invented the electric motor in 1821, and Georg Ohm mathematically analysed the electrical circuit in 1827. Electricity and magnetism (and light) were definitively linked by James Clerk Maxwell, in particular in his "On Physical Lines of Force" in 1861 and 1862. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9550 | 20,799 |
1,995,749 | Throughout the 20th century, a large percentage of buildings were constructed completely dependent on fossil fuels. Rather than focusing on energy efficiency, architects and engineers were more concerned with experimenting with “new materials and structural forms” to further aesthetic ideals. Now in the 21st century, building energy performance standards are pushing towards a zero carbon standard in old and new buildings alike. The threat of global change and the need for energy independence and sustainability has prompted governments across the globe to adopt firm carbon reducing standards. A significant way to meet these stringent standards is in the construction of buildings that minimize environmental impacts, as well as the refurbishing of older buildings to meet carbon emission standards. The application of building engineering physics can aid in this transition to reduce energy dependent buildings, provide for the demands of a growing population and better standard of living. The 2010 RAEng report expressed the expectation that growth in the application of this field would largely due to the" introduction of regulations requiring the calculation of carbon emissions to demonstrate compliance, principally the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD)". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=26616666 | 1,994,606 |
916,520 | The simplest type of "ab initio" electronic structure calculation is the Hartree–Fock method (HF), an extension of molecular orbital theory, in which the correlated electron-electron repulsion is not specifically taken into account; only its average effect is included in the calculation. As the basis set size is increased, the energy and wave function tend towards a limit called the Hartree–Fock limit. Many types of calculations (termed post-Hartree–Fock methods) begin with a Hartree–Fock calculation and subsequently correct for electron-electron repulsion, referred to also as electronic correlation. As these methods are pushed to the limit, they approach the exact solution of the non-relativistic Schrödinger equation. To obtain exact agreement with the experiment, it is necessary to include relativistic and spin orbit terms, both of which are far more important for heavy atoms. In all of these approaches, along with a choice of method, it is necessary to choose a basis set. This is a set of functions, usually centered on the different atoms in the molecule, which are used to expand the molecular orbitals with the linear combination of atomic orbitals (LCAO) molecular orbital method ansatz. Ab initio methods need to define a level of theory (the method) and a basis set. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6019 | 916,038 |
2,043,275 | Possession of the Ludwieg tube facility attracted lucrative grants, which became a logistical problem because UTA was then involved in a major building program that included the renovation of an engineering building that the tunnel was scheduled to go into. This would have meant a period of several years of storage and hundreds of thousands of dollars of lost grants. The solution to this problem was the construction of a temporary facility on the first floor of a newly built engineering building. This facility happened to be located underneath the office of the Dean of the College of Engineering, who promptly changed the temporary facility to a permanent building upon hearing how loud the Luwieg tube was. Once the concept of a permanent building was proposed, several new wind tunnels and equipment were added. In 1985, a large compressor located at NASA Ames Research Center became available and was donated to UTA. This 5-stage Clark compressor was rated at 3000 psi, 2000 cfm, and was driven by a 1250 hp motor. The total power consumption during full load operation is over 1.6 MW. Moving the compressor to a new building with its associated equipment cost nearly $500,000.00. The entire building was built around the compressor in 1986, and continued development has occurred since that time which includes the construction of supersonic and hypersonic facilities. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12449857 | 2,042,095 |
1,107,489 | Survival Flight has an excellent safety record and intense maintenance program. The aero-medical aviation sector has a high accident rate per hours flown due to its requirement to operate in almost all weather conditions and due to urgent transportation needs. Survival Flight has only suffered one crew and equipment loss. On June 4, 2007, a Cessna 550 Citation II provided by Marlin Air, Inc. plunged into Lake Michigan after experiencing a "trim runaway" problem. In September 2008, a legal settlement was reached between University of Michigan and Marlin Air, Inc. after a lawsuit was filed because the university terminated its contract for air medical transportation services. Results of the NTSB investigation placed blame on the deficiencies and inadequate checkrides instituted by the chief pilot of Marlin Air, Inc., cited an "ill-prepared pilot in the first officer's seat", and also placed blame on the FAA's inability to detect such training and operational deficiencies. In 2009, Survival Flight once again began to operate fixed-wing service in a new Cessna Citation Encore out of KPTK airport in Waterford Township, Michigan and in 2013 moved fixed-wing operations to KOZW airport in Howell, Michigan. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3039777 | 1,106,925 |
112,952 | The physical and chemical properties of the alkali metals can be readily explained by their having an ns valence electron configuration, which results in weak metallic bonding. Hence, all the alkali metals are soft and have low densities, melting and boiling points, as well as heats of sublimation, vaporisation, and dissociation. They all crystallise in the body-centered cubic crystal structure, and have distinctive flame colours because their outer s electron is very easily excited. The ns configuration also results in the alkali metals having very large atomic and ionic radii, as well as very high thermal and electrical conductivity. Their chemistry is dominated by the loss of their lone valence electron in the outermost s-orbital to form the +1 oxidation state, due to the ease of ionising this electron and the very high second ionisation energy. Most of the chemistry has been observed only for the first five members of the group. The chemistry of francium is not well established due to its extreme radioactivity; thus, the presentation of its properties here is limited. What little is known about francium shows that it is very close in behaviour to caesium, as expected. The physical properties of francium are even sketchier because the bulk element has never been observed; hence any data that may be found in the literature are certainly speculative extrapolations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=666 | 112,907 |
105,887 | The amplifying vacuum tube revolutionized electrical technology, creating the new field of electronics, the technology of active electrical devices. It made possible long-distance telephone lines, public address systems, radio broadcasting, talking motion pictures, practical audio recording, radar, television, and the first computers. For 50 years virtually all consumer electronic devices used vacuum tubes. Early tube amplifiers often had positive feedback (regeneration), which could increase gain but also make the amplifier unstable and prone to oscillation. Much of the mathematical theory of amplifiers was developed at Bell Telephone Laboratories during the 1920s to 1940s. Distortion levels in early amplifiers were high, usually around 5%, until 1934, when Harold Black developed negative feedback; this allowed the distortion levels to be greatly reduced, at the cost of lower gain. Other advances in the theory of amplification were made by Harry Nyquist and Hendrik Wade Bode. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9931 | 105,842 |
916,555 | The number of South African genera rapidly grew in the 20th-century, headed principally by Broom, whose extensive work on the Karoo therapsids—from the beginning of his career in the country in 1897 to his death in 1951—led to his description of 57 gorgonopsian holotype specimens and 29 genera. Many of Broom's taxa would later be invalidated. Many other contemporary workers created wholly new species or genera based on single specimens. Consequently, Gorgonopsia has been the subject of much taxonomic turmoil, and is one of the most problematic synapsid groups. Because the skull anatomy differs very little across taxa, many are defined based on vague proportional differences, including even the well-known members. Nominal species are distinguished predominantly by traits which are known to be quite variable depending on the age of the individual, including eye orbit size, snout length, and number of postcanine teeth. Thus, it is possible that some taxa are synonymous with each other, and represent different stages of development. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3705573 | 916,073 |
2,205,636 | With more than 500 publications in peer‐reviewed medical journals, Epstein is a recognized international authority on angiogenesis and on the application of stem cell strategies for cardiovascular therapeutics. His recent work on stem cell therapy has demonstrated that mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) when administered intravenously to mice with acute myocardial infarction and to mice with ischemic cardiomyopathy, markedly attenuate the progressive development of adverse left ventricular remodeling and deterioration in LV function. He and his associates have also demonstrated that one of the mechanisms responsible for these beneficial effects is a modulation of the excessive immune and inflammatory responses that are triggered by the presence of an injured left ventricle. These observations resulted in the initiation of two clinical trials testing the efficacy of the intravenous injection of MSCs in patients with heart failure. The observations are now being used to inform the development of novel monoclonal antibody strategies to modulate inflammation for treating patients with myocardial infarctions, patients with heart failure, and patients with various autoimmune diseases. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1839978 | 2,204,379 |
634,346 | Granulomatous amoebic encephalitis (GAE) is caused by amoebic infection of the central nervous system (CNS). It is characterized by neurological symptoms including headache, seizures, and mental-status abnormalities. These worsen progressively over weeks to months, leading to death in most patients. Infection is generally associated with underlying conditions such as immunodeficiency, diabetes, malignancies, malnutrition, systemic lupus erythematosus, and alcoholism. The parasite enters the body through cuts in the skin or by being inhaled into the upper respiratory tract. The parasite then spreads through the blood into the CNS. "Acanthamoeba" crosses the blood–brain barrier by means that are not yet understood. Subsequent invasion of the connective tissue and induction of pro-inflammatory responses leads to neuronal damage that can be fatal within days. Pure granulomatous lesions are rare in patients with AIDS and other related immunodeficiency states, as the patients do not have adequate numbers of CD+ve T-cells to mount a granulomatous response to "Acanthamoeba" infection in CNS and other organs and tissues. A perivascular cuffing with amoebae in necrotic tissue is usual finding in the AIDS and related T-cell immunodeficiency conditions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=369857 | 634,008 |
69,890 | Some processes involving neutrons are notable for absorbing or finally yielding energy — for example neutron kinetic energy does not yield heat immediately if the neutron is captured by a uranium-238 atom to breed plutonium-239, but this energy is emitted if the plutonium-239 is later fissioned. On the other hand, so-called delayed neutrons emitted as radioactive decay products with half-lives up to several minutes, from fission-daughters, are very important to reactor control, because they give a characteristic "reaction" time for the total nuclear reaction to double in size, if the reaction is run in a "delayed-critical" zone which deliberately relies on these neutrons for a supercritical chain-reaction (one in which each fission cycle yields more neutrons than it absorbs). Without their existence, the nuclear chain-reaction would be prompt critical and increase in size faster than it could be controlled by human intervention. In this case, the first experimental atomic reactors would have run away to a dangerous and messy "prompt critical reaction" before their operators could have manually shut them down (for this reason, designer Enrico Fermi included radiation-counter-triggered control rods, suspended by electromagnets, which could automatically drop into the center of Chicago Pile-1). If these delayed neutrons are captured without producing fissions, they produce heat as well. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22054 | 69,863 |
1,352,435 | In November 2006, in the midst of accusations concerning Taleyarkhan's research standards, two different scientists visited the meta-stable fluids research lab at Purdue University to measure neutrons, using Taleyarkhan's equipment. Dr. Edward R. Forringer and undergraduates David Robbins and Jonathan Martin of LeTourneau University presented two papers at the American Nuclear Society Winter Meeting that reported replication of neutron emission. Their experimental setup was similar to previous experiments in that it used a mixture of deuterated acetone, deuterated benzene, tetrachloroethylene and uranyl nitrate. Notably, however, it operated without an external neutron source and used two types of neutron detectors. They claimed a liquid scintillation detector measured neutron levels at 8 standard deviations above the background level, while plastic detectors measured levels at 3.8 standard deviations above the background. When the same experiment was performed with non-deuterated control liquid, the measurements were within one standard deviation of background, indicating that the neutron production had only occurred during cavitation of the deuterated liquid. William M. Bugg, emeritus physics professor at the University of Tennessee also traveled to Taleyarkhan's lab to repeat the experiment with his equipment. He also reported neutron emission, using plastic neutron detectors. Taleyarkhan claimed these visits counted as independent replications by experts, but Forringer later recognized that he was not an expert, and Bugg later said that Taleyarkhan performed the experiments and he had only watched. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42739 | 1,351,689 |
926,535 | Finger called for bids from industry for the development of the nuclear engine for rocket vehicle application (NERVA) based upon the Kiwi engine developed by LASL. The award was scheduled for 1 March 1961, so that the decision whether or not to proceed could be made by the incoming Kennedy administration. Eight companies submitted bids: Aerojet, Douglas, Glenn L. Martin, Lockheed, North American, Rocketdyne, Thiokol and Westinghouse. A joint NASA–AEC board evaluated the bids. It rated North American's bid as the best bid overall, but Westinghouse and Aerojet had superior bids for the reactor and engine respectively when they were considered separately. After Aerojet promised NASA administrator James E. Webb that it would put its best people on NERVA, Webb spoke to the selection board and told them that although he did not wish to influence their decision, North American was deeply committed to Project Apollo, and the board might consider combining other bids. On 8 June, Webb announced that Aerojet and Westinghouse had been selected. Aerojet became the prime contractor, with Westinghouse as the principal subcontractor. Both companies recruited aggressively, and by 1963, Westinghouse had 1,100 staff working on NERVA. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=712716 | 926,049 |
313,502 | During the late 19th century, Angelo Mosso invented the 'human circulation balance', which could non-invasively measure the redistribution of blood during emotional and intellectual activity. However, although briefly mentioned by William James in 1890, the details and precise workings of this balance and the experiments Mosso performed with it remained largely unknown until the recent discovery of the original instrument as well as Mosso's reports by Stefano Sandrone and colleagues. Angelo Mosso investigated several critical variables that are still relevant in modern neuroimaging such as the 'signal-to-noise ratio', the appropriate choice of the experimental paradigm and the need for the simultaneous recording of differing physiological parameters. Mosso's manuscripts do not provide direct evidence that the balance was really able to measure changes in cerebral blood flow due to cognition, however a modern replication performed by David T Field has now demonstrated using modern signal processing techniques unavailable to Mosso that a balance apparatus of this type is able to detect changes in cerebral blood volume related to cognition. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=226722 | 313,333 |
1,918,100 | In 1961, Clark resigned from his post as Director of the Museum (being succeeded by Gervas C.R. Clay), and became Professor of Anthropology (subsequently Emeritus) at the University of California, Berkeley, where he taught until his retirement in 1986. Under his guidance, the programme became one of the world's foremost in paleoanthropology. In 1965, he was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He received the Gold Medal Award for Distinguished Archaeological Achievement in 1988 from the Archaeological Institute of America. Clark continued working until his death, including a 1991 dig in China that was the first to be led in that country by foreign archaeologists in more than 40 years. Clark died of pneumonia in Oakland in 2002, having published more than twenty books and over 300 scholarly papers on paleoanthropology and African prehistory in the course of his career. His wife survived him by only two months. He is survived by his children, Elizabeth and John. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2872618 | 1,917,000 |
530,806 | Given the role of heat shock proteins as an ancient defense system for stabilizing cells and eliminating old and damaged cells, this system has been co-opted by cancer cells to promote their growth. Increased Hsp70 in particular has been shown to inhibit apoptosis of cancer cells, and increased Hsp70 has been shown to be associated with or directly induce endometrial, lung, colon, prostate, and breast cancer, as well as leukemia. Hsp70 in cancer cells may be responsible for tumorigenesis and tumor progression by providing resistance to chemotherapy. Inhibition of Hsp70 has been shown to reduce the size of tumors and can cause their complete regression. Hsp70/Hsp90 is a particularly attractive target for therapeutics, because it is regulated by the inhibition of its ATPase activity, while other HSPs are regulated by nucleotides. Several inhibitors have been designed for Hsp70 that are currently in clinical trials, though as of now HSP90 inhibitors have been more successful. In addition, Hsp70 has been shown to be a regulator of the immune system, activating the immune system as an antigen. Thus, tumor-derived Hsp70 has been suggested as a potential vaccine or avenue to target for immunotherapy. Given the increased expression of Hsp70 in cancer, it has been suggested as a biomarker for cancer prognostics, with high levels portending poor prognosis. An oncogenic mechanism illustrates how extracellular vesicles expressing HSP70 are produced by proliferative Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia cells and can target and compromise a healthy hematopoiesis system during leukemia development. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=474345 | 530,532 |
2,123,571 | Delivered on 14 August 2017 to the ISS by SpaceX CRS-12. The research was sponsored by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's Space Life and Physical Sciences program. This is the first Rodent Research mission that is dedicated to NASA-sponsored science experiments. Previous missions on the ISS involved commercial and other government agency experiments selected by the Center for Advancement of Science in Space (CASIS). The mission consisted of three separate experiments led by principal investigators Michael Delp, Xiao Wen Mao, and Jeffrey Willey. Delp's investigation was designed to study the effects of long duration spaceflight on fluid shifts and increased fluid pressures in the head, Mao's was to examine the impact of spaceflight on the vessels that supply blood to the eyes, and Willey's was designed to study the extent of knee and hip joint degradation caused by prolonged exposure to weightlessness. The flight lasted 33 days. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58816065 | 2,122,351 |
975,058 | Mycoplasmas, which are among the smallest self-replicating organisms, are parasitic species that lack a cell wall and periplasmic space, have reduced genomes, and limited metabolic activity. "Mycoplasma pneumoniae" cells have an elongated shape that is approximately 0.1–0.2 µm (100-200 nm) in width and 1-2 µm (1000-2000 nm) in length. The extremely small cell size means they are incapable of being examined by light microscopy; a stereomicroscope is required for viewing the morphology of "M. pneumoniae" colonies, which are usually less than 100 µm in length. The inability to synthesize a peptidoglycan cell wall is due to the absence of genes encoding its formation and results in an increased importance in maintenance of osmotic stability to avoid desiccation. The lack of a cell wall also calls for increased support of the cell membrane(reinforced with sterols), which includes a rigid cytoskeleton composed of an intricate protein network and, potentially, an extracellular capsule to facilitate adherence to the host cell. "M. pneumoniae" are the only bacterial cells that possess cholesterol in their cell membrane (obtained from the host) and possess more genes that encode for membrane lipoprotein variations than other mycoplasmas, which are thought to be associated with its parasitic lifestyle. "M. pneumoniae" cells also possess an attachment organelle, which is used in the gliding motility of the organism by an unknown mechanism. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=466746 | 974,547 |
1,992,259 | He published a report on the Agriculture and Geology of Mississippi (1860); on the Geology of Louisiana and the Rock-salt Deposits of Petite Anse Island (1869); reports on the Experimental Work of the College of Agriculture, University of California (1877-1898); "Report on the Arid Regions of the Pacific Coast" (1887); and monographs on Mississippi, Louisiana, and California, in the "Report on Cotton Production of the United States Census Report" of 1880, which he edited. He prepared for the United States Weather Bureau in 1892 a discussion of the "Relations of Climate to Soils", which was translated into several European languages and gained for the author in 1894, from the Royal Bavarian Academy of Sciences, the Liebig medal for important advances in agricultural science. Together with his book "Soils" (1906), "Climate..." established the basis for understanding climate as a factor of soil formation in the United States. He also published numerous papers on chemical, geological, and agricultural subjects, in government reports, and in scientific journals both at home and abroad. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4643480 | 1,991,116 |
1,778,337 | Buck Garden (500–1200 CE) were predominant throughout central Kanawha-New River Valley region following the upper Armstrong. They were first identified at the Buck Garden Creek site in Nicholas Co. Buck Garden people were buried under Rock Mounds and cliffs. They lived in compact villages and began raising beans included within the Eastern Agricultural Complex method. Many illustrations of living activities in print through the decades have been suggested. These ideas have ranged from the bizarre to the probable. They grew or gathered root and ground vining foods, picked spring greens, berries and ramp followed by gathering shellfish on creek flats, hickory and walnuts. Use of spice and Sassafras is presently speculative. With their fishing pike, they fished the spring run and in the following cooler leafless seasons they hunted game. Like their rock mound burial within the state's interior, their use of rocks is not clear: small fishing jetties and possible use of the curious game-herding stone walls. Dr. Otis K. Rice wrote, "About 1000 A. D. the Buck Garden hill people began to occupy the Mount Carbon site." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=17254851 | 1,777,335 |
1,895,972 | Later on, based on clinical observations, he began to challenge the hypothesis that BBB disruption, as a common implication of multiple epilepsy inducing conditions such as stroke and traumatic brain injury, serves as a mechanistic factor in epileptogenesis. He went to Berlin to establish a novel model of epilepsy which enabled him to show causality for the first time between BBB disruption and epileptogenesis. Then, in collaboration with Prof. Kaufer he exposed that albumin, the most frequent protein in the serum is the agent that leaks from the blood into the brain parenchyma under BBB disruption conditions and induces epileptogenesis by activation of the transforming growth factor beta receptor on astrocytes. Furthermore, they showed that this process is mediated by a unique inflammatory pattern and the formation of excitatory synapses. In sought of a cure or a preventive means for this devastating process, they found that losartan, a commonly used drug for hypertension treatment may prevent epilepsy and facilitate BBB healing. This line of discoveries was facilitated by the development of a novel method for direct imaging of the BBB in-vivo and promoted the investigation of the mechanism of seizure induced BBB disruption and the impairment of neurovascular coupling during seizure. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=60518163 | 1,894,888 |
597,532 | Laue was born in Pfaffendorf, now part of Koblenz, Germany, to Julius Laue and Minna Zerrenner. In 1898, after passing his "Abitur" in Strassburg, he began his compulsory year of military service, after which in 1899 he started to study mathematics, physics, and chemistry at the University of Strassburg, the University of Göttingen, and the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich (LMU). At Göttingen, he was greatly influenced by the physicists Woldemar Voigt and Max Abraham and the mathematician David Hilbert. After only one semester at Munich, he went to the Friedrich-Wilhelms-University of Berlin in 1902. There, he studied under Max Planck, who gave birth to the quantum theory revolution on 14 December 1900, when he delivered his famous paper before the Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft. At Berlin, Laue attended lectures by Otto Lummer on heat radiation and interference spectroscopy, the influence of which can be seen in Laue's dissertation on interference phenomena in plane-parallel plates, for which he received his doctorate in 1903. Thereafter, Laue spent 1903 to 1905 at Göttingen. Laue completed his Habilitation in 1906 under Arnold Sommerfeld at LMU. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=396454 | 597,227 |
554,319 | To improve its trench crossing ability to 4.88 m the vehicle had a very elongated shape. The track length was but even though the hull width was an impressive nominal 3.76 m, the actual length-width ratio of the tracks was very poor as that width included the sponsons. Combined with wide tracks it proved difficult to turn the tank. During testing many tracks twisted and broke in a turn and it was decided to use longer, stronger links made of hardened cast armour plate, stiffened by webs formed by recesses in the track plate. Another effect of the narrow hull was that the fighting compartment was also very narrow. This was made worse by the fact that now the gap between the double track frames at each side was very wide; earlier types had only the tracks themselves widened. Nevertheless, the tank was supposed to accommodate another twenty infantry men in full gear if necessary. In absolute terms the vehicle was very large: at tall the Mark VIII was the second largest operational tank in history, after the Char 2C. However its weight was only fitted for battle as the armour plate was thin with a thickness of 16 mm on the front and sides—a slight improvement over the Mark V but very thin by later standards. The roof and bottom of the hull were protected by only 6 mm thick armour plate, leaving the tank very vulnerable to mortar shells and landmines. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2181128 | 554,030 |
1,558,742 | Multi-spectral optoacoustic tomography (MSOT), also known as functional photoacoustic tomography (fPAT), is an imaging technology that generates high-resolution optical images in scattering media, including biological tissues. MSOT illuminates tissue with light of transient energy, typically light pulses lasting 1-100 nanoseconds. The tissue absorbs the light pulses, and as a result undergoes thermo-elastic expansion, a phenomenon known as the optoacoustic or photoacoustic effect. This expansion gives rise to ultrasound waves (photoechoes) that are detected and formed into an image. Image formation can be done by means of hardware (e.g. acoustic focusing or optical focusing) or computed tomography (mathematical image formation). Unlike other types of optoacoustic imaging, MSOT involves illuminating the sample with multiple wavelengths, allowing it to detect ultrasound waves emitted by different photoabsorbing molecules in the tissue, whether endogenous (oxygenated and deoxygenated hemoglobin, melanin) or exogenous (imaging probes, nanoparticles). Computational techniques such as spectral unmixing deconvolute the ultrasound waves emitted by these different absorbers, allowing each emitter to be visualized separately in the target tissue. In this way, MSOT can allow visualization of hemoglobin concentration and tissue oxygenation or hypoxia. Unlike other optical imaging methods, MSOT is unaffected by photon scattering and thus can provide high-resolution optical images deep inside biological tissues. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37749401 | 1,557,857 |
676,087 | In 2009, Crucible Steel introduced an update to CPM-S30V to meet the needs of renowned knife maker Chris Reeve that they called CPM-S35VN. The addition of 0.5% Niobium, and reductions in both Carbon from (1.45% to 1.40%) and Vanadium (from 4% to 3%) produced an alloy with 25% increase in measured Charpy V-notch toughness over S30V (Crucible claims 15-20% improvement). Working chefs and outdoor survivalists laud the improved toughness of S35VN, which greatly reduces the micro-bevel chipping that tends to plague S30V in rough use. In these kinds of applications the obvious benefit of quick honing of an S35VN blade with a strop or steel stick in lieu of needing to remove metal and reform the edge puts S35VN at an advantage over S30V. In light use, edge-holding and stainless properties between S35VN versus S30V are thought to be roughly the same, and performance will often be affected nearly as much by the applied heat treatment, blade design, and the edge geometry as the differences in metal chemistry. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15609234 | 675,734 |
1,474,311 | The genus "Dictyostelium" is in the order Dictyosteliida, the so-called cellular slime molds or social amoebae. In turn the order is in the infraphylum Mycetozoa. Members of the order are Protista of great theoretical interest in biology because they have aspects of both unicellularity and multicellularity. The individual cells in their independent phase are common on organic detritus or in damp soils and caves. In this phase they are amoebae. Typically, the amoebal cells grow separately and wander independently, feeding mainly on bacteria. However, they interact to form multi-cellular structures following starvation. Groups of up to about 100,000 cells signal each other by releasing chemoattractants such as cyclic AMP (cAMP) or glorin. They then coalesce by chemotaxis to form an aggregate that becomes surrounded by an extracellular matrix. The aggregate forms a fruiting body, with cells differentiating individually into different components of the final structure. In some species, the whole aggregate may move collectively – forming a structure known as a grex or "slug" – before finally forming a fruiting body. Basic processes of development such as differential cell sorting, pattern formation, stimulus-induced gene expression, and cell-type regulation are common to "Dictyostelium" and metazoans. For further detail see family Dictyostelid. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=236164 | 1,473,480 |
1,223,482 | Overall, however, the Catawbas' role in the war has been termed "rather negligible;" with so few men to commit to the cause, it does seem unlikely that the Nation determined the outcome of any battle. But the significance of their contribution lay in their active and visible support. While their alliance with the patriots helped them fit into a rapidly changing environment—in 1782, the state legislature sent the nation five hundred bushels of corn to tide them over until summer and both paid them for their service in the army and reimbursed them for the livestock they had supplied—the settler's temporarily favorable impression of the Catawbas did not guarantee a secure future. The Indian's continued indifference to Christianity frustrated the American colonist, who tried to educate select members at the College of William and Mary in hopes that these people would return to their Catawba homes converted, and ready to convert others. Efforts failed, refueling popular sentiments about the inferiority of Indians. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11003821 | 1,222,822 |
123,362 | Initially, the DNA of interest needs to be isolated to provide a DNA segment of suitable size. Subsequently, a ligation procedure is used where the amplified fragment is inserted into a vector (piece of DNA). The vector (which is frequently circular) is linearised using restriction enzymes, and incubated with the fragment of interest under appropriate conditions with an enzyme called DNA ligase. Following ligation, the vector with the insert of interest is transfected into cells. A number of alternative techniques are available, such as chemical sensitisation of cells, electroporation, optical injection and biolistics. Finally, the transfected cells are cultured. As the aforementioned procedures are of particularly low efficiency, there is a need to identify the cells that have been successfully transfected with the vector construct containing the desired insertion sequence in the required orientation. Modern cloning vectors include selectable antibiotic resistance markers, which allow only cells in which the vector has been transfected, to grow. Additionally, the cloning vectors may contain colour selection markers, which provide blue/white screening (alpha-factor complementation) on X-gal medium. Nevertheless, these selection steps do not absolutely guarantee that the DNA insert is present in the cells obtained. Further investigation of the resulting colonies must be required to confirm that cloning was successful. This may be accomplished by means of PCR, restriction fragment analysis and/or DNA sequencing. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6910 | 123,311 |
139,850 | Meta-analyses from 2017 and 2018 of the literature showed that CI users have large improvements in quality of life after cochlear implantation. This improvement occurs in many different facets of life that extends beyond communication including improved ability to engage in social activities; decreased mental effort from listening; and improved environmental sound awareness. Deaf adolescents with cochlear implants attending mainstream educational settings report high levels of scholastic self-esteem, friendship self-esteem, and global self-esteem. They also tend to hold mostly positive attitudes towards their cochlear implants, and as a part of their identity, a majority either do "not really think about" their hearing loss, or are "proud of it." Though advancements in cochlear implant technology have helped patients in their understanding of language, users are still unable to understand suprasegmental portions of language, which includes pitch. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=241649 | 139,793 |
24,749 | Later in 1958–1963 at Cornell University, field grown maize was reported to have much greater leaf photosynthetic rates of 40 μmol CO·m·s and not be saturated at near full sunlight. This higher rate in maize was almost double of those observed in other species such as wheat and soybean, indicating that large differences in photosynthesis exist among higher plants. At the University of Arizona, detailed gas exchange research on more than 15 species of monocot and dicot uncovered for the first time that differences in leaf anatomy are crucial factors in differentiating photosynthetic capacities among species. In tropical grasses, including maize, sorghum, sugarcane, Bermuda grass and in the dicot amaranthus, leaf photosynthetic rates were around 38−40 μmol CO·m·s, and the leaves have two types of green cells, i. e. outer layer of mesophyll cells surrounding a tightly packed cholorophyllous vascular bundle sheath cells. This type of anatomy was termed Kranz anatomy in the 19th century by the botanist Gottlieb Haberlandt while studying leaf anatomy of sugarcane. Plant species with the greatest photosynthetic rates and Kranz anatomy showed no apparent photorespiration, very low CO compensation point, high optimum temperature, high stomatal resistances and lower mesophyll resistances for gas diffusion and rates never saturated at full sun light. The research at Arizona was designated a Citation Classic in 1986. These species were later termed C4 plants as the first stable compound of CO fixation in light has 4 carbons as malate and aspartate. Other species that lack Kranz anatomy were termed C3 type such as cotton and sunflower, as the first stable carbon compound is the 3-carbon PGA. At 1000 ppm CO in measuring air, both the C3 and C4 plants had similar leaf photosynthetic rates around 60 μmol CO·m·s indicating the suppression of photorespiration in C3 plants. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=24544 | 24,740 |
143,928 | The pursuit for a reactor had been touched off by concern that Nazi Germany had a substantial scientific lead. The success of Chicago Pile-1 provided the first vivid demonstration of the feasibility of the military use of nuclear energy by the Allies, and the reality of the danger that Nazi Germany could succeed in producing nuclear weapons. Previously, estimates of critical masses had been crude calculations, leading to order-of-magnitude uncertainties about the size of a hypothetical bomb. The successful use of graphite as a moderator paved the way for progress in the Allied effort, whereas the German program languished partly because of the belief that scarce and expensive heavy water would have to be used for that purpose. The Germans had failed to account for the importance of boron and cadmium impurities in the graphite samples on which they ran their test of its usability as a moderator, while Leo Szillard and Enrico Fermi had asked suppliers about the most common contaminations of graphite after a first failed test and consequently ensured the next test would be run with one entirely devoid of them. As it turned out, both boron and cadmium were strong neutron poisons. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1118396 | 143,870 |
1,192,437 | Beginning in Cambrian time, about 550 million years ago, the Iapetus Ocean began to close. The weight of accumulating sediments, in addition to compressional forces in the crust, forced the eastern edge of the North American continent to fold gradually downward. In this manner, shallow-water carbonate deposition that had persisted on the continental shelf margin through Late Cambrian into Early Ordovician time, gave way to fine-grained clastic deposition and deeper water conditions during the Middle Ordovician. In this period a convergent plate boundary developed along the eastern edge of a small island chain. Crustal material beneath the Iapetus Ocean sank into the mantle along a subduction zone with an eastward-dipping orientation. Dewatering of the down-going plate led to hydration of the peridotites in the overlying mantle wedge, lowering their melting point. This led to partial melting of the peridotites within the mantle wedge producing magma that returned to the surface to form the offshore Taconic (or Bronson Hill) island arc. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1573153 | 1,191,801 |
1,197,480 | Dichotic listening can also be used to test the hemispheric asymmetry of language processing. In the early 60s, Doreen Kimura reported that dichotic verbal stimuli (specifically spoken numerals) presented to a participant produced a right ear advantage (REA). She attributed the right-ear advantage "to the localization of speech and language processing in the so-called dominant left hemisphere of the cerebral cortex." According to her study, this phenomenon was related to the structure of the auditory nerves and the left-sided dominance for language processing. It is important to note that REA doesn't apply to non-speech sounds. In "Hemispheric Specialization for Speech Perception," by Studdert-Kennedy and Shankweiler (1970) examine dichotic listening of CVC syllable pairs. The six stop consonants (b, d, g, p, t, k) are paired with the six vowels and a variation in the initial and final consonants are analyzed. REA is the strongest when the sound of the initial and final consonants differ and it is the weakest when solely the vowel is changed. Asbjornsen and Bryden (1996) state that "many researchers have chosen to use CV syllable pairs, usually consisting of the six stop consonants paired with the vowel \a\. Over the years, a large amount of data has been generated using such material." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=32036278 | 1,196,839 |
215,646 | Vaschillo and colleagues (1983) published the first studies of heart rate variability (HRV) biofeedback with cosmonauts and treated patients diagnosed with psychiatric and psychophysiological disorders. Lehrer collaborated with Smetankin and Potapova in treating pediatric asthma patients and published influential articles on HRV asthma treatment in the medical journal "Chest". The most direct effect of HRV biofeedback is on the baroreflex, a homeostatic reflex that helps control blood pressure fluctuations. When blood pressure goes up, the baroreflex makes heart rate go down. The opposite happens when blood pressure goes down. Because it takes about 5 seconds for blood pressure to change after changes in heart rate (think of different amounts of blood flowing through the same sized tube), the baroreflex produces a rhythm in heart rate with a period of about 10 seconds. Another rhythm in heart rate is caused by respiration (respiratory sinus arrhythmia), such that heart rate rises during inhalation and falls during exhalation. During HRV biofeedback, these two reflexes stimulate each other, stimulating resonance properties of the cardiovascular system caused by the inherent rhythm in the baroreflex, and thus causing very big oscillations in heart rate and large-amplitude stimulation of the baroreflex. Thus HRV biofeedback exercises the baroreflex, and strengthens it. This apparently has the effect of modulating autonomic reactivity to stimulation. Because the baroreflex is controlled through brain stem mechanisms that communicate directly with the insula and amygdala, which control emotion, HRV biofeedback also appears to modulate emotional reactivity, and to help people with anxiety, stress, and depression | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=292906 | 215,538 |
270,972 | A third factor was the rise of Watson to a position of significant power within the psychological community. In 1908, Watson was offered a junior position at Johns Hopkins by James Mark Baldwin. In addition to heading the Johns Hopkins department, Baldwin was the editor of the influential journals, "Psychological Review" and "Psychological Bulletin". Only months after Watson's arrival, Baldwin was forced to resign his professorship due to scandal. Watson was suddenly made head of the department and editor of Baldwin's journals. He resolved to use these powerful tools to revolutionize psychology in the image of his own research. In 1913 he published in "Psychological Review" the article that is often called the "manifesto" of the behaviorist movement, "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It". There he argued that psychology "is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science", "introspection forms no essential part of its methods..". and "The behaviorist... recognizes no dividing line between man and brute". The following year, 1914, his first textbook, "Behavior" went to press. Although behaviorism took some time to be accepted as a comprehensive approach (see Samelson, 1981), (in no small part because of the intervention of World War I), by the 1920s Watson's revolution was well underway. The central tenet of early behaviorism was that psychology should be a science of behavior, not of the mind, and rejected internal mental states such as beliefs, desires, or goals. Watson himself, however, was forced out of Johns Hopkins by scandal in 1920. Although he continued to publish during the 1920s, he eventually moved on to a career in advertising (see Coon, 1994). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1573230 | 270,824 |
832,496 | Adler was born in Manhattan, New York City, on December 28, 1902, to Jewish immigrants from Germany: Clarissa (Manheim), a schoolteacher, and Ignatz Adler, a jewelry salesman. He dropped out of school at age 14 to become a copy boy for the "New York Sun", with the ultimate aspiration of becoming a journalist. Adler soon returned to school to take writing classes at night, where he discovered the western philosophical tradition. After his early schooling and work, he went on to study at Columbia University and contributed to the student literary magazine, "The Morningside," a poem "Choice" (in 1922 when Charles A. Wagner was editor-in-chief and Whittaker Chambers an associate editor). Though he refused to take the required swimming test for a bachelor's degree (a matter that was rectified when Columbia gave him an honorary degree in 1983), he stayed at the university and eventually received an instructorship and finally a doctorate in psychology. While at Columbia University, Adler wrote his first book: "Dialectic", published in 1927. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19451 | 832,047 |
2,153,122 | In 1968, Menaker provided evidence for the existence of extra-retinal photoreceptors that were sufficient for photoentrainment by measuring rhythmic locomotor behavior as the output signal of the house sparrows ("Passer domesticus") circadian clock. He demonstrated that photoentrainment could occur in the absence of optic neurons, evidence for the presence of an extra-retinal photoreceptor(s) coupled to the House Sparrow circadian clock. In this experiment, bilaterally enucleated house sparrows were exposed to an artificial light-dark cycle. They were kept in constant darkness to determine their free-running period and subsequently allowed to entrain to light cues. Locomotor activity was recorded through observing perching behavior of the sparrows. He tested three possible confounding variables for entrainment: (1) temperature fluctuation, (2) post-enucleation retinal fragments remaining in the eye, and (3) ectoparasites that might transfer light information through their movements in the birds' skin. To study the effects of temperature on circadian rhythms, Menaker exposed the enucleated sparrows to an electroluminescent panel. Menaker treated sparrows with Dry-Die, an anti-parasitic agent, to eliminate any possible effects of light transferring by ectoparasites. Since the sparrows did not entrain during tests of temperature fluctuation and the sparrows remained entrained 10 months after enucleation, a point at which any excess of the functional retina would have degraded, Menaker ruled out these possible confounding variables. Menaker's lab concluded the sparrows were able to entrain to environmental light cues. These results demonstrate that retinal light receptors are not necessary for photoentrainment, indicating there is an extra-retinal photoreceptor(s) contributing to circadian locomotor activity. Menaker's findings in enucleated sparrows were consistent with Aschoff's Rule, and he concluded that the retinae and the extra-retinal receptor(s) both contribute to the photoentrainment process. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39100385 | 2,151,891 |
266,177 | Discoveries in the 1990s shed more light on the relationships of "Baryonyx" and its relatives. In 1996, a snout from Morocco was referred to "Spinosaurus", and "Irritator" and "Angaturama" from Brazil (the two are possible synonyms) were named. "Cristatusaurus" and "Suchomimus" were named based on fossils from Niger in 1998. In their description of "Suchomimus", Sereno and colleagues placed it and "Baryonyx" in the new subfamily Baryonychinae within Spinosauridae; "Spinosaurus" and "Irritator" were placed in the subfamily Spinosaurinae. Baryonychinae was distinguished by the small size and larger number of teeth in the dentary behind the terminal rosette, the deeply keeled front dorsal vertebrae, and by having serrated teeth. Spinosaurinae was distinguished by their straight tooth crowns without serrations, small first tooth in the premaxilla, increased spacing of teeth in the jaws, and possibly by having their nostrils placed further back and the presence of a deep neural spine sail. They also united the spinosaurids and their closest relatives in the superfamily Spinosauroidea, but in 2010, the British palaeontologist Roger Benson considered this a junior synonym of Megalosauroidea (an older name). In a 2007 conference abstract, the American palaeontologist Denver W. Fowler suggested that since "Suchosaurus" is the first named genus in its group, the clade names Spinosauroidea, Spinosauridae, and Baryonychinae should be replaced by Suchosauroidea, Suchosauridae, and Suchosaurinae, regardless of whether or not the name "Baryonyx" is retained. A 2017 study by the Brazilian palaeontologists Marcos A. F. Sales and Cesar L. Schultz found that the clade Baryonychinae was not well supported, since serrated teeth may be an ancestral trait among spinosaurids. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1091918 | 266,033 |
270,664 | Before the technical innovations of the years 1935 to 1942, the only way to create a subtractive full-color print or transparency was by means of one of several labor-intensive and time-consuming procedures. Most commonly, three pigment images were first created separately by the so-called carbon process and then carefully combined in register. Sometimes, related processes were used to make three gelatin matrices which were dyed and assembled or used to transfer the three dye images into a single layer of gelatin coated on a final support. Chemical toning could be used to convert three black-and-white silver images into cyan, magenta and yellow images which were then assembled. In a few processes, the three images were created one on top of another by repeated coating or re-sensitizing, negative registration, exposure and development operations. A number of variations were devised and marketed during the first half of the 20th century, some of them short-lived, others, such as the Trichrome Carbro process, enduring for several decades. Because some of these processes allow very stable and light-fast coloring matter to be used, yielding images which can remain virtually unchanged for centuries, they are still not quite completely extinct. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=444758 | 270,517 |
149,836 | Picric acid was the first strongly explosive nitrated organic compound widely considered suitable to withstand the shock of firing in conventional artillery. Nitroglycerine and nitrocellulose (guncotton) were available earlier but shock sensitivity sometimes caused detonation in an artillery barrel at the time of firing. In 1885, based on research of Hermann Sprengel, French chemist Eugène Turpin patented the use of pressed and cast picric acid in blasting charges and artillery shells. In 1887 the French government adopted a mixture of picric acid and guncotton with the name Melinite. In 1888, Britain started manufacturing a very similar mixture in Lydd, Kent, with the name Lyddite. Japan followed with an alternative stabilization approach known as Shimose powder which, instead of attempting to stabilize the material itself, instead removed its contact with metal by coating the inside of the shells with layers of ceramic and wax. In 1889, a mixture of ammonium cresylate with trinitrocresol, or an ammonium salt of trinitrocresol, started to be manufactured with the name Ecrasite in Austria-Hungary. By 1894 Russia was manufacturing artillery shells filled with picric acid. Ammonium picrate (known as Dunnite or explosive D) was used by the United States beginning in 1906. However, shells filled with picric acid become unstable if the compound reacts with metal shell or fuze casings to form metal picrates which are more sensitive than the parent phenol. The sensitivity of picric acid was demonstrated by the Halifax Explosion. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=65900 | 149,768 |
919,739 | Patrick Henry College is located in the town of Purcellville in rural northern Virginia, approximately northwest of Washington, D.C. The campus currently consists of seven buildings arranged around a retention pond popularly called "Lake Bob", as well as several athletic fields. The oldest structure, Founders Hall, opened in 2000 and contains three classrooms, the college library, and various administrative and faculty offices. It is also home to the offices of the Home School Legal Defense Association. Hanna Rosin, author of "God's Harvard", described the campus as "tiny, less like an Ivy League college than like a Hollywood set of an old Ivy League school." The buildings are of Colonial Revival architecture. The artwork in Founders Hall consists of copies of portraits of the Founding Fathers placed along a staircase, leading to a picture of Patrick Henry at the second Virginia convention which features a light from heaven guiding Henry's speech. The artwork is designed to, in the words of Hanna Rosin, "remind the students that America was founded as a Christian nation." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1025788 | 919,253 |
1,965,408 | During Low's early work with the Hodgkin laboratory in the final years of World War II, she discovered the sulfur elemental components of penicillin that allowed for its mass production and later transformation into other antibiotic compounds. Up to that point, a pure sample of penicillin had not been successfully synthesized due to a lack of understanding of its physical structure of the compound, specifically the variation of its penam core. Due to the size of the molecule, only careful examination of the X-ray results allowed for any information on the overall construction, but the two finally completed the investigation in 1945. During this time, she was one of the first scientists in the United States to conduct studies of X-ray diffraction of crystalline proteins in a laboratory setting. At that time, it was the largest molecule ever to have had its structure determined by crystallography. Because the knowledge Low and Hodgkin obtained was of such importance and the research had been funded by the UK government, however, their work on penicillin remained classified for decades afterwards. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=60232519 | 1,964,279 |
394,865 | Experts fear that face recognition systems may actually be hurting citizens the police claims they are trying to protect. It is considered an imperfect biometric, and in a study conducted by Georgetown University researcher Clare Garvie, she concluded that "there's no consensus in the scientific community that it provides a positive identification of somebody." It is believed that with such large margins of error in this technology, both legal advocates and facial recognition software companies say that the technology should only supply a portion of the case – no evidence that can lead to an arrest of an individual. The lack of regulations holding facial recognition technology companies to requirements of racially biased testing can be a significant flaw in the adoption of use in law enforcement. CyberExtruder, a company that markets itself to law enforcement said that they had not performed testing or research on bias in their software. CyberExtruder did note that some skin colors are more difficult for the software to recognize with current limitations of the technology. "Just as individuals with very dark skin are hard to identify with high significance via facial recognition, individuals with very pale skin are the same," said Blake Senftner, a senior software engineer at CyberExtruder. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=602401 | 394,670 |
1,341,776 | In the identify mode, the response depends only on the required bits from the IAI as the amount and reference number are set to zero; this also means that selecting respond and entering a number of 00000000 will in fact generate a valid identify response. More concerningly however, if a respond request is issued by a bank, using the sign mode with the same number and an amount of ¤0.00 will again generate a valid result which creates a possibility for a fraudster to instruct a customer to do a "test" challenge response for an amount of ¤0.00 which is in fact going to be used by the fraudster to verify a respond command in order for them to add themselves as a payee on the victim's account; these attacks were possible to carry out against banks that used strong authentication devices that were not canceling activities until an amount of at least 0.01 was entered. The likelihood of these kinds of attacks was addressed in 2009 when new generations of devices were rolled out, implementing secure domain separation functionality that is compliant with the MasterCard Application note dated October 2010. Similarly of course; a bank that implements the identify command makes it possible for a fraudster to request a victim to do a "test" respond transaction using 00000000 as the reference, and will then be able to successfully login to the victim's account. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13827415 | 1,341,043 |
463,060 | The difficult task of slowly grinding down the Germans continued into 1942 and 1943. Squadrons also found themselves on tiring defensive patrols as small formations of Fw 190s flew 'hit and run' nuisance raids all along the south coast and the Hawker Typhoon came into squadron service. On 19 August, during the Dieppe Raid, the RAF had an opportunity to engage large numbers of aircraft. The Spitfire squadrons (42 with Mark Vs, and four with Mark IXs) flew ground-attack, escort and air-superiority sorties and prevented the from interfering in the ground and sea battle, claiming 106 victories. Postwar analysis showed that the RAF lost 106 aircraft, including 88 fighters and 18 bombers; 29 fighter losses were from flak, one ran out of fuel, two collided and one was a victim of friendly fire. The real loss was 48 aircraft were lost, 28 being bombers, half of them Dornier Do 217s from KG 2. JG 2, lost 14 Fw 190s and eight pilots killed, JG 26 lost six Fw 190s with their pilots. Spitfire losses stood at 70 destroyed and damaged to all causes; the number lost to Fw 190s is unknown. The claimed 61 of the 106 RAF machines lost, which included all types, JG 2 claiming 40 and JG 26 claiming 21. In 1942 Fighter Command claimed 560 victories against a true loss of 272 German fighters from all causes, for 574 RAF day fighters destroyed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=436392 | 462,831 |
1,975,797 | Despite their growing scientific renown, in 1951, Max Sterne and Tikvah Alper were forced to leave South Africa because of their outspoken opposition to apartheid. Tikvah found an (unpaid) research post at the MRC Radiobiology Laboratories at the Hammersmith Hospital, London, directed by Hal Gray, whom she had met on earlier visits. Here, work focussed on the mechanisms of the effects of radiation on cell biology. The complexities of the effects of radiation on different cell types, and their interaction with other physiological and chemical processes began to be mapped out at this time, and continued through the 1950s and 60s. She was Director of the Radiobiology Unit from 1962 until her retirement in 1974. Her classic text "Cellular Radiobiology" was published in 1979. Tikvah Alper continued an active professional life in retirement, culminating in a "brilliant lecture to the Radiation Research Society in Dallas, USA at the age of 83..". She died in Sarisbury, Hampshire, England, in 1995, and was survived by her husband Max, sons Jonathan and Michael, six grandchildren, and three great-grandchildren. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37887218 | 1,974,660 |
1,842,146 | The increased popularity of informatics and internet technologies in healthcare has led to the development of various software, tools and applications for healthcare professionals and patients to improve pharmaceutical care and health-related outcomes. Pharmacoinformatics (or pharmacy informatics) is a field within e-health that targets drug-related problems through the use of informatics and internet technologies. Pharmacocybernetics goes one step further by merging the science of technology with human-computer-environment interactions, so that technological innovations can be designed, developed, applied and evaluated in relation to supporting medicines and drugs use, as well as to reduce or prevent drug-related problems. Pharmacocybernetic approaches target patient care and safety, and they take into account the flow of information and knowledge between users and cybernetic systems or the environment, the actions taken by users to achieve their goals, user interactivity, as well as feedback. This field requires clinical knowledge and experience, as well as advanced skills and expertise to deal with technologies and human-computer-environment interactions in relation to the management of medicines and drug therapies. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37441392 | 1,841,094 |
1,001,755 | Principal Pabst retired in 1964. A railroad club was established by the late Vincent Gorman, a social studies teacher, and students attended fan trips, tours of rail repair facilities and participated in the restoration of steam engine #103 and a historic rail passenger car at the former Empire State Railroad Museum. In August 1965, a ten-year-old boy named Carl Johnson drowned in the swimming pool at Brooklyn Tech while swimming with his day-camp group. The next year, more than 30 graduating Seniors in the school (including many student leaders) complained that Tech's curriculum was old and outdated. Their primary complaint was that the curriculum was geared toward the small minority of students who were not planning on attending college. In 1967 the schools of New York City got to view television in the classrooms for the first time, thanks to the 420-foot WNYE-TV tower atop Brooklyn Tech. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=378883 | 1,001,237 |
270,960 | In 1896, one of Wilhelm Wundt's former Leipzig laboratory assistants, Oswald Külpe (1862–1915), founded a new laboratory in Würzburg. Külpe soon surrounded himself with a number of younger psychologists, the so-called Würzburg School, most notably Narziß Ach (1871–1946), Karl Bühler (1879–1963), Ernst Dürr (1878–1913), Karl Marbe (1869–1953), and Henry Jackson Watt (1879–1925). Collectively, they developed a new approach to psychological experimentation that flew in the face of many of Wundt's restrictions. Wundt had drawn a distinction between the old philosophical style of self-observation ("Selbstbeobachtung") in which one introspected for extended durations on higher thought processes, and inner perception ("innere Wahrnehmung") in which one could be immediately aware of a momentary sensation, feeling, or image ("Vorstellung"). The former was declared to be impossible by Wundt, who argued that higher thought could not be studied experimentally through extended introspection, but only humanistically through "Völkerpsychologie" (folk psychology). Only the latter was a proper subject for experimentation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1573230 | 270,812 |
1,652,888 | A variety of electron donors/receivers (Shown as "A" and "AH" in the reaction equation above) are observed in micro-organisms which utilize CODH. Several examples of electron transfer cofactors has been proposed, including Ferredoxin, NADP+/NADPH and flavoprotein complexes like flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) as well as hydrogenases. CODHs support the metabolisms of diverse prokaryotes, including methanogens, aerobic carboxidotrophs, acetogens, sulfate-reducers, and hydrogenogenic bacteria. The bidirectional reaction catalyzed by CODH plays a role in the carbon cycle allowing organisms to both make use of CO as a source of energy and utilize CO as a source of carbon. CODH can form a monofunctional enzyme, as is the case in "Rhodospirillum rubrum", or can form a cluster with acetyl-CoA synthase as has been shown in "M.thermoacetica". When acting in concert, either as structurally independent enzymes or in a bifunctional CODH/ACS unit, the two catalytic sites are key to carbon fixation in the reductive acetyl-CoA pathway Microbial organisms (Both aerobic and anaerobic) encode and synthesize CODH for the purpose of carbon fixation (CO oxidation and CO reduction). Depending on attached accessory proteins (A,B,C,D-Clusters), serve a variety of catalytic functions, including reduction of [4Fe-4S] clusters and insertion of nickel. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14132547 | 1,651,956 |
1,504,544 | Canadian linguist J.K. Chambers, conducted a study applying the apparent-time hypothesis. The study, carried out in central Canada, examined the sociolinguistic variable (wh), where the unvoiced labiovelar glide /hw/ loses phonemic status and merges with the corresponding voiced glide /w/. In this study, the oldest subjects seem to indicate a stable period for this variable, both the 70- to 79-year-olds and those over 80 used the voiced variant where the unvoiced was "expected" 38.3 and 37.7% of the time, respectively. Each subsequent younger age cohort (10 years) shows a greater percentage of /w/ usage, with those 20–29 using /w/ 87.6% of the time and the teenagers using it 90.6% of the time. Notice that the deltas between the oldest two groups and between the youngest two groups are relatively small, 0.6% and 3.0%. Between these two extremes the rate of change between the groups is quite high, approximately 10% per age cohort. This pattern can be described as an initial stable period, followed by a period of rapid change, and a tailing off as the change nears completion. This S-curve pattern has been identified as characteristic for many types of linguistic changes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12759556 | 1,503,698 |
1,096,368 | The Burst and Transient Source Experiment (BATSE) by NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center searched the sky for gamma-ray bursts (20 to >600 keV) and conducted full-sky surveys for long-lived sources. It consisted of eight identical detector modules, one at each of the satellite's corners. Each module consisted of both a NaI(Tl) Large Area Detector (LAD) covering the 20 keV to ~2 MeV range, 50.48 cm in dia by 1.27 cm thick, and a 12.7 cm dia by 7.62 cm thick NaI Spectroscopy Detector, which extended the upper energy range to 8 MeV, all surrounded by a plastic scintillator in active anti-coincidence to veto the large background rates due to cosmic rays and trapped radiation. Sudden increases in the LAD rates triggered a high-speed data storage mode, the details of the burst being read out to telemetry later. Bursts were typically detected at rates of roughly one per day over the 9-year CGRO mission. A strong burst could result in the observation of many thousands of gamma-rays within a time interval ranging from ~0.1 s up to about 100 s. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=543428 | 1,095,808 |
2,124,595 | After leaving RAND and assuming his position at Buffalo, Hays turned to more a more general interest in language and cognition and, ultimately, the evolution of human culture. He developed an approach to abstract concepts in which their meaning was grounded in stories. Hays elaborated this idea in a series of articles and employed the idea in their work. In 1982 he published "Cognitive Structures", in which he developed a novel scheme for grounding cognition in perception and action as conceived in the control theory of William T. Powers. Working with William Benzon, he published a neural interpretation of this theory in 1988. During the 1980s and early 1990s he and Benzon developed a theory of cultural rank which they published in a series of papers (together and individually) and a book on the history of technology (Hays alone) in the early 1990s. His last major work was a critical review and synthesis of the empirical work that anthropologists and archaeologists had done on cultural complexity. This book was published posthumously as "The Measurement of Cultural Evolution in the Non-Literate World: Homage to Raoul Naroll." At the time of his death, he had embarked on a study of the ballet, looking to understand how motion generates emotion. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27772536 | 2,123,374 |
959,558 | In 1940, Sister Elizabeth Kenny, an Australian bush nurse from Queensland, arrived in North America and challenged this approach to treatment. In treating polio cases in rural Australia between 1928 and 1940, Kenny had developed a form of physical therapy that—instead of immobilizing affected limbs—aimed to relieve pain and spasms in polio patients through the use of hot, moist packs to relieve muscle spasm and early activity and exercise to maximize the strength of unaffected muscle fibers and promote the neuroplastic recruitment of remaining nerve cells that had not been killed by the virus. Sister Kenny later settled in Minnesota where she established the Sister Kenny Rehabilitation Institute, beginning a world-wide crusade to advocate her system of treatment. Slowly, Kenny's ideas won acceptance, and by the mid-20th century had become the hallmark for the treatment of paralytic polio. In combination with antispasmodic medications to reduce muscular contractions, Kenny's therapy is still used in the treatment of paralytic poliomyelitis. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11110672 | 959,050 |
570,852 | A saucerization biopsy is also known as "scoop", "scallop", or "shave" excisional biopsy, or "shave" excision. A trend has occurred in dermatology over the last 10 years with the advocacy of a deep shave excision of a pigmented lesion. An author published the result of this method and advocated it as better than standard excision and less time-consuming. The added economic benefit is that many surgeons bill the procedure as an excision, rather than a shave biopsy. This saves the added time for hemostasis, instruments, and suture cost. The great disadvantage, seen years later, is the numerous scallop scars, and the appearance of a lesion called a "recurrent melanocytic nevus"; many "shave" excisions do not penetrate the dermis or subcutaneous fat enough to include the entire melanocytic lesion, and residual melanocytes regrow into the scar. The combination of scarring, inflammation, blood vessels, and atypical pigmented streaks seen in these recurrent nevi may result in the dermatoscopic appearance of a melanoma. When a second physician later examines the patient, he or she has no choice but to recommend re-excision of the scar. If one does not have access to the original pathology report, it is impossible to distinguish a recurring nevus from a severely dysplastic nevus or melanoma. As the procedure is widely practiced, it is not unusual to see a patient with dozens of scallop scars, with as many as 20% of them showing residual pigmentation. The second issue with the shave excision is fat herniation, iatrogenic anetoderma, and hypertrophic scarring. As the deep shave excision either completely removes the full thickness of the dermis or greatly diminishes the dermal thickness, subcutaneous fat can herniate outward or pucker the skin out in an unattractive way. In areas prone to friction, this can result in pain, itching, or hypertrophic scarring. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13835827 | 570,561 |
1,778,350 | Late Prehistoric cultures (1200–1550 CE) are suspected to have, within them, dialectal or language differences. Commonly found at these small farming hamlets and later log palisaded villages are shell hoes, ceramic pipes, bone fishhooks, shell-tempered pottery, triangular arrow points, shell beads, and bone beads. Early and Middle Fort Ancients phases lived in their villages year round (Peregrine & Ember 2002:179), a common practice of others later in the state. Though unseen in West Virginia, some houses in the central Ohio Valley would have mud daubed sides similar to Mississippian according to Peregrine and Ember publishing of 2002. Lynne P. Sullivan writes of Mississippian influenced east Tennessee, "There is little evidence for interaction between Upper Cumberland people and Fort Ancient groups that lived along the Kentucky and Big Sandy rivers to the north and east. In fact, the Upper Cumberland region appears to mark the northern margin of the Mississippian "world" in this part of the southeast." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=17254851 | 1,777,348 |
254,043 | In the 1930s, the Ordnance Department developed a new bottom plate, which had side flanges that came up on both sides of the receiver and were attached by rivets. This fixed the problem of the original bottom plates, and became standard for all M1917- and M1919-series machine guns. While the US Arsenal at Rock Island was the leader in converting the existing stocks of M1917-series guns over to 1917A1 configuration, other arsenals took part. In addition, the rear sights were updated for the new ammunition and were changed to yards from meters, and also did away with the World War I multiple-aperture disk on the rear sight. The top covers also had a stronger feed pawl pivot arm installed, so the gun could handle the stress of pulling an ammunition belt from the ground. Rock Island Arsenal also developed an all-steel water jacket that went into production around 1943; this was stronger than the earlier brass-capped jackets. These steel components were interchangeable with the earlier brass ones to allow for repair of worn or damaged water jacket components. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1205661 | 253,910 |
157,871 | ESI interface for LC-MS systems was developed by Fenn and collaborators in 1988. This ion source/ interface can be used for the analysis of moderately polar molecules (e.g., metabolites, xenobiotics, and peptides). The liquid eluate coming out of the LC column is pumped through a metal capillary kept at 3 to 5 kV. The liquid is nebulized at the tip of the capillary and a fine spray of charged droplets is formed. To avoid contamination, this capillary is usually perpendicularly located at the inlet of the MS system. The heat created by the electric potential is used to rapidly evaporate the droplets in an atmosphere of dry nitrogen. Later, the ionized analytes are transferred into the high vacuum chamber of the MS as the charged ions flow through a series of small apertures with the aid of focusing voltages. Positively and negatively charged ions can be detected and it is possible to switch between the negative and positive modes of operation. Most ions produced in the ESI interface are multiply charged. The use of 1–3 mm ID microbore columns is recommended for LC-MS systems using electrospray ionization (ESI) interfaces because optimal operation is achieved with flow rates in the 50-200 μl/min range. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2378378 | 157,799 |
2,028,926 | The War in the Pacific had turned Australia into a military base, with no state more affected than Queensland due to its strategic location vis á vis the Pacific theatre. The Australian and American military machines required of the Queensland Railways (QR) a logistical task that they were hard-pressed to accommodate; in fact a worse situation could scarcely be imagined. When the military forces needed machinery, people, and supplies moved in vast quantities as a matter of priority they had at their disposal the modest infrastructure of QR; light-weight track and structures, a tortuous geographic profile, unpretentious locomotives with low axle-loads, and train lengths limited by these factors. Added to that was the proportion of current QR motive-power that was rotating through overhaul and repair. Against this background, the requirement for extra, effective motive-power in Queensland (and to a slightly lesser-extent, the rest of the nation) was identified as a critical requirement. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20871737 | 2,027,758 |
2,113,155 | Rutenbar is a Fellow of the IEEE and the ACM. He received the 2001 Aristotle Award from the Semiconductor Research Corporation, acknowledging his mentoring and the impact of his students on the US semiconductor industry. He was awarded the Stephen J. Jatras (E’47) Chair in ECE by Carnegie Mellon University in 2001. He was honored with the University of Michigan Alumni Merit Award (Electrical Engineering) in 2002. He was awarded the IEEE CAS Industrial Pioneer Award in 2007, for “pioneering contributions” to tools for custom circuit synthesis, and their successful commercialization. In 2008, he was inducted into the College of Engineering's Alumni Hall of Fame at Wayne State University. He was awarded the Abel Bliss Professorship in Engineering from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in 2010. He is a two-time winner of the IEEE Transactions on Computer-Aided Design Donald O. Pedersen Best Paper Award, in 2011 and again in 2013, for work on statistical analysis for nanoscale silicon. He has also been recognized with the 2017 Phil Kaufman Award for "his pioneering contributions to algorithms and tools for analog and mixed-signal designs" by the Electronic System Design Alliance and the IEEE Council on Electronic Design Automation (CEDA). In 2019, Rutenbar was elected a fellow of the National Academy of Inventors. In 2021, he won the ACM SIGDA Pioneering Achievement Award, “for his pioneering work and extraordinary leadership in analog design automation and general EDA education”. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42279896 | 2,111,940 |
1,309,086 | McMillan realized that his 1939 work with Segrè had failed to test the chemical reactions of the radioactive source with sufficient rigor. In a new experiment, McMillan tried subjecting the unknown substance to HF in the presence of a reducing agent, something he had not done before. This reaction resulted in the sample precipitating with the HF, an action that definitively ruled out the possibility that the unknown substance was a rare earth. In May 1940, Philip Abelson from the Carnegie Institute in Washington, DC, who had independently also attempted to separate the isotope with the 2.3-day half-life, visited Berkeley for a short vacation, and they began to collaborate. Abelson observed that the isotope with the 2.3-day half-life did not have chemistry like any known element, but was more similar to uranium than a rare earth. This allowed the source to be isolated and later, in 1945, led to the classification of the actinide series. As a final step, McMillan and Abelson prepared a much larger sample of bombarded uranium that had a prominent 23-minute half-life from U and demonstrated conclusively that the unknown 2.3-day half-life increased in strength in concert with a decrease in the 23-minute activity through the following reaction: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=157241 | 1,308,370 |
663,721 | Charles R. Eastman published his analysis of the skeleton in 1894. In the paper, he reconstructed the dentition based on the skeleton's disarticulated tooth set. Using the reconstruction, Eastman identified the many extinct shark species and found that their fossils are actually different tooth types of "O. mantelli", which he all moved into the species. This skeleton, which Sternberg had sold to the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, was destroyed in 1944 by allied bombing during World War II. In 1891, Sternberg's son George F. Sternberg discovered a second "O. mantelli" skeleton now housed in the University of Kansas Museum of Natural History as KUVP 247. This skeleton was reported to measure in length and consists of a partial vertebral column with skeletal remains of a "Xiphactinus" as stomach contents and partial jaws with about 150 teeth visible. This skeleton was considered to be one of the greatest scientific discoveries of that year due to the unexpected preservation of cartilage. George F. Sternberg would later discover more "O. mantelli" skeletons throughout his career. His most notable finds were FHSM VP-323 and FHSM VP-2187, found in 1950 and 1965 respectively. The former is a partial skeleton consisting of a well-preserved set of jaws, a pair of five gills, and some vertebra while the latter is a near-complete skeleton with an almost complete vertebral column and an exceptionally preserved skull holding much of the cranial elements, jaws, teeth, a set of scales, and fragments of pectoral girdles and fins in their natural positions. Both skeletons are currently housed in the Sternberg Museum of Natural History. In 1968, a collector named Tim Basgall discovered another notable skeleton that, similar to FHSM VP-2187, also consisted of a near-complete vertebral column and a partially preserved skull. This fossil is housed in the University of Kansas Museum of Natural History as KUVP 69102. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1092359 | 663,376 |
2,214,145 | Bill Harris spent 9 years (1978–87) with Inveresk Research International, Edinburgh, Scotland, initially as Head of In Vitro Toxicology and then introduced and was Head of Biotechnology. IRI Ltd were a contract research organisation providing safety testing facilities for new chemicals. They later merged with the Charles River Laboratories in Edinburgh, before being acquired by Quotient Bioresearch Limited in 2009. He managed contracts with US. NCI, NIOSH, US Army as well as many European and USA companies. This was the exciting era of environmental toxicology with predictive mutagenicity and carcinogenicity testing of thousands of chemicals in widespread use in pharmaceutical, cosmetic, chemical and food industries and a lot of time was spent visiting and advising companies on the impact of results on their businesses. A broad knowledge of procedures and legal requirements for safety assessment of new drugs during product development programmes was obtained at this time. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=43057743 | 2,212,885 |
1,471,127 | Bupropion is extensively and rapidly absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract but experiences extensive first pass metabolism rendering its systemic bioavailability limited. Exact bioavailability has yet to be determined given an intravenous form does not exist. Absorption is suggested to be between 80-90%. Its distribution half-life is between 3–4 hours and exhibits moderate human plasma protein binding (between 82–88%) with the parent compound and hydroxybupropion displaying the highest affinity. Bupropion is a racemic mixture and is metabolized hepatically primarily via oxidative cleavage of its side chains by CYP2B6. Hydroxybupropion is the most potent of the metabolites. It is formed via the ""hydroxylation of the tert-butyl group"" by CYP2B6 and is excreted renally. C vales of hydroxybupropion are 4–7 times that of bupropion, while the exposure to hydroxybupropion is "10 fold" that of bupropion. Hydroxybupropion's elimination half-life is roughly 20 hours, give or take 5 hours and will reach steady state concentrations within 8 days. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=43339210 | 1,470,301 |
750,000 | Despite the public focus on the various physical issues with the boats, the major problem with the submarines was the development of the Rockwell combat system. The problems had started during the funded study, when Singer Librascope and Thomson CSF, who were partnering with Rockwell to develop the combat system, refused to release their intellectual property or their software code for Rockwell to sell. It was proposed that Computer Sciences of Australia, a division of Computer Sciences Corporation and a minor partner in the consortium, take over the role of writing the software for the combat system, although this meant that Singer Librascope, which had prior experience in creating submarine combat systems, was reduced to a minor role in the project. Other major problems with the system, to which most of the later difficulties were attributed, were that the original concept was beyond the technology of the day, and that the system architecture required by the RAN was both overly ambitious and flawed. This was compounded by the rate of advancement in computer technology: equipment had to be designed from scratch and custom manufactured at the start of the project, but by the time these were installed, they were obsolete compared to commercially available hardware and software. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=810758 | 749,602 |
1,212,342 | Many industrial and academic chemists and physicists came under military control during the Great War, but post-war research by the Royal Engineers Experimental Station at Porton Down and the continued operation of the National Research Council were exceptions to the overall pattern; wartime chemistry funding was a temporary redirection of a field largely driven by industry and later medicine, while physics grew closer to industry than to the military. The discipline of modern meteorology, however, was largely built from military funding. During World War I, the French civilian meteorological infrastructure was largely absorbed into the military. The introduction of military aircraft during the war as well as the role of wind and weather in the success or failure of gas attacks meant meteorological advice was in high demand. The French army (among others) created its own supplementary meteorological service as well, retraining scientists from other fields to staff it. At war's end, the military continued to control French meteorology, sending weathermen to French colonial interests and integrating weather service with the growing air corps; most of the early-twentieth century growth in European meteorology was the direct result of military funding. World War II would result in a similar transformation of American meteorology, initiating a transition from an apprenticeship system for training weathermen (based on intimate knowledge of local trends and geography) to the university-based, science-intensive system that has predominated since. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4999816 | 1,211,690 |
806,778 | More recently, driven by advances in experimental technique (such as neutron diffraction) and available computational power, the latter of which has enabled extremely accurate atomic-scale simulations of the behaviour of crystals, the science has branched out to consider more general problems in the fields of inorganic chemistry and solid-state physics. It, however, retains a focus on the crystal structures commonly encountered in rock-forming minerals (such as the perovskites, clay minerals and framework silicates). In particular, the field has made great advances in the understanding of the relationship between the atomic-scale structure of minerals and their function; in nature, prominent examples would be accurate measurement and prediction of the elastic properties of minerals, which has led to new insight into seismological behaviour of rocks and depth-related discontinuities in seismograms of the Earth's mantle. To this end, in their focus on the connection between atomic-scale phenomena and macroscopic properties, the "mineral sciences" (as they are now commonly known) display perhaps more of an overlap with materials science than any other discipline. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19883 | 806,348 |
640,495 | An avalanche photodiode (APD) is a highly sensitive semiconductor photodiode detector that exploits the photoelectric effect to convert light into electricity. From a functional standpoint, they can be regarded as the semiconductor analog of photomultiplier tubes. The avalanche photodiode (APD) was invented by Japanese engineer Jun-ichi Nishizawa in 1952. However, study of avalanche breakdown, microplasma defects in silicon and germanium and the investigation of optical detection using p-n junctions predate this patent. Typical applications for APDs are laser rangefinders, long-range fiber-optic telecommunication, and quantum sensing for control algorithms. New applications include positron emission tomography and particle physics. It was discovered in 2020 that adding graphene layer can prevent degradation over time to keep avalanche photodiodes "like new", which is important in shrinking their size and costs for many diverse applications & bringing devices out of vacuum tubes into digital age. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=312299 | 640,156 |
480,015 | From 1949 to 1984, Anderson was employed by Bell Laboratories in New Jersey, where he worked on a wide variety of problems in condensed matter physics. During this period he developed what is now called Anderson localization (the idea that extended states can be localized by the presence of disorder in a system) and Anderson's theorem (concerning impurity scattering in superconductors); invented the Anderson Hamiltonian, which describes the site-wise interaction of electrons in a transition metal; proposed symmetry breaking within particle physics (this played a role in the development of the Standard Model and the development of the theory behind the Higgs mechanism, which in turn generates mass in some elementary particles); created the pseudospin approach to the BCS theory of superconductivity; made seminal studies of non-s-wave pairing (both symmetry-breaking and microscopic mechanism) in the superfluidity of He3, and helped found the area of spin-glasses. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1963. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=396694 | 479,771 |
602,757 | Astroviruses are associated with 5–9% of the cases of gastroenteritis in young children. Humans of all ages are susceptible to astrovirus infection, but children, the elderly, and those that are immunocompromised are most prone. A study of intestinal disease in the UK, published in 1999, determined incidence as 3.8/1000 patient years in the community (95% CI, range 2.3–6.4), the fourth most common known cause of viral gastroenteritis. Studies in the USA have detected astroviruses in the stools of 2–9% of children presenting symptoms; illness is most frequent in children younger than two years, although outbreaks among adults and the elderly have been reported. Early studies carried out in Glasgow demonstrated that a significant proportion of babies excreting virus particles did not exhibit gastrointestinal symptoms. Seroprevalence studies carried out in the US have shown that 90% of children have antibody to HastV-1 by age 9, suggesting that (largely asymptomatic) infection is common. Looking at the pattern of disease, it suggests that antibodies provide protection through adult life until the antibody titre begins to decline later in life. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4388550 | 602,448 |
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