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40,621 | Since its publication, the Game of Life has attracted much interest because of the surprising ways in which the patterns can evolve. It provides an example of emergence and self-organization. A version of Life that incorporates random fluctuations has been used in physics to study phase transitions and nonequilibrium dynamics. The game can also serve as a didactic analogy, used to convey the somewhat counter-intuitive notion that design and organization can spontaneously emerge in the absence of a designer. For example, philosopher Daniel Dennett has used the analogy of the Game of Life "universe" extensively to illustrate the possible evolution of complex philosophical constructs, such as consciousness and free will, from the relatively simple set of deterministic physical laws which might govern our universe. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37035 | 40,606 |
1,794,072 | Despite these methods being regarded as ‘faith healing,’ they were highly effective, as is evident by the numerous written accounts by patients attesting to their healing and providing detailed accounts of their cure. In the Asclepieion of Epidaurus, three large marble boards dated to 350 BC preserve the names, case histories, complaints, and cures of about 70 patients who came to the temple with a problem and shed it there. Some of the surgical cures listed, such as the opening of an abdominal abscess or the removal of traumatic foreign material, are realistic enough to have taken place, with the patient in a dream-like state of induced sleep known as "enkoimesis" (), not unlike anesthesia, induced with the help of soporific substances such as opium. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=82499 | 1,793,063 |
225,459 | Merton's theory on deviance stems from his 1938 analysis of the relationship between culture, structure and anomie. Merton argued that deviance is most likely to occur when there is a discrepancy between culturally prescribed goals and the legitimate means of obtaining them. Merton defines culture as an "organized set of normative values governing behavior which is common to members of a designated society or group". Social structures are the "organized set of social relationships in which members of the society or group are variously implicated." Anomie, the state of normlessness, arises when there is "an acute disjunction between the cultural norms and goals and the socially structured capacities of members of the group to act in accord with them." In his theory, Merton links anomie with deviance and argues that the discontinuity between culture and structure have the dysfunctional consequence of leading to deviance within society. The goal of material success was accepted, but the legitimate means were abandoned in preference for illegitimate ones. So, theft might replace hard work as the means for achieving goals. Merton argued deviance results not from pathological personalities but from the culture and structure of society itself. Value consensus is when all members of society share the same values; however, since members of society are placed in different positions in the social structure, they do not have the same opportunity of realizing the shared values. This can create deviance. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=230600 | 225,343 |
1,010,718 | The story of "X-COM", set in the near-future at the time of the game's release, begins in the year 1998. The initial plot centers on increased reports of UFO sightings as tales of abductions and rumors of attacks by mysterious aliens become widespread. The nations of the world come to perceive this as a threat and attempt to form their own forces – such as Japan's Kiryu-Kai force – to deal with the crisis, but these efforts are unsuccessful. On December 11, 1998, representatives from some of the most powerful nations in the world secretly meet in Geneva to discuss the issue. From this meeting is born the clandestine defense and research organization Extraterrestrial Combat (X-COM), over which the player assumes control at the start of the game. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=668164 | 1,010,197 |
1,680,151 | Intelligent Systems is another major that Computer Science offers that studies essential matters of IT, examination and optimisation, processing machines, and robotics. A new one is Net-centric Computing which studies network security, data compression, multimedia, and mobile computing. A most common one among peers is Programming, this is where students learn various code languages and implement those languages for algorithms and problem-solving. Coding languages can be translated as well and typed into various systems. In addition, Software Engineering is another frequent option amongst students. This specialization uses metrics and specifications to perform and design the goal and strategy of IT bases. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8487132 | 1,679,208 |
1,007,336 | Many existing hydroelectric dams are fairly old (for example, the Hoover Dam was built in the 1930s), and their original design predated the newer intermittent power sources such as wind and solar by decades. A hydroelectric dam originally built to provide baseload power will have its generators sized according to the average flow of water into the reservoir. Uprating such a dam with additional generators increases its peak power output capacity, thereby increasing its capacity to operate as a virtual grid energy storage unit. The United States Bureau of Reclamation reports an investment cost of $69 per kilowatt capacity to uprate an existing dam, compared to more than $400 per kilowatt for oil-fired peaking generators. While an uprated hydroelectric dam does not directly store excess energy from other generating units, it behaves equivalently by accumulating its own fuel – incoming river water – during periods of high output from other generating units. Functioning as a virtual grid storage unit in this way, the uprated dam is one of the most efficient forms of energy storage, because it has no pumping losses to fill its reservoir, only increased losses to evaporation and leakage. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1646838 | 1,006,816 |
1,105,101 | In 1965, Taylor moved from NASA to IPTO, first as a deputy to Ivan Sutherland (who returned to academia shortly thereafter) to fund large programs in advanced research in computing at major universities and corporate research centers throughout the United States. Among the computer projects that ARPA supported was time-sharing, in which many users could work at terminals to share a single large computer. Users could work interactively instead of using punched cards or punched tape in a batch processing style. Taylor's office in the Pentagon had a terminal connected to time-sharing at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, a terminal connected to the Berkeley Timesharing System at the University of California, Berkeley, and a third terminal to the System Development Corporation in Santa Monica, California. He noticed each system developed a community of users, but was isolated from the other communities. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1002038 | 1,104,538 |
157,467 | There are many types of fuel cells, but they all consist of an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte that allows positively charged hydrogen ions (protons) to move between the two sides of the fuel cell. At the anode a catalyst causes the fuel to undergo oxidation reactions that generate protons (positively charged hydrogen ions) and electrons. The protons flow from the anode to the cathode through the electrolyte after the reaction. At the same time, electrons are drawn from the anode to the cathode through an external circuit, producing direct current electricity. At the cathode, another catalyst causes hydrogen ions, electrons, and oxygen to react, forming water. Fuel cells are classified by the type of electrolyte they use and by the difference in startup time, which ranges from 1 second for proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEM fuel cells, or PEMFC) to 10 minutes for solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC). A related technology is flow batteries, in which the fuel can be regenerated by recharging. Individual fuel cells produce relatively small electrical potentials, about 0.7 volts, so cells are "stacked", or placed in series, to create sufficient voltage to meet an application's requirements. In addition to electricity, fuel cells produce water, heat and, depending on the fuel source, very small amounts of nitrogen dioxide and other emissions. The energy efficiency of a fuel cell is generally between 40 and 60%; however, if waste heat is captured in a cogeneration scheme, efficiencies up to 85% can be obtained. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10339 | 157,395 |
463,827 | According to Goenner, the contributions to the book are a mixture of mathematical–physical incompetence, hubris, and the feelings of the critics of being suppressed by contemporary physicists advocating the new theory. The compilation of the authors show, Goenner continues, that this was not a reaction within the physics community—only one physicist (Karl Strehl) and three mathematicians (Jean-Marie Le Roux, Emanuel Lasker and Hjalmar Mellin) were present—but a reaction of an inadequately educated academic citizenship, which did not know what to do with relativity. As regards the average age of the authors: 57% were substantially older than Einstein, one third was around the same age, and only two persons were substantially younger. Two authors (Reuterdahl, von Mitis) were antisemitic and four others were possibly connected to the Nazi movement. On the other hand, no antisemitic expression can be found in the book, and it also included contributions of some authors of Jewish ancestry (Salomo Friedländer, Ludwig Goldschmidt, Hans Israel, Emanuel Lasker, Oskar Kraus, Menyhért Palágyi). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30694430 | 463,597 |
1,482,024 | In 1927, Kronig returned to Europe for good and worked in different prominent centres of research: Copenhagen, London, Zürich (where for a year he was Pauli's assistant). Around 1930 he settled in the Netherlands: first in Utrecht, then in Groningen, first as Dirk Coster's assistant, and from 1931 as an associate professor, and since 1939 as a full professor at the Delft University of Technology where he stayed until his retirement in 1969. Between 1959 and 1962 he was the rector of the university. He was recognized internationally by then as a renowned theorist who corresponded with the leading characters of that time and made interesting contributions to quantum mechanics and the application of it particularly on the physics of molecules and molecular spectra, an area on which he was the expert of those days. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3305981 | 1,481,190 |
1,614,087 | Maze broke various statistical records in this season, including the highest number of podiums in a season (24, record previously held by Maier (22) and by Hanni Wenzel and Pernilla Wiberg for ladies (18)), highest number of top 5 finishes (31, previously Maier and Wiberg (24)), highest number of points after first 10 races (677, previously Katja Seizinger, 643), largest percent of possible points won (69%, previously 61% by Wiberg), and the highest margin over the runner-up (1313, compared to 743 for Maier and 578 for Lindsey Vonn). Maze finished on podium in all giant slalom events, previously achieved only by Vreni Schneider in 1989. She is also the only woman to remain at the top of the overall standings throughout the season - a feat previously achieved only by Bode Miller in 2005. In addition to the overall title, Maze won the super-G and giant slalom titles, finished at the top of the combined list by winning both races in the season, and finished second in the downhill and slalom. Those titles went respectively to two Americans, Vonn and Mikaela Shiffrin. Vonn's season ended with a knee injury on 5 February at the World Championships, but she held on to win the downhill title by a single point after the final race was cancelled. Three days after turning 18, Shiffrin won the final slalom race at Lenzerheide on 16 March to overtake Maze and win that discipline's season title by 33 points. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=32863343 | 1,613,182 |
1,773,362 | Historically created by legislative mandate, Cascadia Community College hired its first staff and faculty in 1999. These individuals numbered less than a dozen and handled all administrative duties including the development of curriculum and programs of studies, recruiting and hiring faculty and staff, and development and design of the permanent campus. Founding staff, administrators, and the four members of the innovative Cascadia "Curriculum and Learning Design Team" worked for twelve months in a small office in a business park just about one mile from the new Cascadia campus. Most important decisions were made or announced at a small communal table in the center of the Cascadia temporary office. In this room, all important decisions were deliberated and decided upon. Over 1,100 applications were screened to select just fifteen "Founding Faculty" members along with 55 Associate (part-time) Faculty who would be brought to Bothell in 2000 and oriented to join this innovative learning environment. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1935812 | 1,772,365 |
508,902 | There are other ways of modifying a verb or adjective to make it more intense. These are all more or less equivalent to adding the word "very" in English; which morphology is used depends on the word being modified. Certain words which are short in English, such as 'sad' and 'mad', are sometimes fingerspelled rather than signed to mean 'very sad' and 'very mad'. However, the concept of 'very sad' or 'very mad' can be portrayed with the use of exaggerated body movements and facial expressions. Reduplication of the signs may also occur to emphasize the degree of the statement. Some signs are produced with an exaggeratedly large motion, so that they take up more sign space than normal. This may involve a back-and-forth scissoring motion of the arms to indicate that the sign ought to be yet larger, but that one is physically incapable of making it big enough. Many other signs are given a slow, tense production. The fact that this modulation is morphological rather than merely mimetic can be seen in the sign for 'fast': both 'very slow' and 'very fast' are signed by making the motion either unusually slowly or unusually quickly than it is in the citation forms of 'slow' and 'fast'—not exclusively by making it slower for 'very slow' and faster for 'very fast'. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10240549 | 508,638 |
471,002 | Randomized Controlled Trials were late to appear in the social policy compared to the medical field. Although evidence-based approach can be traced as far back as the fourteenth century, it was more recently popularized by the Blair Government in the United Kingdom. The Blair Government said they wanted to end the ideological led-based decision-making for policy making. For example, a UK Government white paper published in 1999 (""Modernising Government"") noted that Government must "produce policies that really deal with problems, that are forward-looking and shaped by evidence rather than a response to short-term pressures; that tackle causes not symptoms". There was then an increase in research and policy activists pushing for more evidence-based policy-making which led to the formation of the sister organization to Cochrane Collaboration, the Campbell Collaboration in 1999. The Campbell Collaboration conducts reviews on the best evidence that analyzes the effects of social and educational policies and practices. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2837919 | 470,766 |
1,548,615 | From 1941 to 1944, he was the German minister (ambassador) to Hungary. The Hungarian politician Count Miklós Kállay described him: "In those days I had my first meeting with the German minister , Herr Dietrich von Jagow. He was a relative nonentity, neither a politician nor a career diplomat, but an enthusiastic member of the SA". Herbert Pell, the American minister in Budapest called Jagow "in many ways a boorish little fellow". Jagow knew nothing of Hungary and did not speak Magyar, through the fact that German was widely known among the Hungarian elite to a certain extent mitigated this handicap. His almost mindless militarism as he had a deep-rooted contempt for civilians made it very difficult for him to forge friendships with civilians in Budapest. Jagow's police background did not help him as a diplomat as he was considered in Budapest to be a rude, arrogant bully who liked to push people around. Jagow's principle adviser on Hungary was the "völkisch" intellectual Hans Freyer who headed the German Institute for Culture in Budapest. In 1939, the Hungarian government passed a sweeping set of anti-Semitic laws intended to marginalize the Hungarian Jewish community by requiring that Jewish involvement in the professions, businesses and liberal arts be limited to 5% (the same percentage of the Hungarian population that was Jewish). Jagow complained right from the moment that he arrived in Budapest that the laws was insufficient, and the Hungarians should pass more harsher laws, saying that only allowing 0% of the people in the professions, businesses liberal arts to be Jewish would satisfy him. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=65256855 | 1,547,734 |
2,178,537 | Howell was born in Cooper County, Missouri on October 8, 1842. He came west with his parents, Benjamin and Elizabeth (Mathews) Howell, and his four siblings in 1850. The Howells took up a Donation Land Claim on Sauvie Island in 1854. Howell was largely self-taught, and only had six months of formal schooling. His father was a doctor who had taught him some Latin and science, but he mostly educated himself while farming along the Clackamas River after leaving Sauvie Island. He owned several grocery stores in the Portland area over years. He served as the first post master of the Willamette Slough post office on Sauvie Island starting in 1873. He later served as the first postmaster of Creighton post office in Oak Grove, Oregon, beginning in 1904. Howell married Effie McIlwane in 1892. The Howells had two sons, Dorsey R. Howell (born in 1894) and Benjamin A. Howell (born in 1904). Howell died on December 3, 1912 in Woodstock, Oregon (now a neighborhood in southeast Portland). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30515287 | 2,177,292 |
2,107,686 | The preliminary round of the Sri Lankan Astronomy and Astrophysics Olympiad competition is a two-hour theory paper on Astronomy and Astrophysics. It usually consists of 20-30 multiple choice questions and five structured essay type questions. The competition is conducted in three languages Sinhala, Tamil and English. There is no age limit for the competition as long as the participant's age does not exceed 19 years to the given date. Main sections that covered are, Basic Astrophysics, Coordinates and Times, Solar System, Stellar Systems, Cosmology, Instrumentation and Space Technologies. Students selected from the competition are trained at the Department of Physics, University of Colombo, Sri Lanka Planetarium and at the Arthur C. Clarke Institute for Modern Technologies, Moratuwa. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25738564 | 2,106,473 |
2,003,290 | Hydrogen is a colourless, odourless, and comparatively unreactive diatomic gas with a density of 8.988 × 10 g/cm and is about 14 times lighter than air. It condenses to a colourless liquid −252.879 °C and freezes into an ice- or snow-like solid at −259.16 °C. The solid form has a hexagonal crystalline structure and is soft and easily crushed. Hydrogen is an insulator in all of its forms. It has a high ionisation energy (1312.0 kJ/mol), moderate electron affinity (73 kJ/mol), and moderate electronegativity (2.2). Hydrogen is a poor oxidising agent (H + 2"e" → 2H = –2.25 V at pH 0). Its chemistry, most of which is based around its tendency to acquire the electron configuration of the noble gas helium, is largely covalent in nature, noting it can form ionic hydrides with highly electropositive metals, and alloy-like hydrides with some transition metals. The common oxide of hydrogen (HO) is a neutral oxide. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=68175797 | 2,002,142 |
168,452 | Marketed as the centre of the new broadband satellite networks are a new generation of high-powered GEO satellites positioned above the equator, operating in K-band (18.3–30 GHz) mode. These new purpose-built satellites are designed and optimized for broadband applications, employing many narrow spot beams, which target a much smaller area than the broad beams used by earlier communication satellites. This spot beam technology allows satellites to reuse assigned bandwidth multiple times which can enable them to achieve much higher overall capacity than conventional broad beam satellites. The spot beams can also increase performance and consequential capacity by focusing more power and increased receiver sensitivity into defined concentrated areas. Spot beams are designated as one of two types: subscriber spot beams, which transmit to and from the subscriber-side terminal, and gateway spot beams, which transmit to/from a service provider ground station. Note that moving off the tight footprint of a spotbeam can degrade performance significantly. Also, spotbeams can make the use of other significant new technologies impossible, including 'Carrier in Carrier' modulation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=769088 | 168,362 |
1,035,826 | One argument for possible negative effects explains how kids are already spending too much time with technology outside the classroom. It explains that over seven and a half hours a day are being used by children eight to eighteen on media outside of school. With the large amount of time technology is being used by children, this argument claims that the time spent on screens may be replacing critical face to face communication may be negatively affecting children's face to face communication skills. To find out if this was true or not an experiment was done where two groups were taken from the same school. One group went to a camp where they had many different bonding activities without access to a screen throughout the course of five days. While the second group remained at school and were allowed to use their screens how they normally do. To test their face to face communication skills both groups took pre and post tests for comparison. The results suggested that those who went away for the five days did much better in reading facial emotion than the control group. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10527118 | 1,035,286 |
638,381 | In late 2001, IBM was set to introduce 130 nanometer CMOS SOI devices with copper and low-κ dielectric for the back end, based on Shahidi's work. Freescale adopted SOI in their PowerPC 7455 CPU in late 2001. Currently, Freescale is shipping SOI products in 180 nm, 130 nm, 90 nm and 45 nm lines. The 90 nm PowerPC- and Power ISA-based processors used in the Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, and Wii use SOI technology as well. Competitive offerings from Intel however continue to use conventional bulk CMOS technology for each process node, instead focusing on other venues such as HKMG and tri-gate transistors to improve transistor performance. In January 2005, Intel researchers reported on an experimental single-chip silicon rib waveguide Raman laser built using SOI. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=747290 | 638,042 |
1,348,819 | MAIS is only diagnosed in normal phenotypic males, and is not typically investigated except in cases of male infertility. MAIS has a mild presentation that often goes unnoticed and untreated; even with semenological, clinical and laboratory data, it can be difficult to distinguish between men with and without MAIS, and thus a diagnosis of MAIS is not usually made without confirmation of an AR gene mutation. The androgen sensitivity index (ASI), defined as the product of luteinizing hormone (LH) and testosterone (T), is frequently raised in individuals with all forms of AIS, including MAIS, although many individuals with MAIS have an ASI in the normal range. Testosterone levels may be elevated despite normal levels of luteinizing hormone. Conversion of testosterone (T) to dihydrotestosterone (DHT) may be impaired, although to a lesser extent than is seen in 5α-reductase deficiency. A high ASI in a normal phenotypic male, especially when combined with azoospermia or oligospermia, decreased secondary terminal hair, and/or impaired conversion of T to DHT, can be indicative of MAIS, and may warrant genetic testing. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29430760 | 1,348,077 |
986,142 | Humans have been widely acknowledged as the most intelligent species on the planet, with big brains with ample cognitive abilities and processing power which outcompete all other species. In fact, humans have shown an enormous increase in brain size and intelligence over millions of years of evolution. This is because humans have been referred to as an 'evolved cultural species'; one that has an unrivalled reliance on culturally transmitted knowledge due to the social environment around us. This is down to social transmission of information which spreads significantly faster in human populations relative to changes in genetics. Put simply, we are the most cultural species there is, and are therefore the most intelligent species there is. The key point when concerning evolution of intelligence is that this cultural information has been consistently transmitted across generations to build vast amounts of cultural skills and knowledge throughout the human race. Dunbar's social brain hypothesis on the other hand dictates that our brains evolved primarily due to complex social interactions in groups, so in this way the two hypotheses are distinct from each other in that the cultural intelligence hypothesis focuses more on an in increase in intelligence from socially transmitted information. We see a shift in focus from 'social' interactions to learning strategies. The hypothesis can also be seen to contradict the idea of human 'general intelligence' by emphasising the process of cultural skills and information being learned from others. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2452832 | 985,627 |
866,484 | Many unidentified late-14th- and early-15th-century northern artists were of the first rank, but have suffered academic neglect because they have not been attached to any historical person; as Nash puts it, "much of what cannot be firmly attributed remains less studied". Some art historians believe that this situation has fostered a lack of caution in connecting works with historical persons, and that such connections often rest on tenuous circumstantial evidence. The identities of a number of well-known artists have been founded on the basis of a single signed, documented or otherwise attributed work, from which follow further attributions based on technical evidence and geographical proximity. The so-called Master of the Legend of the Magdalen, who may have been Pieter van Coninxloo, is one of the more notable examples; others include Hugo van der Goes, Campin, Stefan Lochner and Simon Marmion. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=799881 | 866,024 |
973,590 | Ancient Greece was surrounded by hostile neighbours such as Persia, and later Rome. The Greeks had adopted a different pattern of warfare and even fashioned their weapons differently. They had adopted a very strategic style of fighting, researching the strengths and weaknesses of their enemies, and developed their weapons accordingly. After incessant threats of a Persian invasion, the Greeks came together and formed the Delian league; the Spartans were ready for a ground assault while the Athenians relied on their strong navy. Sensing the military might of the Athenians, the city-states and settlers of Asia Minor requested them to lead the league. The Athenians had a formidable navy; they produced an overwhelming number of warships and soldiers and in return demanded tribute from the league members. The Athenians had built dozens of warships known as triremes to defend Greece. The crew consisted of 200 men which included the captain, ten dignitaries who may have been commanders, several archers, a few soldiers, and 170 oarsmen. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23468036 | 973,080 |
653,206 | This means that all the kinetic energy from the bullet is transferred into the target in a very short period of time. The most common application of this bullet is the shooting of vermin, such as prairie dogs. The effect of these bullets is quite dramatic, often resulting in the animal being blown apart upon impact. However, on larger game fragmenting ammunition provides inadequate penetration of vital organs to ensure a clean kill; instead, a "splash wound" may result. This also limits practical use of these rounds to supersonic (rifle) rounds, which have a high enough kinetic energy to ensure a lethal hit. The two main advantages of this ammunition are that it is very humane, as a hit almost anywhere on most small vermin will ensure an instant kill, and that the relatively low mass bullet fragments pose a very low risk of ricochet or of penetrating unintended secondary targets. Fragmenting bullets should not be confused with frangible bullets (see below). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=186150 | 652,863 |
1,531,757 | The Computational Fluid dynamics (CFD) models prepared through software, of the arteries, veins etc. not only lead to the identification of properties of flowing blood inside arteries but also changes in viscosity can be identified which may be the result of certain underlying disease/disorder. Moreover, the stress concentration and the distribution of stresses in different biological systems carrying fluids can also be identified. This has led to a greater degree of assistance to biomedical engineers in recognizing the cause of certain diseases and thus they can easily search for the method of cure for that disease/disorder. Also, this has led to a greater degree of good research in the fields of biotechnology, Bio-Mechanics etc. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=52242569 | 1,530,891 |
550,119 | Furthermore, neuroeconomic research is being used to understand and explain aspects of human behavior that do not conform to traditional economic models. While these behavior patterns are generally dismissed as 'fallacious' or 'illogical' by economists, neuroeconomic researchers are trying to determine the biological reasons for these behaviors. By using this approach, researchers may be able to find explanations for why people often act sub-optimally. Richard Thaler provides a prime example in his book "Misbehaving", detailing a scenario where an appetiser is served before a meal and guest accidentally fill up of it. Most people need the appetiser to be completely hidden in order to stop themselves from the temptation, where as a rational agent would simply stop and wait for the meal. Temptation is just one of the many irrationalities that have been ignored due to difficulties of studying them | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=515094 | 549,831 |
509,190 | The description of the bottom-up development mentions "co"′ as an output but not "co". Does that design simply never need the direct form of the carry out? Well, yes and no. At each stage, the calculation of "co"′ depends only on "ci"′, "x"′ and "y"′, which means that the carry propagation ripples along the bit positions just as fast as in the canonical design without ever developing "co". The calculation of "u", which does require "ci" to be made from "ci"′ by a 1-input NOR, is slower but for any word length the design only pays that penalty once (when the leftmost sum digit is developed). That's because those calculations overlap, each in what amounts to its own little pipeline without affecting when the next bit position's sum bit can be calculated. And, to be sure, the "co"′ out of the leftmost bit position will probably have to be complemented as part of the logic determining whether the addition overflowed. But using 3-input NOR gates, the bottom-up design is very nearly as fast for doing parallel addition on a non-trivial word length, cuts down on the gate count, and uses lower fanouts ... so it wins if gate count and/or fanout are paramount! | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=794841 | 508,926 |
1,139,349 | The "push" in the intercropping scheme is provided by the plants that emit volatile chemicals (kairomones) which repel stemborer moths and drive them away from the main crop (maize or sorghum). The most commonly used species of push plants are legumes of the genus "Desmodium" (e.g. silverleaf Desmodium, "D. uncinatum", and greenleaf Desmodium, "D. intortum"). The "Desmodium" is planted in between the rows of maize or sorghum, where they emit volatile chemicals (such as (E)-β-ocimene and (E)-4,8-dimethyl-1,3,7-nonatriene) that repel the stemborer moths. These semiochemicals are also produced in grasses such as maize when they are damaged by insect herbivores, which may explain why they are repellent to stemborers. Being a low-growing plant, "Desmodium" does not interfere with the growth of crops, but can suppress weeds and help improve soil quality by increasing soil organic matter content, fixing nitrogen, and stabilizing soils from erosion. It also serves as a highly nutritious animal feed and effectively suppresses striga weeds through an allelopathic mechanism. Another plant showing good repellent properties is molasses grass ("Melinis minutiflora"), a nutritious animal feed with tick-repelling and stemborer larval parasitoid attractive properties. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5444788 | 1,138,756 |
403,650 | The design was based on a study of IBM's extensive collection of statistics gathered from their customers. This demonstrated that code in high-performance settings made extensive use of processor registers, and that they often ran out of them. This suggested that additional registers would improve performance. Additionally, they noticed that compilers generally ignored the vast majority of the available instructions, especially orthogonal addressing modes. Instead, they selected the fastest version of any given instruction and then constructed small routines using it. This suggested that the majority of instructions could be removed without affecting the resulting code. These two conclusions worked in concert; removing instructions would allow the instruction opcodes to be shorter, freeing up bits in the instruction word which could then be used to select among a larger set of registers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=26201 | 403,450 |
971,715 | Wigner was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1963 "for his contributions to the theory of the atomic nucleus and the elementary particles, particularly through the discovery and application of fundamental symmetry principles". The prize was shared that year, with the other half of the award divided between Maria Goeppert-Mayer and J. Hans D. Jensen. Wigner professed that he had never considered the possibility that this might occur, and added: "I never expected to get my name in the newspapers without doing something wicked." He also won the Franklin Medal in 1950, the Enrico Fermi award in 1958, the Atoms for Peace Award in 1959, the Max Planck Medal in 1961, the National Medal of Science in 1969, the Albert Einstein Award in 1972, the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement in 1974, and the eponymous Wigner Medal in 1978. In 1968 he gave the Josiah Willard Gibbs lecture. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10101 | 971,205 |
148,282 | In 2013, Volvo announced a flywheel system fitted to the rear axle of its S60 sedan. Braking action spins the flywheel at up to 60,000 rpm and stops the front-mounted engine. Flywheel energy is applied via a special transmission to partially or completely power the vehicle. The , carbon fiber flywheel spins in a vacuum to eliminate friction. When partnered with a four-cylinder engine, it offers up to a 25 percent reduction in fuel consumption versus a comparably performing turbo six-cylinder, providing an boost and allowing it to reach in 5.5 seconds. The company did not announce specific plans to include the technology in its product line. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=24325138 | 148,221 |
221,290 | Since the late 1980s, prominent individuals and organizations have recognized the seminal importance of Engelbart's contributions. In December 1995, at the Fourth WWW Conference in Boston, he was the first recipient of what would later become the Yuri Rubinsky Memorial Award. In 1997, he was awarded the Lemelson-MIT Prize of $500,000, the world's largest single prize for invention and innovation, and the ACM Turing Award. To mark the 30th anniversary of Engelbart's 1968 demo, in 1998 the Stanford Silicon Valley Archives and the Institute for the Future hosted "Engelbart's Unfinished Revolution", a symposium at Stanford University's Memorial Auditorium, to honor Engelbart and his ideas. He was inducted into National Inventors Hall of Fame in 1998. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8081 | 221,181 |
1,673,143 | Mleiha is strongly linked to the Ancient Near Eastern city of Ed-Dur on the UAE's west coast. Macedonian-style coinage unearthed at Ed-Dur dates back to Alexander the Great. Hundreds of coins were found both there and at Mleiha featuring a head of Heracles and a seated Zeus on the obverse, and bearing the name of "Abi'el" in Aramaic. These coins match moulds found at Mleiha which, together with finds of slag at the site, suggests the existence of a metallurgical centre. Contemporary Greek manuscripts have given the exports from Ed-Dur as 'pearls, purple dye, clothing, wine, gold and slaves, and a great quantity of dates' and there is a strong history of trade between the coast and the interior. Similarities in burial rituals — of laying animals to rest with their owners — and vessels, decorations and small bronze snake figures have also been unearthed. Camels buried with their heads reversed are a common feature of both the animal burials at Ed-Dur and inland Mleiha. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50030352 | 1,672,201 |
884,278 | Ebbinghaus was born in Barmen, in the Rhine Province of the Kingdom of Prussia, as the son of a wealthy merchant, Carl Ebbinghaus. Little is known about his infancy except that he was brought up in the Lutheran faith and was a pupil at the town Gymnasium. At the age of 17 (1867), he began attending the University of Bonn, where he had planned to study history and philology. However, during his time there he developed an interest in philosophy. In 1870, his studies were interrupted when he served with the Prussian Army in the Franco-Prussian War. Following this short stint in the military, Ebbinghaus finished his dissertation on Eduard von Hartmann's "" (philosophy of the unconscious) and received his doctorate on 16 August 1873, when he was 23 years old. During the next three years, he spent time at Halle and Berlin. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13647 | 883,814 |
1,912,546 | Denis Pelli (born 1954) is a professor of psychology and neural science at New York University studying object recognition and reading. Pelli studied applied math at Harvard, and completed his PhD in physiology at Cambridge with Campbell and Robson in 1981. Since 1995, he is Professor of Psychology and Neural Science at New York University. Pelli is known for his contributions to the fields of visual sensitivity, letter identification, object recognition, the Psychtoolbox, equivalent input noise, QUEST, the Pelli-Zhang video attenuator, and the Pelli-Robson Contrast Sensitivity Chart, which allows for clinical measurement of contrast sensitivity. Current research in Pelli's lab covers object recognition and visual crowding, as well as the experience of beauty. Pelli serves as an associate editor for the Journal of Vision, and has published over 50 publications. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5154913 | 1,911,447 |
1,144,834 | Cdc25 enzymes are well conserved through evolution, and have been isolated from fungi such as yeasts as well as all metazoans examined to date, including humans. The exception among eukaryotes may be plants, as the purported plant Cdc25s have characteristics, (such as the use of cations for catalysis), that are more akin to serine/threonine phosphatases than dual-specificity phosphatases, raising doubts as to their authenticity as Cdc25 phosphatases. The Cdc25 family appears to have expanded in relation to the complexity of the cell-cycle and life-cycle of higher animals. Yeasts have a single Cdc25 (as well as a distantly related enzyme known as Itsy-bitsy phosphatase 1, or Ibp1). "Drosophila melanogaster" has two Cdc25s, known as "string" and "twine", which control mitosis and meiosis, respectively. Most other model organisms examined have three Cdc25s, designated Cdc25A, Cdc25B, and Cdc25C. An exception is the nematode "Caenorhabditis elegans", which has four distinct Cdc25 genes (Cdc-25.1 to Cdc-25.4). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3610203 | 1,144,233 |
2,188,956 | The son of eminent dermatologist Sir Archibald Gray KCVO, John Gray was born in London and attended Cheltenham College before studying medicine at Clare College, Cambridge and University College Hospital. He began physiological research into the conditions faced by military personnel in battle conditions at the MRC's Armoured Fighting Vehicle Training School in 1943. After a spell at the National Institute for Medical Research, he became a surgeon-lieutenant in the Royal Navy during World War II, researching the physiological effects on personnel working inside tanks and naval gun turrets. He returned to the National Institute for Medical Research from 1946 until 1952 to work on neurophysiology, then became professor of physiology at University College London, where he researched sensory systems. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41519450 | 2,187,707 |
1,455,039 | Unlike more solitary snapping turtles, snakes may either hibernate alone or in large aggregations of up to several thousand individuals of the same or different species. They use a wide variety of hibernacula, including: rock piles, debris-filled wells, caves, crevices, unused burrows made by other animals, and ant mounds. The common European viper has actually been observed using all of the hibernacula listed above. Most species seem to prefer finding an already-present suitable site rather than constructing one of their own, but they do expand upon present structures and may make their own burrows if there aren't any quality sites available. Pine snakes and the closely related Louisiana pine snakes are two of the most well-studied hibernating snake species, and share similar hibernacula characteristics. These species sometimes construct their own burrows, or use tunnels formed from the decay of tree roots or by gophers. The tunnels form complex networks, and have side chambers which each house one snake. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12633703 | 1,454,219 |
2,217,397 | After losing her 2000 bid to Bondareva and newcomer Dina Aspandiyarova (who later represented Australia at the succeeding Games), Belyayeva returned from an eight-year-absence to compete for her second Kazakh team, as the oldest athlete (aged 51), in pistol shooting at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens. She managed to get a minimum qualifying score of 580 in the sport pistol to gain an Olympic quota place for Kazakhstan, following an outside-final finish at the Worlds in Lahti, Finland two years earlier. In the 10 m air pistol, held on the third day of the Games, Belyayeva fired a frustrating 373 out of a possible 400 to obtain a thirty-third position in a field of forty-one shooters. In her signature event, the 25 m pistol, Belyayeva upgraded her unsteady air pistol feat to shoot a substantial 292 in precision stage and 285 in rapid-fire for a total score of 577 points, finishing in an unprecedented tie with four other shooters for thirteenth place. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=47618164 | 2,216,135 |
11,812 | Ninety-five seconds after Swigert activated those switches, the astronauts heard a "pretty large bang", accompanied by fluctuations in electrical power and the firing of the attitude control thrusters. Communications and telemetry to Earth were lost for 1.8 seconds, until the system automatically corrected by switching the high-gain S-band antenna, used for translunar communications, from narrow-beam to wide-beam mode. The accident happened at 55:54:53 (03:08 UTC on April 14, 10:08 PM EST, April 13). Swigert reported 26 seconds later, "Okay, Houston, we've had a problem here," echoed at 55:55:42 by Lovell, "Houston, we've had a problem. We've had a Main B Bus undervolt." William Fenner was the guidance officer (GUIDO) who was the first to report a problem in the control room to Kranz. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1770 | 11,807 |
706,875 | The use of Director-controlled firing together with the fire control computer moved the control of the gun laying from the individual turrets to a central position (usually in a plotting room protected below armor), although individual gun mounts and multi-gun turrets could retain a local control option for use when battle damage prevented the director setting the guns. Guns could then be fired in planned salvos, with each gun giving a slightly different trajectory. Dispersion of shot caused by differences in individual guns, individual projectiles, powder ignition sequences, and transient distortion of ship structure was undesirably large at typical naval engagement ranges. Directors high on the superstructure had a better view of the enemy than a turret mounted sight, and the crew operating it were distant from the sound and shock of the guns. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21169396 | 706,506 |
2,204,515 | The cystatin superfamily encompasses proteins that contain multiple cystatin-like sequences. Some of the members are active cysteine protease inhibitors, while others have lost or perhaps never acquired this inhibitory activity. There are three inhibitory families in the superfamily, including the type 1 cystatins (stefins), type 2 cystatins and the kininogens. The type 2 cystatin proteins are a class of cysteine proteinase inhibitors found in a variety of human fluids and secretions. The cystatin locus on chromosome 20 contains the majority of the type 2 cystatin genes and pseudogenes. This gene is located in the cystatin locus and encodes a protein similar to type 2 cystatins. The protein exhibits highly tissue-specific expression in the reproductive tract, suggesting implicit roles in reproduction. Alternative splicing identified in mouse is suggested in human based on EST evidence but the full-length nature of putative variants has not been determined. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15028717 | 2,203,260 |
31,125 | Of the other discovered allotropes, carbon nanofoam is a ferromagnetic allotrope discovered in 1997. It consists of a low-density cluster-assembly of carbon atoms strung together in a loose three-dimensional web, in which the atoms are bonded trigonally in six- and seven-membered rings. It is among the lightest known solids, with a density of about 2 kg/m. Similarly, glassy carbon contains a high proportion of closed porosity, but contrary to normal graphite, the graphitic layers are not stacked like pages in a book, but have a more random arrangement. Linear acetylenic carbon has the chemical structure −(C:::C)−. Carbon in this modification is linear with "sp" orbital hybridization, and is a polymer with alternating single and triple bonds. This carbyne is of considerable interest to nanotechnology as its Young's modulus is 40 times that of the hardest known material – diamond. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5299 | 31,115 |
1,719,506 | The "Golden Citron" (, ) truck-mounted net-centric open systems architecture Battle Management Command, Control, Communication & Intelligence Center can control up to 14 intercepts simultaneously. As of 2007 it was one of the world's most advanced net-centric systems. The system provides fully automatic as well as Human-in-the-Loop options at every stage of battle operation management. It is also capable of interoperability with other theater missile defense systems and CI systems. Notably Link 16, TADIL-J, communications were being altered to allow interoperability with Patriot fire control units. Assigned targets can be handed over to the Patriot's AN/MPQ-53 fire control radar. Tests carried out by the U.S and Israel have successfully linked the Arrow with both U.S and Israeli versions of the Patriot. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=198447 | 1,718,536 |
2,018,407 | Crichton was born in Leith, Scotland. His father George Crichton was a shipowner, whose company became one of the first steam ship companies in Scotland. Its ships operated between Leith and London. Crichton's mother, née Allan, was also from Leith; her father was a log dealer, whaler and shipowner. He had four brothers and one sister. His older brothers Alexander and Edward studied at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich and were then employed by Scottish engineering companies. The example set by his older brothers inspired Crichton. He studied in Leith until he was ten years old, after which he went on to Hill Street Institution, Edinburgh where he graduated at the age of 14. His father died in 1841. Crichton followed his brother Alexander to Greenock, where he worked as an intern at Scotts Shipbuilding and Engineering Company. After two years he moved to Shotts Iron Company where his brother Edward worked. When this engineering works was closed, Crichton moved to Glasgow where he worked for Robert Napier and Sons as a draftsman. In 1848 he went to sea to work as an engineer on "SS Royal Victoria", which operated between London and Granton. During the winter season he studied, and in the following year he worked on "SS Isabella Napier". While his brothers Alexander and Edward often worked at different occupations, Crichton's interest was focused on designing and drafting. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=48740213 | 2,017,244 |
33,803 | All revealed fifth-generation fighters use commercial off-the-shelf main processors to directly control all sensors to form a consolidated view of the battlespace with both onboard and networked sensors, while previous-generation jet fighters used federated systems where each sensor or pod would present its own readings for the pilot to combine in their own mind a view of the battlespace. The F-22A was physically delivered without synthetic aperture radar (SAR) or situation awareness infra-red search and track. It will gain SAR later through software upgrades. However, any flaw in these complex software systems can disable supposedly unrelated aircraft systems, and the complexity of a software-defined aircraft can lead to a software crisis with additional costs and delays. By the end of 2013, the biggest concern with the F-35 program was software, especially the software required for data fusion across the many sensors. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20926432 | 33,791 |
1,112,968 | The Baby's 32-bit word length was increased to 40 bits. Each word could hold either one 40-bit number or two 20-bit program instructions. The main store initially consisted of two double-density Williams tubes, each holding two arrays of 32 x 40-bit words – known as pages – backed up by a magnetic drum capable of storing an additional 32 pages. The capacity was increased in the Final Specification version to eight pages of main store on four Williams tubes and 128 magnetic drum pages of backing store. The diameter drum, initially known as a magnetic wheel, contained a series of parallel magnetic tracks around its surface, each with its own read/write head. Each track held 2,560 bits, corresponding to two pages (2×32×40 bits). One revolution of the drum took 30 milliseconds, during which time both pages could be transferred to the CRT main memory, although the actual data transfer time depended on the latency, the time it took for a page to arrive under the read/write head. Writing pages to the drum took about twice as long as reading. The drum's rotational speed was synchronised to the main central processor clock, which allowed for additional drums to be added. Data was recorded onto the drum using a phase modulation technique still known today as Manchester coding. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23957383 | 1,112,402 |
407,832 | A common technology used for the delivery of OTPs is text messaging. Because text messaging is a ubiquitous communication channel, being directly available in nearly all mobile handsets and, through text-to-speech conversion, to any mobile or landline telephone, text messaging has a great potential to reach all consumers with a low total cost to implement. OTP over text messaging may be encrypted using an A5/x standard, which several hacking groups report can be successfully decrypted within minutes or seconds. Additionally, security flaws in the SS7 routing protocol can and have been used to redirect the associated text messages to attackers; in 2017, several O2 customers in Germany were breached in this manner in order to gain access to their mobile banking accounts. In July 2016, the U.S. NIST issued a draft of a special publication with guidance on authentication practices, which discourages the use of SMS as a method of implementing out-of-band two-factor authentication, due to the ability for SMS to be intercepted at scale. Text messages are also vulnerable to SIM swap scams—in which an attacker fraudulently transfers a victim's phone number to their own SIM card, which can then be used to gain access to messages being sent to it. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1190077 | 407,631 |
775,280 | Early in history, it was observed that those who had contracted smallpox once were never struck by the disease again. Thought to have been discovered by accident, it became known that those who contracted smallpox through a break in the skin in which smallpox matter was inserted received a less severe reaction than those who contracted it naturally. This realization led to the practice of purposely infecting people with matter from smallpox scabs in order to protect them later from a more severe reaction. This practice, known today as variolation, was first practiced in China in the 10th century. Methods of carrying out the procedure varied depending upon location. Variolation was the sole method of protection against smallpox other than quarantine until Edward Jenner's discovery of the inoculating abilities of cowpox against the smallpox virus in 1796. Efforts to protect populations against smallpox by way of vaccination followed for centuries after Jenner's discovery. Smallpox has since been completely eradicated since 1979, because of the mass vaccination efforts of the World Health Organization. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20790125 | 774,864 |
827,043 | The electronics revolution of the early 21st century led to the development of computer-connected telescopes in the 2010s that allow non-professional skywatchers to observe stars and satellites using relatively low-cost equipment by taking advantage of digital astrophotographic techniques developed by professional astronomers over previous decades. An electronic connection to a computer (smartphone, pad, or laptop) is required to make astronomical observations from the telescopes. The digital technology allows multiple images to be stacked while subtracting the noise component of the observation producing images of Messier objects and faint stars as dim as an apparent magnitude of 15 with consumer-grade equipment. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=266611 | 826,599 |
1,185,641 | Exon shuffling was first introduced in 1978 when Walter Gilbert discovered that the existence of introns could play a major role in the evolution of proteins. It was noted that recombination within introns could help assort exons independently and that repetitive segments in the middle of introns could create hotspots for recombination to shuffle the exonic sequences. However, the presence of these introns in eukaryotes and absence in prokaryotes created a debate about the time in which these introns appeared. Two theories arose: the "introns early" theory and the "introns late" theory. Supporters of the "introns early theory" believed that introns and RNA splicing were the relics of the RNA world and therefore both prokaryotes and eukaryotes had introns in the beginning. However, prokaryotes eliminated their introns in order to obtain a higher efficiency, while eukaryotes retained the introns and the genetic plasticity of the ancestors. On the other hand, supporters of the "introns late" theory believe that prokaryotic genes resemble the ancestral genes and introns were inserted later in the genes of eukaryotes. What is clear now is that the eukaryotic exon-intron structure is not static, introns are continually inserted and removed from genes and the evolution of introns evolves parallel to exon shuffling. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5522755 | 1,185,012 |
737,532 | Manual transmissions are the most common type outside North America and Australia. They are cheaper, lighter, usually give better performance, but the newest automatic transmissions and CVTs give better fuel economy. It is customary for new drivers to learn, and be tested, on a car with a manual gear change. In Malaysia and Denmark all cars used for testing (and because of that, virtually all those used for instruction as well) have a manual transmission. In Japan, the Philippines, Germany, Poland, Italy, Israel, the Netherlands, Belgium, New Zealand, Austria, Bulgaria, the UK, Ireland, Sweden, Norway, Estonia, France, Spain, Switzerland, the Australian states of Victoria, Western Australia and Queensland, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania and the Czech Republic, a test pass using an automatic car does not entitle the driver to use a manual car on the public road; a test with a manual car is required. Manual transmissions are much more common than automatic transmissions in Asia, Africa, South America and Europe. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=609147 | 737,143 |
385,676 | The Indonesian Air Force purchased 12 OV-10F aircraft and operated them in COIN operations similar to the U.S. Navy's Vietnam missions with their Broncos, but retrofitted .50 in (12.7 mm) Browning heavy machine guns in place of the .308 in (7.62 mm) machine guns. These aircraft were based in Lanud Abdulrachman Saleh Air Force Base in Malang, East Java and were vital in the invasion of East Timor and ensuing COIN operations. In 1977, they were also used during the aerial bombardments of Amungme villages near Freeport-McMoRan area of operations, West Papua, in response to OPM attacks on the mining company facilities, and of Dani villages in Baliem Valley, also in West Papua, in response to rebellion against enforced participation in the Indonesian general election. Due to the lack of U.S. bombs, the Indonesian Air Force modified the bomb racks to carry Russian bombs. The Indonesian Air Force plans to replace their OV-10Fs with EMBRAER Super Tucanos following a fatal accident on 23 July 2013. The Indonesian Air Force retired the OV-10F from service in 2007. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=226138 | 385,481 |
90,604 | These alternators operated by creating systems of alternating currents displaced from one another in phase by definite amounts, and depended on rotating magnetic fields for their operation. The resulting source of polyphase power soon found widespread acceptance. The invention of the polyphase alternator is key in the history of electrification, as is the power transformer. These inventions enabled power to be transmitted by wires economically over considerable distances. Polyphase power enabled the use of water-power (via hydroelectric generating plants in large dams) in remote places, thereby allowing the mechanical energy of the falling water to be converted to electricity, which then could be fed to an electric motor at any location where mechanical work needed to be done. This versatility sparked the growth of power-transmission network grids on continents around the globe. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38829 | 90,564 |
82,529 | The U.S. National Center for Health Statistics conducts the biannual National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) to assess the health and nutritional status of adults and children in the United States. Some results are reported as What We Eat In America. The 2013–2014 survey reported that for adults ages 20 years and older, men consumed an average of 249 μg/day folate from food plus 207 μg/day of folic acid from consumption of fortified foods, for a combined total of 601 μg/day of dietary folate equivalents (DFEs because each microgram of folic acid counts as 1.7 μg of food folate). For women, the values are 199, 153 and 459 μg/day, respectively. This means that fortification led to a bigger increase in folic acid intake than first projected, and that more than half the adults are consuming more than the RDA of 400 μg (as DFEs). Even so, fewer than half of pregnant women are exceeding the pregnancy RDA of 600 μg/day. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54117 | 82,495 |
1,367,525 | Gas dynamic cold spraying or cold spraying (CS) is a coating deposition method. Solid powders (1 to 50 micrometers in diameter) are accelerated in a supersonic gas jet to velocities up to ca. 1200 m/s. During impact with the substrate, particles undergo plastic deformation and adhere to the surface. To achieve a uniform thickness the spraying nozzle is scanned along the substrate. Metals, polymers, ceramics, composite materials and nanocrystalline powders can be deposited using cold spraying. The kinetic energy of the particles, supplied by the expansion of the gas, is converted to plastic deformation energy during bonding. Unlike thermal spraying techniques, e.g., plasma spraying, arc spraying, flame spraying, or high velocity oxygen fuel (HVOF), the powders are not melted during the spraying process. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7946522 | 1,366,769 |
953,880 | By examining coprolites, paleontologists are able to find information about the diet of the animal (if bones or other food remains are present), such as whether it was a herbivore or a carnivore, and the taphonomy of the coprolites, although the producer is rarely identified unambiguously, especially with more ancient examples. In some instances, knowledge about the anatomy of animals' digestive tracts can be helpful in assigning a coprolite to the animal that produced it, one example being the finding that the Triassic dinosauriform "Silesaurus" may have been an insectivore, a suggestion which was based on the beak-like jaws of the animal and the high density of beetle remains found in associated coprolites. Further, coprolites can be analyzed for certain minerals that are known to exist in trace amounts in certain species of plant that can still be detected millions of years later. In rare cases, coprolites have even been found to contain well-preserved insect remains. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=505972 | 953,375 |
1,735,553 | He discovered the existence of two types of electricity and named them "vitreous" and "resinous" (later known as positive and negative charge respectively). He noted the difference between conductors and insulators, calling them 'electrics' and 'non-electrics' for their ability to produce contact electrification. He also discovered that alike-charged objects would repel each other and that unlike-charged objects attract. He also disproved certain misconceptions regarding electric charge, such as that of Dr. Stephen Gray who believed that electric properties of a body depended on its colour. Du Fay's observations on electricity were reported in a paper written in December 1733 and printed in Volume 38 of the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society in 1734. He became a member of the French Academy of Sciences in 1723. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1349419 | 1,734,576 |
1,479,728 | However, at this time, cladistics, which appeared in the 1950s, was starting to change scientists' approach to biological classification. Unlike previous methods, cladistics attempts to consider all the characteristics of an organism, rather than those subjectively chosen as most important. As a result, it gives less significance to unique or bizarre characteristics than to those that are shared, since only the latter can demonstrate relationships. Cladistics also emphasises the concept of a monophyletic group, in other words one that consists only of a common ancestor and "all" its descendants – for example it regards the traditional term "reptile" as useless, since mammals and birds are descendants of different groups of "reptiles", but are not considered "reptiles". The concepts of crown groups and stem groups, first presented in English in 1979, are consequences of this approach. A crown group is a monophyletic group of living organisms, and a stem group is a non-monophyletic set of organisms that do not have all the shared features of the crown group but have enough to distinguish them clearly from close relatives of other crown groups – in very simple terms, they are "evolutionary aunts" of the organisms in the crown group. Phyla are crown groups, and the fact that some of their characteristics are considered defining features is simply a consequence of the fact that their ancestors survived while closely related lineages became extinct. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22547077 | 1,478,894 |
1,087,745 | When "Galileo" entered Jovian orbit, it did so at an inclination to the Jovian equator, and therefore the orbital plane of the four Galilean moons. To transfer orbit while conserving propellant, two slingshot maneuvers were performed. On G1, the gravity of Ganymede was used to slow the spacecraft's orbital period from 21 to 72 days to allow for more encounters and to take "Galileo" out of the more intense regions of radiation. On G2, the gravity assist was employed to put it into a coplanar orbit to permit subsequent encounters with Io, Europa and Callisto. Although the primary purpose of G1 and G2 was navigational, the opportunity to make some observations was not missed. The plasma wave experiment and the magnetometer detected a magnetic field with a strength of about , more than strong enough to create a separate magnetosphere within that of Jupiter. This was the first time that a magnetic field had ever been detected on a moon contained within the magnetosphere of its host planet. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13077 | 1,087,186 |
1,999,496 | NCIRD supports and supervises state and local agencies working on immunization activities and commercial contracting for vaccine supply and distribution. NCIRD supports a national framework for surveillance of diseases for which immunizing agents are increasingly becoming available from commercial pharmaceutical companies, and assists health departments in developing vaccine information management systems to facilitate identification of children whose parents may have not complied with local vaccination laws. NCIRD helps parents and healthcare providers ensure compliance with vaccination laws so that all children without health or religious exemptions can be immunized at specific ages in full compliance with local laws. NCIRD also administers research and operational programs for the prevention and control of vaccine-preventable diseases, assesses vaccination levels in state and local areas, and monitors the safety and efficacy of vaccines by linking vaccine administration information with disease outbreak patterns and adverse event mandated reporting requirements. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5113106 | 1,998,352 |
2,210,736 | The 1919–20 Chicago Maroons men's basketball season was the final of nine seasons for head coach Pat Page. This group was first Big Ten champion in ten years for the Maroons. The campaign began with a three-game home winning streak, a loss to Iowa, followed by a seven-game winning streak. The team would play 12 conference games with only two defeats. The Maroons were led by captain Paul Hinkle, who would go on to coach Butler University in basketball as well as football for nearly 50 years. Complementing Hinkle at guard, the Maroons also started Herbert "Fritz" Crisler who also would create a legacy for himself as a coach and athletic director. Additionally, the team rounded out the starting five with combinations of Clarence Vollmer, Robert Birkhoff and Ted Curtiss at forward, Harry Williams and Robert Halladay at center. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=51002889 | 2,209,476 |
2,039,272 | The applied flux mechanism was mainly tested in laboratory experiments, and is most likely at work in cases when layering is caused by geothermal heating. When a stable salinity gradient is heated from below, top-heavy convection will take place in the lower part of the water column. The well-mixed convecting layer is bounded from above by a thin high-gradient interface. By a combination of molecular diffusion and entrainment across the interface, heat is transferred upward from the convecting layer. The molecular transfer of heat exceeds that of salt, resulting in a supply of buoyancy to the region immediately above the interface. This leads to the formation of a second convecting layer. The process can repeat itself over and over, which results in a sequence of mixed layers separated by sharp interfaces, a thermohaline staircase. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=67692128 | 2,038,093 |
924,185 | DNA barcoding also carries methodological bias, from sampling to bioinformatics data analysis. Beside the risk of contamination of the DNA sample by PCR inhibitors, primer bias is one of the major sources of errors in DNA barcoding. The isolation of an efficient DNA marker and the design of primers is a complex process and considerable effort has been made to develop primers for DNA barcoding in different taxonomic groups. However, primers will often bind preferentially to some sequences, leading to differential primer efficiency and specificity and unrepresentative communities’ assessment and richness inflation. Thus, the composition of the sample's communities sequences is mainly altered at the PCR step. Besides, PCR replication is often required, but leads to an exponential increase in the risk of contamination. Several studies have highlighted the possibility to use mitochondria-enriched samples or PCR-free approaches to avoid these biases, but as of today, the DNA metabarcoding technique is still based on the sequencing of amplicons. Other bias enter the picture during the sequencing and during the bioinformatic processing of the sequences, like the creation of chimeras. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30872162 | 923,699 |
1,181,127 | As a pharmaceutical agent, some research has suggested that administration of dehydroascorbic acid may confer protection from neuronal injury following an ischemic stroke. The literature contains many reports on the antiviral effects of vitamin C, and one study suggests dehydroascorbic acid has stronger antiviral effects and a different mechanism of action than ascorbic acid. Solutions in water containing ascorbic acid and copper ions and/or peroxide, resulting in rapid oxidation of ascorbic acid to dehydroascorbic acid, have been shown to possess powerful but short-lived antimicrobial, antifungal, and antiviral properties, and have been used to treat gingivitis, periodontal disease, and dental plaque. A pharmaceutical product named Ascoxal is an example of such a solution used as a mouth rinse as an oral mucolytic and prophylactic agent against gingivitis. Ascoxal solution has also been tested with positive results as a treatment for recurrent mucocutaneous herpes, and as a mucolytic agent in acute and chronic pulmonary disease such as emphysema, bronchitis, and asthma by aerosol inhalation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2154534 | 1,180,503 |
1,366,177 | The main motivation behind Arakelov geometry is the fact there is a correspondence between prime ideals formula_1 and finite places formula_2, but there also exists a place at infinity formula_3, given by the Archimedean valuation, which doesn't have a corresponding prime ideal. Arakelov geometry gives a technique for compactifying formula_4 into a complete space formula_5 which has a prime lying at infinity. Arakelov's original construction studies one such theory, where a definition of divisors is constructor for a scheme formula_6 of relative dimension 1 over formula_7 such that it extends to a Riemann surface formula_8 for every valuation at infinity. In addition, he equips these Riemann surfaces with Hermitian metrics on holomorphic vector bundles over "X"(C), the complex points of formula_9. This extra Hermitian structure is applied as a substitute for the failure of the scheme Spec(Z) to be a complete variety. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=16364229 | 1,365,421 |
1,354,967 | Despite Taqī al-Dīn's originality, his influence seemed to be limited. There are only a small number of surviving copies of his works so they were not able to reach a wide variety of people. His commentaries that are known are very few. However, one of his works and a piece of a library that he owned reached western Europe pretty quickly. This was due to the manuscript collecting efforts of Jacob Golius, a Dutch professor of Arabic and mathematics at Leiden University. Golius traveled to Istanbul in the early seventeenth century. In 1629 he wrote a letter to Constantin Huygens that talks about seeing Taqī Ad-Dīn's work on optics in Istanbul. He argued that he was not able to get ahold of it from his friends even after all his efforts. He must have succeeded in acquiring it later since Taqī al-Dīn's work on optics would eventually make it to the Bodleian Library as Marsh 119. It was originally in the Golius collection so it is clear that Golius eventually succeeded at acquiring it. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=982540 | 1,354,219 |
1,133,450 | Modern genetic analysis began in the mid-1800s with research conducted by Gregor Mendel. Mendel, who is known as the "father of modern genetics", was inspired to study variation in plants. Between 1856 and 1863, Mendel cultivated and tested some 29,000 pea plants (i.e., Pisum sativum). This study showed that one in four pea plants had purebred recessive alleles, two out of four were hybrid and one out of four were purebred dominant. His experiments led him to make two generalizations, the Law of Segregation and the Law of Independent Assortment, which later became known as Mendel's Laws of Inheritance. Lacking the basic understanding of heredity, Mendel observed various organisms and first utilized genetic analysis to find that traits were inherited from parents and those traits could vary between children. Later, it was found that units within each cell are responsible for these traits. These units are called genes. Each gene is defined by a series of amino acids that create proteins responsible for genetic traits. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4087965 | 1,132,857 |
596,604 | From this time forward, the Mesopotamians possessed a great variety of agricultural products and also a significant quantity of domestic animals. This ensemble continued to be augmented over the millennia by imports from outside Mesopotamia and by local innovations (improvement to tools with the rise of metallurgy, new breeds of plant and animal, etc.). Throughout antiquity, agricultural produce centres on some basic elements, notably barley and sheep (along with date palms in the south). But gardens enabled the diversification of food sources, thanks especially to legumes. It must be remembered that ancillary activities like hunting, fishing, the exploitation of marshes and woods, were necessary complements to agriculture. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=59427724 | 596,299 |
301,381 | Silicone-impregnated reusable ceramic ablator (SIRCA) was also developed at NASA Ames Research Center and was used on the Backshell Interface Plate (BIP) of the "Mars Pathfinder" and Mars Exploration Rover (MER) aeroshells. The BIP was at the attachment points between the aeroshell's backshell (also called the afterbody or aft cover) and the cruise ring (also called the cruise stage). SIRCA was also the primary TPS material for the unsuccessful Deep Space 2 (DS/2) Mars impactor probes with their aeroshells. SIRCA is a monolithic, insulating material that can provide thermal protection through ablation. It is the only TPS material that can be machined to custom shapes and then applied directly to the spacecraft. There is no post-processing, heat treating, or additional coatings required (unlike Space Shuttle tiles). Since SIRCA can be machined to precise shapes, it can be applied as tiles, leading edge sections, full nose caps, or in any number of custom shapes or sizes. , SIRCA had been demonstrated in backshell interface applications, but not yet as a forebody TPS material. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=45294 | 301,220 |
223,513 | "G. duodenalis" trophozoites are pear-shaped cells, 10 to 20 μm long, 7 to 10 μm across, and 2 to 4 μm thick. They are motile by way of four pairs of flagella, which propel the trophozoites through the intestine. Notably, each "G. duodenalis" cell has two nuclei, both of which actively transcribe genes. Adjacent to the nucleus, "G. duodenalis" cells have an endoplasmic reticulum that extends through much of the cell. Trophozoites about to differentiate into cysts also contain prominent vesicles termed encystation-specific vesicles that disappear once cyst wall construction begins. Unlike most other eukaryotes, "G. duodenalis" cells contain no visible mitochondria, but instead contains a substantially reduced metabolic organelle termed a mitosome. Additionally, cells appear to contain no Golgi bodies, and instead the secretory system consists entirely of the endoplasmic reticulum and numerous vesicles spread throughout the cell, termed peripheral vesicles. Peripheral vesicles are responsible both for taking up extracellular nutrients, and expelling waste outside the cell. Each cell also contains a pair of rigid structures called median bodies which make up part of the "G. lamblia" cytoskeleton. Trophozoites adhere to host epithelial cells via a specialized disk-shaped organelle called the ventral disk. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=211647 | 223,399 |
45,359 | The crashes were reported to be due to "technical failures or poor maintenance", with a failure rate per hour flown over 100 times higher than the F-16 fighter. Northrop Grumman stated that it was unfair to compare the failure rates of a mature design to that of a prototype aircraft. In June 2012, a media report described the Global Hawk, the General Atomics MQ-1 Predator and the MQ-9 Reapers "... the most accident-prone aircraft in the Air Force fleet." On 11 February 2010, the Global Hawks deployed in the Central Command AOR accrued 30,000 combat hours and 1,500 plus sorties. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37375 | 45,342 |
2,060,489 | Transnational psychology is a branch of psychology that applies postcolonial, context-sensitive cultural psychology, and transnational feminist lenses to the field of psychology to study, understand, and address the impact of colonization, imperialism, and globalization, and to counter the Western bias in the field of psychology. Transnational psychologists partner with members of local communities to examine the unique psychological characteristics of groups without regard to nation-state boundaries. As articulated by Kurtis, Adams, Grabe, Else-Quest, Collins, Machizawa and Rice, transnational psychology aims to counter the Western bias in the field of psychology. Kurtis and Adams proposed applying the principles of transnational feminism and using a context-sensitive cultural psychology lens to reconsider, de-naturalize, and de-universalize psychological science. They identified people in the non-Western, "Majority World" (areas where the majority of the world's population lives) as valuable resources for revising traditional psychological science. Transnational psychology is essentially synonymous with transnational feminist psychology. Both transnational feminism and transnational psychology are concerned with how globalization and capitalism affect people across nations, races, genders, classes, and sexualities. The transnational academic paradigm draws from postcolonial feminist theories, which emphasize how colonialist legacies have shaped and continue to shape the social, economic, and political oppression of people across the globe. It rejects the idea that people from different regions have the same subjectivities and recognizes that global capitalism has created similar relations of exploitation and inequality. A 2015 Summit organized by Machizawa, Collins, and Rice further developed transnational psychology by inspiring presentations and publications that applied transnational feminist principles to psychological topics. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=63748615 | 2,059,302 |
1,409,759 | In Europe, in 1987 the European Commission launched the European Code Against Cancer to help educate the public about actions they can take to reduce their risk of getting cancer. The first version of the Code covered 10 recommendations covering tobacco, alcohol, diet, weight, sun exposure, exposure to known carcinogens, early detection and participation in organised breast and cervical cancer screening programmes. In the early 1990s, the European School of Oncology led a review of the Code and added details about the scientific evidence behind each of the recommendations. Later updates were coordinated by the International Agency for Research on Cancer. The fourth edition of the Code, , developed in 2012‒2013, also includes recommendations on participation in vaccination programmes for hepatitis B (infants) and human papillomavirus (girls), breast feeding and hormone replacement therapy, and participation in organised colorectal cancer screening programmes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44325909 | 1,408,967 |
1,280,129 | In the Humean tradition, intrinsic desires are the reasons the autonomous agent should respond to. This theory is called "instrumentalism". Given this outlook, autonomy would be the "capacity to subordinate one’s conduct to one’s strongest desire(s)" with the goal of satisfying as many desires as possible. One of the problems of instrumentalism is that it lacks the resources to distinguish between good and bad intrinsic desires. For example, if someone finds himself with an intrinsic desire to hurt others, instrumentalism recommends that he should try to do so as efficiently as possible. Audi suggests that we should adopt a position known as "axiological objectivism" in order to avoid this counterintuitive conclusion. The central idea of this outlook is that objective values, and not subjective desires, are the sources of normativity and therefore determine what we should do. Reason can, through rational reflection, arrive at ideals of conduct in the light of these objective values, for example, to promote pleasure and to impede pain in oneself and others. The autonomous person would endorse the ideals arrived at and realize them in her behavior. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4808844 | 1,279,434 |
1,126,373 | Riboswitches are a type of mRNA structure that help regulate gene expression and often bind a diverse set of ligands. Riboswitches determine how gene expression responds to varying concentrations of small molecules in the cell This motif has been observed in flavin mononucleotide (FMN), cyclic di-AMP (c-di-AMP), and glycine. Riboswitches are said to show pseudoquaternary structure. Several structurally similar regions of a single RNA molecule fold together symmetrically. Because this structure arises from a single molecule and not from multiple separate molecules, it cannot be referred to as true quaternary structure. Depending on where a riboswitch binds and how it is arranged, it can suppress or allow a gene to be expressed Symmetry is an important part of biomolecular three-dimensional configurations. Many proteins are sy.mmetrical on the level of quaternary structure, but RNAs rarely have symmetrical quaternary structures. Even though tertiary structure is variant and essential for all types of RNAs, RNA oligimerization is relatively rare. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=32467319 | 1,125,796 |
1,902,969 | The Sardinian brook salamander is largely aquatic, though it does hibernate and sometimes aestivate on land near the water's edge. Mating takes place in the water, the male having first carried the passive female in his jaws to a suitable location. He clasps her body with his jaws and bends his body around, wrapping his tail around hers. He transfers spermatophores to her cloaca from his cloaca, sometimes with the aid of his spurs. The female lays up to 220 eggs singly over a period of weeks in crevices and under stones and possibly buried in sand. She forms her mobile cloaca into a tube and turns on her back to deposit them in suitable locations. The larvae take six to 15 months before metamorphosis depending on the water temperature. In 1999, sexually mature adults were reported to have been found with the vestiges of gills, suggesting the species may exhibit paedomorphosis. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12176655 | 1,901,877 |
1,606,348 | In spring of 2015, Conservation Officer Bryce Casavant did not follow orders to kill the two cubs of a female bear who was killed after she continued to raid a freezer full of meat and salmon. Casavant took the cubs to a veterinary hospital, and they were then transferred to a rehabilitation facility which eventually released them into their natural environment. He was suspended for refusing to follow the order, despite the cubs showing no signs of being a danger to people or property. The suspension, and subsequent public outcry, generated international media attention, including a tweet from popular British comedian Ricky Gervais. The two bear cubs the Conservation Officer Service ordered killed were successfully rehabilitated and released by North Island Wildlife Recovery Centre. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21426252 | 1,605,444 |
1,012,757 | The 8D methodology was first described in a Ford manual in 1987. The manual describes the eight-step methodology to address chronic product and process problems. The 8Ds included several concepts of effective problem solving, including taking corrective actions and containing nonconforming items. These two steps have been very common in most manufacturing facilities, including government and military installations. In 1974, the U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) released “MIL-STD 1520 Corrective Action and Disposition System for Nonconforming Material”. This 13 page standard defines establishing some corrective actions and then taking containment actions on nonconforming material or items. It is focused on inspection for defects and disposing of them. The basic idea of corrective actions and containment of defectives was officially abolished in 1995, but these concepts were also common to Ford Motor Company, a major supplier to the government in World War II. Corrective actions and containment of poor quality parts were part of the manual and course for the automotive industry and are well known to many companies. Ford's 60 page manual covers details associated with each step in their 8D problem solving manual and the actions to take to deal with identified problems. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7084228 | 1,012,236 |
701,912 | The statement also estimates that of Appalachian streams were buried by valley fills between 1985 and 2001. On September 28, 2010, the EPA independent Science Advisory Board (SAB) released their first draft review of EPA's research into the water quality impacts of valley fills associated with mountaintop mining, agreeing with EPA's conclusion that valley fills are associated with increased levels of conductivity threatening aquatic life in surface waters. A 2012 review by Science of the Total Environment cited elevated concentrations of SO, HCO, Ca and Mg downstream from VF sites. These elevated concentrations are driving factors contributing to overall increases in water conductivity. Measured conductivity values ranging from 159 to 2720 μS/cm were recorded downstream. In comparison, the reference site that did not experience MTM measured conductivity values that ranged from 30 to 260μS/cm. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1685995 | 701,547 |
396,555 | The provision that restricts the maximum number of nominees to three for any one prize, introduced in 1968, has caused considerable controversy. From the 1950s onward, there has been an increasing trend to award the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine to more than one person. There were 59 people who received the prize in the first 50 years of the last century, while 113 individuals received it between 1951 and 2000. This increase could be attributed to the rise of the international scientific community after World War II, resulting in more persons being responsible for the discovery, and nominated for, a particular prize. Also, current biomedical research is more often carried out by teams rather than by scientists working alone, making it unlikely that any one scientist, or even a few, is primarily responsible for a discovery; this has meant that a prize nomination that would have to include more than three contributors is automatically excluded from consideration. Also, deserving contributors may not be nominated at all because the restriction results in a cut off point of three nominees per prize, leading to controversial exclusions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=52502 | 396,359 |
463,044 | Over the next 30 years, many calibration curves were published by using a variety of methods and statistical approaches. They were superseded by the INTCAL series of curves, beginning with INTCAL98, published in 1998, and updated in 2004, 2009, 2013 and 2020. The improvements to these curves are based on new data gathered from tree rings, varves, coral, and other studies. Significant additions to the datasets used for INTCAL13 include non-varved marine foraminifera data, and U-Th dated speleothems. The INTCAL13 data includes separate curves for the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, as they differ systematically because of the hemisphere effect; there is also a separate marine calibration curve. The calibration curve for the southern hemisphere is known as the SHCal as opposed to the IntCal for the northern hemisphere. The most recent version being published in 2020. There is also a different curve for the period post 1955 due to atomic bomb testing creating higher levels of radiocarbon which vary based on latitude, known as bomb cal. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=43401174 | 462,815 |
350,949 | It has been argued against this and similar definitions that they fail to distinguish between valid and invalid deductive reasoning, i.e. they leave it open whether there are invalid deductive inferences and how to define them. Some authors define deductive reasoning in psychological terms in order to avoid this problem. According to Mark Vorobey, whether an argument is deductive depends on the psychological state of the person making the argument: "An argument is deductive if, and only if, the author of the argument believes that the truth of the premises necessitates (guarantees) the truth of the conclusion". A similar formulation holds that the speaker "claims" or "intends" that the premises offer deductive support for their conclusion. This is sometimes categorized as a "speaker-determined" definition of deduction since it depends also on the speaker whether the argument in question is deductive or not. For "speakerless" definitions, on the other hand, only the argument itself matters independent of the speaker. One advantage of this type of formulation is that it makes it possible to distinguish between good or valid and bad or invalid deductive arguments: the argument is good if the author's belief concerning the relation between the premises and the conclusion is true, otherwise it is bad. One consequence of this approach is that deductive arguments cannot be identified by the law of inference they use. For example, an argument of the form modus ponens may be non-deductive if the author's beliefs are sufficiently confused. That brings with it an important drawback of this definition: it is difficult to apply to concrete cases since the intentions of the author are usually not explicitly stated. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=61093 | 350,766 |
909,590 | Low-temperature impact strength, abrasion resistance and environmental stress cracking resistance can be increased significantly by crosslinking, whereas hardness and rigidity are somewhat reduced. Compared to thermoplastic polyethylene, PEX does not melt (analogous to elastomers) and is thermally resistant (over longer periods of up to 120 °C, for short periods without electrical or mechanical load up to 250 °C). With increasing crosslinking density also the maximum shear modulus increases (even at higher temperatures). PEX has significantly enhanced properties compared with ordinary PE. Crosslinking enhances the temperature properties of the base polymer. Adequate strength to 120–150 °C is maintained and chemical stability enhanced by resisting dissolution. Low temperature properties are improved. Impact and tensile strength, scratch resistance, and resistance to brittle fracture are enhanced. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2416422 | 909,111 |
1,876,627 | In 1948, the new School of Architecture was formed and made parallel to other professional schools within the newly renamed Georgia Institute of Technology. In 1952, the School of Architecture building, designed by Bush-Brown, Gailey and Heffernan, was constructed, creating a separate identity for the school, with a highly professional curriculum. In 1975, the College of Architecture was formed to handle increased enrollment and strengthening of allied disciplines. William Fash (Oklahoma State University, M.ARCH, 1960) was appointed as first dean of Architecture in 1976. In 1975, with respect to its international thrust, the college's Paris Program was established by P. M. Heffernan. Originally located at the Ecole d'Architecture Paris Tolbiac and moved to the Ecole d'Architecture Paris la Villette, the Program provides for a full year of study for architecture students during their senior year of undergraduate study. In 1992, a Division of Fine Arts was created in the College of Architecture, leading to a new Arts and Technology Program for course work in the areas of music, visual arts, and multimedia. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7800762 | 1,875,549 |
208 | In 1939, a group of Hungarian scientists that included émigré physicist Leó Szilárd attempted to alert Washington to ongoing Nazi atomic bomb research. The group's warnings were discounted. Einstein and Szilárd, along with other refugees such as Edward Teller and Eugene Wigner, "regarded it as their responsibility to alert Americans to the possibility that German scientists might win the race to build an atomic bomb, and to warn that Hitler would be more than willing to resort to such a weapon." To make certain the US was aware of the danger, in July 1939, a few months before the beginning of World War II in Europe, Szilárd and Wigner visited Einstein to explain the possibility of atomic bombs, which Einstein, a pacifist, said he had never considered. He was asked to lend his support by writing a letter, with Szilárd, to President Roosevelt, recommending the US pay attention and engage in its own nuclear weapons research. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=736 | 208 |
383,037 | Beta-adrenoceptor antagonists should not be given alone in a pheochromocytoma patient - this can lead to severe consequences. In 1995, a team of physicians from London described the death of a person who had been recently diagnosed pheochromocytoma after initiation of propranolol, a non-selective beta blocker. She quickly developed a hypertensive crisis leading to shock, myocardial infarction, heart failure, and dense right hemiplegia. Despite attempts at resuscitation, the person died several days later. This complication is related to the impact that alpha and beta-adrenoceptor antagonists have on blood vessels combined with the actions of catecholamines. The normal blood vessel is open, allowing for adequate blood flow. When catecholamines activate the alpha receptor, the vessel constricts (gets smaller), which results in hypertension. However, when catecholamines active the beta receptor, the blood vessel dilates (gets larger) and allows for increased blood flow, reducing the blood pressure. If a pheochromocytoma patient is only started on a beta-adrenoceptor antagonist, this reverses the protective vasodilation and worsens the patients hypertension. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=277088 | 382,842 |
1,278,485 | Extensive treatments have been used on domestic animals more than on wild animals, probably because infected domestic animals are easier to identify and treat than infected wildlife. Treatment plans and management vary across taxa because this disease tends to affect each species differently. Antifungal drugs are the first line of defense to kill the agents causing phaeohyphomycosis, but despite the significant progress made in the last two decades and a 30% increase in available antifungal drugs since 2000, many drugs are not effective against black fungi. Diseases caused by black fungi are hard to treat because the fungi are very difficult to kill. This high resilience may be contributed to the presence of melanin in their cell walls, as well as the greater similarity to host cells which are both eukaryotes than other pathogens such as bacteria or viruses. Current antifungal agents the fungi are not resistant to are posaconazole, voriconazole, and azole isavuconazole. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41083219 | 1,277,792 |
900,441 | The impending depletion of natural resources and increase of climate-changing greenhouse gasses should motivate us to examine how political, economic and social policies can benefit from alternative energy. Shifting dependence on fossil fuels with specific interest within just one of the above-mentioned factors easily benefits at least one other. For instance, photo voltaic (or solar) panels have a 15% efficiency when absorbing the sun's energy, but its construction demand has increased 120% within both commercial and residential properties. Additionally, this construction has led to a roughly 30% increase in work demands (Chen). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177694 | 899,966 |
1,062,598 | A tree of such evaluations is usually part of a search algorithm, such as Monte Carlo tree search or a minimax algorithm like alpha–beta search. The value is presumed to represent the relative probability of winning if the game tree were expanded from that node to the end of the game. The function looks only at the current position (i.e. what spaces the pieces are on and their relationship to each other) and does not take into account the history of the position or explore possible moves forward of the node (therefore static). This implies that for dynamic positions where tactical threats exist, the evaluation function will not be an accurate assessment of the position. These positions are termed non-"quiescent"; they require at least a limited kind of search extension called quiescence search to resolve threats before evaluation. Some values returned by evaluation functions are absolute rather than heuristic, if a win, loss or draw occurs at the node. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=159513 | 1,062,044 |
298,523 | Americium-241 has been used as a portable source of both gamma rays and alpha particles for a number of medical and industrial uses. The 59.5409 keV gamma ray emissions from Am in such sources can be used for indirect analysis of materials in radiography and X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, as well as for quality control in fixed nuclear density gauges and nuclear densometers. For example, the element has been employed to gauge glass thickness to help create flat glass. Americium-241 is also suitable for calibration of gamma-ray spectrometers in the low-energy range, since its spectrum consists of nearly a single peak and negligible Compton continuum (at least three orders of magnitude lower intensity). Americium-241 gamma rays were also used to provide passive diagnosis of thyroid function. This medical application is however obsolete. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=900 | 298,363 |
926,309 | The Jazzmaster's contoured "offset-waist" body was designed for comfort while playing the guitar in a seated position, as many jazz and blues artists prefer to do. A full scale length, 'lead' and 'rhythm' circuit switching with independent volume and tone controls, a 'floating tremolo' with tremolo lock, and a uniquely designed bridge were other keys to the guitar's character. The tremolo lock can be manually activated to keep the entire guitar from going out of tune if one string breaks. The Jazzmaster also had an extra-long tremolo arm. The bridge and tremolo construction is very different from that of the Stratocaster, and gives the Jazzmaster a different resonance and generally less sustain. The bridge sits on two fulcrum points and moves back and forth with the tremolo motion. The functionality of the bridge is a topic that is widely discussed. Some consider the clipped sustain as part of the Jazzmaster sound, whereas others argue that the design is flawed. Aftermarket versions that provided more sustain and less buzz were created during the 2000s by companies such as Mastery, Staytrem and Halon. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=797005 | 925,823 |
799,134 | Theories focusing on "anatomical" principle, hypothesised that specific areas of the dental lamina are especially prone to environmental effects during tooth maturation. Svinhufvud et al. (1988) suggested that teeth that were more prone to absence developed in areas of initial fusion of the jaw. For instance, maxillary lateral incisors originate where the lateral maxillae and medial nasal bone processes fuse. In contrast, Kjaer et al. (1994) suggested regions where innervation developed were more sensitive than areas of fusion. Commonly affected regions were found to undergo innervation last, this might imply the developmental relationship between nerve and hard tissue. It is thought to be local nerve development that affects tooth agenesis rather than global development, as brainstem anomalies have not been seen to affect tooth development. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1434429 | 798,709 |
132,225 | Macrophages can contribute to tumor growth and progression by promoting tumor cell proliferation and invasion, fostering tumor angiogenesis and suppressing antitumor immune cells. Attracted to oxygen-starved (hypoxic) and necrotic tumor cells they promote chronic inflammation. Inflammatory compounds such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha released by the macrophages activate the gene switch nuclear factor-kappa B. NF-κB then enters the nucleus of a tumor cell and turns on production of proteins that stop apoptosis and promote cell proliferation and inflammation. Moreover, macrophages serve as a source for many pro-angiogenic factors including vascular endothelial factor (VEGF), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF/CSF1) and IL-1 and IL-6 contributing further to the tumor growth. Macrophages have been shown to infiltrate a number of tumors. Their number correlates with poor prognosis in certain cancers including cancers of breast, cervix, bladder, brain and prostate. Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are thought to acquire an M2 phenotype, contributing to tumor growth and progression. Some tumors can also produce factors, including M-CSF/CSF1, MCP-1/CCL2 and Angiotensin II, that trigger the amplification and mobilization of macrophages in tumors. Research in various study models suggests that macrophages can sometimes acquire anti-tumor functions. For example, macrophages may have cytotoxic activity to kill tumor cells directly; also the co-operation of T-cells and macrophages is important to suppress tumors. This co-operation involves not only the direct contact of T-cell and macrophage, with antigen presentation, but also includes the secretion of adequate combinations of cytokines, which enhance T-cell antitumor activity. Recent study findings suggest that by forcing IFN-α expression in tumor-infiltrating macrophages, it is possible to blunt their innate protumoral activity and reprogram the tumor microenvironment toward more effective dendritic cell activation and immune effector cell cytotoxicity. Additionally, subcapsular sinus macrophages in tumor-draining lymph nodes can suppress cancer progression by containing the spread of tumor-derived materials. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=169270 | 132,173 |
1,187,960 | Also known as "kynureninase deficiency", this extremely rare inherited disorder is caused by the defective enzyme kynureninase which leads to a block in the pathway from tryptophan to nicotinic acid. As a result, tryptophan is no longer a source of nicotinic acid and deficiency of the vitamin can develop. Both B-responsive and B-unresponsive forms are known. Patients with this disorder excrete excessive amounts of xanthurenic acid, kynurenic acid, 3-hydroxykynurenine, and kynurenine after tryptophan loading and are said to suffer from tachycardia, irregular breathing, arterial hypotension, cerebellar ataxia, developmental retardation, coma, renal tubular dysfunction, renal or metabolic acidosis, and even death. The only biochemical abnormality noted in affected patients was a massive hyperkynureninuria, seen only during periods of coma or after intravenous protein loading. This disturbance was temporarily corrected by large doses of vitamin B. The activity of kynureninase in the liver was markedly reduced. The activity was appreciably restored by the addition of pyridoxal phosphate. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22276398 | 1,187,329 |
546,788 | In the 1748 General Chapter or the Order at Bologna it was stated that the Thomistic philosophical and theological tradition needed to be revived. In 1757 Master General Juan Tomás de Boxadors composed a letter to all members of the Order lamenting deviations from Thomistic doctrine, and demanded a return to the teachings of Aquinas. This letter was also published in the General Chapter Acts in Rome 1777. Responding to Boxadors and to the prevailing philosophical rationalism of the Enlightenment, Salvatore Roselli, professor of theology at the Roman College of St. Thomas, published a six volume "Summa philosophica" (1777) giving an Aristotelian interpretation of Aquinas validating the senses as a source of knowledge. While teaching at the college Roselli is considered to have laid the foundation for Neothomism in the nineteenth century. According to historian J.A. Weisheipl in the late 18th and early 19th centuries "everyone who had anything to do with the revival of Thomism in Italy, Spain and France was directly influenced by Roselli's monumental work. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2174683 | 546,502 |
100,775 | Many other Wildcats have met with success at the university. Alix Creek and Michelle Oldham won the NCAA Women's Doubles Tennis title in 1993, defeating Texas in the Final. Although surprising to some, the University of Arizona has a noteworthy history in ice hockey. The school's club hockey team, formerly known as the Icecats, won over 800 games between its inception in 1979 and 2011. The Icecats defeated Penn State for the National Collegiate Club Hockey National Championship in 1985. They also appeared in eight Final Fours (’84, ’86, ’87, ’88, ’91, ’93, ’94, ’97) and ten Elite Eights. , they are part of ACHA Division I, and are known formally as the Arizona Wildcats hockey team. Robert M. Tanita was a nationally ranked collegiate wrestler who reached the NCAA finals tournament as WAC champion in 1963. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=32015 | 100,730 |
1,565,195 | Its remains came from the Konservat-Lagerstätte of Las Hoyas, Cuenca, Spain. The holotype (LH13500), housed in the collection of , consists on both slab and counterslab preserving mainly the thoracic region, part of the neck and both almost complete forelimbs of an adult specimen. It also preserves remains of the body, primary, secondary feathers and a bastard wing which have been covered by layers of limonite as a result of the fossilization process. The preservation is consistent with the taphonomic processes associated with obruption, stagnation and the action of microbial mats in the locality that have yielded a wide variety of examples of soft-tissue preservation (e.g., connective tissues in fishes and theropods or insect wings). Most of the osteological features of the holotype became apparent only after its acid preparation and transference to a resin cast. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12943914 | 1,564,308 |
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