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635,839 | In 1773, English physician William Hawes (1736–1808) began publicizing the power of artificial ventilation to resuscitate people who superficially appeared to have drowned. For a year he paid a reward out of his own pocket to any one bringing him a body rescued from the water within a reasonable time of immersion. Thomas Cogan, another English physician, who had become interested in the same subject during a stay at Amsterdam, where was instituted in 1767 a society for preservation of life from accidents in water, joined Hawes in his crusade. In the summer of 1774 Hawes and Cogan each brought fifteen friends to a meeting at the Chapter Coffee-house, St Paul's Churchyard, where they founded the Royal Humane Society as a campaigning group for first aid and resuscitation. Some methods and equipment were similar to methods used today, such as wooden pipes used in the victims nostrils to blow air into the lungs. Others, bellows with a flexible tube for blowing tobacco smoke through the anus to revive vestigial life in the victim's intestines, were discontinued with the eventual further understanding of respiration. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=968873 | 635,500 |
206,899 | The favoured form of both Mughal garden pavilions and mausolea (seen as a funerary form of pavilion) was the hasht bihisht which translates from Persian as 'eight paradises'. These were a square or rectangular planned buildings with a central domed chamber surrounded by eight elements. Later developments of the hasht bihisht divided the square at 45-degree angles to create a more radial plan which often also includes chamfered corners; examples of which can be found in Todar Mal's Baradari at Fatehpur Sikri and Humayun's Tomb. Each element of the plan is reflected in the elevations with iwans and with the corner rooms expressed through smaller arched niches. Often such structures are topped with chhatris (small pillared pavilions) at each corner. The eight divisions and frequent octagonal forms of such structures represent the eight levels of paradise for Muslims. The paradigm however was not confined solely to Islamic antecedents. The Chinese magic square was employed for numerous purposes including crop rotation and also finds a Muslim expression in the wafq of their mathematicians. Ninefold schemes find particular resonance in the Indian mandalas, the cosmic maps of Hinduism and Buddhism. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13325558 | 206,792 |
1,342,706 | In the early work on coded-apertures, pinholes were randomly distributed on the mask and placed in front of a source to be analyzed. Random patterns, however, pose difficulties with image reconstruction due to a lack of uniformity in pinholes distribution. An inherent noise appears as a result of small terms present in the Fourier transform of large size random binary arrays. This problem was addressed by the development of uniformly redundant arrays (URAs). If the distribution of the transparent and opaque elements of the aperture can be represented as a binary encoding array A and the decoding array as G, then A and G can be chosen such that the reconstructed image (correlation of A and G with an addition of some noise signal N) approximates a delta function. It has experimentally been shown that URAs offer significant improvements to SNR in comparison with randomly distributed arrays, however, the algorithm used for the construction of URAs restricts the shape of the aperture to a rectangle. Therefore, Modified Uniformly Redundant Array (MURA), was introduced with a change to URA's encoding algorithm, enabling new arrays to be created in linear, hexagonal and square configurations. The design method for URAs was modified so that the new arrays were based on quadratic residues rather than pseudo-noise (PN) sequences. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=55133455 | 1,341,970 |
26,004 | The U-2 remains in front-line service more than 60 years after its first flight, with the current U-2 beginning service in 1980. This is due primarily to its ability to change surveillance objectives on short notice, something that surveillance satellites cannot do. In the mid-1990s, it was converted from the U-2R to the U-2S, receiving the GE F118 turbofan engine. The U-2 outlasted its Mach 3 replacement, the SR-71, which was retired in 1998. A classified budget document approved by the Pentagon on 23 December 2005 called for the U-2's termination no earlier than 2012, with some aircraft being retired by 2007. In January 2006, Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld announced the U-2's pending retirement as a cost-cutting measure during a larger reorganization and redefinition of the USAF's mission. Rumsfeld said that this would not impair the USAF's ability to gather intelligence, which would be done by satellites and a growing supply of unmanned RQ-4 Global Hawk reconnaissance aircraft. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=32310 | 25,995 |
412,071 | Like other echinoderms, crinoids possess a water vascular system that maintains hydraulic pressure in the tube feet. This is not connected to external sea water via a madreporite, as in other echinoderms, but only connected through a large number of pores to the coelom (body cavity). The main fluid reservoir is the muscular-walled ring canal which is connected to the coelom by stone canals lined with calcareous material. The coelom is divided into a number of interconnecting spaces by mesenteries. It surrounds the viscera in the disc and has branches within the stalk and arms, with smaller branches extending into the pinnules. It is the contraction of the ring canal that extends the tube feet. Three narrow branches of the coelom enter each arm, two on the oral side and one aborally, and pinnules. The action of cilia cause there to be a slow flow of fluid (1mm per second) in these canals, outward in the oral branches and inward in the aboral ones, and this is the main means of transport of nutrients and waste products. There is no heart and separate circulatory system but at the base of the disc there is a large blood vessel known as the axial organ, containing some slender blind-ended tubes of unknown function, which extends into the stalk. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=62175 | 411,869 |
1,912,805 | While still in school, Brooks worked two part-time jobs, one as a local police officer, and one as an electrical engineer. With his knowledge of radar from the Navy, Brooks obtained a job in 1954 at Spencer-Kennedy Laboratories in Boston, focusing on the expansion of cable networks. Upon graduating from Northeastern, Brooks resigned as a police officer to pursue a full-time career at SKL. By 1964 he was promoted to Chief Systems Engineer, though he had become frustrated with Spencer-Kennedy's lack of technological innovation. Brooks believed that the future was in transistorized equipment, but SKL was still focused on vacuum tube technology. So in 1965 he left SKL to become Chief Engineer at the Anaconda Wire and Cable Company, based in Sycamore, Illinois. SKL's fortunes faltered, and by 1967 the company was in serious financial trouble, so out of loyalty, Brooks returned to the company as vice-president to try to help salvage things. His efforts were unsuccessful, the company was taken over by the bank, and Brooks resigned in 1969. In 1970 he began consulting for a St. Louis-based company that was doing work in Vermont, J.C. Barnard & Associates. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=43361343 | 1,911,706 |
630,494 | No uniform system for regulation of assisted reproductive technologies, including genetic testing, exists in the United States. The practice and regulation of PGD most often fall under state laws or professional guidelines as the federal government does not have direct jurisdiction over the practice of medicine. To date, no state has implemented laws directly pertaining to PGD, therefore leaving researchers and clinicians to abide by guidelines set by the professional associations. The Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) states that all clinics providing IVF must report pregnancy success rates annually to the federal government, but reporting of PGD use and outcomes is not required. Professional organizations, such as the American Society for Reproductive Medicine (ASRM), have provided limited guidance on the ethical uses of PGD. The American Society for Reproductive Medicine (ASRM) states that "PGD should be regarded as an established technique with specific and expanding applications for standard clinical practice." They also state, "While the use of PGD for the purpose of preventing sex-linked diseases is ethical, the use of PGD solely for sex selection is discouraged." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=562180 | 630,156 |
1,558,974 | Despite being poor pets that are difficult to care for, with a dangerous toxic bite and a sleep cycle opposite to that of humans, a large number of slow lorises are traded as pets, both locally and internationally. Although it is illegal to import slow lorises for commercial sale, they are popular exotic pets in their native range, Japan and parts of Europe. This is mainly because of their "cute" appearance, popularized in highly viewed YouTube videos, which is due in part to their large eyes, adaptations to a nocturnal lifestyle. Hundreds of slow lorises have been confiscated at airports, but because they are easy to hide, these numbers are likely to be only a small fraction of the total number being trafficked. Traders cut or pull the teeth of slow lorises to make them appear to be an appropriate pet for small children, but this practice often leads to extreme blood loss, infection, and death. Slow lorises lacking their teeth would be unable to fend for themselves and therefore are not reintroduced into the wild. Most captive lorises in the pet trade also receive improper care and die from poor nutrition, stress, or infection. Despite this, demand has risen, and slow lorises are no longer captured opportunistically, but are now hunted on a commercial scale using flashlights, from which the animals do not flee. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30980405 | 1,558,089 |
381,579 | Crick was interested in two fundamental unsolved problems of biology: how molecules make the transition from the non-living to the living, and how the brain makes a conscious mind. He realised that his background made him more qualified for research on the first topic and the field of biophysics. It was at this time of Crick's transition from physics to biology that he was influenced by both Linus Pauling and Erwin Schrödinger. It was clear in theory that covalent bonds in biological molecules could provide the structural stability needed to hold genetic information in cells. It only remained as an exercise of experimental biology to discover exactly which molecule was the genetic molecule. In Crick's view, Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection, Gregor Mendel's genetics and knowledge of the molecular basis of genetics, when combined, revealed the secret of life. Crick had the very optimistic view that life would very soon be created in a test tube. However, some people (such as fellow researcher and colleague Esther Lederberg) thought that Crick was unduly optimistic | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11461 | 381,384 |
209,633 | Peking Man (Homo erectus pekinensis) is a subspecies of "H. erectus" which inhabited the Zhoukoudian Cave of northern China during the Middle Pleistocene. The first fossil, a tooth, was discovered in 1921, and the Zhoukoudian Cave has since then become the most productive "H. erectus" site in the world. Peking Man was instrumental in the foundation of Chinese anthropology, and fostered an important dialogue between Western and Eastern science for decades to come. The fossils became the centre of anthropological discussion, and were classified as a direct human ancestor, propping up the Out of Asia hypothesis that humans evolved in Asia. Peking Man also played a vital role in the restructuring of the Chinese identity following the Chinese Communist Revolution, and was intensively communicated to working class and peasant communities to introduce them to Marxism and science (overturning deeply-rooted superstitions and creation myths). Early models of Peking Man society strongly leaned towards communist or nationalist ideals, leading to discussions on primitive communism and polygenism. This produced a strong schism between Western and Eastern interpretations, especially as the West adopted the Out of Africa hypothesis by late 1967, and Peking Man's role in human evolution diminished as merely an offshoot of the human line. Though Out of Africa is now the consensus, Peking Man interbreeding with human ancestors is frequently discussed especially in Chinese circles. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=253340 | 209,526 |
2,191,669 | The race had several attacks, the first meaningful one coming in only lap five from Aksana Papko of Belarus in an early bid to match her countryman Aliaksandr Lisouski's victory in the men's race on day one. She was chased down by a small group that included Svetlanan Paulikaite of Lithuania, Svitlana Halyuk of Ukraine and Ellen van Dijk of the Netherlands. The rest of the bunch was very attentive at this early stage and they were soon back together. Paulikaite struck out alone, but her effort did not come to anything. A crash in the middle period of the race took down Catherine Cheatley of New Zealand and Spain's Gema Pascual Torrecilla after a touch of wheels near the back. Cheatley rejoined after a few minutes, but Torrecilla pulled out having fallen more heavily. More attacks continued, but all were reeled. With less than eight laps to go, Van Dijk struck out alone and no one else reacted. She overtook the Danish rider Trine Schmidt from an earlier escape and had soon almost half lap lead. The rest of the riders did not react and looked to each other. Despite having almost half a lap on the rest of the bunch, Van Dijk refused to start getting complacent and kept going. When a chase did materialise, it was too late and Van Dijk finished alone with a considerable gap to take the gold medal and the rainbow jersey. Behind Van Dijk the sprint was won by the 2007 champion Yumari Gonzalez Valdivieso of Cuba, ahead of Belinda Goss from Australia. Annalisa Cucinotta of Italy was fourth and Rebecca Quinn from the United States of America finished fifth. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19043215 | 2,190,420 |
33,697 | CERN has several preliminary designs for a Future Circular Collider (FCC) — which would be the most powerful particle smasher ever built — with different types of collider ranging in cost from around €9 billion (US$10.2 billion) to €21 billion. It is CERN’s opening bid in a priority-setting process called the European Strategy for Particle Physics Update, and will affect the field’s future well into the second half of the century. Not everyone is convinced that the FCC is a good investment. “There is no reason to think that there should be new physics in the energy regime that such a collider would reach,” says Sabine Hossenfelder, a theoretical physicist at the Frankfurt Institute for Advanced Studies in Germany. Hossenfelder says that the large sums involved might be better spent on other types of huge facility. For example, she says that placing a major radio telescope on the far side of the Moon, or a gravitational-wave detector in orbit, would both be safer bets than the collider in terms of their return on science. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=357353 | 33,685 |
1,414,703 | Bretz encountered resistance to his theories from the geology establishment of the day. The geology establishment was resistant to such a sweeping theory for the origin of a broad landscape for a variety of reasons, including lack of familiarity with the remote areas of the interior Pacific Northwest where the research was based, and the lack of status and reputation of Bretz in the eyes of the largely Ivy League-based geology elites. Furthermore, his theory implied the potential possibilities of a Biblical flood, which the scientific community strongly rejected. The Geological Society of Washington invited the young Bretz to present his previously published research at a meeting on 12 January 1927, where several other geologists presented competing theories. Bretz saw this as an ambush, and referred to the group as six "challenging elders". Their intention was to defeat him in a public debate, and thereby end the challenge his theories posed to their conservative interpretation of uniformitarianism. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1245472 | 1,413,906 |
588,963 | HNoMS "Maud" was ordered on 28 June 2013 to replace HNoMS "Tyr" and HNoMS "Valkyrien" at a cost of NOK1,320m (~£140m) with 100% offsets. She is based on the AEGIR-18R design. but includes a 48-bed hospital underneath the flight deck with an operating theatre, isolation ward and CT scanner. She can carry 7000 tonnes of F76 fuel oil, 300 tonnes of F44/JP-5 jet fuel, 200 tonnes of ammunition and 40 ISO containers or a mix of vehicles and boats. She has two abeam RAS rigs and a stern reel, and a 25-tonne deck crane. A side ramp allows easy access for vehicles and for the support of submarines and other small vessels. The flight deck can accommodate helicopters up to CH-53 Super Stallion size, and the hangar can operate one NH90 with level 2 maintenance or stow a second. The core crew will be 40-50, with accommodation for 100 more if needed; facilities include a gym and sauna. Four Sea PROTECTOR remote weapon stations are planned. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=34852698 | 588,661 |
100,277 | In this case, locating high traffic areas is critical for optimization of the energy harvesting efficiency, as well as the orientation of the tile pavement significantly affects the total amount of the harvested energy. A density flow evaluation is recommended to qualitatively evaluate the piezoelectric power harvesting potential of the considered area based on the number of pedestrian crossings per unit time. In X. Li's study, the potential application of a commercial piezoelectric energy harvester in a central hub building at Macquarie University in Sydney, Australia is examined and discussed. Optimization of the piezoelectric tile deployment is presented according to the frequency of pedestrian mobility and a model is developed where 3.1% of the total floor area with the highest pedestrian mobility is paved with piezoelectric tiles. The modelling results indicate that the total annual energy harvesting potential for the proposed optimized tile pavement model is estimated at 1.1 MW h/year, which would be sufficient to meet close to 0.5% of the annual energy needs of the building. In Israel, there is a company which has installed piezoelectric materials under a busy highway. The energy generated is adequate and powers street lights, billboards and signs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=24975 | 100,232 |
1,929,465 | Extensive interventions were made at the beginning of the 1985 season. Gianni Tonti , Chiti's successor at Autodelta since September 1984, replaced the vulnerable Avio turbochargers with units from KKK, which had already been used on the first prototypes in 1981. The mixture preparation was also revised for the first race of the season in 1985. First, the mechanical Spica injection was supplemented by an electronic control system from Jofa , which analogously controlled the amount of fuel used and brought about a reduction in consumption of 8 to 10 percent. Two races later, at the San Marino Grand Prix , the factory Alfa team's 890T engines received Bosch electronic fuel injection, which conceptually corresponded to the system used by BMW, but was two generations older in comparison. [8] Due to these changes, the engine could be run at 3.8 bar in qualifying trim and at 3.0 bar in racing, according to factory specifications. [9] According to Eddie Cheever , these developments reduced gasoline consumption by 20 percent in 1985 compared to the previous year; at the same time, the performance in racing trim increased by 130 hp (96 kW). [10] | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=68972269 | 1,928,359 |
1,435,013 | In 2006, the U.S. National Institutes of Health (NIH) funded a 24-week, 12.5 million-dollar multicenter clinical trial (the GAIT trial) to study the effect of chondroitin sulfate, glucosamine hydrochloride, chondroitin/glucosamine in combination, and celecoxib as a treatment for knee-pain in two groups of patients with osteoarthritis of the knee: Patients with "mild pain" (n=1229), and patients with "moderate to severe pain" (n=354). When the data from both groups were pooled and analyzed, there was no statistically significant difference between groups taking glucosamine HCl, chondroitin sulfate, glucosamine/chondroitin; and those taking an inactive placebo or the positive control, the prescription analgesic celecoxib. The authors of the study analyzed the moderate-to-severe pain group and found that in this group, the combination of glucosamine and chondroitin was more effective at providing pain relief than the positive control with 79% of the glucosamine group reporting at least a 20% reduction in pain compared to 70% for celecoxib and only 54% reporting a similar reduction in the placebo group. However, the researchers caution that given the small size of the sub-group, these findings should be confirmed with further studies. Despite its size and design, the GAIT trial may have also had some important limitations, however. When considering the entire cohort, none of the treatments studied performed significantly better (or worse) than placebo in improving patient WOMAC pain and function scores. In other words, because of the inclusion of both a placebo and a positive control, and the fact that roughly 60% of each treatment group achieved the same level of improvement, it is difficult to conclude anything about the efficacy or non-efficacy of glucosamine in the treatment of knee OA from this study. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42814669 | 1,434,207 |
879,159 | PIN diodes are sometimes designed for use as input protection devices for high-frequency test probes and other circuits. If the input signal is small, the PIN diode has negligible impact, presenting only a small parasitic capacitance. Unlike a rectifier diode, it does not present a nonlinear resistance at RF frequencies, which would give rise to harmonics and intermodulation products. If the signal is large, then when the PIN diode starts to rectify the signal, the forward current charges the drift region and the device RF impedance is a resistance inversely proportional to the signal amplitude. That signal amplitude varying resistance can be used to terminate some predetermined portion the signal in a resistive network dissipating the energy or to create an impedance mismatch that reflects the incident signal back toward the source. The latter may be combined with an isolator, a device containing a circulator which uses a permanent magnetic field to break reciprocity and a resistive load to separate and terminate the backward traveling wave. When used as a shunt limiter the PIN diode is a low impedance over the entire RF cycle, unlike paired rectifier diodes that would swing from a high resistance to a low resistance during each RF cycle clamping the waveform and not reflecting it as completely. The ionization recovery time of gas molecules that permits the creation of the higher power spark gap input protection device ultimately relies on similar physics in a gas. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41556 | 878,696 |
1,624,444 | Referring to the latest definition, Chromatiaceae family includes only those purple sulfur bacteria that perform anoxygenic photosynthesis and store elemental sulfur inside their cells. This is in line with the first Molisch definition of the Thiorhodaceae group and reflects the distance, but phylogenetic correlation between the two families. Therefore, the current taxonomic system for Chromatiaceae corresponds primarily to the phylogenetic knowledge, but it also takes into account phenotypic characteristics and ecological features, which allow to broadly distinguish the members of this family to the Ectothiorhodospiraceae ones. For example, the pH and the response to salinity play an important role in terms of ecological distribution: the species belonging to the family Ectothiorodospiraceae prefer basic pH and habitats with high salt concentration, while the optimal conditions for the Chromatiaceae species include a pH close to neutral and a higher range of salinity, enabling them to occupy more varied habitats, from fresh to brackish and marine water. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1412458 | 1,623,528 |
840,988 | The chemical basis of Nafion's ion-conductive properties remain a focus of extensive research. Ion conductivity of Nafion increases with the level of hydration. Exposure of Nafion to a humidified environment or liquid water increases the amount of water molecules associated with each sulfonic acid group. The hydrophilic nature of the ionic groups attract water molecules, which begin to solvate the ionic groups and dissociate the protons from the -SOH (sulfonic acid) group. The dissociated protons "hop" from one acid site to another through mechanisms facilitated by the water molecules and hydrogen bonding. Upon hydration, Nafion phase-separates at nanometer length scales resulting in formation of an interconnected network of hydrophilic domains which allow movement of water and cations, but the membranes do not conduct electrons and minimally conduct anions due to permselectivity (charge-based exclusion). Nafion can be manufactured with or exchanged to alternate cation forms for different applications (e.g. lithiated for Li-ion batteries) and at different equivalent weights (EWs), alternatively considered as ion-exchange capacities (IECs), to achieve a range of cationic conductivities with trade-offs to other physicochemical properties such as water uptake and swelling. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1041043 | 840,538 |
510,311 | Due to the size of the coastline he had to defend, and based on an appreciation of the Allied objectives, Kuzume focused his defensive plans away from the water's edge. Instead, he decided to carry out a feint, allowing the Americans to come ashore unopposed so that they would advance into the trap he had prepared for them utilizing a series of caves that were located west of Mokmer and to the east of Bosnek. This defensive complex was intended to turn the area around the vital airfield into a honeycomb of defended caves and pillboxes filled with riflemen, automatic weapons, artillery, batteries of mortars, and a single company of Type 95 Ha-Go light tanks. The western caves were connected by a series of underground tunnels and were largely constructed for fighting purposes. Kuzume also stockpiled these positions with ammunition and other supplies, with several dumps located around the eastern cave area, along with living quarters for the defenders. Water was limited on Biak and had to be strictly rationed by the US troops, and heat and humidity would take a heavy toll during the fighting. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7163666 | 510,046 |
320,775 | Interest in the movement picked up during the Clinton administration due in part to the debate surrounding the Federal Assault Weapons Ban and the ban's subsequent passage in 1994. The interest peaked again in 1999 triggered by fears of the Y2K computer bug. Before extensive efforts were made to rewrite computer programming code to mitigate the effects, some writers such as Gary North, Ed Yourdon, James Howard Kunstler, and investments' advisor Ed Yardeni anticipated widespread power outages, food and gasoline shortages, and other emergencies. North and others raised the alarm because they thought Y2K code fixes were not being made quickly enough. While a range of authors responded to this wave of concern, two of the most survival-focused texts to emerge were "Boston on Y2K" (1998) by Kenneth W. Royce, and Mike Oehler's "The Hippy Survival Guide to Y2K". Oehler is an underground living advocate, who also authored "The $50 and Up Underground House Book", which has long been popular in survivalist circles. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=188426 | 320,603 |
940,909 | Genomic signatures not only allow one to mark unique methanogens and genes relevant to environmental conditions; it has also led to a better understanding of the evolution of these archaea. Some methanogens must actively mitigate against oxic environments. Functional genes involved with the production of antioxidants have been found in methanogens, and some specific groups tend to have an enrichment of this genomic feature. Methanogens containing a genome with enriched antioxidant properties may provide evidence that this genomic addition may have occurred during the Great Oxygenation Event. In another study, three strains from the lineage Thermoplasmatales isolated from animal gastro-intestinal tracts revealed evolutionary differences. The eukaryotic-like histone gene which is present in most methanogen genomes was not present, eluding to evidence that an ancestral branch was lost within Thermoplasmatales and related lineages. Furthermore, the group Methanomassiliicoccus has a genome which appears to have lost many common genes coding for the first several steps of methanogenesis. These genes appear to have been replaced by genes coding for a novel methylated methogenic pathway. This pathway has been reported in several types of environments, pointing to non-environment specific evolution, and may point to an ancestral deviation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=563456 | 940,407 |
1,082,982 | In the Atlantic Ocean, the so-called "Bermuda High" hypothesis stipulates that changes in the position of this anticyclone can cause storm paths to alternate between landfalls on the East Coast and the Gulf Coast but also Nicaragua. Paleotempestological data support this theory although additional findings on Long Island and Puerto Rico have demonstrated that storm frequency is more complex as active periods appear to correlate between the three sites. A southward shift of the High has been inferred to have occurred 3,000–1,000 years ago, and has been linked with the "hurricane hyperactivity" period in the Gulf of Mexico between 3,400 and 1,000 years ago. Conversely a decrease in hurricane activity is recorded after the mid-millennium period and after 1,100 the Atlantic changes from a pattern of widespread activity to a more geographically confined one. Between 1,100-1,450 the Bahamas and the Florida Gulf Coast were frequently struck while between 1,450-1,650 activity was higher in New England. Furthermore, a tendency to a more northerly storm track may be associated with a strong North Atlantic Oscillation while the Neoglacial cooling is associated with a southward shift. In West Asia, high activity in the South China Sea coincides with low activity in Japan and vice versa. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=60705059 | 1,082,425 |
840,445 | From the end of the 12th century until the middle of the 13th century, the Gothic style spread from the cathedrals in Île-de-France to appear in other cities of northern France, notably Chartres Cathedral (begun 1200); Bourges Cathedral (1195 to 1230), Reims Cathedral (1211–1275), and Amiens Cathedral (begun 1250); The characteristic Gothic elements were refined to make the new cathedrals taller, wider, and more full of light. At Chartres, the use of the flying buttresses allowed the elimination of the tribune level, which allowed much higher arcades and nave, and larger windows. The pillars were made of a central column surrounded by four more slender columns, which reached up to support the arches of the vaulted ceiling. The rib vault changed from six to four ribs, simpler and stronger. The flying buttresses at Amiens and Chartes were strengthened by an additional arch and with a supporting arcade, allowing even higher walls and more windows. At Reims, the buttresses were given greater weight and strength by the addition of heavy stone pinnacles on top. These were often decorated with statues of angels, and became an important decorative element of the High Gothic style. Another practical and decorative element, the gargoyle, appeared; it was an ornamental rain spout that channeled the water from the roof away from the building. At Amiens, the windows of the nave were made larger, and an additional row of clear glass windows (the "claire-voie") flooded the interior with light. The new structural technologies allowed the enlargement of the transepts and the choirs at the east end of the cathedrals, creating the space for a ring of well-lit chapels. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11930474 | 839,995 |
2,061,214 | David Mark Berger was born in Cleveland, Ohio on May 24, 1944. His mother was Dorothy Berger, (née Davidson), and his father was Benjamin Berger, who was a well known physician. A high school honors student as well as an athlete, Berger graduated from Shaker Heights High School in 1962. He attended Tulane University in New Orleans from 1962 to 1966 where he was an honors student. While studying at Tulane, he continued weightlifting training at the New Orleans Athletic Club. As a junior at Tulane, he won the NCAA weightlifting title in the 148-pound class. Berger earned a bachelor's degree in psychology from Tulane in 1966. He went on to enroll in a combined MBA-law degree program at Columbia University in New York, from which he graduated in 1969. While working toward his degrees, Berger continued to devote time to weightlifting, training at the McBurney YMCA in Midtown Manhattan. During his time in New York, Berger competed in the middleweight division. In 1968, competing as a middleweight, he finished fourth in the U.S. Olympic trials. His father, Benjamin, was once quoted as saying, "I used to tell him ‘You may not be the best weightlifter in the world, but you’re certainly the smartest!’" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3743892 | 2,060,027 |
1,405,866 | Archaeologists increasingly use paleopathology as an important main tool for understanding the lives of ancient peoples. For example, cranial deformation is evident in the skulls of the Maya, where a straight line between nose and forehead may have been preferred over an angle or slope. There is also evidence for trepanation, or drilling holes in the cranium, either singly or several times in a single individual. Partially or completely healed trepanations indicate that this procedure was often survived. The 10,000 year-old human remains discovered at the site of Nataruk in Turkana, Kenya, reportedly show extreme traumatic lesions to the head, neck, ribs, knees and hands, including embedded stone projectiles, and they may represent the earliest evidence of inter-group conflict between hunter-gatherers in the past. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2212957 | 1,405,076 |
1,699,754 | Friedman was born in Orlando, Florida on July 20, 1954, and grew up in North Woodmere, New York, graduating from Hewlett High School in the Class of 1971. As a young man he aspired to becoming a physician. He entered a six-year medical program out of high school and received his M.D. at the age of 22. But after a year-long fellowship working in the laboratory of Mary Jane Kreek, he fell in love with the science life. "As a doctor, you're trained to absorb the facts you're given and accept them," says Friedman. "Science is almost the opposite. It's a frontier of discovery that's always moving. And I decided I wanted to do research." Friedman started his affiliation with the Rockefeller University in 1980, where he was awarded a Ph.D. degree in 1986. Friedman received a BS from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1973 and M.D. degree from Albany Medical College in 1977 and completed a medical residency at Albany Medical College in 1980. From 1980 to 1981, he also served as a postgraduate fellow at Cornell University Medical College. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7243245 | 1,698,800 |
2,086,481 | Animal studies have not conclusively demonstrated that HZE nuclei have higher carcinogenic effectiveness than low-LET radiation. Studies of animal carcinogenesis with HZE nuclei are extremely limited in number and the use of tumor-prone animals introduces bias into the results. Relative biological effectiveness factors comparing gamma rays to HZE ions were measured in mice or rats for tumors of the skin and of the Harderian or mammary gland, reaching values as high as 25 to 50 at low doses. However, the risk and detriment of cancer will not be fully characterized until the relationship between radiation quality and latency, where tumors appear earlier after high-LET irradiation, is adequately described. The earlier latency and increasing effectiveness that is fund with HZE ions that are similar to those in earlier studies with neutrons, together with the lack of response of gamma rays that is seen in many low-dose studies, suggests that the scaling concepts that are used in current risk assessment approaches are unable to describe important qualitative effects, and that relative biological effectiveness factors may, in principle, be indefinable or a faulty concept. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=36255817 | 2,085,279 |
198,920 | At the peak of binding energy, nickel-62 is the most tightly bound nucleus (per nucleon), followed by iron-58 and iron-56. This is the approximate basic reason why iron and nickel are very common metals in planetary cores, since they are produced profusely as end products in supernovae and in the final stages of silicon burning in stars. However, it is not binding energy per defined nucleon (as defined above), which controls exactly which nuclei are made, because within stars, neutrons and protons can inter-convert to release even more energy per generic nucleon. In fact, it has been argued that photodisintegration of Ni to form Fe may be energetically possible in an extremely hot star core, due to this beta decay conversion of neutrons to protons. This favors the creation of Fe, the nuclide with the lowest mass per nucleon. However, at high temperatures not all matter will be in the lowest energy state. This energetic maximum should also hold for ambient conditions, say and , for neutral condensed matter consisting of Fe atoms—however, in these conditions nuclei of atoms are inhibited from fusing into the most stable and low energy state of matter. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3043836 | 198,818 |
455,903 | Spermatocytes regularly overcome double-strand breaks and other DNA damages in the prophase stage of meiosis. These damages can arise by the programmed activity of Spo11, an enzyme employed in meiotic recombination, as well as by un-programmed breakages in DNA, such as those caused by oxidative free radicals produced as products of normal metabolism. These damages are repaired by homologous recombination pathways and utilize RAD1 and γH2AX, which recognize double strand breaks and modify chromatin, respectively. As a result, double strand breaks in meiotic cells, unlike mitotic cells, do not typically lead to apoptosis, or cell death. Homologous recombinational repair (HRR) of double-strand breaks occurs in mice during sequential stages of spermatogenesis but is most prominent in spermatocytes. In spermatocytes, HRR events occur mainly in the pachytene stage of meiosis and the gene conversion type of HRR is predominant, whereas in other stages of spermatogenesis the reciprocal exchange type of HRR is more frequent. During mouse spermatogenesis, the mutation frequencies of cells at the different stages, including pachytene spermatocytes, are 5 to 10-fold lower than the mutation frequencies in somatic cells. Because of their elevated DNA repair capability, spermatocytes likely play a central role in the maintenance of these lower mutation rates, and thus in the preservation of the genetic integrity of the male germ line. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1482994 | 455,680 |
1,998,214 | A particularly popular member of the family is Grotesque No. 9, a bold condensed weight, and its companion oblique. Early users of "Grot No. 9" include Wyndham Lewis's 1914 avant-garde magazine "Blast". It returned to popularity from the 1940s, and an oblique was added in 1949. Colin Banks' 1986 obituary of compositor and advertising designer Bill Morgan credits him and business partner Leon French with the face's revival: "Morgan and French had met doing Ministry of Information propaganda at the London Press Exchange. They had bullied and paid Stephenson Blake, the typefounders, to recall Grot no 9 from historic retirement as they had perceived it as the most economical and powerful letter to exploit the wartime restriction on advertising space." Other designers who liked it included Allen Hutt, who described it in "Newspaper Design" (1960) as "the best of all Medium Sans, the famous Grotesque No. 9" Grotesque No. 9 reached phototypesetting and Letraset dry transfer lettering and, unlike many of the other Stephenson Blake Grotesques, has been digitised in several releases. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=51909822 | 1,997,071 |
1,020,566 | Despite efforts to preserve asepsis during surgery, there still persists a 1-3% chance of a surgical site infection (SSI). Infections are categorized as superficial incisional, deep incisional, or organ; the first type are confined to the skin, the second to muscles and nearby tissues, and the third to organs not anatomically close to the operation site. The exact modes of infection depend on the types of surgery, but the most common bacteria that are responsible for SSIs are Staphylococcus aureus, coagulase-negative staphylococci, Escherichia coli, and Enterococcus spp. The CDC emphasizes the importance of both antiseptic and aseptic approaches in avoiding SSIs, especially since Staphylococcus aureus, among other bacteria, are able to evolve drug-resistant strains that can be difficult to treat. In 2017, nearly 20,000 patients in the United States died from Staphylococcus aureus in comparison to the 16,350 from diagnosed HIV. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2302400 | 1,020,037 |
393,210 | In 1900, while employed at Lohner Coach Factory, Ferdinand Porsche developed the "Mixte", a 4WD series-hybrid version of ""System Lohner–Porsche"" electric carriage that previously appeared in 1900 Paris World Fair. George Fischer sold hybrid buses to England in 1901; Knight Neftal produced a racing hybrid in 1902. In 1905, Henri Pieper of Germany/Belgium introduced a hybrid vehicle with an electric motor/generator, batteries, and a small gasoline engine. It used the electric motor to charge its batteries at cruise speed and used both motors to accelerate or climb a hill. The Pieper factory was taken over by Imperia, after Pieper died. The 1915 "Dual Power", made by the Woods Motor Vehicle electric car maker, had a four-cylinder ICE and an electric motor. Below the electric motor alone drove the vehicle, drawing power from a battery pack, and above this speed the "main" engine cut in to take the car up to its top speed. About 600 were made up to 1918. The Woods hybrid was a commercial failure, proving to be too slow for its price, and too difficult to service. In England, the prototype Lanchester petrol-electric car was made in 1927. It was not a success, but the vehicle is on display in Thinktank, Birmingham Science Museum. The United States Army's 1928 Experimental Motorized Force tested a gasoline-electric bus in a truck convoy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8166749 | 393,015 |
1,407,124 | deCODE's scientific leadership over more than twenty years has enabled it repeatedly to pioneer new types of partnerships, products and applications for many aspects of precision medicine. Between 1998 and 2004, the company signed high-profile and innovative partnerships with pharmaceutical companies Roche, Merck, Bayer, Wyeth and others. These alliances provided research funding to advance deCODE's work, with goals of finding genetically validated new drug targets in common diseases; to develop DNA-based diagnostics, that could gauge risk of disease or predict drug response and identify patients most likely to benefit from a drug; and to design "information-rich" clinical trials that would enroll participants with particular genetic variants, with the potential to make trials smaller, more informative, and with a greater chance of success. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1494572 | 1,406,334 |
1,171,935 | Vincenzo Fano provides an illustration of the point that holism of the mental generates anomalism. Fano asks us to first consider the attribution of length to a table. To do this, we must assume a set of laws concerning the interaction between the table and the measuring apparatus: the length of the table doesn't vary significantly during the measurement, length must be an additive quantity, "longer than" must be an asymmetric, transitive relation and so forth. By assuming these laws and carrying out a few operations, we reach the result of the measurement. There is a certain amount of holism in this process. For example, during the measurement process, we might discover that the table is much hotter than the measuring device, in which case the length of the latter will have been modified by the contact. Consequently, we need to modify the temperature of the measuring device. In some cases, we will even have to reconsider and revise some of our laws. This process can continue for some time until we are fairly confident of the results obtained. But it is not only necessary to have a theory of the interactions between the table and the measuring device, it is also necessary to attribute a set of predicates to the table: a certain temperature, rigidity, electric charge, etc... And the attribution of each of these predicates presupposes, in turn, another theory. So, the attribution of "F" to "x" presupposes "Px" and the theory formula_1, but "Px", in turn, presupposes "P'x" and formula_2 and so on. As a result, we have a series of predicates "F", "P", formula_3, formula_4... and a series of theories formula_5, formula_2, formula_7... As Fano states it, "this process would seem like a "regressus ad infinitum", if it weren't that formula_8 converges toward a theory "T" which is nothing other than physics in its entirety." The same is true of the predicates, which converge toward the set of all the possible physical quantities. Fano calls this 'convergent holism'. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4026045 | 1,171,316 |
937,004 | However, others have argued against relying solely on estimates from comparative genomics due to its limited scope since non-coding DNA has been found to be involved in epigenetic activity and complex networks of genetic interactions and is explored in evolutionary developmental biology. Prior to ENCODE, the much lower estimates of functionality were based on genomic conservation estimates across mammalian lineages. Estimates for the biologically functional fraction of the human genome based on comparative genomics range between 8 and 15%. One consistent indication of biological functionality of a genomic region is if the sequence of that genomic region was maintained by purifying selection (or if mutating away the sequence is deleterious to the organism). Under this definition, 90% of the genome is 'junk'. However, some stress that 'junk' is not 'garbage' and the large body of nonfunctional transcripts produced by 'junk DNA' can evolve functional elements "de novo". However, widespread transcription and splicing in the human genome has been discussed as another indicator of genetic function in addition to genomic conservation which may miss poorly conserved functional sequences. And much of the apparent junk DNA is involved in epigenetic regulation and appears to be necessary for the development of complex organisms. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44284 | 936,508 |
1,635,878 | Émil Herman Grubbé (1 January 1875 — 26 March 1960) was possibly the first American to use x-rays as a treatment for cancer (versus detection) but this is disputed and no reliable contemporary source of this claim exists. He was born in Chicago, and received his medical training at a homeopathic institute: the Hahnemann Medical College of Chicago. It was there that Grubbe assembled the first x-ray machine in Chicago in 1896, and that same year, used it to treat a woman with recurrent carcinoma of the breast (disputed). He assembled the machine and began to use it in treatments less than a year after Wilhelm Röntgen announced his discovery of the x-ray. By 1960, Grubbe had instructed over 7000 other doctors in the medical use of x-rays. In the course of his lifetime, he underwent more than 90 operations for multiple cancers caused by his intense, ongoing exposure to radiation, a disease from which he died. Honors were bestowed upon Grubbe by numerous institutions, including the American Cancer Society. He was also a fellow of the American College of Physicians. Grubbe left money in his will to the Chicago Radiological Society to fund the Grubbe Memorial Award. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=33026551 | 1,634,953 |
510,996 | Stevenson showed how these two dimensions are combined when he investigated the terms he called "ethical" or emotive. He noted that some words, such as "peace" or "war", are not simply used to describe reality by modifying the cognitive response of the interlocutor. They have also the power of directing the interlocutor's attitudes and suggesting a course of action. For this reason, they evoke a different kind of reaction, emotive in nature. As Stevenson put it "Instead of merely describing people's interests, they change and intensify them. They recommend an interest in an object, rather than state that the interest already exists." These words have the tendency to encourage future actions, to lead the hearer towards a decision by affecting his or her system of interests. Stevenson distinguished between the use of a word (a stimulus) and its possible psychological effects on the addressee's cognitive and the emotive reactions by labeling them as "descriptive meaning" and "emotive meaning". Applying this distinction reveals how the redefinition of an ethical word is transformed into an instrument of persuasion, a tool for redirecting preferences and emotions: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=958627 | 510,730 |
1,820,900 | Corrosion is a major application area in for SVET. SVET is used to follow the corrosion process and provide information not possible from any other technique. In corrosion it has been used to investigate a variety of processes including, but not limited to, local corrosion, self-healing coatings, Self-Assembled Monolayers (SAMs). SVET has also been used to investigate the effect of different local features on the corrosion properties of a system. For example, using SVET, the influence of the grains and grain boundaries of X70 was measured. A difference in current densities existed between the grains and grain boundaries with the SVET data suggesting the grain was anodic, and the boundary relatively cathodic. Through the use of SVET it has been possible to investigate the effect of changing the aluminum spacer width on the galvanic coupling between steel and magnesium, a pairing which can be found on automobiles. Increasing the spacer width reduced the coupling between magnesium and steel. More generally localized corrosion processes have been followed using SVET. For a variety of systems it has been possible to use SVET to follow the corrosion front as it moves across the sample over extended periods, providing insight into the corrosion mechanism. A number of groups have used SVET to analyze the efficiency of self-healing coatings, mapping the changes in surface activity over time. When SVET measurements of the bare metals are compared to the same metal with the smart coating it can be seen that the current density is lower for the coated surface. Furthermore, when a defect is made in the smart coating the current over the defect can be seen to decrease as the coating recovers. Mekhalif "et." "al". have performed a number of studies on SAMs formed on different metals to investigate their corrosion inhibition using SVET. The SVET studies revealed that the bare surfaces experience corrosion, with inhomogeneous activity measured by SVET. SVET was then used to investigate the effect of modification time, and exposure to corrosive solution. When a defect free SAM was investigated SVET showed homogeneous activity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=60343222 | 1,819,863 |
1,153,735 | The incompletely condensed silsesquioxanes bind numerous metals, including Na, Li, and Be as well as transition metals. Cubic metal-silsesquioxane derivatives of the core stoichiometry MSiO can be prepared by treating the incomplete cage with a metal halide in the presence of a base such as triethylamine. Another route of synthesis involves first deprotonating the trisilanol group using LiN(SiMe). Aspinall et al. later succeeded in doing the same using three equivalents of n-BuLi in hexanes and further results indicate that alkali metal derivatives of deprotonated silsesquioxanes could also be prepared using alkali metalbis(trimethylsilyl) amides. Marchesi et. al synthesised a luminescent fully-condensed rare-earth-doped POSS bearing in the structure the europium ion by reaction of the open-corner heptaisobutyl trisilanol T-POSS ((CH)SiO(OH)) with anhydrous EuCl under basic conditions. Furthermore, a combination of partially-condensed tetrasilanolphenyl POSS with terbium acetate and/or europium acetate (in the case of the mixture, at different molar ratio) led to novel double-decker silsesquioxane (DDSQ) materials consisting of POSS bricks and with intrinsic luminescent properties, in which the lanthanide ions act as both structural and functional agents in the structure. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18503727 | 1,153,125 |
209,683 | Despite the Zhoukoudian being one of the most productive sites for East Asian stone tools, the IVPP prioritised human and animal fossils, and archaeological research has stalled. This strongly contrasts with the rest of the world, especially Europe, where tools and manufacturing techniques have been categorised even on regional levels. Consequently, China's archaeological record has generally been viewed as stagnant. Nonetheless, markers of broader periods to the west are conspicuously rare in the East, most notably bifaces characteristic of the Acheulean culture (typically associated with western "H. erectus" and "H. heidelbergensis") or the Levallois technique of the Mousterian culture (Neanderthals). The apparent technological divide inspired American archaeologist Hallam L. Movius to draw the "Movius Line" dividing the East and West in 1944. Though this is not well supported anymore with the discovery of some bifacial technology in Middle Pleistocene East Asia, bifaces are still conspicuously rare and crude compared to western contemporaries. This has been variously explained as: the Acheulean was invented in Africa after human dispersal through East Asia (but this would require that the two populations remained separated for nearly two million years); East Asia had poorer quality raw materials, namely quartz and quartzite (but some Chinese localities yielded bifaces made of these materials, and East Asia is not completely void of higher-quality minerals); East Asian "H. erectus" used biodegradable bamboo instead of stone for chopping tools (but this is difficult to test); or East Asia had a lower population density, leaving few tools behind in general (though demography is difficult to approximate in the fossil record). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=253340 | 209,576 |
543,232 | Modern computers and calculators use a variety of techniques to provide trigonometric function values on demand for arbitrary angles (Kantabutra, 1996). One common method, especially on higher-end processors with floating-point units, is to combine a polynomial or rational approximation (such as Chebyshev approximation, best uniform approximation, Padé approximation, and typically for higher or variable precisions, Taylor and Laurent series) with range reduction and a table lookup — they first look up the closest angle in a small table, and then use the polynomial to compute the correction. Maintaining precision while performing such interpolation is nontrivial, but methods like Gal's accurate tables, Cody and Waite range reduction, and Payne and Hanek radian reduction algorithms can be used for this purpose. On simpler devices that lack a hardware multiplier, there is an algorithm called CORDIC (as well as related techniques) that is more efficient, since it uses only shifts and additions. All of these methods are commonly implemented in hardware for performance reasons. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=150170 | 542,952 |
189,715 | Lamport received the 2013 Turing Award for "fundamental contributions to the theory and practice of distributed and concurrent systems, notably the invention of concepts such as causality and logical clocks, safety and liveness, replicated state machines, and sequential consistency" in 2014. He was elected a member of the National Academy of Engineering in 1991 for contributions to the theoretical foundations of concurrent and fault-tolerant computing. He was elected to Fellow of Association for Computing Machinery for fundamental contributions to the theory and practice of distributed and concurrent systems in 2014. He also received five honorary doctorates from European universities: University of Rennes and Christian Albrechts University of Kiel in 2003, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) in 2004, University of Lugano in 2006, and Nancy-Université in 2007. In 2004, he received the IEEE Emanuel R. Piore Award. In 2005, the paper "Reaching Agreement in the Presence of Faults" received the Dijkstra Prize. In honor of Lamport's sixtieth birthday, a lecture series was organized at the 20th Symposium on Principles of Distributed Computing (PODC 2001). In 2008, he received the IEEE John von Neumann Medal. In 2011, he was elected to the National Academy of Sciences. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=195671 | 189,618 |
785,394 | A few million years later, during the Callovian-Oxfordian, from China much larger species are known, with long, "graviportal" (adapted for moving only in a slow manner on land due to a high body weight) hindlimbs: "Chungkingosaurus", "Chialingosaurus", "Tuojiangosaurus" and "Gigantspinosaurus". Most of these are considered members of the derived Stegosauridae. "Lexovisaurus" and "Loricatosaurus", stegosaurid finds from England and France of approximately equivalent age to the Chinese specimens, are likely the same taxon. During the Late Jurassic, stegosaurids seem to have experienced their greatest radiation. In Europe, "Dacentrurus" and the closely related "Miragaia" were present. While older finds had been limited to the northern continents, in this phase Gondwana was colonised also as shown by "Kentrosaurus" living in Africa. No unequivocal stegosaurian fossils have been reported from South-America, India, Madagascar, Australia, or Antarctica, though. A Late Jurassic Chinese stegosaurian is "Jiangjunosaurus". The most derived Jurassic stegosaurians are known from North-America: "Stegosaurus" (perhaps several species thereof) and the somewhat older "Hesperosaurus". "Stegosaurus" was quite large (some specimens indicate a length of at least seven metres), had high plates, no shoulder spine, and a short, deep rump. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4375088 | 784,973 |
54,375 | The eventual configuration was rare in terms of contemporary production fighter aircraft design, with the Dutch Fokker G.I heavy fighter, and the later Northrop P-61 Black Widow night fighter and Swedish SAAB 21 having a similar planform. The Lockheed team chose twin booms to accommodate the tail assembly, engines, and turbosuperchargers, with a central nacelle for the pilot and armament. The XP-38 gondola mockup was designed to mount two .50-caliber (12.7 mm) M2 Browning machine guns with 200 rounds per gun (rpg), two .30-caliber (7.62 mm) Brownings with 500 rpg, and a United States Army Ordnance Department prototype T1 23 mm (.90 in) autocannon with a rotary magazine as a substitute for the nonexistent 25 mm Hotchkiss aircraft autocannon specified by Kelsey and Saville. In the prototype YP-38s, an Army Ordnance Department T9 37 mm (1.46 in) autocannon (later designated as the M4 in production) with 15 rounds replaced the 23 mm T1. The 15 rounds were in three five-round clips, an unsatisfactory arrangement according to Kelsey, and the T9/M4 did not perform reliably in flight. Further armament experiments from March to June 1941 resulted in the P-38E combat configuration of four M2 Browning machine guns, and one Hispano 20 mm (.79 in) autocannon with 150 rounds. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25041 | 54,355 |
1,803,575 | In standardized samples, WTAR scores were shown to correlate highly with measures of verbal IQ (r = .75), verbal comprehension (r = .74), and full scale IQ (r = .73). Patients recovering from traumatic brain injury (on average measuring in severely impaired ranged on the Glasgow Coma Scale) showed high stability in WTAR scores during their recovery period while performing highly similar to demographic estimates, suggesting the test is a reliable estimate of premorbid intelligence in individuals with TBI. Presented in an inpatient neuropsychologic battery for TBI, WTAR scores have been shown to be significant predictors of 1-year outcome, suggesting score stability over time and predictive validity. WTAR performance also appears to remain stable in patients exerting suboptimal effort. Evaluation of WTAR scores across the degree of sustained TBI (mild, moderate, severe) suggests that the assessment may underestimate premorbid IQ in patients with more severe damage. In patients with Alzheimer's disease, WTAR scores declined as the degree of cognitive impairment increased in more affected individuals. Individuals with preexisting learning disorders were found to perform poorly relative to those without learning disorders. Reading-disabled individuals scored lower on WTAR than on WAIS test measures; WTAR is not recommended for use with such individuals. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37966045 | 1,802,561 |
1,924,162 | E4orf4 is an important regulator of adenoviruses. Additionally, outside of the context of the virus, it causes programmed cell death both in the context of a healthy cellular environment, and cancer. E4orf4 is a key regulator of Ad by down-regulating both viral and cellular genes, which plays an important role in regulating the proliferation of the virus. In turn, the down-regulation also impacts the alternative splicing of the viral RNA and protein translation. In the absence of a viral infection, E4orf4 induces apoptosis in a p53 and caspase-independent manner; however, there is still communication between this pathway and the caspase-dependent apoptosis pathway. In the context of cancer, E4orf4 is even more efficient at inducing cell death than in healthy cells, which could be an important finding for potential cancer therapies. It has been discovered that the mechanisms behind the function of E4orf4 is closely associated with several other proteins including the B55 subunit of PP2A. E4orf4 binds to PP2A to reduce the phosphorylation of the DNA damage response (DDR) proteins. Consequently, this reduces the function of DDR and limits DNA repair. Many cancer cells have defects in the DDR pathways and targeting these cells with E4orf4 can potentially destroy the remaining DDR pathways, resulting in cancer cell death. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=34556489 | 1,923,059 |
1,872,554 | High-performance fiber-reinforced cementitious composites (HPFRCCs) are a group of fiber-reinforced cement-based composites which possess the unique ability to flex and self-strengthen before fracturing. This particular class of concrete was developed with the goal of solving the structural problems inherent with today’s typical concrete, such as its tendency to fail in a brittle manner under excessive loading and its lack of long-term durability. Because of their design and composition, HPFRCCs possess the remarkable ability to plastically yield and harden under excessive loading, so that they flex or deform before fracturing, a behavior similar to that exhibited by most metals under tensile or bending stresses. Because of this capability, HPFRCCs are more resistant to cracking and last considerably longer than normal concrete. Another extremely desirable property of HPFRCCs is their low density. A less dense, and hence lighter material means that HPFRCCs could eventually require much less energy to produce and handle, deeming them a more economic building material. Because of HPFRCCs’ lightweight composition and ability to strain harden, it has been proposed that they could eventually become a more durable and efficient alternative to typical concrete. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9522355 | 1,871,477 |
2,113,319 | SELDM models the potential effect of mitigation measures by using Monte Carlo methods with statistics that approximate the net effects of structural and nonstructural best management practices (BMPs). Structural BMPs are defined as the components of the drainage pathway between the source of runoff and a stormwater discharge location that affect the volume, timing, or quality of runoff. SELDM uses a simple stochastic statistical model of BMP performance to develop planning-level estimates of runoff-event characteristics. This statistical approach can be used to represent a single BMP or an assemblage of BMPs. The SELDM BMP-treatment module has provisions for stochastic modeling of three stormwater treatments: volume reduction, hydrograph extension, and water-quality treatment. In SELDM, these three treatment variables are modeled by using the trapezoidal distribution and the rank correlation with the associated highway-runoff variables. This report describes methods for calculating the trapezoidal-distribution statistics and rank correlation coefficients for stochastic modeling of volume reduction, hydrograph extension, and water-quality treatment by structural stormwater BMPs and provides the calculated values for these variables. These statistics are different from the statistics commonly used to characterize or compare BMPs. They are designed to provide a stochastic transfer function to approximate the quantity, duration, and quality of BMP effluent given the associated inflow values for a population of storm events. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=45102490 | 2,112,104 |
803,515 | Both binding of substrates and catalysis depend on the three-dimensional structure of the enzyme which arises as a consequence of the level of protein folding. The amino acid sequence and arrangement of their residues that occur within the active site, the position where the substrate binds, may influence factors like binding affinity of ligands, stabilization of substrates within the active site and catalysis. The substrate structure is complementary to the precise active site structure of enzyme. Changes in the position of residues may result in distortion of one or more of these interactions. Additional factors like temperature, pH and metal ions influence the non-covalent interactions between enzyme structure. The "Thermotoga maritima" species make cellulases consisting of 2 β-sheets (protein structures) surrounding a central catalytic region which is the active-site. The enzyme is categorised as an endoglucanase, which internally cleaves β-1,4-glycosydic bonds in cellulose chains facilitating further degradation of the polymer. Different species in the same family as "T. maritima" make cellulases with different structures. Cellulases produced by the species "Coprinopsis cinerea" consists of seven protein strands in the shape of an enclosed tunnel called a β/α barrel. These enzymes hydrolyse the substrate carboxymethyl cellulose. Binding of the substrate in the active site induces a change in conformation which allows degradation of the molecule. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=342457 | 803,086 |
709,251 | The use of a solid electrolyte (see Fig. 3) is one such alternative approaches that allows for a combination of a lithium metal anode with an aqueous cathode. Ceramic solid electrolytes (CSEs) of the NASICON family (e.g., LiAM(PO) with A ∈ [Al, Sc, Y] and M ∈ [Ti, Ge]) has been studied. Compatible with water at alkaline pH and having a large electrochemical window (see Figs. 3,4), their low Li+ ion conductivity near room temperature (< 0.005 S/cm, >85 Ω cm) makes them unsuitable for automotive and stationary energy storage applications that demand low cost (i.e., operating current densities over 100 mA/cm). Further, both Ti and Ge are reduced by metallic Li, and an intermediate layer between the ceramic electrode and the negative electrode is required. In contrast, solid polymer electrolytes (SPEs) can provide a higher conductivity at the expense of a faster crossover of water and of other small molecules that are reactive toward metallic Li. Among the more exotic membranes considered for Li-O batteries is single-crystal silicon. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=24429024 | 708,881 |
1,105,645 | In nature, "P. digitatum" adopts a filamentous vegetative growth form, producing narrow, septate hyphae. The hyphal cells are haploid, although individual hyphal compartments may contain many genetically identical nuclei. During the reproductive stages of its life cycle, "P. digitatum" reproduces asexually via the production of asexual spores or conidia. Conidia are borne on a stalk called a conidiophore that can emerge either from a piece of aerial hyphae or from a soil-embedded network of hyphae. The conidiophore is usually an asymmetrical, delicate structure with smooth, thin walls. Sizes can range from 70–150 μm in length. During development, the conidiophore can branch into three rami to produce a terverticillate structure although biverticillate and other irregular structures are often observed. At the end of each rami, another set of branches called metulae are found. The number of metulae varies with their sizes ranging from 15–30 × 4–6 μm. At the distal end of each metula, conidium-bearing structures called phialides form. Phialides can range in shape from flask-shaped to cylindrical and can be 10–20 μm long. The conidia produced, in turn, are smooth with a shape that can range from spherical to cylindrical although an oval shape is frequently seen. They are 6–15 μm long and are produced in chains, with the youngest at the base of each chain. Each conidium is haploid and bears only one nucleus. Sexual reproduction in "P. digitatum" has not been observed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=47826409 | 1,105,082 |
941,851 | The manufacturing process uses more than 160 specialist robots, including 10 of the largest robots in the world, which are named after X-Men characters. Many of the Model S's unique components, including the battery pack, battery module, and drive units are manufactured in-house. The plant has a high level of integration compared with other modern car assembly plants, with most processes taking place within the Tesla Factory. This includes most of the stamping and machining, painting, and some coding. The hydraulic press lines used to stamp 5,000 body panels per day with a force of 10,000 tonnes, are the largest in North America and the 6th largest in the world. Around 60% of the car parts are sourced from North America, while Japan is the second-biggest source of components . Design engineers also work at the factory itself, rather than a separate facility. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29705538 | 941,349 |
1,009,995 | Even during the preview service, the Class 395 presented several performance improvements in comparison to conventional rolling stock, including its high rate of acceleration, lower noise levels (primarily attributed to its air conditioning arrangements), and its aesthetic appeal. Railway journalist Richard Clinnick observed several minor shortcomings of the interior, such as the somewhat cramped seating arrangement and the lack of securing straps at the baby changing facility, but positively reviewed the overall package. In September 2010, it was reported that several passengers were concerned by the presence of a 'wobbling' motion that occurred within some tunnel sections; the phenomenon was described by Southeastern as non-dangerous, but all trains were fitted with dampers that prevent any recurrence of the issue. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4895950 | 1,009,474 |
21,229 | Around the same time frame, Amazon was frustrated with the speed of its software engineering, and sought to implement various recommendations put forth by Matt Round, an engineering leader at the time, including maximization of autonomy for engineering teams, adoption of REST, standardization of infrastructure, removal of gate-keeping decision-makers (bureaucracy), and continuous deployment. He also called for increasing the percentage of the time engineers spent building the software rather than doing other tasks. Amazon created "a shared IT platform" so its engineering organizations, which were spending 70% of their time on "undifferentiated heavy-lifting" such as IT and infrastructure problems, could focus on customer-facing innovation instead. Besides, in dealing with unusual peak traffic patterns, especially during the holiday season, by migrating services to commodity Linux hardware and relying on open source software, Amazon's Infrastructure team, led by Tom Killalea, Amazon's first CISO, had already run its data centers and associated services in a "fast, reliable, cheap" way. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1691376 | 21,220 |
1,993,238 | Livermore physicist Fred Mitlitsky studied the possibilities of reversible technology. In the mid-1990s Mitlitsky received some funding from NASA for development of Helios and from the Department of Energy for leveling peak and intermittent power usage with sources such as solar cells or wind turbines. By 1996 he produced a 50-watt prototype single proton-exchange membrane cell which operated for 1,700 ten-minute charge-discharge cycles, and degradation was less than a few percent at the highest current densities. A rated power of 18.5 kW URFC was installed in the Helios and was tested on-board during test flights in 2003. The aircraft unfortunately crashed on its second URFC test flight June 26, 2003. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20575029 | 1,992,095 |
2,197,817 | "Methanomassiliicoccus luminyensis" has been isolated from the human gut and requires H and methanol or methylamines to produce methane. The organism lacks cytochromes, indicating that it cannot couple membrane-bound electron transfer reactions with the extrusion of protons or sodium ions using other known methanogenic pathways. Furthermore, "M. luminyensis" contains a soluble MvhAGD/HdrABC complex, as found in obligate hydrogenotrophic methanogens, but the energy conserving methyltransferase (MtrA-H) is absent. Evidence has been presented that "M. luminyensis" uses two types of heterodisulfide reductases (HdrABC and HdrD) in an energy conserving process. RT-qPCR studies revealed that genes coding for both heterodisulfide reductases were expressed at high levels. Other genes with high transcript abundance were "fpoA" as part of the operon encoding the 'headless' FH dehydrogenase and "atpB" as part of the operon encoding the AA ATP synthase. High activities of the soluble heterodisulfide reductase HdrABC and the hydrogenase MvhADG were found in the cytoplasm. Also, heterologously produced HdrD could reduce CoM-S-S-CoB using reduced methylviologen as electron donor. It is proposed that membrane-bound electron transfer is based on the conversion of two molecules of methanol and the concurrent formation of two molecules of the heterodisulfide CoM-S-S-CoB. First, the HdrABC/MvhADG complex catalyzes the H-dependent reduction of CoM-S-S-CoB and the formation of reduced ferredoxin. Second, reduced ferredoxin is oxidized by the 'headless' FH dehydrogenase, thereby translocating up to 4 H across the membrane, and electrons are channeled to HdrD for the reduction of the second heterodisulfide. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=51412123 | 2,196,566 |
1,103,891 | In 2014, a laser-based single-step scalable approach to graphene production was published by Professor James M. Tour's Research Group at Rice University. The technique directly converts the surface of commercial polymer films into porous three-dimensional graphene patterns, using a infrared laser. The sp-carbon atoms were photothermally converted to sp-carbon atoms by pulsed laser irradiation. The resulting material exhibits high electrical conductivity, and has been demonstrated in a variety of applications, including interdigitated electrodes for in-plane microsupercapacitors with specific capacitances of >4 mF cm and power densities of ~9 mW cm. Laser-induced production of graphene is compatible with roll-to-roll manufacturing processes, and provides a highly-accessible route to flexible electronics, functional nanocomposites, and advanced energy storage devices. Furthermore, the technique has been extended to a wide variety of carbon sources, such as wood, paper, and cloth, and likewise, other wavelengths of lasers were also demonstrated to form graphene. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=48233141 | 1,103,329 |
929,392 | On 31 October 1956, Admiral Dufek and others successfully landed an R4D Skytrain (Douglas DC-3) aircraft at the South Pole, as part of the expeditions mounted for the IGY. This was the first aircraft to land at the South Pole and the first time that Americans had set foot on the South Pole. The aircraft was named "Que Sera, Sera" after a popular song and is now on display at the Naval Aviation Museum in Pensacola, Florida. This marked the beginning of the establishment of the first permanent base, by airlift, at the South Pole (today known as the Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station) to support the International Geophysical Year. It was commissioned on January 1, 1957. The original station ("Old Byrd") lasted about four years before it began to collapse under the snow. Construction of a second underground station in a nearby location began in 1960, and it was used until 1972. The station was then converted into a summer-only field camp until it was abandoned in 2004–05. The mission's second base, Byrd Station, was a (former) research station in West Antarctica established by the US Navy for Operation Deep Freeze II during the International Geophysical Year. The United States Antarctic Program airfield, built to service Operation Deep Freeze (first mission) was later named Williams Field or Willy Field. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1777434 | 928,901 |
2,156,441 | While the United States slowly begins to administer vaccines, other places in the world are eager to receive their doses. In January 2021, the United Kingdom finally began to distribute Oxford Astra-Zeneca Around the same time, Moderna ramped up their vaccine production to help supply the U.S government and clinical trials for the only 3 FDA-approved vaccines began. With several variants emerging throughout the world, the safety and effectiveness of the vaccine comes into question. By the end of the month, Johnson & Johnson and Novavax continue their trials to get approval and South Africa suspends the Oxford Astra-Zeneca dose due to the different variants. By the end of February 2021, Israel marked history by being the first country to have half of their population fully vaccinated with Pfizer-BioNTech. And in March 2021, Johnson & Johnson began to send out their vaccines. Unfortunately, the CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) and FDA had put a pause on Janssen vaccine as 6 cases of cerebral venous sinus thrombosis (blood clot) have been reported. Shortly after, the European Commission (E.C) also put a halt on both J&J and Astra-Zeneca due to similar complications. As more research is done on the development of vaccines, nations across the world continue to find new data to immunize societies effectively, yet safely. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=63936969 | 2,155,210 |
446,713 | The fourth of Artie Matthews's "Pastime Rags" (1913–20) features dissonant right-hand clusters. Thelonious Monk, in pieces such as "Bright Mississippi" (1962), "Introspection" (1946) and "Off Minor" (1947), uses clusters as dramatic figures within the central improvisation and to accent the tension at its conclusion. They are heard on Art Tatum's "Mr. Freddy Blues" (1950), undergirding the cross-rhythms. By 1953, Dave Brubeck was employing piano tone clusters and dissonance in a manner anticipating the style free jazz pioneer Cecil Taylor would soon develop. The approach of hard bop pianist Horace Silver is an even clearer antecedent to Taylor's use of clusters. During the same era, clusters appear as punctuation marks in the lead lines of Herbie Nichols. In "The Gig" (1955), described by Francis Davis as Nichols's masterpiece, "clashing notes and tone clusters depic[t] a pickup band at odds with itself about what to play." Recorded examples of Duke Ellington's piano cluster work include "Summertime" (1961) and "...And His Mother Called Him Bill" (1967) and "This One's for Blanton!", his tribute to a former bass player, recorded in 1972 with bassist Ray Brown. Bill Evans' interpretation of "Come Rain or Come Shine" from the album "Portrait in Jazz" (1960), opens with a striking 5-tone cluster. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=343054 | 446,497 |
1,002,995 | Higher gains were sought than those available from the early single-stage photomultipliers. However, it is an empirical fact that the yield of secondary electrons is limited in any given secondary emission process, regardless of acceleration voltage. Thus, any single-stage photomultiplier is limited in gain. At the time the maximum first-stage gain that could be achieved was approximately 10 (very significant developments in the 1960s permitted gains above 25 to be reached using negative electron affinity dynodes). For this reason, multiple-stage photomultipliers, in which the photoelectron yield could be multiplied successively in several stages, were an important goal. The challenge was to cause the photoelectrons to impinge on successively higher-voltage electrodes rather than to travel directly to the highest voltage electrode. Initially this challenge was overcome by using strong magnetic fields to bend the electrons' trajectories. Such a scheme had earlier been conceived by inventor J. Slepian by 1919 (see above). Accordingly, leading international research organizations turned their attention towards improving photomultipliers to achieve higher gain with multiple stages. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177215 | 1,002,477 |
876,725 | During his 32 years of teaching at Munich, Sommerfeld taught general and specialized courses, as well as holding seminars and colloquia. The general courses were on mechanics, mechanics of deformable bodies, electrodynamics, optics, thermodynamics and statistical mechanics, and partial differential equations in physics. They were held four hours per week, 13 weeks in the winter and 11 weeks in the summer, and were for students who had taken experimental physics courses from Röntgen and later by Wilhelm Wien. There was also a two-hour weekly presentation for the discussion of problems. The specialized courses were of topical interest and based on Sommerfeld's research interests; material from these courses appeared later in the scientific literature publications of Sommerfeld. The objective of these special lectures was to grapple with current issues in theoretical physics and for Sommerfeld and the students to garner a systematic comprehension of the issue, independent of whether or not they were successful in solving the problem posed by the current issue. For the seminar and colloquium periods, students were assigned papers from the current literature and they then prepared an oral presentation. From 1942 to 1951, Sommerfeld worked on putting his lecture notes in order for publication. They were published as the six-volume "Lectures on Theoretical Physics". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=213639 | 876,263 |
1,203,277 | Polintons are also a group of eukaryotic class II TEs. As one of the most complex known DNA transposons in eukaryotes, they make up the genomes of protists, fungi, and animals, such as the entamoeba, soybean rust, and chicken, respectively. They contain genes with homology to viral proteins and which are often found in eukaryotic genomes, like polymerase and retroviral integrase. However, there is no known protein functionally similarly to the viral capsid or envelope proteins. They share their many structural characteristics with linear plasmids, bacteriophages and adenoviruses, which replicate using protein-primed DNA polymerases. Polintons have been proposed to go through a similar self-synthesis by their polymerase. Polintons, 15–20 kb long, encode up to 10 individual proteins. For replication, they utilize a protein-primed DNA polymerase B, retroviral integrase, cysteine protease, and ATPase. First, during host genome replication, a single-stranded extra-chromosomal Polinton element is excised from the host DNA using the integrase, forming a racket-like structure. Second, the Polinton undergoes replication using the DNA polymerase B, with initiation started by a terminal protein, which may encoded in some linear plasmids. Once the double stranded Polinton is generated, the integrase serves to insert it into the host genome. Polintons exhibit high variability between difference species and may tightly regulated, resulting in a low frequency rate in many genomes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50044342 | 1,202,633 |
1,409,001 | In September 2011, hackers installed 153 (= 9 × 17) custom-made wirelessly controlled color-changing high-power LED lights into every window above the first floor. They displayed a waving American flag throughout the evening of September 11, 2011 in remembrance of the September 11 attacks of 2001. For a short time in the early morning of September 12, the lights displayed a Tetris game, thus realizing a long-standing hack proposal, the "Holy Grail" of hacks. The display hardware had occasional glitches, and was removed as of September 13. The hardware and software designs were further developed and refined for better reliability. On April 20, 2012, MIT hackers successfully turned the Green Building into a huge, playable Tetris game, operated from a wireless control podium at a comfortable viewing distance in front of the building. Visitors to Campus Preview Weekend (a gathering for admitted prospective freshman students) were invited to play the game on the colossal display grid, which was claimed to be the second-largest full-color video display in the US. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2621926 | 1,408,210 |
203,548 | Despite similar neural areas and evidence from experiments, some scholars remain cautious about comparisons to human episodic memory. Purported episodic-like memory often seems fixed to a particular domain or could be explained in terms of procedural or semantic memory. The problem may be better tractable by studying episodic memory's adaptive counterpart: the capacity to flexibly imagine future events. However, a recent experiment addressed one of Suddendorf and Busby (2003)'s specific criticisms (the Bischof-Köhler hypothesis, which states that nonhuman animals can only take actions based on immediate needs, as opposed to future needs). Correia and colleagues demonstrated that western scrub-jays can selectively cache different types of foods depending on which type of food they will desire at a future time, offering strong evidence against the Bischof-Köhler hypothesis by demonstrating that scrub-jays can flexibly adjust their behavior based on past experience of desiring a particular food. Similarities and differences between humans and other animals are currently much debated. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=579359 | 203,443 |
653,982 | The left temporoparietal junction (lTPJ) contains both Wernicke's area and the angular gyrus, both prominent anatomical structures of the brain that are involved in language cognition, processing, and comprehension of both written and spoken language. Steven Pinker discusses this brain region, theorising that it underlies an amodal 'language of thought' or Mentalese. The lTPJ, in this account, takes in observations from external environments, such as conversations, makes connections in the brain regarding past memories or incidents and then converts those thoughts and connections to written and spoken language. Pinker's full account of this is explained in The Language Instinct: How the Mind Creates Language. The lTPJ also plays an important role in reasoning of other's beliefs, intentions, and desires. Activation of the lTPJ was observed in patients processing mental states such as beliefs when an fMRI was used on patients as they were asked to make inferences regarding the mental states of others such as lying. This study was further supplemented by a study which identified that lesions to the left TPJ can impair cognitive processes specifically involved in the inference of someone else's belief, intention, or desire. Individuals with lesions in the lTPJ were no longer able to correctly identify when someone was lying or insinuating a false sense of belief or desire. The lTPJ is also involved in the processing of associating and remembering the names of individuals and objects. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14158261 | 653,638 |
1,866,804 | A handful of studies utilized tissue engineering of heart valves "in vivo" in animal models and humans. In 2000, Matheny conducted a study in which he used a pig's small intestinal submucosa to replace one pulmonary valve leaflet. Limited studies have also been conducted in a clinical setting. For instance in 2001, Elkins implanted SynerGraft treated decellularized human pulmonary valves in patients. Simon similarly used SynerGraft decellularized pig valves for implantation in children; however, these valves widely failed as there were no host cells but rather high amounts of inflammatory cells found at the scaffold site instead. Studies led by Dohmen, Konertz, and colleagues in Berlin, Germany involved the implantation of a biological pig valve in 50 patients who underwent the Ross operation from 2002 to 2004. Using a decellularized porcine xenograft valve, also called Matrix P, in adults with a median age of 46 years, the aim of the study was to offer a proposal for pulmonary valve replacement. While some patients died postoperatively and had to undergo reoperation, the short-term results appear to be going well as the valve is behaving similarly to a native, healthy valve. One animal trial combined the transcatheter aortic valve replacement (TAVR) procedure with tissue engineered heart valves (TEHVs). A TAVR stent integrated with human cell-derived extracellular matrix was implanted and examined in sheep, in which the valve upheld structural integrity and cell infiltration, allowing the potential clinical application to extend TAVR to younger patients. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=59675893 | 1,865,729 |
342,971 | Wankel engines run very hot on the ignition and exhaust side of the engine's trochoid chamber, whereas the intake and compression parts are cooler. Suzuki opted for a complicated oil-cooling and water-cooling system, with Garside reasoning that provided the power did not exceed , air-cooling would suffice. Garside cooled the interior of the rotors with filtered ram-air. This very hot air was cooled in a plenum contained within the semi-monocoque frame and afterwards, once mixed with fuel, fed into the engine. This air was quite oily after running through the interior of the rotors, and thus was used to lubricate the rotor tips. The exhaust pipes become very hot, with Suzuki opting for a finned exhaust manifold, twin-skinned exhausted pipes with cooling grilles, heatproof pipe wrappings, and silencers with heat shields. Garside simply tucked the pipes out of harm's way under the engine, where heat would dissipate in the breeze of the vehicle's forward motion. Suzuki opted for complicated multi-stage carburation, whilst Garside choose simple carburetors. Suzuki had three lube systems, whilst Garside had a single total-loss oil injection system which was fed to both the main bearings and the intake manifolds. Suzuki chose a single rotor that was fairly smooth, but with rough patches at 4,000 rpm; Garside opted for a turbine-smooth twin-rotor motor. Suzuki mounted the massive rotor high in the frame, but Garside put his rotors as low as possible to lower the center of gravity of the motorcycle. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=33303 | 342,790 |
733,364 | Orks grow all through their lives, though the average Ork stands around the same height as the average man, at least given their almost perpetual slouch, meaning that, at full height, they would be much taller than a human. This typical pose gives them the appearance of a large, green gorilla. Orks grow at greatly varying rates, however, dependent on social conditions. The effect is notable in extremely aggressive Orks, which tend to grow much faster; as an Ork survives combat and wins trophies, the respect of other Orks will produce in him an effect somewhat similar to adolescence in the human male: he puts on muscle, becomes more aggressive and assertive. If an Ork continues to be successful, gaining more respect, he may become a Nob (from "noble," but pronounced "knob"), a leader of Orks, noticeably larger, tougher and stronger than the average specimen. Once he begins to grow, an Ork will generally keep getting bigger and stronger until another Ork defeats him. This indicates that the effects of adolescence in Orks continue indefinitely, but can be triggered off by defeat. Orks achieve their social pinnacle when a Nob becomes a Warboss or a Warlord, the rulers of continents and empires. Such creatures are exceptionally large, often standing over three meters (10') tall or higher, with the most powerful Warlords known to be more than twice that height. And although they have achieved the highest possible rank at this point, they continue to grow indefinitely. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=893333 | 732,977 |
311,299 | In 1984, Charles D. Walker became the first non-government astronaut to fly, with his employer McDonnell Douglas paying US$40,000 () for his flight. During the 1970s, Shuttle prime contractor Rockwell International studied a $200–300 million removable cabin that could fit into the Shuttle's cargo bay. The cabin could carry up to 74 passengers into orbit for up to three days. Space Habitation Design Associates proposed, in 1983, a cabin for 72 passengers in the bay. Passengers were located in six sections, each with windows and its own loading ramp, and with seats in different configurations for launch and landing. Another proposal was based on the Spacelab habitation modules, which provided 32 seats in the payload bay in addition to those in the cockpit area. A 1985 presentation to the National Space Society stated that, although flying tourists in the cabin would cost $1 million to $1.5 million per passenger without government subsidy, within 15 years, 30,000 people a year would pay US$25,000 () each to fly in space on new spacecraft. The presentation also forecast flights to lunar orbit within 30 years and visits to the lunar surface within 50 years. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=67896 | 311,131 |
341,835 | Aphids, and the closely related adelgids and phylloxerans, probably evolved from a common ancestor some , in the Early Permian period. They probably fed on plants like Cordaitales or Cycadophyta. With their soft bodies, aphids do not fossilize well, and the oldest known fossil is of the species "Triassoaphis cubitus" from the Triassic. They do however sometimes get stuck in plant exudates which solidify into amber. In 1967, when Professor Ole Heie wrote his monograph "Studies on Fossil Aphids", about sixty species have been described from the Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous and mostly the Tertiary periods, with Baltic amber contributing another forty species. The total number of species was small, but increased considerably with the appearance of the angiosperms , as this allowed aphids to specialise, the speciation of aphids going hand-in-hand with the diversification of flowering plants. The earliest aphids were probably polyphagous, with monophagy developing later. It has been hypothesized that the ancestors of the Adelgidae lived on conifers while those of the Aphididae fed on the sap of Podocarpaceae or Araucariaceae that survived extinctions in the late Cretaceous. Organs like the cornicles did not appear until the Cretaceous period. One study alternatively suggests that ancestral aphids may have lived on angiosperm bark and that feeding on leaves may be a derived trait. The Lachninae have long mouth parts that are suitable for living on bark and it has been suggested that the mid-Cretaceous ancestor fed on the bark of angiosperm trees, switching to leaves of conifer hosts in the late Cretaceous. The Phylloxeridae may well be the oldest family still extant, but their fossil record is limited to the Lower Miocene "Palaeophylloxera". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=162296 | 341,654 |
91,054 | The ascent resulted in an orbit with an altitude and velocity almost exactly that which had been planned. In the hours following the launch, Apollo 17 orbited the Earth while the crew spent time monitoring and checking the spacecraft to ensure its readiness to depart Earth orbit. At 3:46 a.m. EST, the S-IVB third stage was reignited for the 351-second trans-lunar injection burn to propel the spacecraft towards the Moon. Ground controllers chose a faster trajectory for Apollo 17 than originally planned to allow the vehicle to reach lunar orbit at the planned time, despite the launch delay. The Command and Service Module separated from the S-IVB approximately half an hour following the S-IVB trans-lunar injection burn, after which Evans turned the spacecraft to face the LM, still attached to the S-IVB. The CSM then docked with the LM and extracted it from the S-IVB. Following the LM extraction, Mission Control programmed the S-IVB, no longer needed to propel the spacecraft, to impact the Moon and trip the seismometers left by prior Apollo crews. It struck the Moon just under 87 hours into the mission, triggering the seismometers from Apollo 12, 14, 15 and 16. Approximately nine hours after launch, the crew concluded the mission's first day with a sleep period, until waking up to begin the second day. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1971 | 91,014 |
916,224 | "Life skills" refer to the mental, emotional, behavioral, and social skills and resources developed through sport participation. Research in this area focuses on how life skills are developed and transferred from sports to other areas in life (e.g., from tennis to school) and on program development and implementation. "Burnout" in sport is typically characterized as having three dimensions: emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and a reduced sense of accomplishment. Athletes who experience burnout may have different contributing factors, but the more frequent reasons include perfectionism, boredom, injuries, excessive pressure, and overtraining. Burnout is studied in many different athletic populations (e.g., coaches), but it is a major problem in youth sports and contributes to withdrawal from sport. "Parenting" in youth sport is necessary and critical for young athletes. Research on parenting explores behaviors that contribute to or hinder children's participation. For example, research suggests children want their parents to provide support and become involved, but not give technical advice unless they are well-versed in the sport. Excessive demands from parents may also contribute to burnout. "Coach behavior" is a major contributor to how youth athletes experience sports. In research directed at coding behavioral styles of coaches, it has been found that children are more accurate at perceiving coaching behaviors than the coach. This lack of awareness contributes heavily to negative athlete behaviors and burnout. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25688228 | 915,742 |
1,967,621 | This technology is the combination of stem cell research and nanotechnology. The ability to be able to repair damaged nerves is the greatest challenge and prize for many researchers as well as a huge step for the medical field. This would allow doctors to repair nerves damaged in an extreme accident, like third degree burns. The technology however, is still in its infancy and is still not capable of regenerating complex organs like a heart, although it can already be used to create skin, bone and nails. Nano scaffolding has been shown to be four to seven times more effective in keeping the stem cells alive in the body, which would allow them to perform their job more effectively. This technology can be used to save limbs that would otherwise need amputation. Nanoscaffolding provides a large surface area for the material being produced, along with changeable chemical and physical properties. This allows them to be applicable in many different types of technological fields. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21880823 | 1,966,491 |
16,181 | In 1962, Gagarin began serving as a deputy to the Soviet of the Union, and was elected to the Central Committee of the Young Communist League. He later returned to Star City, the cosmonaut facility, where he spent several years working on designs for a reusable spacecraft. He became a lieutenant colonel of the Soviet Air Forces on 12 June 1962, and received the rank of colonel on 6 November 1963. On 20 December, Gagarin became Deputy Training Director of the cosmonaut training facility. Soviet officials, including Kamanin, tried to keep Gagarin away from any flights, being worried about losing their hero in an accident noting that he was "too dear to mankind to risk his life for the sake of an ordinary space flight". Kamanin was also concerned by Gagarin's drinking and believed the sudden rise to fame had taken its toll on the cosmonaut. While acquaintances say Gagarin had been a "sensible drinker", his touring schedule placed him in social situations in which he was increasingly expected to drink alcohol. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=34226 | 16,176 |
2,027,207 | Mutations in the ALDH6A1 gene are associated with methylmalonate semialdehyde dehydrogenase deficiency, a rare autosomal recessive inborn error of metabolism with a highly variable phenotype. The disease is passed through autosomal recessive genetics. There have been many individual and familial case studies of this deficiency and the mutations that cause it. Some patients with this disease may be asymptomatic, whereas others show global developmental delay, nonspecific dysmorphic features, and delayed myelination on brain imaging. Meanwhile, some cases have been only identified through elevated levels of various acidic metabolites in the urine, notably 3-hydroxyisobutyric acid. This can result from an identified a homozygous 1336G-A transition in the gene, resulting in a change in the 446th residue from glycine to arginine. Another case study, a child from consanguineous patients, presented as significant hypotonia in infancy, poor feeding, and dysmorphic facial features, including narrowed, downslanting palpebral fissures, short convex nose with depressed nasal bridge, microphthalmia, cataracts, and adducted thumbs. Brain imaging showed delayed myelination and thinning of the corpus callosum. Laboratory studies showed 3-hydroxyisobutyric aciduria and mild lactic acidosis. Many case studies since then have presented similar symptoms, although the symptoms may be milder. The mutations identified are generally heterozygous missense mutations: S262Y, P62S, Y172H and R535C. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=16850754 | 2,026,040 |
1,622,617 | Thanks to a grant with Fairmont State University, the Independent Verification and Validation Program Educator Resource Center (ERC) provides resources and training opportunities for approximately 1,000 in-service, pre-service, and informal educators and in West Virginia annually. The materials and training cover a wide range of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) topics. The ERC also loans hands-on STEM kits to trained teachers which impact over 10,000 students per year in the state. The on-site student outreach program brings over 2,000 youth to the facility annually to experience workshops on robotics, rocketry, aviation, and other STEM topics. The ERC also runs numerous student STEM competitions in the fields of robotics and aviation. Starting in 2012 the ERC became the partner for the FIRST LEGO League competition and has overseen a rapid growth in robotic competitions that now include over 100 teams at 10 tournaments statewide each fall. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6228391 | 1,621,701 |
565,453 | An alternative view of socialism prefiguring the neoclassical models of market socialism consisted of conceptions of market socialism based on classical economic theory and Ricardian socialism, where markets were utilized to allocate capital goods among worker-owned cooperatives in a free-market economy. The key characteristics of this system involved direct worker ownership of the means of production through producer and consumer cooperatives and the achievement of genuinely free markets by removing the distorting effects of private property, inequality arising from private appropriation of profits and interest to a rentier class, regulatory capture, and economic exploitation. This view was expounded by mutualism and was severely criticized by Marxists for failing to address the fundamental issues of capitalism involving instability arising from the operation of the law of value, crises caused by overaccumulation of capital and lack of conscious control over the surplus product. This perspective played little to no role during the socialist calculation debate in the early 20th century. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44379754 | 565,163 |
2,860 | For in-flight navigation, the Su-57 uses the BINS-SP2M inertial navigation system developed by Concern Radio-Electronic Technologies (KRET). The system can also integrate with GLONASS, and is controlled by the IVS-50 computing system. In 2016, KRET announced it is developing a multifunctional video processing system called "Okhotnik" (Hunter) to increase the Su-57's target detection range as well as to improve automatic detection and tracking of targets. A monitoring system allows real-time assessment of the aircraft's condition and predict the remaining 'life' of the composite parts of the aircraft by transmitting information through optical fibers, with sensitivity to mechanical influences, woven into the structure. This allows a more efficient maintenance and repair process. The Su-57 could also serve as a testbed for advanced AI and man-unmanned teaming technologies intended for use in a future sixth-generation fighter program. The aircraft has also tested autonomous flight without pilot input. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2971192 | 2,860 |
642,521 | Barres described experiences of gender discrimination at an early age. While he was presenting as female prior to transitioning, he was denied at schools from science and mathematics courses, which he liked. It was a summer science course at Columbia University in New York City that enabled him to pursue further studies in science. A more serious event happened to his academics in MIT. After solving a difficult math problem that stumped many male students, his professor charged that it was solved for him by a boyfriend. He was the top student in the class, but found it hard to get a willing supervisor for research. He lost a scholarship to a man who had only one publication, while he already had six. While earning a PhD at Harvard, he was told that he was to win a scientific competition, which was evidently between him and one man; the Dean confided to him, “I have read both applications, and it’s going to be you; your application is so much better.” But the award was given to the man, who dropped out of science a year later. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6026229 | 642,182 |
59,774 | Book 1 of the "Elements" is foundational for the entire text. It begins with a series of 20 definitions for basic concepts geometric concepts such as lines, angles and various regular polygons. Euclid then presents 10 assumptions (see table, right), grouped into five postulates (axioms) and five common notions. These assumptions are intended to provide the logical basis for every subsequent theorem, i.e. serve as an axiomatic system. The common notions exclusively concern the comparison of magnitudes. While postulates 1 through 4 are relatively straight forward, the 5th is known as the parallel postulate and particularly famous. Book 1 also includes 48 propositions, which can be loosely divided into those concerning basics theorems of plane geometry (1–26); theories on parallel lines (27–32); theories on parallelograms (33–45); and the Pythagorean theorem (46–48). The last of these includes the earliest surviving proof of the Pythagorean theorem, described by Sialaros as "remarkably delicate". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9331 | 59,749 |
753,987 | Marx used dialectics, a method that he adapted from the works of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. Dialectics focuses on relation and change, and tries to avoid seeing the universe as composed of separate objects, each with essentially stable unchanging characteristics. One component of dialectics is abstraction; out of an undifferentiated mass of data or system conceived of as an organic whole, one abstracts portions to think about or to refer to. One may abstract objects, but also—and more typically—relations, and processes of change. An abstraction may be extensive or narrow, may focus on generalities or specifics, and may be made from various points of view. For example, a sale may be abstracted from a buyer's or a seller's point of view, and one may abstract a particular sale or sales in general. Another component is the dialectical deduction of categories. Marx uses Hegel's notion of "categories", which are "forms", for economics: The commodity "form", the money "form", the capital "form" etc. have to be systematically deduced instead of being grasped in an outward way as done by the bourgeois economists. This corresponds to Hegel's critique of Kant's transcendental philosophy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42824033 | 753,584 |
2,169,066 | The Green Chemistry initiative aims to regulate the creation and use of materials hazardous to human health and the environment by encouraging innovative design and manufacturing, and ultimately safer consumer product alternatives. To develop the regulatory framework, DTSC held a number of stakeholder and public workshops and invited direct public participation in the drafting of regulations on a wiki website. DTSC reportedly received over 57,000 comments and over 800 regulatory suggestions. Regulatory suggestions included industry assessments of risk and safety, alternative chemicals and life-cycle assessments and mandatory industry reporting, full public disclosure of substances contained in products, a green labelling program that would inform consumers of the potential health and environmental impacts of the chemicals contained in products and a mandated surcharge on chemicals and products to support a fund to address environmental problems. In December 2008, DTSC announced six policy recommendations for the Green Chemistry Initiative. In brief, those recommendations are: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31677000 | 2,167,829 |
2,156,457 | As many vaccines were being mass produced, besides being administered in their own country, they were also being sold to other countries who were in need of vaccines. However, soon after some of these vaccines were being administered, there were following side effects that possibly posed a threat to all those receiving it. One example would be the Oxford-AstraZeneca vaccine that was approved for emergency use by the European Medicines Agency on January 12, 2021. After some patients received the vaccine, they developed unusual blood clots along with low blood platelet levels (thrombocytopenia). There were recorded cases of blood clots in veins in the brain (cerebral venous sinus thrombosis), in the abdomen (splanchnic vein thrombosis), and in other arteries as well. As soon as these cases emerged, many countries such as Germany, France, Italy, Spain, etc. had immediately paused the use of the Oxford-AstraZeneca vaccine and put the vaccine under investigation. As of March 31, 2021 in just the United Kingdom, there were 79 recorded cases of blood clots in which 19 of them were fatal. After investigation, the EMA had decided that the benefits of the vaccine outweighed the risks and approved the continuation of the vaccine but advised caution to those who were receiving it. This was decided based on the statistics showing that there were only 19 fatal cases out of more than 25 million people who had already received it worldwide. Many countries in Europe have also resumed administering the vaccine but put restrictions on it. This includes Germany who limited it to people over age 60 and France who limited it to people over age 55. This was because most cases of blood clots occurred in women who were under the age of 55. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=63936969 | 2,155,226 |
2,003,593 | AGPs are found in a wide range of plant tissues, in secretions of cell culture medium of root, leaf, endosperm and embryo tissues, and some exudate producing cell types such as stylar canal cells. AGPs have been shown to regulate many aspects of plant growth and development including male-female recognition in reproduction organs, cell division and differentiation in embryo and post-embryo development, seed mucilage cell wall development, root salt tolerance and root-microbe interactions. These studies suggest that they are multifunctional, similar to what is found in mammalian proteoglycans/glycoproteins. Conventional methods to study functions of AGPs include the use of "β"-glycosyl (usually glucosyl) Yariv reagents and monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). "β"-Glycosyl Yariv reagents are synthetic phenylazo glycoside probes that specifically, but not covalently, bind to AGPs and can be used to precipitate AGPs from solution. They are also used commonly as histochemical stains to probe the locations and distribution of AGPs. A number of studies have shown that addition of "β"-Yariv reagents to plant growth medium can inhibit seedling growth, cell elongation, block somatic embryogenesis and fresh cell wall mass accumulation. The use of mAbs that specifically bind to carbohydrate epitopes of AGPs have also been employed to infer functions based on the location and pattern of the AGP epitopes. Commonly used mAb against AGPs include CCRC-M7, LM2, JIM8, JIM13 and JIM14. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25280550 | 2,002,445 |
40,697 | Macmillan writes that this conclusion is reinforced by the responsibilities and challenges associated with stagecoach work such as that done by Gage in Chile, including the requirement that drivers "be reliable, resourceful, and possess great endurance. But above all, they had to have the kind of personality that enabled them to get on well with their passengers." A day's work for Gage meant "a 13-hour journey over 100 miles [160km] of poor roads, often in times of political instability or frank revolution. All thisin a land to whose language and customs Phineas arrived an utter strangermilitates as much against permanent disinhibition [i.e. an inability to plan and self-regulate] as do the extremely complex sensory-motor and cognitive skills required of a coach driver." (An American visitor wrote: "The departure of the coach was always a great event at Valparaisoa crowd of ever-astonished Chilenos assembling every day to witness the phenomenon of one man driving six horses.") | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=386986 | 40,682 |
1,038,755 | Structuralist economics is an approach to economics that emphasizes the importance of taking into account structural features (typically) when undertaking economic analysis. The approach originated with the work of the Economic Commission for Latin America (ECLA or CEPAL) and is primarily associated with its director Raúl Prebisch and Brazilian economist Celso Furtado. Prebisch began with arguments that economic inequality and distorted development was an inherent structural feature of the global system exchange. As such, early structuralist models emphasised both internal and external disequilibria arising from the productive structure and its interactions with the dependent relationship developing countries had with the developed world. Prebisch himself helped provide the rationale for the idea of Import substitution industrialization, in the wake of the Great Depression and World War II. The alleged declining terms of trade of the developing countries, the Singer–Prebisch hypothesis, played a key role in this. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15259112 | 1,038,214 |
877,644 | In industrialized countries such as the United Kingdom, those of Western Europe, and the United States, the fertility rate has declined below or near the population replacement rate of two children per woman. Women are having children at a later age, and most notably, an increasing number of women are choosing not to bear children at all. According to the U.S. Census Bureau's American Community Survey, 46% of women aged 15 to 44 were childless in June 2008 compared to 35% of childless women in 1976. The personal freedoms of a childless lifestyle and the ability to focus on other relationships were common motivations underlying the decision to be voluntarily childless. Such personal freedoms included increased autonomy and improved financial positions. The couple could engage in more spontaneous activities because they did not need a babysitter or to consult with someone else. Women had more time to devote to their careers and hobbies. Regarding other relationships, some women chose to forgo children because they wanted to maintain the "type of intimacy that they found fulfilling" with their partners. Although voluntary childlessness was a joint decision for many couples, "studies have found that women were more often the primary decision makers. There is also some evidence that when one partner (either male or female) was ambivalent, a strong desire not to have children on the side of the other partner was often the deciding factor." 'Not finding a suitable partner at an appropriate time in life" was another deciding factor, particularly for ambivalent women. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=69688 | 877,182 |
904,609 | The aquatic lifestyle of cetaceans first began in the Indian subcontinent from even-toed ungulates 50 million years ago, over a period of at least 15 million years, but a jawbone discovered in Antarctica may reduce this to 5 million years. Archaeoceti is an extinct parvorder of Cetacea containing ancient whales. The traditional hypothesis of cetacean evolution, first proposed by Van Valen in 1966, was that whales were related to the mesonychids, an extinct order of carnivorous ungulates (hoofed animals) that resembled wolves with hooves and were a sister group of the artiodactyls (even-toed ungulates). This hypothesis was proposed due to similarities between the unusual triangular teeth of the mesonychids and those of early whales. However, molecular phylogeny data indicates that whales are very closely related to the artiodactyls, with hippopotamuses as their closest living relative. Because of this observation, cetaceans and hippopotamuses are placed in the same suborder, Whippomorpha. Cetartiodactyla (formed from the words Cetacea and Artiodactyla) is a proposed name for an order that includes both cetaceans and artiodactyls. However, the earliest anthracotheres, the ancestors of hippos, do not appear in the fossil record until the Middle Eocene, millions of years after "Pakicetus", whereas the first known whale ancestor appeared during the Early Eocene; this difference in timing implies that the two groups diverged well before the Eocene. Molecular analysis identifies artiodactyls as being very closely related to cetaceans, so mesonychids are probably an offshoot from Artiodactyla, and cetaceans did not derive directly from mesonychids, but the two groups may share a common ancestor. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=875148 | 904,133 |
1,922,602 | Non-traditional adhesion molecules, such as the ephrins, also help stabilize synaptic contacts. Eph receptors and their membrane bound ligands, the ephrins, are involved in a variety of cellular processes during development and maturation including axon guidance, neuronal migration, synaptogenesis, and axon pruning. In the hippocampus, dendritic spine morphology may be regulated by astrocytes via bi-directional ephrin/EphA signaling. Astrocytes and their processes express ephrin A3, whereas the EphA4 receptor is enriched in hippocampal neurons. This interaction, mediated by ephrin A3/EphA4 signaling, induces the recruitment and activation of cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (Cdk5), which then phosphorylates the guanine exchange factor (GEF), ephexin1. Phosphorylated ephexin1 can then activate the small GTPase, RhoA, leading to subsequent activation of its effector, Rho-kinase (ROCK), which results in the rearrangement of actin filaments. Through this mechanism, astrocytic processes are able to stabilize individual dendritic protrusions as well as their maturation into spines via ephrin/EphA signaling. Forward signaling involving the activation of EphA4 results in the stabilization of synaptic proteins at the neuromuscular junction. As in the EphA4/ephrinA3-mediated neuron–glia interaction, this process regulates dynamics of the actin cytoskeleton by activating ROCK through ephexin. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=56806820 | 1,921,499 |
1,423,162 | Marine currents can carry large amounts of water, largely driven by the tides, which are a consequence of the gravitational effects of the planetary motion of the Earth, the Moon and the Sun. Augmented flow velocities can be found where the underwater topography in straits between islands and the mainland or in shallows around headlands plays a major role in enhancing the flow velocities, resulting in appreciable kinetic energy. The Sun acts as the primary driving force, causing winds and temperature differences. Because there are only small fluctuations in current speed and stream location with minimal changes in direction, ocean currents may be suitable locations for deploying energy extraction devices such as turbines. Other effects such as regional differences in temperature and salinity and the Coriolis effect due to the rotation of the earth are also major influences. The kinetic energy of marine currents can be converted in much the same way that a wind turbine extracts energy from the wind, using various types of open-flow rotors. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6988041 | 1,422,361 |
61,896 | This definition ensures the complementarity of p-values and alpha-levels. If we set the significance level alpha to 0.05, and only reject the null hypothesis if the p-value is less than or equal to 0.05, then our hypothesis test will indeed have significance level (maximal type 1 error rate) 0.05. As Neyman wrote: “The error that a practising statistician would consider the more important to avoid (which is a subjective judgment) is called the error of the first kind. The first demand of the mathematical theory is to deduce such test criteria as would ensure that the probability of committing an error of the first kind would equal (or approximately equal, or not exceed) a preassigned number α, such as α = 0.05 or 0.01, etc. This number is called the level of significance”; Neyman 1976, p. 161 in "The Emergence of Mathematical Statistics: A Historical Sketch with Particular Reference to the United States","On the History of Statistics and Probability", ed. D.B. Owen, New York: Marcel Dekker, pp. 149-193. See also "Confusion Over Measures of Evidence (p's) Versus Errors (a's) in Classical Statistical Testing", Raymond Hubbard and M. J. Bayarri, The American Statistician, August 2003, Vol. 57, No 3, 171--182 (with discussion). For a concise modern statement see Chapter 10 of "All of Statistics: A Concise Course in Statistical Inference", Springer; 1st Corrected ed. 20 edition (September 17, 2004). Larry Wasserman. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=554994 | 61,871 |
12,840 | According to Egyptian General El-Gamasy, "On the initiative of the operations staff, we reviewed the situation on the ground and developed a framework for the planned offensive operation. We studied the technical characteristics of the Suez Canal, the ebb and the flow of the tides, the speed of the currents and their direction, hours of darkness and of moonlight, weather conditions, and related conditions in the Mediterranean and Red sea." He explained further by saying: "Saturday 6 October 1973 (10 Ramadan 1393) was the day chosen for the September–October option. Conditions for a crossing were good, it was a fast day in Israel, and the moon on that day, 10 Ramadan, shone from sunset until midnight." The war coincided that year with the Muslim month of Ramadan, when many Muslim soldiers fast. On the other hand, the fact that the attack was launched on Yom Kippur may have "helped" Israel to more easily marshal reserves from their homes and synagogues because roads and communication lines were largely open, easing the mobilization and transportation of the military. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=34276 | 12,835 |
1,777,916 | A famous study investigated the Identification blindsight effect with individuals who had suffered damage to one-half of the visual cortex and was blind in the opposite half of the visual field. It was discovered that when objects or pictures were shown to these blind areas, the participants said that they saw no object or picture, but a certain number were able to identify the stimulus as either a cross or circle when asked to guess at a considerably higher rate than would have been expected by chance. The reason that this happened is that the information was able to be processed through the first three stages of selection, organization, and interpretation or comprehension of the perceptual cycle but failed at only the last stage of retention and memory where the identified image is entered into their awareness. Thus stimuli can enter implicit memory even when people are unable to consciously perceive them. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10271359 | 1,776,914 |
772,997 | Rovelli won the second prize in the 2013 FQXi contest "It From Bit or Bit From It?" for his essay about "relative information". His paper, "Relative Information at the Foundation of Physics", discusses how "Shannon’s notion of relative information between two physical systems can function as [a] foundation for statistical mechanics and quantum mechanics, without referring to subjectivism or idealism...[This approach can] represent a key missing element in the foundation of the naturalistic picture of the world." In 2017, Rovelli elaborated further upon the subject of relative information, writing that: In nature, variables are not independent; for instance, in any magnet, the two ends have opposite polarities. Knowing one amounts to knowing the other. So we can say that each end “has information” about the other. There is nothing mental in this; it is just a way of saying that there is a necessary relation between the polarities of the two ends. We say that there is "relative information" between two systems anytime the state of one is constrained by the state of the other. In this precise sense, physical systems may be said to have information about one another, with no need for a mind to play any role. Such "relative information" is ubiquitous in nature: The colour of the light carries information about the object the light has bounced from; a virus has information about the cell it may attach, and neurons have information about one another. Since the world is a knit tangle of interacting events, it teems with relative information. When this information is exploited for survival, extensively elaborated by our brain, and may be coded in a language understood by a community, it becomes mental, and it acquires the semantic weight that we commonly attribute to the notion of information. But the basic ingredient is down there in the physical world: physical correlation between distinct variables. The physical world is not a set of self-absorbed entities that do their selfish things. It is a tightly knitted net of relative information, where everybody’s state reflects somebody else’s state. We understand physical, chemical, biological, social, political, astrophysical, and cosmological systems in terms of these nets of relations, not in terms of individual behaviour. Physical relative information is a powerful basic concept for describing the world. Before “energy,” “matter,” or even “entity.” | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=474202 | 772,581 |
1,865,870 | In the late 70s Graf co-discovered several cell-derived oncogenes acquired by avian retroviruses, designated "Mac" (later changed into "Myc"), "Erb" and "Myb". He found that several naturally occurring virus strains have acquired various pairwise combinations of oncogenes and that these cooperate to cause acute leukemia, an early example for the multigenic origin of cancers. He also showed that the transcription factor "Myb" can reversibly block the differentiation of white blood cells, one of the first demonstrations of induced cell fate changes. In his more recent research he showed that different types of specialized blood cells can be induced to convert into each other by forced transcription factor expression. In 1995 he pioneered this technique permitting the transdifferentiation of white blood cells into red blood cell precursors and vice versa induced by Gata1 and PU.1, respectively. Later (2004) he managed to convert B lymphocytes into functional macrophages, using C/EBPa as a driver. Using the same approach he was also first to induce a conversion of more distantly related cells, namely that of non-blood cells into macrophages. Finally, he found that forced C/EBPa expression in malignant lymphocyte precursors leads to the formation of macrophages and loss of tumorigenicity, suggesting transdifferentiation as an alternative avenue for therapeutic interventions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54480361 | 1,864,797 |
221,248 | In addition, other steps can be taken for safety. For example, power plants licensed in the United States require a negative void coefficient of reactivity (this means that if coolant is removed from the reactor core, the nuclear reaction will tend to shut down, not increase). This eliminates the possibility of the type of accident that occurred at Chernobyl (which was due to a positive void coefficient). However, nuclear reactors are still capable of causing smaller explosions even after complete shutdown, such as was the case of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster. In such cases, residual decay heat from the core may cause high temperatures if there is loss of coolant flow, even a day after the chain reaction has been shut down (see SCRAM). This may cause a chemical reaction between water and fuel that produces hydrogen gas, which can explode after mixing with air, with severe contamination consequences, since fuel rod material may still be exposed to the atmosphere from this process. However, such explosions do not happen during a chain reaction, but rather as a result of energy from radioactive beta decay, after the fission chain reaction has been stopped. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22133 | 221,139 |
1,345,496 | The U25B (nicknamed "U-Boat") was the first commercially successful domestic diesel electric road locomotive designed, built, and sold by General Electric after its split with the American Locomotive Company (Alco), a company dating back to the steam era. GE had developed internal combustion-electric generating, control, and drive systems in the early 1920s, which provided the foundation for the use of internal combustion engines in railroading. Early applications were in motorized railcars and switch engines. The 1930s saw that technology adapted to high speed mainline locomotives. In 1940 GE partnered with Alco, who by that time were well-established as a manufacturer of diesel switch engines and were introducing their first diesel road locomotives. They were successful in building locomotives for switching and short-haul applications, having introduced the first road-switcher design in 1941 (which would supplant the carbody design developed by the Electro-Motive Corporation by the mid-1950s) and gained a 26% market share as of 1946. Alco-GE's efforts in main line road locomotives had not been successful at breaking into EMD's dominant position in that market, although they introduced a successful gas turbine-electric locomotive to market in 1952. In 1953 GE went independent from Alco in locomotive production, with their new subsidiary GE Rail taking over the gas turbine-electric venture while they sought a supplier of more reliable diesel engines suitable for road locomotives. Production of Cooper-Bessemer powered Universal Series locomotives began in 1956 and some 400 export locomotives were sold before the U25B was offered in the United States. The U25B was announced by General Electric as a domestic model on April 26, 1960. It was the first locomotive powered by GE's highly successful FDL-16 engine. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=909566 | 1,344,756 |
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