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480,416 | The JMA has its own 624 observation stations across the country that set up at intervals of 20 km approximately in order to measure seismic intensity of earthquakes precisely. The agency also utilize about 2,900 more seismographs owned by the National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention (NIED) and local governments. A 24-hour office has been housed within the JMA headquarters in Tokyo, for monitoring and tracking seismic events in the vicinity of Japan to collect and process their data, which issues observed earthquake's information on its hypocenter, magnitude, seismic intensity and possibility of tsunami occurrence after quakes quickly to the public through the Earthquake Phenomena Observation System (EPOS). The Earthquake Early Warning (EEW) system began to work fully for the general public on October 1, 2007. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=457886 | 480,172 |
5,294 | In early 2001, Elon Musk donated $100,000 to the Mars Society and joined its board of directors for a short time. He was offered a plenary talk at their convention where he announced "Mars Oasis", a project to land a miniature experimental greenhouse and grow plants on Mars, to revive public interest in space exploration. Musk initially attempted to acquire a Dnepr ICBM for the project through Russian contacts from Jim Cantrell. However two months later, the United States withdrew from the ABM Treaty and created the Missile Defense Agency, increasing tensions with Russia and generating new strategic interest for rapid and re-usable launch capability similar to the DC-X. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=832774 | 5,291 |
1,151,367 | Classification for swimming relied on a points system to assess the severity of physical disability without considering athlete functionality specifically as it applied to the ability to swim a particular stroke. This caused problems because certain types of disability had a greater negative impact on swimming than others, and the point system did not directly address functional ability. To address this, in 1990 point consideration was eliminated for disability types that did not impact performance. The IPC decided to reduce the number of classifications, and to try to fix classification so that competitors could have more certainty in which classification they would compete in before attending an event. This was a major change, as previously, athletes would be classified immediately before, and even during, an event. As a result, the number of swimming classifications dropped from 31 at Seoul in 1988 to 10 at the 1992 Summer Paralympics in Barcelona. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=36583541 | 1,150,760 |
953,338 | In 1835 Edgar Allan Poe published a short story, "The Unparalleled Adventure of One Hans Pfaall" in which a flight to the moon in a balloon is described. It has an account of the launch, the construction of the cabin, descriptions of strata and many more science-like aspects. In addition to Poe's account the story written in 1813 by the Dutch Willem Bilderdijk is remarkable. In his novel "Kort verhaal van eene aanmerkelijke luchtreis en nieuwe planeetontdekking" (Short account of a remarkable journey into the skies and discovery of a new planet) Bilderdijk tells of a European somewhat stranded in an Arabic country where he boasts he is able to build a balloon that can lift people and let them fly through the air. The gasses used turn out to be far more powerful than expected and after a while he lands on a planet positioned between earth and moon. The writer uses the story to portray an overview of scientific knowledge concerning the moon in all sorts of aspects the traveller to that place would encounter. Quite a few similarities can be found in the story Poe published some twenty years later. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3387802 | 952,833 |
797,432 | If one material is more soluble in the solvent than the other, it will deposit first on top of the substrate, causing a concentration gradient through the film. This has been demonstrated for poly-3-hexyl thiophene (P3HT), phenyl-C-butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM) devices where the PCBM tends to accumulate towards the device's bottom upon spin coating from ODCB solutions. This effect is seen because the more soluble component tends to migrate towards the "solvent rich" phase during the coating procedure, accumulating the more soluble component towards the film's bottom, where the solvent remains longer. The thickness of the generated film affects the phases segregation because the dynamics of crystallization and precipitation are different for more concentrated solutions or faster evaporation rates (needed to build thicker devices). Crystalline P3HT enrichment closer to the hole-collecting electrode can only be achieved for relatively thin (100 nm) P3HT/PCBM layers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18397250 | 797,007 |
202,029 | In 1924, French quantum physicist Louis de Broglie published his thesis, in which he introduced a revolutionary theory of electron waves based on wave–particle duality. In his time, the wave and particle interpretations of light and matter were seen as being at odds with one another, but de Broglie suggested that these seemingly different characteristics were instead the same behavior observed from different perspectives — that particles can behave like waves, and waves (radiation) can behave like particles. Broglie's proposal offered an explanation of the restricted motion of electrons within the atom. The first publications of Broglie's idea of "matter waves" had drawn little attention from other physicists, but a copy of his doctoral thesis chanced to reach Einstein, whose response was enthusiastic. Einstein stressed the importance of Broglie's work both explicitly and by building further on it. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1416046 | 201,926 |
2,094,872 | The Department of Environment and Natural Resources, was established in 1998 (Presidential Decree 96/98) and began operations in Agrinio the academic year 1998–1999. In the first year of operation of the Department enrolled 67 students. Today, the total number of active students of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources is the 618 for the first 9 years of study and 240 graduates. The total number of students during the academic year 2008–2009 was about 1441, and introduced last year 140.O purpose of establishing and operating the new Department was the promotion of environmental science, with special emphasis on environmental management and natural resources, training of scientists able to study, investigate (academic and applied teaching and research), understand and apply modern methods to improve the protection and management of natural and human environment and knowledge of use of modern technologies for address environmental problems. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=35582262 | 2,093,664 |
1,614,180 | Double mass analysis is a simple graphical method to evaluate the consistency of hydrological data. The DM approach plots the cumulative data of one variable against the cumulative data of a second variable. A break in the slope of a linear function fit to the data is thought to represent a change in the relation between the variables. This approach provides a robust method to determine a change in the behavior of precipitation and recharge in a simple graphical method. It is a commonly used data analysis approach for investigating the behaviour of records made of hydrological or meteorological data at a number of locations. It is used to determine whether there is a need for corrections to the data - to account for changes in data collection procedures or other local conditions. Such changes may result from a variety of things including changes in instrumentation, changes in observation procedures, or changes in gauge location or surrounding conditions. Double mass analysis for checking consistency of a hydrological or meteorological record is considered to be an essential tool before taking it for analysis purpose. This method is based on the hypothesis that each item of the recorded data of a population is consistent. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19176602 | 1,613,274 |
1,238,265 | From these experiments came an understanding of the role played by conductors and insulators (names applied by Desaguliers). Two French scientists, Abbe Nollet and C.F. du Fay, visited Gray and Wheler in 1732, saw the experiment, and returned to France where du Fay formulated the first comprehensive theory of electricity called the "two-fluid" theory. This theory was championed by Nollet and accepted by most experimenters in Europe for a time; later it was refined and then superseded by the ideas of the English experimenters John Bevis and William Watson, who was in correspondence with Benjamin Franklin's group in Philadelphia. They jointly devised a theory of a single-fluid/two-state: virtually, the super-abundance or absence of one fluid, which Watson later termed positive and negative. These ideas fitted the facts slightly better than the two-fluid concept, especially after the invention of the Leyden Jar, and this single-fluid theory eventually prevailed. We now know that both were almost equally incorrect. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=392489 | 1,237,599 |
138,209 | After graduation, Korolev worked with some of the best Soviet designers at the 4th Experimental Section aircraft design bureau OPO-4 headed by who emigrated to the USSR from France in the 1920s. He did not stand out in this group, but while so employed he also worked independently to design a glider capable of performing aerobatics. In 1930 he became interested in the possibilities of liquid-fueled rocket engines to propel airplanes, while working at the Central Aerohydrodynamic Institute (TsAGI) as a lead engineer on the Tupolev TB-3 heavy bomber. Korolev earned his pilot's license in 1930 and explored the operational limits of the aircraft he piloted, wondering what was beyond his plane's altitude limit and how he could get there. Many believe this was the start of his interest in space. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=86655 | 138,153 |
1,726,823 | Nanoparticles are created by EWM when the ambient gas of the system cools the recently produced vaporous metal. EWM can be used to cheaply and efficiently produce nanoparticles at a rate of 50 – 300 grams per hour and at a purity of above 99 %. The process requires a relatively low energy consumption as little energy is lost in an electric to thermal energy conversion. Environmental effects are minimal due to the process taking place in a closed system. The Particles can be as small as 10 nm but are most commonly below 100 nm in diameter. Physical attributes of the nanopowder can be altered depending on the parameters of the explosion. For example, as the voltage of the capacitor is raised, the particle diameter decreases. Also, the pressure of the gas environment can change the dispersiveness of the nanoparticles. Through such manipulations the functionality of the nanopowder may be altered. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44391001 | 1,725,852 |
1,924,179 | TP-53 (Figure 6) is a gene that encodes for the protein p53; this protein is a tumor suppressor. p53 was discovered in 1979 stemming from a study involving cancer immunology and the role of viruses in some cancers. The protein was so named because it was measured to have a weight of 53 kDa. This study was conducted by David Philip Lane and technician Alan K. Roberts, in Lionel V. Crawford's lab in London. It was seen in this study that p53 could bind to viral tumor antigens. This information was corroborated during the same year when a separate study found that p53 had immunoreactivity with serum from tumors containing antibodies. This later study was run by Daniel I. H. Linzer and Arnold J. Levine out of Princeton University. Further papers came out around the same time all mentioning the discovery of a tumor suppressing protein. While p53 was first officially identified in 1979, many labs in previous years had come across the same protein, without knowing what it was. In the mid-1970s, a scientist by the name of Peter Tegtmeyer happened upon a protein with an approximate size of 50 kDa. However, because he was focusing his studies on SV40, a tumor-causing virus affecting monkeys and humans, he did not pay much attention to this protein. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=34556489 | 1,923,076 |
1,690,898 | After settling in Baltimore, Rowland focused on two important pieces of work. One was a redetermination of the ohm. For this he obtained a value which was substantially different from that ascertained by the committee of the British Association appointed for the purpose, but ultimately he had the satisfaction of seeing his own result accepted as the more correct of the two. The other was a new determination of the mechanical equivalent of heat. In this he used J. P. Joule's paddle-wheel method, though with many improvements, the whole apparatus being on a larger scale and the experiments being conducted over a wider range of temperature. He obtained a result distinctly higher than Joule's final figure. Additionally, he made many valuable observations on the thermodynamics involved, and on the variation of the specific heat of water, which Joule had assumed to be the same at all temperatures. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=747120 | 1,689,951 |
2,057,266 | The temporal distribution of microbial community composition in the Antarctic and Arctic sea ice does not present significant seasonal variability, despite extremes in environmental conditions. Previous studies of sea ice habitats have shown that the composition of SIMCO in early fall is identical to the source seawater community. The microbial community composition does not seem to change significantly in fall and winter, despite the extreme variability in irradiance, temperature, salinity and nutrient concentrations. In contrast, the abundance within the SIMCO is reduced throughout the winter as resources become limiting. Studies have shown that sea ice microalgae provide a platform and organic nutrient source for bacterial growth, therefore increasing community diversity and abundance. It has also been proven that microbes produce extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) to help retain nutrients and survive under high salinity and low temperature conditions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=56980406 | 2,056,082 |
1,621,936 | Bernhard Siegfried Albinus was born at Frankfurt on the Oder where his father, Bernhard Albinus (1653–1721), was professor of the practice of medicine. In 1702 the latter was transferred to the chair of medicine at Leiden University, and it was there that Bernhard Siegfried began his studies in 1709, at the age of 12, having for his teachers such men as Boerhaave and Govert Bidloo. Having finished his studies at Leiden, he went to Paris in 1718, where, under the instruction of Sébastien Vaillant (1669–1722), Jacob Winslow (1669–1760) and Frederik Ruysch, he devoted himself especially to anatomy and botany. After a year's absence he was, on the recommendation of Boerhaave, recalled in 1719 to Leiden to be a lecturer on anatomy and surgery. Two years later, after Johannes Jacobus Rau (1668 - 1719) the former rector of the medical school died on 29 June 1719, Albinus received his position in 1721, and succeeded his father in the professorship of these subjects, and became a teacher of anatomy, his classroom being resorted to not only by students but by many practising physicians. In 1745 Albinus was appointed professor of the practice of medicine, being succeeded in the anatomical chair by his brother Frederick Bernhard (1715–1778), who, as well as another brother, Christian Bernhard (1700–1752), attained distinction. Bernhard Siegfried, who was twice rector of his university, died at Leiden. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=499044 | 1,621,020 |
1,059,875 | In 1919, "Wittelsbach" and "Schwaben" were converted into depot ships for F-type minesweepers, since Germany was required by the Treaty of Versailles to clear the extensive minefields that had been laid in the North Sea during the war. The entire class, with the exception of "Zähringen", were struck from the navy list after the end of World War I. "Mecklenburg" was struck on 27 January 1920, "Wettin" followed on 11 March 1920, and "Wittelsbach" and "Schwaben" were struck on 8 March 1921. The four ships were broken up in 1921–1922. "Zähringen" was initially used as a storage hulk in the 1920s and was converted into a radio-controlled target ship in 1926–1927. The superstructure was cut down extensively; her hull was subdivided, filled with cork, and sealed to improve its resistance to flooding. Royal Air Force bombers sank the ship in Gotenhafen in 1944 during World War II, and the wreck was broken up in 1949–1950. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10865837 | 1,059,324 |
1,837,902 | Over the years, there has been much contention over this classification, however. The first was Schanderl in 1936 who claimed that the genus "Cladosporium" was more fitting than "Zasmidium". Though "Cladosporiums" can be common indoor molds with brown or black colonies and have dark, pigmented conidia, that is where the similarities with "Z." "cellare" end. "Cladosporiums" usually exist on plant material and their spores are often air dispersed, having a large abundance in outdoor environments, which simply isn't the case for "Z. cellare." The second and third claim that "Z. cellare" was characterized incorrectly both occurred in 1971 by M. B. Ellis and Hawksworth who proposed "Rhinocladiella" "cellaris" and "Rhinocladiella ellisii", respectively. Hawksworth along with Riedl in 1977 re-proposed "Rhinocladiella ellisii", but in 1979 was criticized by De Hoog as the genus "Rhinocladiella" characterized "Z. cellare's" asexual (conidial) form of which the fungus rarely presents in and decided that "Z. cellare" was the most appropriate name for this species. To prevent any further contention, de Hoog amended the genus "Zasmidium" to include fungi with undifferentiated conidiogenous cells with wavy branches, ""denticulate rachis"," and pigmented scars. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=51685197 | 1,836,853 |
283,877 | Based on Bethe's intuition and fundamental papers on the subject by Shin'ichirō Tomonaga, Julian Schwinger, Richard Feynman and Freeman Dyson, it was finally possible to get fully covariant formulations that were finite at any order in a perturbation series of quantum electrodynamics. Shin'ichirō Tomonaga, Julian Schwinger and Richard Feynman were jointly awarded with the 1965 Nobel Prize in Physics for their work in this area. Their contributions, and those of Freeman Dyson, were about covariant and gauge-invariant formulations of quantum electrodynamics that allow computations of observables at any order of perturbation theory. Feynman's mathematical technique, based on his diagrams, initially seemed very different from the field-theoretic, operator-based approach of Schwinger and Tomonaga, but Freeman Dyson later showed that the two approaches were equivalent. Renormalization, the need to attach a physical meaning at certain divergences appearing in the theory through integrals, has subsequently become one of the fundamental aspects of quantum field theory and has come to be seen as a criterion for a theory's general acceptability. Even though renormalization works very well in practice, Feynman was never entirely comfortable with its mathematical validity, even referring to renormalization as a "shell game" and "hocus pocus". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25268 | 283,724 |
541,297 | Each game in the series asks players to complete tests in which they must answer questions or solve minigame-style puzzle activities in order to calculate and measure the "mass" and "age" of their brain. Minigames are designed to test player's memory, logic, math, and analysis skills, with each one being able to be completed in under a minute. Some tasks that have appeared in several entries in the series include being asked to spot differences between images, ordering numbers from lowest to highest, and repeating a given order. A multiplayer component has also been available in every "Big Brain Academy" game, however the Nintendo DS game only supports local play and not online multiplayer. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=69079838 | 541,017 |
1,922,830 | John Tooze was born and grew up in a terraced house on Thornbury Road in Perry Barr, Birmingham where he attended Thornbury Road Primary school. At his second attempt he passed the grammar school entrance exam and joined Handsworth Grammar School in Birmingham. In 1955 in the 6th form he won a State Scholarship and an Open Scholarship from Jesus College, Cambridge (BA, 1961). After leaving Handsworth School in 1955 he decided to spend 6 months working as a laborer in the cooperage of Ansells Brewery, Aston while waiting to begin two years of military service in the Royal Army Educational Corps in September 1956. He was discharged as a sergeant in September 1958 and after obtaining his BA from University of Cambridge he went on to earn a PhD in biophysics from King's College London in 1965 studying in the department where Maurice Wilkins and John Randall worked. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=49798027 | 1,921,727 |
446,082 | In 2014, "Inside Higher Education" described the philosophy "...discipline’s own long history of misogyny and sexual harassment." On March 28, 2011, the blog "New APPS" published a post examining the allegations of persistent sexual harassment faced by women professors in philosophy, due largely to "serial harassers" continuing to work in the field despite widespread knowledge of their actions. The post proposed that, since institutional procedures seemed to have been ineffective at removing or punishing harassers, philosophers should socially shun known offenders. The story was subsequently featured at "Inside Higher Ed" and several blogs, including Gawker and Jezebel. In 2013, a series of posts on the blog "What's it like to be a woman in philosophy?" instigated a spate of mainstream media articles on the continued dominance of men in philosophy. Eric Schliesser, a professor of philosophy at Ghent University, said he believes that the "...systematic pattern of exclusion of women in philosophy is, in part, due to the fact that my profession has allowed a culture of harassment, sexual predating, and bullying to be reproduced from one generation to the next." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5694046 | 445,866 |
958,094 | The device operates using a cutting action of an infrared laser. As the laser emits a radiation in the near infrared, in this wavelength regime the laser can interact with biological materials. Through sharp focusing of the probe within the sample, a focal point of very high intensity, up to TW/cm, can be achieved. Through the non-linear interaction of the optical penetration in the focal region a material separation in a process known as photo-disruption is introduced. By limiting the laser pulse durations to the femtoseconds range, the energy expended at the target region is precisely controlled, thereby limiting the interaction zone of the cut to under a micrometre. External to this zone the ultra-short beam application time introduces minimal to no thermal damage to the remainder of the sample. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1513277 | 957,588 |
1,272,460 | In October 1952, the General Assembly of the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) adopted a proposal to undertake simultaneous observations of geophysical phenomena over the entire surface of the Earth. The International Geophysical Year (IGY), set for 1957–58, would involve the efforts of a multitude of nations in such farflung regions as the Arctic and Antarctica. In January 1955, Radio Moscow announced that the Soviet Union might be expected to launch a satellite in the near future. This announcement galvanized American space efforts; in the same month, the National Academy of Sciences' IGY committee established a Technical Panel on Rocketry to evaluate plans to orbit an American satellite. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1277086 | 1,271,769 |
481,603 | Quartz crystal resonators are many orders of magnitude more stable than LC circuits and when used to control the frequency of the local oscillator offer adequate stability to keep a receiver in tune. However the resonant frequency of a crystal is determined by its dimensions and cannot be varied to tune the receiver to different frequencies. One solution is to employ many crystals, one for each frequency desired, and switch the correct one into the circuit. This "brute force" technique is practical when only a handful of frequencies are required, but quickly becomes costly and impractical in many applications. For example, the FM radio band in many countries supports 100 individual channel frequencies from about 88 MHz to 108 MHz; the ability to tune in each channel would require 100 crystals. Cable television can support even more frequencies or channels over a much wider band. A large number of crystals increases cost and requires greater space. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10792995 | 481,359 |
1,847,367 | Parker gained recognition from the Royal Society of Chemistry, being awarded, among other prizes, the Corday-Morgan Medal (1987), the Hickinbottom Award (1988), an Interdisciplinary Award (RSC, 1996), a Tilden Lectureship (2003) and the Ludwig Mond Prize and Medal (2011). In 2002 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) and gained the ICI Prize in Organic Chemistry in 1991 and the Lecoq de Boisbaudran prize in rare earth science in 2012. He served as Chairman of the Department of Chemistry at Durham on two occasions before his fiftieth birthday. In 2014, he was made an EPSRC RISE Fellow, recognising inspiration in science and engineering. Over thirty of his former research group members now hold academic positions in leading universities in 15 countries across the world, from Oxford, Dublin and Durham to Sydney, Hong Kong and Johannesburg. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=48698433 | 1,846,310 |
1,683,957 | The first volume, subtitled "The Classical Theories", was initially published in 1951 by Thomas Nelson and Sons. The book is a revision of the original 1910 book, with an added chapter on classical radiation theory, some new material, but remains focused on pre-1900 physics. The book has a similar scope as the first edition, though occasionally modified toward the beginning with more extensive edits towards the end. A reviewer noted that about 80 per cent of the book is a reproduction of the original edition, with revisions accounting for developments over the first forty years of the 20th century throughout. The work covers the development of optics, electricity, and magnetism, with some side-plots in the history of thermodynamics and gravitation, over three centuries, through the close of the nineteenth century. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=65293114 | 1,683,014 |
101,450 | Inside eukaryotic cells, there is a balance between the processes of translation and mRNA decay. Messages that are being actively translated are bound by ribosomes, the eukaryotic initiation factors eIF-4E and eIF-4G, and poly(A)-binding protein. eIF-4E and eIF-4G block the decapping enzyme (DCP2), and poly(A)-binding protein blocks the exosome complex, protecting the ends of the message. The balance between translation and decay is reflected in the size and abundance of cytoplasmic structures known as P-bodies. The poly(A) tail of the mRNA is shortened by specialized exonucleases that are targeted to specific messenger RNAs by a combination of cis-regulatory sequences on the RNA and trans-acting RNA-binding proteins. Poly(A) tail removal is thought to disrupt the circular structure of the message and destabilize the cap binding complex. The message is then subject to degradation by either the exosome complex or the decapping complex. In this way, translationally inactive messages can be destroyed quickly, while active messages remain intact. The mechanism by which translation stops and the message is handed-off to decay complexes is not understood in detail. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20232 | 101,405 |
2,103,228 | President Potter seemed unable to reconcile his earlier innovative ideas with changing student demands and a declining fiscal outlook. He did not produce "effective" results in campaigns to produce private contributions, and his formal long-term planning report was far behind schedule. In addition, his administration was pressured by the Department of Higher Education to execute several faculty cuts which proved very unpopular, and his administration's handling of a subordinate's sexual harassment charges and subsequent lawsuit was inept. Potter's increasing conflicts with the Department of Higher Education lead the Department to put pressure on the Board of Trustees to remove Potter. Board action seemed inevitable, as the Department was implicitly withholding funds for a desperately needed housing project. Potter resigned in February 1984. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29527135 | 2,102,016 |
663,410 | Gross akinetopsia is an extremely rare condition. Patients have profound motion blindness and struggle in performing the activities of daily living. Instead of seeing vision as a cinema reel, these patients have trouble perceiving gross motion. Most of what is known about this extremely rare condition was learned through the case study of one patient, LM. LM described pouring a cup of tea or coffee difficult "because the fluid appeared to be frozen, like a glacier". She did not know when to stop pouring, because she could not perceive the movement of the fluid rising. LM and other patients have also complained of having trouble following conversations, because lip movements and changing facial expressions were missed. LM stated she felt insecure when more than two people were walking around in a room: "people were suddenly here or there but I have not seen them moving". Movement is inferred by comparing the change in position of an object or person. LM and others have described crossing the street and driving cars to also be of great difficulty. LM started to train her hearing to estimate distance. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4437777 | 663,065 |
124,431 | The modern steam turbine was invented in 1884 by Charles Parsons, whose first model was connected to a dynamo that generated of electricity. The invention of Parsons' steam turbine made cheap and plentiful electricity possible and revolutionized marine transport and naval warfare. Parsons' design was a reaction type. His patent was licensed and the turbine scaled-up shortly after by an American, George Westinghouse. The Parsons turbine also turned out to be easy to scale up. Parsons had the satisfaction of seeing his invention adopted for all major world power stations, and the size of generators had increased from his first set up to units of capacity. Within Parsons' lifetime, the generating capacity of a unit was scaled up by about 10,000 times, and the total output from turbo-generators constructed by his firm C. A. Parsons and Company and by their licensees, for land purposes alone, had exceeded thirty million horse-power. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29374 | 124,380 |
1,364,356 | In the 60s and the 70s, school curricula were designed to implement Piaget's ideas in the classroom. For example, in mathematics, teaching must build on the stage sequence of mathematical understanding. Thus, in preschool and early primary (elementary) school, teaching must focus on building the concept of numbers, because concepts are still unstable and uncoordinated. In the late primary school years operations on numbers must be mastered because concrete operational thought provides the mental background for this. In adolescence the relations between numbers and algebra can be taught, because formal operational thought allows for conception and manipulation of abstract and multidimensional concepts. In science teaching, early primary education should familiarize the children with properties of the natural world, late primary education should lead the children to practice exploration and master basic concepts such as space, area, time, weight, volume, etc., and, in adolescence, hypothesis testing, controlled experimentation, and abstract concepts, such as energy, inertia, etc., can be taught. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25076961 | 1,363,600 |
10,066 | The most promising but also the most challenging method of isotope separation was gaseous diffusion. Graham's law states that the rate of effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its molecular mass, so in a box containing a semi-permeable membrane and a mixture of two gases, the lighter molecules will pass out of the container more rapidly than the heavier molecules. The gas leaving the container is somewhat enriched in the lighter molecules, while the residual gas is somewhat depleted. The idea was that such boxes could be formed into a cascade of pumps and membranes, with each successive stage containing a slightly more enriched mixture. Research into the process was carried out at Columbia University by a group that included Harold Urey, Karl P. Cohen, and John R. Dunning. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19603 | 10,062 |
1,023,390 | Although unable to travel to Europe in 1970, Andrews became able to do so in 1976, when he was due to attend a European conference in Strasbourg, near the France-Germany border. He obtained permission and support from Slater, from the Trinity College library, and from his professor, Ben Noble, to visit Cambridge after the conference, in order to investigate the "invaluable" unpublished writings of Watson "et al". Noble agreed, adding that if he could attempt to find a lost paper by James Clerk Maxwell at the same time, it would be appreciated. The library's documents included a list of matters held from Watson's estate. The list included the item: ""A 139 page manuscript by S. Ramanujan on q-series"", containing the work from Ramanujan's final year. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6034957 | 1,022,857 |
1,496,605 | There are some downsides relating to the use of nitrous oxide. It can present as a potential hazard to the operator in charge of administering the gas. It has been shown that continual exposure to nitrous oxide can result in illnesses, such as haematological disorders and reproductive problems. Thus, active or passive scavenging is essential to remove nitrous oxide from the environment. Another disadvantage can be the risk of mouth breathing. Inhalation sedation requires the patient to breath through the nose, which can be especially difficult in very young children or patients with learning difficulties. Additionally, the drug cannot be used alone; it must be used alongside appropriate methods of behaviour management and local anaesthetic. Therefore, the degree of sedation can depend on the efficacy of behavioural techniques and psychological reassurance from the dentist. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=56179746 | 1,495,762 |
1,213,927 | As demonstrated by animals in the wild (the great apes, for example), the offspring is held by the mother immediately after birth without cleaning and is continually exposed to the familiar odor of the amniotic fluid (making the transition from the intrauterine to extrauterine environment less overwhelming). In newborn mammals, the nipple area of the mother is significant as the sole source of necessary nutrients. The maternal olfactory scent that is unique to the mother becomes associated with food intake, and newborns who do not gain access to the mother's breasts would die shortly after birth. As a result, it seems natural selection should favor the development of a means to help in maintain and establish effective breast feeding. Maternal breast odors signal the presence of a food source for the newborn. These breast odors bring forth positive responses in neonates from as young as 1 hour or less through to several weeks postpartum. The mother's olfactory signature is experienced with reinforcing stimuli such as food, warmth and tactile stimulation; enhancing further learning of that cue. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21312304 | 1,213,275 |
2,136,790 | The Thermal and Evolved Gas Analyzer (TEGA) is a scientific instrument aboard the "Phoenix" spacecraft, a Mars lander which landed and operated on the planet Mars in 2008. TEGA's design is based on experience gained from the failed Mars Polar Lander. Soil samples taken from the Martian surface by the robot arm are eventually delivered to the TEGA, where they are heated in an oven to about 1,000 °C. This heat causes the volatile compounds to be given off as gases which are sent to a mass spectrometer for analysis. This spectrometer is adjusted to measure particularly the isotope ratios for oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, and heavier gases. Detection values are as low as 10 parts per billion. The Phoenix TEGA has 8 ovens, which are enough for 8 samples. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=17790199 | 2,135,561 |
1,630,337 | Honavar is on the faculty of Penn State College of Information Sciences and Technology at Pennsylvania State University where he currently holds the Dorothy Foehr Huck and J. Lloyd Huck Chair in Biomedical Data Sciences and Artificial Intelligence and previously held the Edward Frymoyer Endowed Chair in Information Sciences and Technology. He serves on the faculties of the graduate programs in Computer Science, Informatics, Bioinformatics and Genomics, Neuroscience, Operations Research, Public Health Sciences, and of an undergraduate program in Data Science. Honavar serves as the Director of the Artificial Intelligence Research Laboratory, Associate Director of the Institute for Computational and Data Sciences and the Director of the Center for Artificial Intelligence Foundations and Scientific Applications at Pennsylvania State University. Honavar serves on the Leadership Team of the Northeast Big Data Innovation Hub. Honavar served on the Computing Research Association's Computing Community Consortium Council during 2014-2017, where he chaired the task force on Convergence of Data and Computing, and was a member of the task force on Artificial Intelligence. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3487029 | 1,629,417 |
1,870,110 | The AI cloud detection experiment is aimed at validating the performance of the on-board inference engine based on a machine learning algorithm for cloud detection. The inference engine runs on a VPU embedded in the hyperspectral instrument and it will reduce the content of the downloaded data. One of the key issues for hyperspectral instruments in small satellite missions is to simultaneously lower costs while respecting on-board resources (power, mass, etc.) and at the same time to maximize the relevant information to be downlinked by the Ground Segment. Hyperspectral missions typically produced big amounts of information from the observed scenes, such as land, water and ice observations, but sometimes the data cannot be exploited due to the presence of clouds. For instance, more than 30% of the images in Sentinel-2 are cloudy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=64568214 | 1,869,033 |
328,672 | Echoes of the "positivist" and "antipositivist" debate persist today, though this conflict is hard to define. Authors writing in different epistemological perspectives do not phrase their disagreements in the same terms and rarely actually speak directly to each other. To complicate the issues further, few practising scholars explicitly state their epistemological commitments, and their epistemological position thus has to be guessed from other sources such as choice of methodology or theory. However, no perfect correspondence between these categories exists, and many scholars critiqued as "positivists" are actually postpositivists. One scholar has described this debate in terms of the social construction of the "other", with each side defining the other by what it is "not" rather than what it "is", and then proceeding to attribute far greater homogeneity to their opponents than actually exists. Thus, it is better to understand this not as a debate but as two different arguments: the "antipositivist" articulation of a social meta-theory which includes a philosophical critique of scientism, and "positivist" development of a scientific research methodology for sociology with accompanying critiques of the reliability and validity of work that they see as violating such standards. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2871407 | 328,498 |
743,451 | In over 85 countries, US-trained DOs have unlimited practice rights. In 2005, after one year of deliberations, the General Medical Council announced that US-trained DOs will be accepted for full medical practice rights in the United Kingdom. According to Josh Kerr of the AOA, "some countries don’t understand the differences in training between an osteopathic physician and an osteopath." The American Medical Student Association strongly advocates for US-trained DO international practice rights "equal to that" of MD-qualified physicians. The International Labor Organization (ILO), an agency of the United Nations, issued a letter affirming that U.S.-trained osteopathic physicians are fully licensed physicians who prescribe medication and perform surgery. The acknowledgment draws a clear separation between American DOs, who are medical doctors, and non-physician osteopaths trained outside of the United States. Within the international standards that classify jobs to promote international comparability across occupations, U.S.-trained DOs are now categorized with all other physicians as medical doctors. This event took place in June 2018 and started a relay of events and opened doors for DO's as more countries started to understand and give full recognition to US-trained medical doctors with the D.O. degree, e.g. the Association of Medical Councils of Africa (AMCOA) approved a resolution in 2019 granting the AOA's request that AMCOA recognizes U.S.-trained DOs as fully licensed physicians with practice rights equivalent to MDs, opening its 20 member countries, which include Botswana, Gambia, Ghana, Kenya, Lesotho, Liberia, Malawi, Mauritius, Namibia, Nigeria, Rwanda, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, South Africa, South Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe to DO's. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=199884 | 743,057 |
1,012,750 | The executives of the Powertrain Organization (transmissions, chassis, engines) wanted a methodology where teams (design engineering, manufacturing engineering, and production) could work on recurring chronic problems. In 1986, the assignment was given to develop a manual and a subsequent course that would achieve a new approach to solving identified engineering design and manufacturing problems. The manual for this methodology was documented and defined in "Team Oriented Problem Solving" (TOPS), first published in 1987. The manual and subsequent course material were piloted at Ford World Headquarters in Dearborn, Michigan. Ford refers to their current variant as G8D (Global 8D). The Ford 8Ds manual is extensive and covers chapter by chapter how to go about addressing, quantifying, and resolving engineering issues. It begins with a cross-functional team and concludes with a successful demonstrated resolution of the problem. Containment actions may or may not be needed based on where the problem occurred in the life cycle of the product. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7084228 | 1,012,229 |
82,686 | On 14 December 2015, Secretary of Defense Ashton Carter ordered the Navy to reduce the planned procurement of LCS and FF ships from 52 to 40, and down-select to one variant by FY 2019. This cut is to reallocate funds to other priorities including buying more F-35C Lightning II and F/A-18E/F Super Hornet fighters, SM-6 missiles, accelerating Flight III DDG-51 acquisition, and expanding development of the Virginia Payload Module (VPM) for the Block V . Though fewer ships will be available in some instances, those needs will be met by higher-end ships to ensure forces in various fleets have the capabilities and posture to defeat potential advanced adversaries. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=460005 | 82,652 |
1,046,277 | In philosophy of science, Duhem is best known for arguing that hypotheses are not straightforwardly refuted by experiment and that there are no crucial experiments in science. Duhem’s formulation of his thesis is that “if the predicted phenomenon is not produced, not only is the questioned proposition put into doubt, but also the whole theoretical scaffolding used by the physicist”. Duhem's views on the philosophy of science are explicated in his 1906 work "The Aim and Structure of Physical Theory". In this work, he opposed Newton's statement that the "Principia's" law of universal mutual gravitation was deduced from 'phenomena', including Kepler's second and third laws. Newton's claims in this regard had already been attacked by critical proof-analyses of the German logician Leibniz and then most famously by Immanuel Kant, following Hume's logical critique of induction. But the novelty of Duhem's work was his proposal that Newton's theory of universal mutual gravity flatly "contradicted" Kepler's Laws of planetary motion because the interplanetary mutual gravitational perturbations caused deviations from Keplerian orbits. Since no contingent proposition can be validly logically deduced from any it contradicts, according to Duhem, Newton must not have logically deduced his law of gravitation directly from Kepler's Laws. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=424304 | 1,045,732 |
1,788,251 | The DSSAM Model is constructed to allow dynamic decay of most pollutants; for example, total nitrogen and phosphorus are allowed to be consumed by benthic algae in each time step, and the algal communities are given a separate population dynamic in each river reach (e.g. based upon river temperature). Regarding stormwater runoff in Washoe County, the specific elements within a new xeriscape ordinance were analyzed for efficacy using the model. For the varied agricultural uses in the watershed, the model was run to understand the principal sources of impact, and management practices were developed to reduce in-river pollution. Use of the model has specifically been conducted to analyze survival of two endangered species found in the Truckee River and Pyramid Lake: the Cui-ui sucker fish (endangered 1967) and the Lahontan cutthroat trout (threatened 1970). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5620279 | 1,787,245 |
694,604 | Aaronson grew up in the United States, though he spent a year in Asia when his father—a science writer turned public-relations executive—was posted to Hong Kong. He enrolled in a school there that permitted him to skip ahead several years in math, but upon returning to the US, he found his education restrictive, getting bad grades and having run-ins with teachers. He enrolled in The Clarkson School, a gifted education program run by Clarkson University, which enabled Aaronson to apply for colleges while only in his freshman year of high school. He was accepted into Cornell University, where he obtained his BSc in computer science in 2000, and where he resided at the Telluride House. He then attended the University of California, Berkeley, for his PhD, which he got in 2004 under the supervision of Umesh Vazirani. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20420243 | 694,241 |
845,928 | James Alton McDivitt (June 10, 1929 – October 13, 2022) was an American test pilot, United States Air Force (USAF) pilot, aeronautical engineer, and NASA astronaut in the Gemini and Apollo programs. He joined the USAF in 1951 and flew 145 combat missions in the Korean War. In 1959, after graduating first in his class with a Bachelor of Science degree in Aeronautical Engineering from the University of Michigan through the U.S. Air Force Institute of Technology (AFIT) program, he qualified as a test pilot at the Air Force Experimental Flight Test Pilot School (Class 59C) and Aerospace Research Pilot School (Class I), and joined the Manned Spacecraft Operations Branch. By September 1962, McDivitt had logged over 2,500 flight hours, of which more than 2,000 hours were in jet aircraft. This included flying as a chase pilot for Robert M. White's North American X-15 flight on July 17, 1962, in which White reached an altitude of and became the first X-15 pilot to be awarded Astronaut Wings. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=622247 | 845,478 |
397,063 | Terrestrial Energy, a Canadian-based company, is developing a DMSR design called the Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR). The IMSR is designed to be deployable as a small modular reactor (SMR). Their design currently undergoing licensing is 400MW thermal (190MW electrical). With high operating temperatures, the IMSR has applications in industrial heat markets as well as traditional power markets. The main design features include neutron moderation from graphite, fueling with low-enriched uranium and a compact and replaceable Core-unit. Decay heat is removed passively using nitrogen (with air as an emergency alternative). The latter feature permits the operational simplicity necessary for industrial deployment. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1584031 | 396,867 |
1,995,130 | Another highly reactive gas is chlorine, which will attack susceptible polymers such as acetal resin and polybutylene pipework. There have been many examples of such pipes and acetal fittings failing in properties in the US as a result of chlorine-induced cracking. Essentially the gas attacks sensitive parts of the chain molecules (especially secondary, tertiary or allylic carbon atoms), oxidising the chains and ultimately causing chain cleavage. The root cause is traces of chlorine in the water supply, added for its anti-bacterial action, attack occurring even at parts per million traces of the dissolved gas. The chlorine attacks weak parts of a product, and, in the case of an acetal resin junction in a water supply system, it is the thread roots that were attacked first, causing a brittle crack to grow. The discoloration on the fracture surface was caused by deposition of carbonates from the hard water supply, so the joint had been in a critical state for many months. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=16367693 | 1,993,987 |
1,902,555 | Although most of the diagnoses included herein have been accepted for clinical testing by NANDA-I (NANDA, 2014), some are specific types of more general diagnoses; e.g., Risk for Poisoning: Drug Toxicity is viewed as a specific type of Risk for Injury. Other diagnoses that have not been approved by NANDA-I (e.g., Depression and Relocation Stress Syndrome) are included because they are frequent and difficult to manage problems that nurses encounter in older persons. Our intent is to expand the conceptual and operational development of the diagnoses, outcomes and interventions, and amplify discussion of their linkages to increase clinical usefulness and to promote further development and testing by nurse clinicians and researchers. The labels and content of the diagnoses, outcomes and interventions are consistent with those published by NANDA-I, NOC, and NIC unless otherwise indicated, or are compared with the published classifications with rationale provided for exceptions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1684595 | 1,901,464 |
353,289 | KTRU Rice Radio is the student-run radio station. Though most DJs are Rice students, anyone is allowed to apply. It is known for playing genres and artists of music and sound unavailable on other radio stations in Houston, and often, the US. The station takes requests over the phone or online. In 2000 and 2006, KTRU won Houston Press' Best Radio Station in Houston. In 2003, Rice alum and active KTRU DJ DL's hip-hip show won Houston Press' Best Hip-hop Radio Show. On August 17, 2010, it was announced that Rice University had been in negotiations to sell the station's broadcast tower, FM frequency and license to the University of Houston System to become a full-time classical music and fine arts programming station. The new station, KUHA, would be operated as a not-for-profit outlet with listener supporters. The FCC approved the sale and granted the transfer of license to the University of Houston System on April 15, 2011, however, KUHA proved to be an even larger failure and so after four and a half years of operation, The University of Houston System announced that KUHA's broadcast tower, FM frequency and license were once again up for sale in August 2015. KTRU continued to operate much as it did previously, streaming live on the Internet, via apps, and on HD2 radio using the 90.1 signal. Under student leadership, KTRU explored the possibility of returning to FM radio for a number of years. In spring 2015, KTRU was granted permission by the FCC to begin development of a new broadcast signal via LPFM radio. On October 1, 2015, KTRU made its official return to FM radio on the 96.1 signal. While broadcasting on HD2 radio has been discontinued, KTRU continues to broadcast via internet in addition to its LPFM signal. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25813 | 353,106 |
375,189 | Around 266 BC, Arcesilaus became head of the Platonic Academy, and adopted skepticism as a central tenet of Platonism, making Platonism nearly the same as Pyrrhonism. After Arcesilaus, Academic skepticism diverged from Pyrrhonism. This skeptical period of ancient Platonism, from Arcesilaus to Philo of Larissa, became known as the New Academy, although some ancient authors added further subdivisions, such as a Middle Academy. The Academic skeptics did not doubt the existence of truth; they just doubted that humans had the capacities for obtaining it. They based this position on Plato's "Phaedo", sections 64–67, in which Socrates discusses how knowledge is not accessible to mortals. While the objective of the Pyrrhonists was the attainment of ataraxia, after Arcesilaus the Academic skeptics did not hold up ataraxia as the central objective. The Academic skeptics focused on criticizing the dogmas of other schools of philosophy, in particular of the dogmatism of the Stoics. They acknowledged some vestiges of a moral law within, at best but a plausible guide, the possession of which, however, formed the real distinction between the sage and the fool. Slight as the difference may appear between the positions of the Academic skeptics and the Pyrrhonists, a comparison of their lives leads to the conclusion that a practical philosophical moderation was the characteristic of the Academic skeptics whereas the objectives of the Pyrrhonists were more psychological. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=171171 | 374,994 |
559,059 | From the ancient Egyptian mummifications to 18th-century scientific research on "globules" and neurons, there is evidence of neuroscience practice throughout the early periods of history. The early civilizations lacked adequate means to obtain knowledge about the human brain. Their assumptions about the inner workings of the mind, therefore, were not accurate. Early views on the function of the brain regarded it to be a form of "cranial stuffing" of sorts. In ancient Egypt, from the late Middle Kingdom onwards, in preparation for mummification, the brain was regularly removed, for it was the heart that was assumed to be the seat of intelligence. According to Herodotus, during the first step of mummification: "The most perfect practice is to extract as much of the brain as possible with an iron hook, and what the hook cannot reach is mixed with drugs." Over the next five thousand years, this view came to be reversed; the brain is now known to be the seat of intelligence, although colloquial variations of the former remain as in "memorizing something by heart". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4794482 | 558,770 |
1,408,586 | Hydro(solvo)thermal, also known as hydrothermal/solvothermal, methods are implemented in sealed containers at higher temperatures and pressures in an autoclave. This method allows precise control over shape and size (monodisperse), but at the cost of long synthesis times and the inability to observe growth in real-time. More specialized techniques include sol-gel processing (hydrolysis and polycondensation of metal alkoxides), and combustion (flame) synthesis, which are rapid, non-solution phase pathways. Efforts to develop water-soluble and "green" total syntheses are also being explored, with the first of these methods implementing polyethylenimine (PEI)-coated nanoparticles. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=52499698 | 1,407,795 |
1,670,187 | The appointment came at a time when his Little Entente project had already been fulfilled, and extended, from the Romanian perspective, through the alliance with the Second Polish Republic ("see Polish–Romanian alliance"). According to journalist Noti Constantinide, who visited him during his stay in Aix-les-Bains (March 1921), Ionescu, whom he called "the most intelligent person I ever met", was actively promoting the Romanian and Little Entente causes, seeking to sway public opinion in Allied countries. Through Constantinide, Ionescu was informed that Charles, former Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary, had decided in favor of secretly returning to Budapest and taking back one of his thrones; the information, according to Constantinide, was passed to him by an Austrian officer in Hungary's service, who had decided to betray his superiors. The information proved accurate, but Ionescu reportedly dismissed similar news, received some time after, of Charles' planning a second such attempt — this was to be effected in October, and, although more successful than the March episode, it too ended in Charles' expulsion ("see Charles IV of Hungary's conflict with Miklós Horthy"). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=738484 | 1,669,247 |
2,003,578 | AGPs have been reported in a wide range of higher plants in seeds, roots, stems, leaves and inflorescences. AGPs account for only a small portion of the cell wall, usually no more than 1% of dry mass of the primary wall. They have also been reported in secretions of cell culture medium of root, leaf, endosperm and embryo tissues, and some exudate producing cell types such as stylar canal cells are capable of producing lavish amounts of AGPs. They are implicated in various aspects of plant growth and development, including root elongation, somatic embryogenesis, hormone responses, xylem differentiation, pollen tube growth and guidance, programmed cell death, cell expansion, salt tolerance, host-pathogen interactions, and cellular signaling. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25280550 | 2,002,430 |
424,384 | New gauge-theoretic problems arise out of superstring theory models. In such models the universe is 10 dimensional consisting of four dimensions of regular spacetime and a 6-dimensional Calabi–Yau manifold. In such theories the fields which act on strings live on bundles over these higher dimensional spaces, and one is interested in gauge-theoretic problems relating to them. For example, the limit of the natural field theories in superstring theory as the string radius approaches zero (the so-called "large volume limit") on a Calabi–Yau 6-fold is given by Hermitian Yang–Mills equations on this manifold. Moving away from the large volume limit one obtains the deformed Hermitian Yang–Mills equation, which describes the equations of motion for a D-brane in the B-model of superstring theory. Mirror symmetry predicts that solutions to these equations should correspond to special Lagrangian submanifolds of the mirror dual Calabi–Yau. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=64324611 | 424,177 |
810,382 | In his "Histories," Polybius outlines the need for effective signalling in warfare, leading to the development of the square. Previously, fire-signalling was useful only for expected, predetermined messages, with no way to convey novel messages about unexpected events. According to Polybius, in the 4th century BCE, Aeneas Tacticus devised a hydraulic semaphore system consisting of matching vessels with sectioned rods labelled with different messages such as "Heavy Infantry", "Ships", and "Corn". This system was slightly better than the basic fire-signalling, but still lacked the ability to convey any needed message. The Polybius square was used to aid in telegraphy, specifically fire-signalling. To send a message, the sender would initially hold up two torches and wait for the recipient to do the same to signal that they were ready to receive the message. The sender would then hold up the first set of torches on his left side to indicate to the recipient which tablet (or row of the square) was to be consulted. The sender would then raise a set of torches on his right side to indicate which letter on the tablet was intended for the message. Both parties would need the same tablets, a telescope (a tube to narrow view, no real magnification), and torches. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=544400 | 809,950 |
345,765 | Lavoisier consolidated his social and economic position when, in 1771 at age 28, he married Marie-Anne Pierrette Paulze, the 13-year-old daughter of a senior member of the "Ferme générale". She was to play an important part in Lavoisier's scientific career—notably, she translated English documents for him, including Richard Kirwan's "Essay on Phlogiston" and Joseph Priestley's research. In addition, she assisted him in the laboratory and created many sketches and carved engravings of the laboratory instruments used by Lavoisier and his colleagues for their scientific works. Madame Lavoisier edited and published Antoine's memoirs (whether any English translations of those memoirs have survived is unknown as of today) and hosted parties at which eminent scientists discussed ideas and problems related to chemistry. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1822 | 345,584 |
1,778,681 | Sandwich panel cores are used throughout the aerospace industry; they are integrated within aircraft bodies, floors and internal panels. Sandwich constructions consist of two faces separated by a thick, light-weight core and are most commonly composed of balsa-wood, foamed polymers, glue-bonded aluminum or Nomex (paper) honeycombs. Typically, the cores are combined with reinforcing fibers to increase their shear modulus. Indeed, carbon fiber-reinforced polymers exhibit the highest specific stiffness and strength of these materials. However, polymers decompose at low temperatures; thus employment of the aforementioned materials pose inherent challenges due to the limited range of temperature they may be utilized within as well as their moisture-dependent properties. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57445960 | 1,777,679 |
1,555,321 | Later, Chris Adami, Titus Brown, and Charles Ofria started developing their Avida system, which was inspired by Tierra but again had some crucial differences. In Tierra, all programs lived in the same address space and could potentially execute or otherwise interfere with each other's code. In Avida, on the other hand, each program lives in its own address space. Because of this modification, experiments with Avida became much cleaner and easier to interpret than those with Tierra. With Avida, digital organism research has begun to be accepted as a valid contribution to evolutionary biology by a growing number of evolutionary biologists. Evolutionary biologist Richard Lenski of Michigan State University has used Avida extensively in his work. Lenski, Adami, and their colleagues have published in journals such as "Nature" and the "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences" (USA). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=418075 | 1,554,438 |
794,523 | Elizebeth Smith began working at Riverbank Laboratories in Geneva, Illinois, in 1916. It was one of the first facilities in the U.S. established to study cryptography. Colonel George Fabyan, a wealthy textile merchant, owned Riverbank Laboratories and was interested in Shakespeare. Friedman was looking for a job and visited Chicago's Newberry Library, where she talked to a librarian who knew of Fabyan's interest. The librarian called Fabyan, who appeared in his limousine and invited Elizebeth to spend a night at Riverbank, where they discussed what life would be like at Fabyan's great estate located in Geneva, Illinois. He told her that she would assist a Boston woman, Elizabeth Wells Gallup, and her sister with Gallup's attempt to prove Sir Francis Bacon had written Shakespeare's plays and sonnets. The work would involve decrypting enciphered messages that were supposed to have been contained within the plays and poems. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=475830 | 794,098 |
1,717,106 | The land and main buildings on which the main NAWCTSD facility is located inside the Central Florida Research Park is a U.S. Government installation that was designated as Naval Support Activity Orlando in 2005. Additional nearby buildings and facilities are shared in partnership with the Central Florida Research Park and the University of Central Florida and house other Department of Defense (DoD) and Department of Homeland Security (DHS) activities, to include the U.S. Army Futures Command's Synthetic Training Environment Cross-Funtional Team (STE CFT), the U.S. Army Program Executive Office for Simulation, Training and Instrumentation (PEO-STRI), the U.S. Marine Corps Program Manager for Training Systems (PMTRASYS), the Air Force Agency for Modeling and Simulation (AFAMS), United States Army Simulation and Training Technology Center (STTC), Federal Law Enforcement Training Centers FLETC Orlando team and the Veterans Health Administration Simulation Learning, Education and Research Network. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5902643 | 1,716,137 |
1,105,969 | Introduced in the 1982 film "" for the fictional "Genesis effect", other examples include replicating the phenomena of fire, explosions, smoke, moving water (such as a waterfall), sparks, falling leaves, rock falls, clouds, fog, snow, dust, meteor tails, stars and galaxies, or abstract visual effects like glowing trails, magic spells, etc. – these use particles that fade out quickly and are then re-emitted from the effect's source. Another technique can be used for things that contain many strands – such as fur, hair, and grass – involving rendering an entire particle's lifetime at once, which can then be drawn and manipulated as a single strand of the material in question. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=389876 | 1,105,406 |
1,407,719 | This individual monetary gain creates an increase in the overall economic productivity of a country. Girls are underrepresented in schooling, meaning that investments aimed specifically at educating women should produce bigger dividends. Although investment in women's education is not present everywhere, David Dollar and Roberta Gatti have presented findings that show that this decision, along with other failures to invest in women are not “an efficient economic choice for developing countries” and that "countries that under-invest grow more slowly.” Looking holistically at the opportunity cost of not investing in girls, the total missed GDP growth is between 1.2% and 1.5%. When looking at different regions, it is estimated that 0.4–0.9% of the difference in GDP growth is accounted for solely by differences in the gender gap in education. The effect of the educational gender gap is more pronounced when a country is only moderately poor. Thus the incentive to invest in women goes up as a country moves out of extreme poverty. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=40860039 | 1,406,929 |
1,961,183 | Gu is an authority in the fields of nanophotonics, nanofabrication, biophotonics and multi-dimensional optical data storage with internationally renowned expertise in three-dimensional optical imaging theory. He is the sole author of two standard reference books, "Principles of Three-Dimensional Imaging in Confocal Microscopes" (World Scientific, 1996), and "Advanced Optical Imaging Theory" (Springer-Verlag, 2000). He is also the first author of "Femtosecond Biophotonics: Core Techniques and Applications",(Cambridge University Press, 2010). and "Microscopic Imaging through Tissue-like Media: Monte Carlo Modelling and Applications" (Springer-Verlag, 2015). He has over 490 papers in internationally refereed journals including Nature, Science, Nature Photonics, Nature Communications and PNAS. He is a member of the Editorial Boards of 16 top international journals. Professor Gu's research has led to significant impacts on societal challenges in solar energy, information technology and big data storage. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19966552 | 1,960,056 |
85,019 | It was Carlock who encouraged Grandin to develop her idea to build her squeeze machine when she returned from her aunt's farm in Arizona in her senior year of high school. At the age of 18 when she was still attending Hampshire Country School, with Carlock's and school owner/founder Henry Patey's support, Grandin built the hug box. Carlock's supportive role in Grandin's life continued even after she left Hampshire Country School. As a favor to Henry Patey, the President of the newly founded Franklin Pierce College (5 miles from Hampshire Country School) agreed to accept Temple as a student without the typical records and files of a typical High School student. When Grandin was facing criticism for her hug box at Franklin Pierce College, it was Carlock who suggested that Grandin undertake scientific experiments to evaluate the efficacy of the device. It was his constant guidance to Grandin to refocus the rigid obsessions she experienced with the hug box into a productive assignment that subsequently allowed this study undertaken by Grandin to be widely cited as evidence of Grandin's resourcefulness. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=169496 | 84,985 |
2,055,071 | This species is sometimes found singly, but more often in clusters on well-rotted conifer logs and stumps (often Douglas-fir) near melting snowbanks, or sometimes in moist snow chambers formed by receding snow. Cool nighttime temperatures reduce the snowmelt rate, and help ensure that spores released by the mushroom will be dispersed into the soil. The mushroom is common in western North America, particularly the Pacific Northwest, the Rocky Mountains and the Cascade mountains. It has been reported in four US states: South Dakota, California, Washington and Wyoming, but is not known in Oregon. It is also found in western Canada. The mushroom is restricted to areas with minimum elevations of . In 2010, it was reported growing in the boreal coniferous forests of Hokkaido, Japan, in plantations of Sakhalin fir ("Abies sachalinensis"), as well as in natural forests dominated by both Sakhalin fir and Jezo spruce ("Picea jezoensis"). In North America, the mushroom usually appears between March and July; Japanese collections were made in May. The fruiting period can be prolonged, especially in areas with heavy snowfall, or at high elevations where the snowmelt is delayed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=24661033 | 2,053,888 |
1,686,122 | The main source from which "S. thiersii" derives its carbon is the cellulose of the decomposing plant material found in its grassland habitat. The enzymes that degrade cellulose are homologous to the enzymes used by ectomycorrhizal fungi that have symbiotic associations with plant roots. In an attempt to identify the genes involved in these processes, researchers at the United States Department of Energy and University of Wisconsin are jointly working to sequence the "S. thiersii" genome and to compare it with that of "Amanita bisporigera", a species which forms mycorrhizal relationships with tree and which has already been partly sequenced. They hope to better understand the genetic pathways involved in the evolution of ectomycorrhizal associations. Another research objective is to establish whether the enzymes used by "S. thiersii" to degrade cellulose can be cost-effectively used in the conversion of crop residues into biofuels. "S. thiersii" seems to be expanding its range northwards and its genome may provide clues as to how it is adapting to climate change and further information on mycorrhizal relationships. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29899769 | 1,685,176 |
108,399 | Life-cycle surface power density of solar power varies a lot but averages about 7 W/m2, compared to about 240 for nuclear power and 480 for gas. However when the land required for gas extraction and processing is accounted for gas power is estimated to have not much higher power density than solar. PV requires much larger amounts of land surface to produce the same nominal amount of energy as sources with higher surface power density and capacity factor. According to a 2021 study, obtaining 25 to 80% of electricity from solar farms in their own territory by 2050 would require the panels to cover land ranging from 0.5 to 2.8% of the European Union, 0.3 to 1.4% in India, and 1.2 to 5.2% in Japan and South Korea. Occupation of such large areas for PV farms could drive residential opposition as well as lead to deforestation, removal of vegetation and conversion of farm land. However some countries, such as South Korea and Japan, use land for agriculture under PV, or floating solar. Worldwide land use has minimal ecological impact. Land use can be reduced to the level of gas power by installing on buildings and other built up areas. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13690575 | 108,354 |
809,862 | The term adstratum is also used to identify systematic influences or a layer of borrowings in a given language from another language independently of whether the two languages continue coexisting as separate entities. Many modern languages have an appreciable adstratum from English due to the cultural influence and economic preponderance of the United States on international markets and previously colonization by the British Empire which made English a global lingua franca. The Greek and Latin coinages adopted by European languages (including English and now languages worldwide) to describe scientific topics (sociology, medicine, anatomy, biology, all the '-logy' words, etc.) are also justifiably called adstrata. Another example is found in Spanish and Portuguese, which contain a heavy Semitic (particularly Arabic) adstratum; and Yiddish, which is a linguistic variety of High German with adstrata from Hebrew and Aramaic, mostly in the sphere of religion, and Slavic languages, by reason of the geopolitical contexts Yiddish speaking villages lived through for centuries before disappearing during the Holocaust. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=583461 | 809,431 |
1,804,449 | In contrast to many proteins that undergo conformational changes upon heating and denaturation, thermolysin does not undergo any major conformational changes until at least 70 °C. The thermal stability of members of the TLP family is measured in terms of a "T" temperature. At this temperature incubation for 30 minutes reduces the enzymes activity by half. Thermolysin has a "T" value of 86.9 °C, making it the most thermo stable member of the TLP family. Studies on the contribution of calcium to thermolysin stability have shown that upon thermal inactivation a single calcium ion is released from the molecule. Preventing this calcium from originally binding to the molecule by mutation of its binding site, reduced thermolysin stability by 7 °C. However, while calcium binding makes a significant contribution to stabilising thermolysin, more crucial to stability is a small cluster of N-terminal domain amino acids located at the proteins surface. In particular a phenylalanine (F) at amino acid position 63 and a proline (P) at amino acid position 69 contribute significantly to thermolysin stability. Changing these amino acids to threonine (T) and alanine (A) respectively in a less stable thermolysin-like proteinase produced by "Bacillus stearothermophillus" (TLP-ste), results in individual reductions in stability of 7 °C (F63→T) and 6.3 °C (P69→A) and when combined a reduction in stability of 12.3 °C. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9196027 | 1,803,434 |
973,205 | Medicinal leech therapy (also referred to as "Hirudotherapy" or "Hirudin therapy") made an international comeback in the 1970s in microsurgery, used to stimulate circulation to salvage skin grafts and other tissue threatened by postoperative venous congestion, particularly in finger reattachment and reconstructive surgery of the ear, nose, lip, and eyelid. Other clinical applications of medicinal leech therapy include varicose veins, muscle cramps, thrombophlebitis, and osteoarthritis, among many varied conditions. The therapeutic effect is not from the small amount of blood taken in the meal, but from the continued and steady bleeding from the wound left after the leech has detached, as well as the anesthetizing, anti-inflammatory, and vasodilating properties of the secreted leech saliva. The most common complication from leech treatment is prolonged bleeding, which can easily be treated, but more serious allergic reactions and bacterial infections may also occur. Leech therapy was classified by the US Food and Drug Administration as a medical device in 2004. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=498618 | 972,695 |
339,277 | Häkkinen finished in second position at the European Grand Prix, having traded the lead position with Schumacher throughout the race. He followed up the result by taking sixth place at Monaco, fourth in Canada and a podium finish with second position in France. The day after the French Grand Prix, it was announced that Häkkinen would remain at McLaren for 2001. Häkkinen won the following race held in Austria, although his team were stripped of constructors' points due to a missing seal on the electronic control unit in Häkkinen's car. He took another podium finish with a second place in Germany, and later had another victory at the Hungarian Grand Prix where he took the lead of the World Drivers' Championship from Schumacher. Häkkinen raced to his second consecutive victory in Belgium, which included a simultaneous pass on Michael Schumacher and Ricardo Zonta in the "Kemmel straight". Häkkinen later took second place in Italy, and retired with an engine failure in the United States. He rounded off the year with a second place in Japan where he conceded the World Championship to Schumacher, and held fourth position in the season closing race held in Malaysia. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=63073 | 339,097 |
796,264 | A microbial fuel cell (MFC) is a device that converts chemical energy to electrical energy by the action of microorganisms. These electrochemical cells are constructed using either a bioanode and/or a biocathode. Most MFCs contain a membrane to separate the compartments of the anode (where oxidation takes place) and the cathode (where reduction takes place). The electrons produced during oxidation are transferred directly to an electrode or to a redox mediator species. The electron flux is moved to the cathode. The charge balance of the system is maintained by ionic movement inside the cell, usually across an ionic membrane. Most MFCs use an organic electron donor that is oxidized to produce CO, protons, and electrons. Other electron donors have been reported, such as sulfur compounds or hydrogen. The cathode reaction uses a variety of electron acceptors, most often oxygen (O). Other electron acceptors studied include metal recovery by reduction, water to hydrogen, nitrate reduction, and sulfate reduction. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5452870 | 795,839 |
847,250 | In reality, what can happen is that charged interface states can pin the Fermi level at a certain energy value no matter the work function values, influencing the barrier height for both carriers. This is due to the fact that the chemical termination of the semiconductor crystal against a metal creates electron states within its band gap. The nature of these metal-induced gap states and their occupation by electrons tends to pin the center of the band gap to the Fermi level, an effect known as Fermi level pinning. Thus the heights of the Schottky barriers in metal–semiconductor contacts often show little dependence on the value of the semiconductor or metal work functions, in strong contrast to the Schottky–Mott rule. Different semiconductors exhibit this Fermi level pinning to different degrees, but a technological consequence is that ohmic contacts are usually difficult to form in important semiconductors such as silicon and gallium arsenide. Non-ohmic contacts present a parasitic resistance to current flow that consumes energy and lowers device performance. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=512564 | 846,800 |
725,734 | The shortfin molly ("Poecilia mexicana") is a small fish that lives in the Sulfur Caves of Mexico. Years of study on the species have found that two distinct populations of mollies—the dark interior fish and the bright surface water fish—are becoming more genetically divergent. The populations have no obvious barrier separating the two; however, it was found that the mollies are hunted by a large water bug ("Belostoma spp"). Tobler collected the bug and both types of mollies, placed them in large plastic bottles, and put them back in the cave. After a day, it was found that, in the light, the cave-adapted fish endured the most damage, with four out of every five stab-wounds from the water bugs sharp mouthparts. In the dark, the situation was the opposite. The mollies' senses can detect a predator's threat in their own habitats, but not in the other ones. Moving from one habitat to the other significantly increases the risk of dying. Tobler plans on further experiments, but believes that it is a good example of the rise of a new species. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2339577 | 725,353 |
528,050 | The dwarf lanternshark ("Etmopterus perryi") is a species of dogfish shark in the family Etmopteridae and is the smallest shark in the world, reaching a maximum known length of . It is known to be present only on the upper continental slopes off Colombia and Venezuela, at a depth of . This species can be identified by its small size at maturity, long flattened head, and pattern of black ventral markings and a mid-dorsal line. Like other members of its genus, it is capable of producing light from a distinctive array of photophores. Reproduction is aplacental viviparous, with females gestating two or three young at a time. The dwarf lanternshark is not significant to commercial fisheries, but could be threatened by mortality from bycatch; the degree of impact from human activities on its population is unknown. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7453310 | 527,777 |
1,930,122 | The main academic activities of the Society can broadly be classified under the following three heads: Memorial Lectures, Special Lectures and Regular Seminars and Symposiums. The Memorial Lectures are organized by the Society every year in honor of great academicians who were once associates and patrons of the organization. The Special Lectures are given on request by eminent researchers and scientists who visit Kolkata from time to time. The Seminars and Symposiums are generally held on an annual basis, focusing on the Pedagogic and Technical topics as well as topics of popular interest. 'International Symposium on Mathematical Physics in memory of S. Chandrasekhar with a special session on Abdus Salam' is notable one. National seminars on 'Theory & Methodology of Mathematics Teaching', 'Contribution of René Descartes','Contribution of Gottfried Leibniz', National Seminar on 'Power generation, Environment Pollution and related Mathematical Equations' were the most notable programme. Director of all those programs was Professor N. C. Ghosh. Professor C. G. Chakraborty was Director of National seminar on 'Satyndranath Bose & his contribution', Professor B. N. Mondal was Director of the 'Workshop on Mathematics Teaching Research & Training' organised at Calcutta Mathematical Society. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=26102011 | 1,929,015 |
155,046 | At the beginning of the twentieth century, very little was known about how earthquakes happen, how seismic waves are generated and propagate through the earth's crust, and what information they carry about the earthquake rupture process; the first magnitude scales were therefore empirical. The initial step in determining earthquake magnitudes empirically came in 1931 when the Japanese seismologist Kiyoo Wadati showed that the maximum amplitude of an earthquake's seismic waves diminished with distance at a certain rate. Charles F. Richter then worked out how to adjust for epicentral distance (and some other factors) so that the logarithm of the amplitude of the seismograph trace could be used as a measure of "magnitude" that was internally consistent and corresponded roughly with estimates of an earthquake's energy. He established a reference point and the now familiar ten-fold (exponential) scaling of each degree of magnitude, and in 1935 published what he called the "magnitude scale", now called the local magnitude scale, labeled . (This scale is also known as the "Richter scale", but news media sometimes use that term indiscriminately to refer to other similar scales.) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=631494 | 154,976 |
26,992 | Notable past and present faculty include biologists Anne Fausto-Sterling (Ph.D. 1970) and Kenneth R. Miller (Sc.B. 1970); computer scientists Robert Sedgewick and Andries van Dam; economists Hyman Minsky, Glenn Loury, George Stigler, Mark Blyth, and Emily Oster; historians Gordon S. Wood and Joan Wallach Scott; mathematicians David Gale, David Mumford, Mary Cartwright, and Solomon Lefschetz; physicists Sylvester James Gates and Gerald Guralnik. Faculty in literature include Chinua Achebe, Ama Ata Aidoo, and Carlos Fuentes. Among Brown's faculty and fellows in political science, and public affairs are former prime minister of Italy and former EU chief, Romano Prodi; former president of Brazil, Fernando Cardoso; former president of Chile, Ricardo Lagos; and son of Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, Sergei Khrushchev. Other faculty include philosopher Martha Nussbaum, author Ibram X. Kendi, and public health doctor Ashish Jha. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4157 | 26,982 |
1,235,527 | Four days later, Michigan State returned home to face No. 13-ranked Maryland. The Spartans jumped out to an early first half lead before Maryland tied the game at 20 in the first half. MSU, however, answered an 11–0 run to end the half and never trailed again. MSU moved the lead to as much as 22 in the second half and finished with a 69–55 victory. The win moved MSU to sole possession of first place in the Big Ten as the only remaining undefeated team in conference. Kenny Goins and Cassius Winston led the way in scoring with 14 points apiece. Kyle Ahrens returned from a back injury to score four points. Nick Ward had one of the worst games of his MSU career, battling foul trouble and failed to score. The win marked MSU's 20th consecutive Big Ten regular season victory, extending the school record. The win improved MSU's record to 17–2 on the season and 8–0 in conference. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=56903804 | 1,234,864 |
724,423 | Almost as soon as it was first introduced, the critical state concept was subjected to much criticism—chiefly its inability to match readily available test data from testing a wide variety of soils. This is primarily due to the theories inability to account for particle structure. A major consequence of this is its inability to model strain-softening post peak commonly observed in contractive soils that have anisotropic grain shapes/properties. Further, an assumption commonly made to make the model mathematically tractable is that shear stress cannot cause volumetric strain nor volumetric stress cause shear strain. Since this is not the case in reality, it is an additional cause of the poor matches to readily available empirical test data. Additionally, critical state elasto-plastic models assume that elastic strains drives volumetric changes. Since this too is not the case in real soils, this assumption results in poor fits to volume and pore pressure change data. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10004409 | 724,043 |
1,765,153 | The roots of liquid chromatography extend back over a century ago to 1900, when Russian botanist Mikhail Tsvet began experimenting with plant pigments in chlorophyll. He noted that, when a solvent was applied, distinct bands appeared that migrated at different rates along a stationary phase. For this new observation, he coined the term “chromatography,” a colored picture. His first lecture on the subject was presented in 1903, but his most important contribution occurred three years later, in 1906, when the paper “Adsorption analysis and chromatographic method. Applications on the chemistry of chlorophyll,” was published. Rivalry with a colleague who readily and vocally denounced his work meant that chromatographic analysis was shelved for almost 25 years. The great irony of the matter is that it was his rival's students who later took up the chromatography banner in their work with carotins. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22131699 | 1,764,160 |
211,903 | Normally, the effect of air buoyancy on objects of normal density is too small to be of any consequence in day-to-day activities. For instance, buoyancy's diminishing effect upon one's body weight (a relatively low-density object) is that of gravity (for pure water it is about that of gravity). Furthermore, "variations" in barometric pressure rarely affect a person's weight more than ±1 part in 30,000. However, in metrology (the science of measurement), the precision mass standards for calibrating laboratory scales and balances are manufactured with such accuracy that air density is accounted for to compensate for buoyancy effects. Given the extremely high cost of platinum-iridium mass standards like the international prototype of the kilogram ("the" mass standard in France that defined the magnitude of the kilogram), high-quality "working" standards are made of special stainless steel alloys with densities of about 8,000 kg/m, which occupy greater volume than those made of platinum-iridium, which have a density of about 21,550 kg/m. For convenience, a standard value of buoyancy relative to stainless steel was developed for metrology work and this results in the term "conventional mass". Conventional mass is defined as follows: "For a mass at 20 °C, ‘conventional mass’ is the mass of a reference standard of density 8,000 kg/m which it balances in air with a density of 1.2 kg/m." The effect is a small one, 150 ppm for stainless steel mass standards, but the appropriate corrections are made during the manufacture of all precision mass standards so they have the true labeled mass. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14476384 | 211,795 |
373,098 | The wavelengths of absorption peaks can be correlated with the types of bonds in a given molecule and are valuable in determining the functional groups within a molecule. The Woodward–Fieser rules, for instance, are a set of empirical observations used to predict λ, the wavelength of the most intense UV/Vis absorption, for conjugated organic compounds such as dienes and ketones. The spectrum alone is not, however, a specific test for any given sample. The nature of the solvent, the pH of the solution, temperature, high electrolyte concentrations, and the presence of interfering substances can influence the absorption spectrum. Experimental variations such as the slit width (effective bandwidth) of the spectrophotometer will also alter the spectrum. To apply UV/Vis spectroscopy to analysis, these variables must be controlled or accounted for in order to identify the substances present. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=71020 | 372,903 |
408,034 | A 2017 study found that the just war tradition can be traced as far back as to Ancient Egypt. Egyptian ethics of war usually centered on three main ideas, these including the cosmological role of Egypt, the pharaoh as a divine office and executor of the will of the gods, and the superiority of the Egyptian state and population over all other states and peoples. Egyptian political theology held that the pharaoh had the exclusive legitimacy in justly initiating a war, usually claimed to carry out the will of the gods. Senusret I, in the Twelfth Dynasty, claimed, "I was nursed to be a conqueror...his [Atum's] son and his protector, he gave me to conquer what he conquered." Later pharaohs also considered their sonship of the god Amun-Re as granting them absolute ability to declare war on the deity's behalf. Pharaohs often visited temples prior to initiating campaigns, where the pharaoh was believed to receive their commands of war from the deities. For example, Kamose claimed that "I went north because I was strong (enough) to attack the Asiatics through the command of Amon, the just of counsels." A stele erected by Thutmose III at the Temple of Amun at Karnak "provides an unequivocal statement of the pharaoh's divine mandate to wage war on his enemies." As the period of the New Kingdom progressed and Egypt heightened its territorial ambition, so did the invocation of just war aid the justification of these efforts. The universal principle of Maat, signifying order and justice, was central to the Egyptian notion of just war and its ability to guarantee Egypt virtually no limits on what it could take, do, or use to guarantee the ambitions of the state. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=173505 | 407,833 |
1,953,464 | Land use and land cover change resulting from deforestation is primarily the effect of large-scale socio-economic processes. Importantly, there is rarely one direct or underlying cause for deforestation. Rather, deforestation is the result of intertwining systemic forces working simultaneously or sequentially to change land cover. For instance, mass deforestation is often viewed as the product of industrial agriculture, yet a considerable portion old-growth forest deforestation is the result of small-scale migrant farming. As forest cover is removed, forest resources become exhausted and increasing populations lead to scarcity, which prompts people to move again to previously undisturbed forest, restarting the process of deforestation. This process is referred to as rural-to-rural migration. There are several reasons behind this continued migration: poverty-driven lack of available farmland and high costs may lead to an increase in farming intensity on existing farmland. This leads to the overexploitation of farmland, and down the line results in desertification, another land cover change, which renders soil unusable and unprofitable, requiring farmers to seek out untouched and unpopulated old-growth forests. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66693032 | 1,952,343 |
232,080 | An advanced ratchet type has a mechanism that rotates the pencil lead 9° counter-clockwise every time the lead is pressed on to the paper (which counts as one stroke), to distribute wear evenly. This "auto-rotation" mechanism keeps the lead 50% narrower than in the common propelling mechanical pencils, resulting in uniform thickness of the lines written onto the paper. The design was first patented by Schmidt of Germany, and later developed by Mitsubishi Pencil Company of Japan, and named "Kuru Toga" under the Uni brand. This type of pencil is most suited for Asian languages that have multiple strokes per letter or word, where the pencil is frequently lifted off the paper. The mechanism is less suitable for cursive writing used in western scripts. Another recent auto-rotation movement by Uni rotates the lead 18 degrees per stroke (or 20 strokes per complete revolution), which is better suited for western scripts. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1298450 | 231,961 |
45,606 | While words, along with clitics, are generally accepted as being the smallest units of syntax, in most languages, if not all, many words can be related to other words by rules that collectively describe the grammar for that language. For example, English speakers recognize that the words "dog" and "dogs" are closely related, differentiated only by the plurality morpheme "-s", only found bound to noun phrases. Speakers of English recognize these relations from their innate knowledge of English's rules of word formation. They infer intuitively that "dog" is to "dogs" as "cat" is to "cats"; and, in similar fashion, "dog" is to "dog catcher" as "dish" is to "dishwasher". By contrast, Classical Chinese has very little morphology, using almost exclusively unbound morphemes ("free" morphemes) and depending on word order to convey meaning. (Most words in modern Standard Chinese ["Mandarin"], however, are compounds and most roots are bound.) These are understood as grammars that represent the morphology of the language. The rules understood by a speaker reflect specific patterns or regularities in the way words are formed from smaller units in the language they are using, and how those smaller units interact in speech. In this way, morphology is the branch of linguistics that studies patterns of word formation within and across languages and attempts to formulate rules that model the knowledge of the speakers of those languages. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22760983 | 45,588 |
1,553,199 | A number of adhesion GPCRs may have important roles within the immune system. In particular, members the EGF-TM7 subfamily which possess N-terminal EGF-like domains are predominantly restricted to leukocytes suggesting a putative role in immune function. The human EGF‑TM7 family is composed of CD97, EMR1 (F4/80 receptor orthologue) EMR2, EMR3 and EMR4 (a probable pseudogene in humans). The human-restricted EMR2 receptor, is expressed by myeloid cells including monocytes, dendritic cells and neutrophils has been shown to be involved in the activation and migration of human neutrophils and upregulated in patients with systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS). Details of EMR1, CD97 needed. The adhesion‑GPCR brain angiogenesis inhibitor 1 (BAI1) acts as a phosphatidylserine receptor playing a potential role in the binding and clearance of apoptotic cells, and the phagocytosis of Gram-negative bacteria. GPR56 has been shown to a marker for inflammatory NK cell subsets and to be expressed by cytotoxic lymphocytes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37060921 | 1,552,318 |
444,183 | It was demonstrated that ChR2, if expressed in specific neurons or muscle cells, can evoke predictable behaviors, i.e. can control the nervous system of an intact animal, in this case the invertebrate "C. elegans". This was the first using ChR2 to steer the behavior of an animal in an optogenetic experiment, rendering a genetically specified cell type subject to optical remote control. Although both aspects had been illustrated earlier that year by the group of Gero Miesenböck, deploying the indirectly light-gated ion channel P2X2, it was henceforth microbial opsins like channelrhodopsin that dominated the field of genetically targeted remote control of excitable cells, due to the power, speed, targetability, ease of use, and temporal precision of direct optical activation, not requiring any external chemical compound such as caged ligands. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1763319 | 443,968 |
220,591 | Various agencies have tried to estimate how long uranium primary resources will last, assuming a once-through cycle. The European Commission said in 2001 that at the current level of uranium consumption, known uranium resources would last 42 years. When added to military and secondary sources, the resources could be stretched to 72 years. Yet this rate of usage assumes that nuclear power continues to provide only a fraction of the world's energy supply. If electric capacity were increased six-fold, then the 72-year supply would last just 12 years. The world's present measured resources of uranium, economically recoverable at a price of US$130/kg according to the industry groups Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) and International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), are enough to last for "at least a century" at current consumption rates. According to the World Nuclear Association, yet another industry group, assuming the world's current rate of consumption at 66,500 tonnes of uranium per year and the world's present measured resources of uranium (4.7–5.5 Mt) are enough to last for some 70–80 years. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4913827 | 220,482 |
1,428,009 | VANTAs act as forests of molecular wires to allow electrical communication between the underlying electrode and a biological entity. The main advantages of VANTAs are the nanosize of the CNT-sensing element and the corresponding small amount of material required for a detectable response. The well-aligned CNT arrays have been employed to work as ribonucleic acid (RNA) sensors, enzymes sensors, DNA sensors, and even protein sensors. Similar VANTAs of MWNTs, grown on platinum substrates, are useful for amperometric electrodes where the oxygenated or functionalized open-ends of nanotubes are used for the immobilization of biological species, while the platinum substrate provides the signal transduction. To increase the selectivity and sensitivity of amperometric biosensors, artificial mediators and permselective coatings are often used in the biosensor fabrication. Artificial mediators are used to shuttle electrons between the enzyme and the electrode to allow operation at low potentials. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=51417988 | 1,427,205 |
871,128 | The Navajo and Nugget Sandstones were part of the largest erg deposit in the geologic record. These formations are up to thick and are exposed over . Their original extent was likely 2.5 times the present outcrop area. Though once thought to possibly be marine in origin, they are now all but universally regarded as aeolian deposits. They are made up mostly of fine- to medium-sized quartz grains that are well-rounded and frosted, both indications of aeolian transport. The Navajo contains huge tabular crossbed sets with sweeping foresets. Individual crossbed sets dip at an angle of more than 20 degrees and are from thick. The formation contains freshwater invertebrate fossils and vertebrate tracks. Slump structures (contorted bedding) are present that resemble those in modern wetted dunes. Successive migrating dunes deposited a vertical stacking of eolian beds between interdune bounding surfaces and regional supersurfaces. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=643020 | 870,668 |
60,742 | The families of instruments used, especially in orchestras, grew larger; a process that climaxed in the early 20th century with very large orchestras used by late romantic and modernist composers. A wider array of percussion instruments began to appear. Brass instruments took on larger roles, as the introduction of rotary valves made it possible for them to play a wider range of notes. The size of the orchestra (typically around 40 in the Classical era) grew to be over 100. Gustav Mahler's 1906 Symphony No. 8, for example, has been performed with over 150 instrumentalists and choirs of over 400. New woodwind instruments were added, such as the contrabassoon, bass clarinet and piccolo and new percussion instruments were added, including xylophones, snare drums, celestas (a bell-like keyboard instrument), bells, and triangles, large orchestral harps, and even wind machines for sound effects. Saxophones appear in some scores from the late 19th century onwards, usually featured as a solo instrument rather than as in integral part of the orchestra. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6668778 | 60,717 |
377 | In 2015, a IUPAC project chaired by Eric Scerri was set up to decide the question, giving only Sc-Y-La-Ac and Sc-Y-Lu-Lr as possible resolutions. In 2021, it decided on Sc-Y-Lu-Lr on the basis of three "desiderata": displaying all elements in order of increasing atomic number, avoiding a split of the d-block into "two highly uneven portions", and having the blocks follow the widths quantum mechanics demands of them (2, 6, 10, and 14). The Sc-Y-La-Ac form forces a split in the d-block between lanthanum and hafnium (and between actinium and rutherfordium), and the form with blank spaces under yttrium makes the f-block 15 elements wide even though quantum mechanics requires it to be 14 elements wide. While it was noted that 15-element-wide f-blocks are supported by some practitioners of a specialised branch of relativistic quantum mechanics focusing on the properties of superheavy elements, the report's opinion was that such interest-dependent concerns should not have any bearing on how the periodic table is presented to "the general chemical and scientific community". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23053 | 377 |
597,108 | Grassmann numbers are individual elements or points of the exterior algebra generated by a set of Grassmann variables or Grassmann directions or supercharges formula_1, with possibly being infinite. The usage of the term "Grassmann variables" is historic; they are not variables, "per se"; they are better understood as the basis elements of a unital algebra. The terminology comes from the fact that a primary use is to define integrals, and that the variable of integration is Grassmann-valued, and thus, by abuse of language, is called a Grassmann variable. Similarly, the notion of "direction" comes from the notion of superspace, where ordinary Euclidean space is extended with additional Grassmann-valued "directions". The appellation of "charge" comes from the notion of charges in physics, which correspond to the generators of physical symmetries (via Noether's theorem). The perceived symmetry is that multiplication by a single Grassmann variable swaps the formula_2 grading between fermions and bosons; this is discussed in greater detail below. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3117887 | 596,803 |
329,360 | Beginning in the 1980s with the arrival of former head coach Howard Schnellenberger, the University of Miami football program blossomed quickly and unpredictably into one of the nation's most high profile and elite college football programs and began developing what now is one of the sport's largest and most passionate global fan bases. Since then, it also has developed several of the most famed, flamboyant, and successful players at the NFL level and also, along the way, been subjected to vast scrutiny and some criticism during its rise to national prominence, which featured three national championships in the 1980s followed by scandal-related damage to its recruiting capabilities, a subsequent comeback leading to its 2001 national championship, yet a second scandal-plagued descent, and, most recently, a second comeback that now has the program on solid footing again recognized as a national college football force (ranked in the top 25 nationally as the 2022 season began). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=87011 | 329,185 |
717,686 | Using potentially toxic substances (such as phthalates or brominated flame retardants) is deemed undesirable and REACH will force the use of certain substances to be phased out. Using potentially toxic substances in products other than those ingested by humans (such as electronic devices) may seem to be safe, but there are several ways in which chemicals can enter the human body and the environment. Substances can leave particles during consumer use, for example into the air where they can be inhaled or ingested. Even where they might not do direct harm to humans, they can contaminate the air or water, and can enter the food chain through plants, fish or other animals. According to the European Commission, little safety information exists for 99 percent of the tens of thousands of chemicals placed on the market before 1981. There were 100,106 chemicals in use in the EU in 1981, when the last survey was performed. Of these only 3,000 have been tested and over 800 are known to be carcinogenic, mutagenic or toxic to reproduction. These are listed in the Annex 1 of the Dangerous Substances Directive (now Annex VI of the CLP Regulation). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1301665 | 717,309 |
1,503,825 | Even if the user-centred design process implemented in a project guarantees a certain degree of user acceptance and yields a richer understanding of the context of use, the completed product's ability to adapt to changing conditions still plays a central role for a broad acceptance. The operational environment will change, the tasks will be distinct, the end-users will be heterogeneous, and their competences and expectations will evolve. Here again it is impossible for developers to anticipate all possible requirements modifications. Thus, the dynamics of changing conditions shifts the customisation process of the system's characteristics from the development phase to its usage and operation phase because the time needed for a professional development is too short or the new features are too costly. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21704475 | 1,502,979 |
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