doc_id int32 18 2.25M | text stringlengths 245 2.96k | source stringlengths 38 44 | __index_level_0__ int64 18 2.25M |
|---|---|---|---|
2,152,853 | In June 2021, Hayman was named as one of 26 international experts selected from a group of 700 applicants to be part of the One Health High Level Expert Panel (OHHLEP), an international collaboration established following a meeting at the Paris Peace Forum in November 2020. This panel acknowledged that COVID-19 had shown the vulnerabilities and interconnections of the health of humans and animals and aimed to take an "integrative and systemic approach to health, grounded on the understanding that human health is closely linked to the healthiness of food, animals and the environment, and the healthy balance of their impact on the ecosystems they share everywhere in the world." This multidisciplinary initiative was supported by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE), the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Health Organization (WHO), to provide "policy relevant scientific assessment on the emergence of health crises arising from the human-animal-ecosystem interface...[and]...guidance on development of a long-term strategic approach to reducing the risk of zoonotic pandemics, with an associated monitoring and early warning framework." Hayman said the expert panel had been influenced by the IPBES report that built understanding of the complex interrelatedness of disease and the environment and "addressed these issues in a transdisciplinary way", and described the work as being about recognising the interrelatedness of people and the rest of the planet and understanding that the health of humans, animals and the environment are all interlinked. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=70083782 | 2,151,622 |
2,110,397 | Vehicle teleoperation has been around for many years. Early adaptations of vehicle teleoperations were robotic vehicles that were controlled continuously by human operators. Many of these systems were operated with line-of-sight RF communications and are now regarded as toys for children. Recent developments in the area of unmanned systems have brought a measure of autonomy to the robots. Adaptive collaborative control offers a shared mode of control where robotic vehicles and humans exchange ideas and advice regarding the best decisions to make on a route following and obstacle avoidance. This shared mode of operation mitigates problems of humans remotely operating in hazardous environments with poor communications and limited performance when humans have continuous, direct control. For vehicle teleoperations, robots will query humans to receive input on decisions that affect their tasks or when presented with safety-related issues. This dialogue is presented through an interface module that also allows the human operation to view the impact of the dialogue. In addition, this interface module allows the human operator to view what the robot's sensors capture in order to initiate commands or inquiries as necessary. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=33882236 | 2,109,183 |
2,230,988 | After the closure of the Australian Science and Technology Heritage Centre in 2006, it became integrated with the University of Melbourne's Library and changed its name to the eScholarship Research Centre (ESRC), with a much better financial allocation offer. Shortly after the establishment of ESRC, the Global Financial Crisis hit not long after. This resulted in the promised budget being reduced by a large amount and they faced another financial crisis similar to its predecessor. However, building upon the achievements and progression of the Austehc and ASAP, they managed to develop several external projects that acted as their funding source, which allowed them to barely survive past this crisis. Hence, they were not able to achieve the goal that Linda O’Brian envisioned when offering to merge Austehc with the University Library. From 2007 to 2013, due to the increase in external projects for budget, the client reports increased up to 17% of the total publications of ESRC. During this time period, archival guides took up to 26%, conference papers at 19%, 16% were web resources, 14% were journal articles, 6% were books and book chapters, and about 1% were other types of documents. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11681272 | 2,229,722 |
60,364 | Dassault participated in a competition to replace the Brazilian Air Force's aging Mirage IIIEBR/DBRs with a Brazilian-specific version of the Mirage 2000-9 that would have been developed in collaboration with Embraer designated Mirage 2000BR. However, due to Brazilian fiscal problems, the competition dragged on for years until it was suspended in February 2005. Instead, Brazil in July 2005 purchased 12 ex-French Air Force Mirage 2000 aircraft (ten "C" and two "B" versions), designated F-2000, for $72 million. Deliveries began in September 2006 and concluded on 27 August 2008 with the delivery of the last 2 aircraft. According to Journal of Electronic Defense, the figure was $200 million, which consisted of a significant number of Magic 2 air-to-air missiles, and the "AdA" would provide full conversion training in France and full logistical support. The ten single-seat fighters and two twin-seat combat-trainers were drawn from operational squadrons Escadron de Chasse 1/5 and 2/5, based at Orange AB, respectively. The first delivery was made September 2006 to 1º Grupo de Defesa Aérea (1º GDA – 1st Air Defence Group) based at Annapolis. They were primarily used in the air-defence role and were equipped with Matra Super 530D and Matra Magic 2. Brazil officially retired its fleet in December 2013, just before the maintenance contract with Dassault concluded. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=381535 | 60,339 |
202,013 | While working with Marie to extract pure substances from ores, an undertaking that really required industrial resources but that they achieved in relatively primitive conditions, Pierre himself concentrated on the physical study (including luminous and chemical effects) of the new radiations. Through the action of magnetic fields on the rays given out by the radium, he proved the existence of particles that were electrically positive, negative, and neutral; these Ernest Rutherford was afterward to call alpha, beta, and gamma rays. Pierre then studied these radiations by calorimetry and also observed the physiological effects of radium, thus opening the way to radium therapy. Among Pierre Curie's discoveries were that ferromagnetic substances exhibited a critical temperature transition, above which the substances lost their ferromagnetic behavior – this is known as the "Curie point." He was elected to the Academy of Sciences (1905), having in 1903 jointly with Marie received the Royal Society's prestigious Davy Medal and jointly with her and Becquerel the Nobel Prize for Physics. He was run over by a carriage in the rue Dauphine in Paris in 1906 and died instantly. His complete works were published in 1908. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1416046 | 201,910 |
1,370,847 | An assertion held at the time was that there was greater variability among men while women were less variable. Hollingworth referred to this variability hypothesis as "armchair dogma" which she characterized as the "literature of opinion". This differs, she maintained, from the "literature of fact" which has been carefully obtained through controlled scientific data because it is merely statements made by scientific men not based on experimental evidence. Hollingworth states in her article, "Variability as Related to Sex Differences in Achievement: A Critique", "Undoubtedly one of the most difficult and fundamental problems that today confront thinking women is how to secure for themselves the chance to vary from the mode of their sex, and at the same time to procreate, in a social order that has been built up on the assumption that there are little or no variations in tastes, interests, and abilities within the female sex. It is a problem that has never confronted me." In order to further her research on the "inherently more variable male hypothesis", Dr. Hollingworth performed another experiment in which she used infants because they have not yet been influenced by the environmental conditions that could account for variability differences in adults. These environmental conditions would provide the adult male with many more opportunities to be more variable than females. Men had a wide range of professions from which to choose that would improve the talents they possessed. Women, on the other hand, had been confined to only one profession, housekeeping, which did not provide them the chance to prove their intelligence. Thus, their natural variability would be impaired. Dr. Hollingworth and Helen Montague collected data on 1,000 consecutively born males and 1,000 consecutively born females in the New York Infirmary for Women and Children. They took ten anatomical measurements on each infant and found that on the whole the male infants were slightly larger than the females, but there were no differences in variability between the sexes. "For the first time a serious crack had appeared in the armor of the variability hypothesis". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14276414 | 1,370,091 |
104,247 | Limitations to the widespread use of PET arise from the high costs of cyclotrons needed to produce the short-lived radionuclides for PET scanning and the need for specially adapted on-site chemical synthesis apparatus to produce the radiopharmaceuticals after radioisotope preparation. Organic radiotracer molecules that will contain a positron-emitting radioisotope cannot be synthesized first and then the radioisotope prepared within them, because bombardment with a cyclotron to prepare the radioisotope destroys any organic carrier for it. Instead, the isotope must be prepared first, then afterward, the chemistry to prepare any organic radiotracer (such as FDG) accomplished very quickly, in the short time before the isotope decays. Few hospitals and universities are capable of maintaining such systems, and most clinical PET is supported by third-party suppliers of radiotracers that can supply many sites simultaneously. This limitation restricts clinical PET primarily to the use of tracers labelled with fluorine-18, which has a half-life of 110 minutes and can be transported a reasonable distance before use, or to rubidium-82 (used as rubidium-82 chloride) with a half-life of 1.27 minutes, which is created in a portable generator and is used for myocardial perfusion studies. Nevertheless, in recent years a few on-site cyclotrons with integrated shielding and "hot labs" (automated chemistry labs that are able to work with radioisotopes) have begun to accompany PET units to remote hospitals. The presence of the small on-site cyclotron promises to expand in the future as the cyclotrons shrink in response to the high cost of isotope transportation to remote PET machines. In recent years the shortage of PET scans has been alleviated in the US, as rollout of radiopharmacies to supply radioisotopes has grown 30%/year. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=24032 | 104,202 |
4,098 | Tourists have been visiting Antarctica since 1957. Tourism is subject to the provisions of the Antarctic Treaty and Environmental Protocol; the self-regulatory body for the industry is the International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators. Tourists arrive by small or medium ship at specific scenic locations with accessible concentrations of iconic wildlife. Over 74,000 tourists visited the region during the 2019/2020 season, of which 18,500 travelled on cruise ships but did not leave them to explore on land. The numbers of tourists fell rapidly after the start of the COVID-19 pandemic. Some nature conservation groups have expressed concern over the potential adverse effects caused by the influx of visitors and have called for limits on the size of visiting cruise ships and a tourism quota. The primary response by Antarctic Treaty parties has been to develop guidelines that set landing limits and closed or restricted zones on the more frequently visited sites. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18959138 | 4,096 |
926,977 | John Law (pronounced in French in the traditional approximation of "Laws", the colloquial Scottish form of the name; 21 April 1671 – 21 March 1729) was a Scottish economist who distinguished money, a means of exchange, from national wealth dependent on trade. He served as Controller General of Finances under the Duke of Orleans, who was regent for the juvenile Louis XV of France. In 1716, Law set up a private Banque Générale in France. A year later it was nationalised at his request and renamed as Banque Royale. The private bank had been funded mainly by John Law and Louis XV; three-quarters of its capital consisted of government bills and government-accepted notes, effectively making it the nation's first central bank. Backed only partially by silver, it was a fractional reserve bank. Law also set up and directed the Mississippi Company, funded by the Banque Royale. Its chaotic collapse has been compared to the 17th-century tulip mania in Holland. The Mississippi bubble coincided with the South Sea bubble in England, which allegedly took ideas from it. Law was a gambler who would win card games by mentally calculating odds. He originated ideas such as the scarcity theory of value and the real bills doctrine. He held that money creation stimulated an economy, paper money was preferable to metal, and dividend-paying shares a superior form of money. The term "millionaire" was coined for beneficiaries of Law's scheme. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=152384 | 926,490 |
1,188,679 | The branch and bound algorithm is a general method used to increase the efficiency of searches for near-optimal solutions of NP-hard problems first applied to phylogenetics in the early 1980s. Branch and bound is particularly well suited to phylogenetic tree construction because it inherently requires dividing a problem into a tree structure as it subdivides the problem space into smaller regions. As its name implies, it requires as input both a branching rule (in the case of phylogenetics, the addition of the next species or sequence to the tree) and a bound (a rule that excludes certain regions of the search space from consideration, thereby assuming that the optimal solution cannot occupy that region). Identifying a good bound is the most challenging aspect of the algorithm's application to phylogenetics. A simple way of defining the bound is a maximum number of assumed evolutionary changes allowed per tree. A set of criteria known as Zharkikh's rules severely limit the search space by defining characteristics shared by all candidate "most parsimonious" trees. The two most basic rules require the elimination of all but one redundant sequence (for cases where multiple observations have produced identical data) and the elimination of character sites at which two or more states do not occur in at least two species. Under ideal conditions these rules and their associated algorithm would completely define a tree. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3986130 | 1,188,047 |
1,990,032 | Photolithography involves exposing a light source to a photoresist-coated silicon wafer; a mask with the desired pattern is place between the light source and the wafer, thereby selectively allowing light to filter through and create the pattern on the photoresist. Further development of the wafer brings out the pattern in the photoresist. Photolithography performed in the near-UV is often viewed as the standard for fabricating topographies on the micro-scale. However, because the lower limit for size is a function of the wavelength, this method cannot be used to create nanoscale features. In their 2005 study, Mahoney et al. created organized arrays of polyimide channels (11 µm in height and 20–60 µm in width) were created on a glass substrate by photolithography. Polyimide was used because it adheres to glass well, is chemically stable in aqueous solution, and is biocompatible. It is hypothesized that the microchannels limited the range of angles that cytoskeletal elements within the neurite growth cones could accumulate, assemble, and orient. There was a significant decrease in the number of neurites emerging from the soma; however, there was less decrease as the range of angles over which the neurites emerged was increased. Also, the neurites were on average two times longer when the neurons were cultured on the microchannels versus the controls on a flat surface; this could be due to a more efficient alignment of filaments. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11088829 | 1,988,889 |
74,074 | There are several potential physiologic mechanisms for hypoxemia, but in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), ventilation/perfusion (V/Q) mismatching is most common, with or without alveolar hypoventilation, as indicated by arterial carbon dioxide concentration. Hypoxemia caused by V/Q mismatching in COPD is relatively easy to correct, and relatively small flow rates of supplemental oxygen (less than 3 L/min for the majority of patients) are required for long term oxygen therapy (LTOT). Hypoxemia normally stimulates ventilation and produces dyspnea, but these and the other signs and symptoms of hypoxia are sufficiently variable in COPD to limit their value in patient assessment. Chronic alveolar hypoxia is the main factor leading to development of cor pulmonale — right ventricular hypertrophy with or without overt right ventricular failure — in patients with COPD. Pulmonary hypertension adversely affects survival in COPD, proportional to resting mean pulmonary artery pressure elevation. Although the severity of airflow obstruction as measured by forced expiratory volume tests FEV1 correlates best with overall prognosis in COPD, chronic hypoxemia increases mortality and morbidity for any severity of disease. Large-scale studies of long term oxygen therapy in patients with COPD show a dose–response relationship between daily hours of supplemental oxygen use and survival. Continuous, 24-hours-per-day oxygen use in appropriately selected patients may produce a significant survival benefit. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13292 | 74,047 |
1,146,004 | The overall interlinked light-use design/operate philosophy was formalised in 1907 when, under chairman George Ernest Paget and Traffic Inspector John Follows, the Midland introduced a new traffic management system whereby every locomotive type was assigned a single standardised workload (in contrast to the system used by other railways, including the Midland's main competitor the London and North Western Railway, whereby new or freshly-overhauled locomotives were given higher workloads, with locomotives progressively being assigned less arduous tasks as their condition deteriorated towards the next overhaul). This required that the standard workload had to be, to a extent, a 'worst case' scenario of a worn-out locomotive immediately due an overhaul, with the result that train loads were kept low and engines in good condition were not worked to their maximum. This system also ensured the continuation of the Midland's practice of continuing to run shorter, lighter but more frequent trains (against the industry trend for longer, heavier but fewer services) since the Midland's service timings were calculated on the basis of relatively low power being available. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=564296 | 1,145,402 |
169,349 | In October 1984, while preparing a major expansion of its US dealer network, Acorn claimed sales of 85 per cent of the computers in British schools, and delivery of 40,000 machines per month. That December, Acorn stated its intention to become the market leader in US educational computing. "The New York Times" considered the inclusion of local area networking to be of prime importance to teachers. The operation resulted in advertisements by at least one dealer in "Interface Age" magazine, but ultimately the attempt failed. The success of the machine in the UK was due largely to its acceptance as an "educational" computer – UK schools used BBC Micros to teach computer literacy, information technology skills. Acorn became more known for its computer than for its other products. Some Commonwealth countries, including India, started their own computer literacy programmes around 1984. Intending to avoid "re-inventing the wheel", such efforts adopted the BBC Micro in order to take immediate advantage of the extensive range of software already developed under the United Kingdom's own literacy initiative, proposing that software tailored for local requirements would ultimately also be developed. A clone of the BBC Micro was produced by Semiconductor Complex Limited and named the SCL Unicorn. Another Indian computer manufacturer, Hope Computers Pvt Ltd, made a BBC Micro clone called the Dolphin. Unlike the original BBC Micro, the Dolphin featured blue function keys. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18950885 | 169,259 |
23,525 | In addition to the tech campus and medical center, Cornell maintains local offices in New York City for some of its service programs. The Cornell Urban Scholars Program encourages students to pursue public service careers, arranging assignments with organizations working with New York City's poorest children, families, and communities. The NYS College of Human Ecology and the NYS College of Agriculture and Life Sciences enable students to reach out to local communities by gardening and building with the Cornell Cooperative Extension. Students with the NYS School of Industrial and Labor Relations' Extension & Outreach Program make workplace expertise available to organizations, union members, policymakers, and working adults. The College of Engineering's Operations Research Manhattan, in the city's Financial District, brings together business optimization research and decision support services addressed to both financial applications and public health logistics planning. The College of Architecture, Art, and Planning has an 11,000 square foot, Gensler-designed facility on 26 Broadway (The Standard Oil Building), in the Financial District, that opened in 2015. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7954422 | 23,516 |
173,417 | Following World War II, the Soviet Union prioritized developing a long-range strategic bomber capable of delivering atomic weapons. Their first aircraft was the Tupolev Tu-4, a reverse-engineered version of the American B-29 Superfortress. The Tu-4 was only ever a stop-gap solution, as unlike the American strategic bomber force that could operate from bases in allied countries close to the USSR, it lacked the range to reach the continental United States, and experiences in the Korean War demonstrated piston engine bombers were extremely vulnerable to jet fighter interception. With the advancement of Western jet bombers like the B-47 Stratojet and Vickers Valiant, Vladimir Mikhailovich Myasishchev was directed to construct a "strategichesky dalny bombardirovshchik" (SDB) (стратегический дальный бомбардировщик (СДБ), "strategic long-range bomber") in spring of 1951. The first M-4 (Bison-A) prototype flew on 20 January 1953, and was handed over to state acceptance trials in March 1954, with production beginning later that year. It entered service in 1955, with 34 being built including two prototypes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=820638 | 173,326 |
1,287,608 | The ancestor of Rhizophoraceae experienced two whole genome duplication events. The first duplication event corresponds to the triplication shared among angiosperms. The second duplication event was dated to ~74.6 MYA. Around 65 MYA, the planet underwent the Cretaceous–Tertiary mass extinction. Then around 56.4 MYA, the mangrove lineage diverged from its terrestrial relatives. The divergence happened to occur in the time frame with in the extreme global warming event, the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM). During this time period, there is a shift from a terrestrial to a marine, potentially anoxic, sedimentary depositional environment, suggesting a sea level rise. After the dramatic global warming period, the mangrove species within Rhizophoraceae diversified within 10 MYA, which is relatively short in evolutionary sense. Although the sequence of the events does not suggest an absolute causal relationships between the former and the latter, a reasonable hypothesis for the diversification of Rhizophoraceae could be formulated: The second event of whole genome duplication increased the adaptability of the ancestor of Rhizophoraceae and chances of survival during the Cretaceous-Tertiary mass extinction by generating novel genetic materials for evolution to work on. During the PETM global warming period, the terrestrial ancestors of Rhizophoraceae living close to the shore were forced into the intertidal zone because of a large-scale sea-level rise. This sea level change exerted some selective pressure on the ancestors of Rhizophoraceae and those that were successfully adapted to the intertidal zone diverged from their terrestrial relatives and colonized this new habitat. Eventually, differential habitats within the intertidal zone resulted in the speciation within the mangrove lineage of Rhizophoraceae. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=350922 | 1,286,907 |
1,700,836 | Preventive conservation, also known as collections care or risk management, encompasses all actions taken to prolong the life of an object." and is an important element of museum policy. Members of the museum profession are entrusted to create and maintain a protective environment for the collections in their care. A good preventive conservation program minimizes the need for conservation treatment by blocking, avoiding, or minimizing the agents of deterioration. Emergency planning, environmental safeguards and monitoring are all types of preventive conservation. Scientific research continues to discover new ways of safeguarding collections. Today various monitoring devices assist in the observation of changes in the Agents of Deterioration and other changes that may assist in diagnosing destructive activity before it is a disaster. In the image to the right a device is being attached to the Liberty Bell to monitor any changes in the crack. Metallic heritage objects are sensitive to environmental conditions such as exposure to light and ultraviolet light, temperature, relative humidity, water and moisture, and various pollutants especially chloride salts. Safeguards of protection against threats of natural disasters such as flood or fire need to be planned for and maintaining an environment that keep all Agents of Deterioration within safe limits and controlling their fluctuation will assist in the preservation of metals. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31121305 | 1,699,882 |
2,091,606 | In June 2006 Kalyuzhaya et al. published a paper (“Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization-Flow Cytometry-Cell Sorting-Based Method for Separation and Enrichment of Type I and Type II Methanotroph Populations”) detailing more precise methods for separating organisms of interests within a natural sample. Their experiment focused on separating Type I and Type II Methanotrophs using combined techniques of FISH/FC (fluorescence in situ hybridization-flow cytometry) and FACS (fluorescence-activated FC analysis and cell sorting). FISH/FC employs oligonucleotide attached to florescein, or Alexa for targeting 16S rRNA. The fluoresced microbe can then be subjected to analysis and cell sorting. The detection phase involves putting the detected sample to “functional gene analysis to indicate specific separation using 16S rRNA, pmoA (encoding a subunit of particulate methane monooxygenase), and fae (encoding formaldehyde activating enzyme) genes.” The data indicate that FISH/FC/FACS is a method that can “provide significant enrichment of microbial populations of interest from complex natural communities.” Lastly, Kalyuzhaya et al. tested the reliability of whole genome amplification (WGA) using limited numbers of sorted cells. They found that WGA would give more “specific” results if a rough threshold number of 10^4 or more cells are in a sample. Having proven FISH/FC/FACS’ effectiveness to detect microbial populations, Kalyuzhay et al. used mixed samples of M. flagellatus along with other members of the methylotrophs genus to test their method’s effectiveness. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11765546 | 2,090,401 |
183,741 | Corpuscularianism is similar to atomism, except that where atoms were supposed to be indivisible, corpuscles could in principle be divided. In this manner, for example, it was theorized that mercury could penetrate into metals and modify their inner structure, a step on the way towards transmutative production of gold. Corpuscularianism was associated by its leading proponents with the idea that some of the properties that objects appear to have are artifacts of the perceiving mind: 'secondary' qualities as distinguished from 'primary' qualities. Not all corpuscularianism made use of the primary-secondary quality distinction, however. An influential tradition in medieval and early modern alchemy argued that chemical analysis revealed the existence of robust corpuscles that retained their identity in chemical compounds (to use the modern term). William R. Newman has dubbed this approach to matter theory "chymical atomism," and has argued for its significance to both the mechanical philosophy and to the chemical atomism that emerged in the early 19th century. Corpuscularianism stayed a dominant theory over the next several hundred years and retained its links with alchemy in the work of scientists such as Robert Boyle and Isaac Newton in the 17th century. It was used by Newton, for instance, in his development of the corpuscular theory of light. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5756554 | 183,644 |
1,823,835 | His second book, "Modern Nationalism" (Fontana 1994) applies this cultural approach to the analysis of contemporary politics, notably, the relationship of nationalism to the collapse of communism, the religious revival and contentions in multicultural polities. More recently, his "Nations as Zones of Conflict" (Sage 2005) has sought to combine the focus of ethnosymbolists on the historical embeddedness of nations with the stress of postmodernists on the multiplicity of identities by exploring nations as heterogeneous entities, characterised by persisting conflicts that derive from historic divisions (e.g., civil wars). Hutchinson argues that the role of contestation in nation-formation has been neglected. Such conflicts serve to "fill out" national identities and they give rise to alternative cultural and political visions that offer options to populations at times of crisis. This study has provoked praise and controversy. Eric Kaufmann claims "Hutchinson dramatically expands the boundaries of the ethnosymbolist argument to engage not only 'modernist' but postmodernist critiques of the nation." Although critical of what he sees as Hutchinson's idealist approach, Andreas Wimmer states: "(Hutchinson's) analysis of the layered character of nationalist myths, the internal heterogeneity and conflictual nature of nationalist discourse, as well as the episodic nature of nationalist mobilization represents a considerable step forward towards a more differentiated view of the nature of nationalism." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=24468757 | 1,822,797 |
627,115 | To fill AAWS-H, Vought developed a slightly larger extended-range version of HVM known as Kinetic Energy Missile (KEM), while their partner, Texas Instruments, provided a new FLIR targeting system that they were already working on as a TOW upgrade. Several vehicles were studied to mount the system, including the front-runner M2 Bradley, as well as the M8 Armored Gun System. However, in order to reduce costs and improve air mobility in a post–Cold War world, LOSAT eventually emerged on an extended-length heavy-duty Humvee with a hard-top containing four KEMs ready to fire, along with a trailer containing another eight rounds in two-round packs. The new guidance system could keep two missiles in flight to separate targets, allowing the vehicle to salvo fire its weapons against a tank squadron in a few seconds. Reaching speeds of , LOSAT was in the air from launch to maximum range for under four seconds, making counterfire extremely difficult. The range was beyond that of existing main tank guns, allowing the LOSAT to fire and move before tanks could maneuver into a position to return fire. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1426046 | 626,782 |
788,895 | All cells must finish DNA replication before they can proceed for cell division. Media conditions that support fast growth in bacteria also couples with shorter inter-initiation time in them, i.e. the doubling time in fast growing cells is less as compared to the slow growth. In other words, it is possible that in fast growth conditions the grandmother cells starts replicating its DNA for grand daughter cell. For the same reason, the initiation of DNA replication is highly regulated. Bacterial origins regulate orisome assembly, a nuclei-protein complex assembled on the origin responsible for unwinding the origin and loading all the replication machinery. In "E. coli," the direction for orisome assembly are built into a short stretch of nucleotide sequence called as origin of replication ("oriC") which contains multiple binding sites for the initiator protein DnaA (a highly homologous protein amongst bacterial kingdom). DnaA has four domains with each domain responsible for a specific task. There are 11 DnaA binding sites/boxes on the "E. coli" origin of replication out of which three boxes R1, R2 and R4 (which have a highly conserved 9 bp consensus sequence 5' - TTATC/ACACA ) are high affinity DnaA boxes. They bind to DnaA-ADP and DnaA-ATP with equal affinities and are bound by DnaA throughout most of the cell cycle and forms a scaffold on which rest of the orisome assembles. The rest eight DnaA boxes are low affinity sites that preferentially bind to DnaA-ATP. During initiation, DnaA bound to high affinity DnaA box R4 donates additional DnaA to the adjacent low affinity site and progressively fill all the low affinity DnaA boxes. Filling of the sites changes origin conformation from its native state. It is hypothesized that DNA stretching by DnaA bound to the origin promotes strand separation which allows more DnaA to bind to the unwound region. The DnaC helicase loader then interacts with the DnaA bound to the single-stranded DNA to recruit the DnaB helicase, which will continue to unwind the DNA as the DnaG primase lays down an RNA primer and DNA Polymerase III holoenzyme begins elongation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9896434 | 788,471 |
654,400 | Only about 100 life cycles have been resolved and it is suspected that there may be some exclusively terrestrial. The mechanism of infection occurs through valve spores that have many forms, but their main morphology is the same: one or two sporoplasts, which are the real infectious agent, surrounded by a layer of attenuated cells called valve cells, which can secrete a layer protective coating and form float appendages. Integrated into the layer of valve cells are two to four specialized capsulogenic cells (in a few cases, one or even 15), each carrying a polar capsule containing coiled polar filaments, an extrudable organelle used for recognition, contact and infiltration. Myxospores are ingested by annelids, in which the polar filaments extrude to anchor the spore to the gut epithelium. Opening of the shell valves allows the sporoplasms to penetrate into the epithelium. Subsequently, the parasite undergoes reproduction and development in the gut tissue, and finally produces usually eight actinosporean spore stages (actinospores) within a pansporocyst. After mature actinospores are released from their hosts they float in the water column. Upon contact with skin or gills of fish, sporoplasms penetrate through the epithelium, followed by development of the myxosporean stage. Myxosporean trophozoites are characterized by cell-in-cell state, where the secondary (daughter) cells develop in the mother (primary) cells. The presporogonic stages multiply, migrate via nervous or circulatory systems, and develop into sporogonic stages. At the final site of infection, they produce mature spores within mono- or di-sporic pseudoplasmodia, or poly-sporic plasmodia. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=314911 | 654,056 |
88,590 | In a 2011 response to the more modern papers on the hypothesis, Russell Seitz published a comment in "Nature" challenging Alan Robock's claim that there has been no real scientific debate about the "nuclear winter" concept. In 1986 Seitz also contends that many others are reluctant to speak out for fear of being stigmatized as "closet Dr. Strangeloves"; physicist Freeman Dyson of Princeton for example stated "It's an absolutely atrocious piece of science, but I quite despair of setting the public record straight." According to the Rocky Mountain News, Stephen Schneider had been called a fascist by some disarmament supporters for having written his 1986 article "Nuclear Winter Reappraised." MIT meteorologist Kerry Emanuel similarly wrote in a review in "Nature" that the winter concept is "notorious for its lack of scientific integrity" due to the unrealistic estimates selected for the quantity of fuel likely to burn, the imprecise global circulation models used. Emanuel ends by stating that the evidence of other models point to substantial scavenging of the smoke by rain. Emanuel also made an "interesting point" about questioning proponent's objectivity when it came to strong emotional or political issues that they hold. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22171 | 88,555 |
1,428,008 | VANTAs allow the development of novel sensors and/or sensor chips without the need for direct manipulation of individual nanotubes. The aligned nanotube structure further provides a large well-defined surface area and the capacity for modifying the carbon nanotube surface with various transduction materials to effectively enhance the sensitivity and to broaden the scope of analytes to be detected. Wei et al. reported a gas sensor fabricated by partially covering a VANTA with a polymer coating top-down along their tube length by depositing a droplet of polymer solution (e.g., poly(vinyl acetate), PVAc, polyisoprene, PI) onto the nanotube film, inverting the composite film as a free-standing film, and then sputter-coating two strip electrodes of gold across the nanotube arrays that were protruding from the polymer matrix. The flexible VANTA device was demonstrated to successfully sense chemical vapors through monitoring conductivity changes caused by the charge-transfer interaction with gas molecules and/or the inter-tube distance changes induced by polymer swelling via gas absorption. To date, CNTs have shown sensitivities toward gases such as NH, NO, H, CH, CO, SO, HS, and O. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=51417988 | 1,427,204 |
395,106 | The tail was bi-lobed, with the lower lobe being supported by the caudal vertebral column, which was "kinked" ventrally to follow the contours of the ventral lobe. Basal species had a rather asymmetric or "heterocercal" tail fin. The asymmetry differed from that of sharks in that the lower lobe was largest, instead of the upper lobe. More derived forms had a nearly vertical symmetric tail fin. Sharks use their asymmetric tail fin to compensate for the fact that they are negatively buoyant, heavier than water, by making the downward pressure exerted by the tail force the body as a whole in an ascending angle. This way, swimming forwards will generate enough lift to equal the sinking force caused by their weight. In 1973, McGowan concluded that, because ichthyosaurs have a reversed tail fin asymmetry compared to sharks, they were apparently positively buoyant, lighter than water, which would be confirmed by their lack of gastroliths and of pachyostosis or dense bone. The tail would have served to keep the body in a descending angle. The front flippers would be used to push the front of the body further downwards and control pitch. In 1987 however, Michael A. Taylor suggested an alternative hypothesis: as ichthyosaurs could vary their lung content, contrary to sharks (which lack a swimming bladder), they could also regulate their buoyancy. The tail thus mainly served for a neutral propulsion, while small variations in buoyancy were stabilised by slight changes in the flipper angles. In 1992, McGowan accepted this view, pointing out that shark tails are not a good analogy of derived ichthyosaur tails that have more narrow lobes, and are more vertical and symmetric. Derived ichthyosaur tail fins are more like those of tuna fish and indicate a comparable capacity to sustain a high cruising speed. A comparative study by Motani in 2002 concluded that, in extant animals, small tail fin lobes positively correlate with a high beat frequency. Modern researchers generally concur that ichthyosaurs were negatively buoyant. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=314101 | 394,911 |
1,325,634 | In common with Explorer 6, Pioneer 5 used the earliest known digital telemetry system used on spacecraft, codenamed "Telebit", which was a tenfold (or 10 dB) improvement in channel efficiency on previous generation "Microlock" analog systems in use since Explorer 1 and the biggest single improvement in signal encoding on western spacecraft. The spacecraft received the uplink carrier at 401.8 MHz and converted it to a 378.2 MHz signal using a 16/17 coherent oscillator circuit. The telemetry system phase modulated a 512 Hz subcarrier, which was in turn amplitude modulated at 64, 8, or 1bit/s. The spacecraft was unable to aim its antennas, and so had no high-gain dish antenna common on later spacecraft. Instead, the system could introduce a 150W amplifier into its normally 5W transmitter circuit. It was powered by a battery of 28 F-size NiCd cells recharged by the solar paddles, allowing up to eight minutes of high power communications before risking damage to the batteries. Each hour of 5W communications or five minutes of 150W communications required ten hours of recharging the batteries. Unlike later interplanetary spacecraft (Mariner 2 and beyond), this spacecraft did not use the Deep Space Network, which was not yet available, but a somewhat ad hoc Space Network called SPAN consisting of the 76m Lovell Telescope (then called Manchester Mark I), a 26-meter radio telescope in Hawaii, and a small helical array in Singapore. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=376851 | 1,324,907 |
1,362,224 | The differential for this class of composites is that they are biodegradable and pollute the environment less which is a concern for many scientists and engineers to minimize the environmental impact of the production of a composite. They are a renewable source, cheap, and in certain cases completely recyclable. One advantage of natural fibers is their low density, which results in a higher specific tensile strength and stiffness than glass fibers, besides of its lower manufacturing costs. As such, biocomposites could be a viable ecological alternative to carbon, glass, and man-made fiber composites. Natural fibers have a hollow structure, which gives insulation against noise and heat. It is a class of materials that can be easily processed, and thus, they are suited to a wide range of applications, such as packaging, building (roof structure, bridge, window, door, green kitchen), automobiles, aerospace, military applications, electronics, consumer products and medical industry (prosthetic, bone plate, orthodontic archwire, total hip replacement, and composite screws and pins). Unfortunately, biocomposites have limitations due to lack of compatibility between synthetic resin and natural fibers | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7521019 | 1,361,471 |
1,986,972 | The Santa Cruz cypress ("Hesperocyparis abramsiana"; formerly classified as "Cupressus abramsiana") has a geographic range limited to a small section in the Monterey Bay region of California where subsea canyon topography reliably produces summer fog, owing to cold water upwelling. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service listed the species as endangered in 1987, due to increasing threats from habitat loss and disruption of natural forest fire regimes. In 2016, the conservation status of the Santa Cruz cypress was reduced to threatened. The cited reasoning was a decrease in threats against their habitat. However, a lengthy section of the 2016 federal report titled "Genetic introgression" (also known as introgressive hybridization) explains how the integrity of this species is also threatened by nearby horticultural plantings of a sister species, Monterey cypress, whose historically native range is nearby: on the opposite side of Monterey Bay. Hybridization is known to occur between the two endemics — as well as with a widely planted sister species native to Arizona: Arizona cypress. The ease of hybridization of cypress species in the American southwest has fostered a parallel history of taxonomic disagreements of where genus and species distinctions should apply. It thus provides a case study of neoendemism in conifers. As well, it illustrates an element of ongoing human impact — wind-dispersed pollen contamination from horticultural plantings — that cannot easily be corrected to meet conservation goals. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=51421017 | 1,985,830 |
1,187,134 | Quantum Effect Devices (QED), a separate company started by former MIPS employees, designed the "R4600" "Orion", the "R4700" "Orion", the "R4650" and the "R5000". Where the R4000 had pushed clock frequency and sacrificed cache capacity, the QED designs emphasized large caches which could be accessed in just two cycles and efficient use of silicon area. The R4600 and R4700 were used in low-cost versions of the SGI Indy workstation as well as the first MIPS-based Cisco routers, such as the 36x0 and 7x00-series routers. The R4650 was used in the original WebTV set-top boxes (now Microsoft TV). The R5000 FPU had more flexible single precision floating-point scheduling than the R4000, and as a result, R5000-based SGI Indys had much better graphics performance than similarly clocked R4400 Indys with the same graphics hardware. SGI gave the old graphics board a new name when it was combined with R5000, to emphasize the improvement. QED later designed the "RM7000" and "RM9000" family of devices for embedded system markets like computer networking and laser printers. QED was acquired by the semiconductor manufacturer PMC-Sierra in August 2000, the latter company continuing to invest in the MIPS architecture. The "RM7000" included an integrated 256 KB L2 cache and a controller for optional L3 cache. The "RM9xx0" were a family of SOC devices which included northbridge peripherals such as memory controller, PCI controller, Gigabit Ethernet controller and fast I/O such as a HyperTransport port. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=53839062 | 1,186,503 |
1,998,143 | In the wake of the damage wrought by the 1994 Northridge earthquake, the SAC/FEMA project was launched to resolve the issue of poor performance of steel moment-resisting frames due to the fracturing beam-column connections. Within the creative environment of research cooperation, the idea of subjecting a structure to a wider range of scaling emerged. Initially, the method was called Dynamic Pushover and it was conceived as a way to estimate a proxy for the global collapse of the structure. It was later recognized that such a method would also enable checking for multiple limit-states, e.g. for life-safety, as is the standard for most seismic design methods, but also for lower and higher levels of intensity that represent different threat levels, such as immediate-occupancy and collapse-prevention. Thus, the idea for Incremental Dynamic Analysis was born, which was mainly adopted and later popularized by researchers at the John A. Blume Earthquake Research Center of Stanford University. This has now met with wider recognition in the earthquake research community and has spawned several different methods and concepts for estimating structural performance. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31594536 | 1,997,000 |
693,649 | Wharton traveled widely and became involved in many industrial enterprises such as mines, factories and railroads. He started several enterprises on the South New Jersey property, including a menhaden fish factory that produced oil and fertilizer, a modern forestry planting operation, and cranberry and sugar beet farms. Wharton also purchased land containing ore and an iron furnace in northern New Jersey at Port Oram, New Jersey (now Wharton, New Jersey) which was located close to the Morris Canal and railroads. He purchased a coal mine in western Pennsylvania, constructing for the workers a town of 85 houses and stores along the railway. He also purchased coal land in West Virginia, iron and copper mines in Michigan, and gold mines in Arizona and Nevada. Wharton became involved in the Reading and Lehigh railroads and several others, arranging spur lines with the railroads to carry ore and finished metal products. He maintained an extensive business correspondence and in later life maintained this practice through his vacations. Wharton was a colleague of leaders such as inventors Ezra Cornell, Elias Howe and Thomas Edison, and entrepreneur Cornelius Vanderbilt. His management style evolved throughout the latter half of the 1800s, making use of new technology for communication, transportation, and production, so that he controlled many industries profitably on a larger scale than was previously possible. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=383305 | 693,286 |
542,494 | None of these strategies currently provide a method of protection that would be known to be sufficient while conforming to likely limitations on the mass of the payload at present (around $10,000/kg) launch prices. Scientists such as University of Chicago professor emeritus Eugene Parker are not optimistic it can be solved anytime soon. For passive mass shielding, the required amount could be too heavy to be affordably lifted into space without changes in economics (like hypothetical non-rocket spacelaunch or usage of extraterrestrial resources) — many hundreds of metric tons for a reasonably-sized crew compartment. For instance, a NASA design study for an ambitious large space station envisioned 4 metric tons per square meter of shielding to drop radiation exposure to 2.5 mSv annually (± a factor of 2 uncertainty), less than the tens of milli sieverts or more in some populated high natural background radiation areas on Earth, but the sheer mass for that level of mitigation was considered practical only because it involved first building a lunar mass driver to launch material. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14415787 | 542,214 |
1,553,397 | The physics of the earth's atmosphere includes dramatic events like lightning and the effects of volcanic eruptions, with discontinuities of motion such as noted by Helmholtz (1868). Turbulence is prominent in atmospheric convection. Other discontinuities include the formation of raindrops, hailstones, and snowflakes. The usual theory of classical non-equilibrium thermodynamics will need some extension to cover atmospheric physics. According to Tuck (2008), "On the macroscopic level, the way has been pioneered by a meteorologist (Paltridge 1975, 2001). Initially Paltridge (1975) used the terminology "minimum entropy exchange", but after that, for example in Paltridge (1978), and in Paltridge (1979)), he used the now current terminology "maximum entropy production" to describe the same thing. This point is clarified in the review by Ozawa, Ohmura, Lorenz, Pujol (2003). Paltridge (1978) cited Busse's (1967) fluid mechanical work concerning an extremum principle. Nicolis and Nicolis (1980) discuss Paltridge's work, and they comment that the behaviour of the entropy production is far from simple and universal. This seems natural in the context of the requirement of some classical theory of non-equilibrium thermodynamics that the threshold of turbulence not be crossed. Paltridge himself nowadays tends to prefer to think in terms of the dissipation function rather than in terms of rate of entropy production. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=24622609 | 1,552,516 |
469,585 | This technology dates back to ancient times as early as Greek and Roman Republics. Back then, shin guards were viewed as purely protective measures for warriors in battle and were made of bronze or other hard, sturdy materials. The earliest known physical proof of the technology appeared when archaeologist Sir William Temple discovered a pair of bronze greaves with a Gorgon's head design in the relief on each knee capsule. After careful, proper examination it was estimated that the greaves were made in Apulia, a region in Southern Italy, around 550/500 B.C. This area fell under the Roman Empire boundaries and is known as today as the Salento Peninsula; it is more commonly known as the heel of Italy. This discovery is not considered the oldest known application of shin guards, but all other references lie in written or pictorial medians. The oldest known reference to shin guards was a written verse in the Bible. 1 Samuel 17:6 describes Goliath, a Philistine champion from Gath, who wore a bronze helmet, coat of mail, and bronze leggings. The Book of Samuel is commonly accepted to be written by Prophets Samuel, Nathan, and Gad between 960 and 700 B.C. Later, more concrete, examples of the shin guard concept resurfaced in the Middle Ages. All studies and evidence show greaves were improved to cover the entire lower leg, front and back, from the feet to the knees, and were mostly made of cloth, leather, or iron. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8222194 | 469,349 |
1,156,312 | Biophysical chemists employ various techniques used in physical chemistry to probe the structure of biological systems. These techniques include spectroscopic methods such as nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and other techniques like X-ray diffraction and cryo-electron microscopy. An example of research in biophysical chemistry includes the work for which the 2009 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded. The prize was based on X-ray crystallographic studies of the ribosome that helped to unravel the physical basis of its biological function as a molecular machine that translates mRNA into polypeptides. Other areas in which biophysical chemists engage themselves are protein structure and the functional structure of cell membranes. For example, enzyme action can be explained in terms of the shape of a pocket in the protein molecule that matches the shape of the substrate molecule or its modification due to binding of a metal ion. The structures of many large protein assemblies, such as ATP synthase, also exhibit machine-like dynamics as they act on their substrates. Similarly the structure and function of the biomembranes may be understood through the study of model supramolecular structures as liposomes or phospholipid vesicles of different compositions and sizes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=24568072 | 1,155,702 |
435,230 | Beatrice Benne and Pamela Mang emphasize the importance of the distinction between working with a place rather than working on a place within the regenerative design process. They use an analogy of a gardener to re-define the role of a designer in the building process. "A gardener does not 'make' a garden. Instead, a skilled gardener is one who has developed an understanding of the key processes operating in the garden" and thus the gardener "makes judicious decisions on how and where to intervene to reestablish the flows of energy that are vital to the health of the garden." In the same way a designer does not create a thriving ecosystem rather they make decisions that indirectly influence whether the ecosystem degrades or flourishes over time. This requires designers to push beyond the prescriptive and narrow way of thinking they have been taught and use complex systems thinking that will be ambiguous and overwhelming at times. This includes accepting that the solutions do not exclusively lie in technological advancements and are instead a combination of sustainable technologies and an understanding of the natural flow of resources and underlying ecological processes. Benne and Mang identify these challenges and state the most difficult of these will be shifting from a mechanistic to an ecological worldview. The tendency is to view building as the physical processes of the structure rather than the complex network of relationships the building has with the surrounding environment including the natural systems and the human community. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14967273 | 435,016 |
1,315,572 | SCC can be used for casting heavily reinforced sections, places where there can be no access to vibrators for compaction and in complex shapes of formwork which may otherwise be impossible to cast, giving a far superior surface than conventional concrete. The relatively high cost of material used in such concrete continues to hinder its widespread use in various segments of the construction industry, including commercial construction, however the productivity economics take over in achieving favorable performance benefits and works out to be economical in pre-cast industry. The incorporation of powder, including supplementary cementitious materials and filler, can increase the volume of the paste, hence enhancing deformability, and can also increase the cohesiveness of the paste and stability of the concrete. The reduction in cement content and increase in packing density of materials finer than 80 µm, like fly ash etc. can reduce the water-cement ratio, and the high-range water reducer (HRWR) demand. The reduction in free water can reduce the concentration of viscosity-enhancing admixture (VEA) necessary to ensure proper stability during casting and thereafter until the onset of hardening. It has been demonstrated that a total fine aggregate content ("fines", usually sand) of about 50% of total aggregate is appropriate in an SCC mix. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13387024 | 1,314,847 |
174,177 | Central to AlphaFold is a distance map predictor implemented as a very deep residual neural networks with 220 residual blocks processing a representation of dimensionality 64×64×128 – corresponding to input features calculated from two 64 amino acid fragments. Each residual block has three layers including a 3×3 dilated convolutional layer – the blocks cycle through dilation of values 1, 2, 4, and 8. In total the model has 21 million parameters. The network uses a combination of 1D and 2D inputs, including evolutionary profiles from different sources and co-evolution features. Alongside a distance map in the form of a very finely-grained histogram of distances, AlphaFold predicts Φ and Ψ angles for each residue which are used to create the initial predicted 3D structure. The AlphaFold authors concluded that the depth of the model, its large crop size, the large training set of roughly 29,000 proteins, modern Deep Learning techniques, and the richness of information from the predicted histogram of distances helped AlphaFold achieve a high contact map prediction precision. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=59766171 | 174,086 |
733,715 | Currently, infants undergo either the staged reconstructive surgery (Norwood or Sano procedure within a few days of birth, Glenn or "Hemi-Fontan procedure" at 3 to 6 months of age, and the Fontan procedure at 1 1/2 to 5 years of age) or cardiac transplantation. Current expectations are that 70% of those with HLHS may reach adulthood. Many studies show that the higher the volume (number of surgeries performed) at a hospital, the lower the mortality (death) rate. Factors that increase an infant's risk include lower birth weight, additional congenital anomalies, a genetic syndrome or those with a highly restrictive atrial septum. For patients without these additional risk factors, 5 year survival now approaches 80%. Studies show that about 75% of those children who survive surgery show developmental delays in one or more areas, such as motor, cognitive, or language impairments, with about a third of single-ventricle children without a genetic syndrome having significant impairments. Current research focuses on charting the connections between neurodevelopment injuries, surgical and intensive care procedures, and genetic susceptibility with the goal of modifying interventions that impair neurodevelopmental and psychosocial outcomes. An alternative to the traditional Norwood is the Hybrid procedure. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1797918 | 733,328 |
1,627,818 | Late in 1927 Sikorsky formed a brief partnership with Consolidated Aircraft to produce the second S-37. Initially designated the S-37-2 and registered X3698 or NX3698 this aircraft had slightly better performance than the first version and was designed as a bomber for the United States Army Air Corps. Later called the VS-37B Guardian, it was equipped with Pratt & Whitney Hornet engines and a redesigned tail that eliminated the adjustable center vertical stabilizer and increased the size of the rudders. The Army Air Corps performed flight testing at Wilbur Wright Field under the designation XP-496 but the aircraft failed to meet Army requirements and was rejected. In 1929 it was converted into a passenger commercial ship with Jupiter engines installed then sold to New York, Rio and Buenos Aires Airlines. In 1934 this aircraft, now registered as NR942M, was rebuilt and fitted with pontoons for a "Round-the-World" flight eastbound from Chicago to Chicago. As the flight approached Cleveland one of the engines caught fire and the crew made an emergency landing on Lake Erie. After repairs the flight continued but later crashed in the north Atlantic Ocean. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=47221838 | 1,626,900 |
1,167,988 | Acquired inactivating mutations in the activation domain of GATA1 are the apparent cause of the transient myeloproliferative disorder that occurs in individuals with Down syndrome. These mutations are frameshifts in exon 2 that result in the failure to make GATA1 protein, continued formation of GATA1-S, and therefore a greatly reduced ability to regulate GATA1-targeted genes. The presence of these mutations is restricted to cells bearing the trisomy 21 karyotype (i.e. extra chromosome 21) of Down syndrome: GATA1 inactivating mutations and trisomy 21 are necessary and sufficient for development of the disorder. Transient myeloproliferative disorder consists of a relatively mild but pathological proliferation of platelet-precursor cells, primarily megakaryoblasts, which often show an abnormal morphology that resembles immature myeloblasts (i.e. unipotent stem cells which differentiate into granulocytes and are the malignant proliferating cell in acute myeloid leukemia). Phenotype analyses indicate that these blasts belong to the megakaryoblast series. Abnormal findings include the frequent presence of excessive blast cell numbers, reduced platelet and red blood cell levels, increased circulating white blood cell levels, and infiltration of platelet-precursor cells into the bone marrow, liver, heart, pancreas, and skin. The disorder is thought to develop in utero and is detected at birth in about 10% of individuals with Down syndrome. It resolves totally within ~3 months but in the following 1–3 years progresses to acute megakaryoblastic leukemia in 20% to 30% of these individuals: transient myeloprolierative disorder is a clonal (abnormal cells derived from single parent cells), pre-leukemic condition and is classified as a myelodysplastic syndrome disease. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4694833 | 1,167,370 |
2,011,243 | (1) Epidemiology Unit, responsible for investigation of epidemic outbreaks, particularity in the areas of HIV/AIDS, sexually transmitted diseases, malaria and acute viral outbreaks. The unit provides statistical an epidemiology support to the entire institute. (2) Immunisable Diseases Unit, carries out surveillance and research on diseases that are preventable with vaccines. Functions as a regional measles reference laboratory for the World Health Organization. (3) Clinical Research Unit, conducts applied research on viral infectious diseases. The unit also offers basic clinical services to staff and the immediate family members in a healthcare centre, supervised by Entebbe General Hospital. (4) Quality Assurance Unit, is responsible for setting standards, monitoring, evaluation of clinical and operational research. It is mandated to develop and review quality assurance and inspection procedures. (5) Internal Audit Unit, because of its constitutional mandate and direct linkage with the Auditor general's office, this unit reports directly to the director of UVRI. (6) Information Technology & Corporate Affairs Unit, is responsible for collecting, collating and dissemination of information in a manner that promotes ethics, specificity, professionalism, and timeliness to promote effective beneficial use of that information. (7) International Relations & Training Unit, is responsible for training and capacity building among UVRI staff, particularly the scientists. The unit arranges and coordinates national, regional and international participation of UVRI in all health research-related matters. Interacts with governments, development partners, NGOs and international philanthropic bodies on scientific and technical matters related to health and scientific funding, training and disease control. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2046185 | 2,010,090 |
1,184,737 | A recent effort towards advancement in nanosensor technology has employed molecular imprinting, which is a technique used to synthesize polymer matrices that act as a receptor in molecular recognition. Analogous to the enzyme-substrate lock and key model, molecular imprinting uses template molecules with functional monomers to form polymer matrices with specific shape corresponding to its target template molecules, thus increasing the selectivity and affinity of the matrices. This technique has enabled nanosensors to detect chemical species. In the field of biotechnology, molecularly imprinted polymers (MIP) are synthesized receptors that have shown promising, cost-effective alternatives to natural antibodies in that they are engineered to have high selectivity and affinity. For example, an experiment with MI sensor containing nanotips with non-conductive polyphenol nano-coating (PPn coating) showed selective detection of E7 protein and thus demonstrated potential use of these nanosensors in detection and diagnosis of human papillomavirus, other human pathogens, and toxins. As shown above, nanosensors with molecular imprinting technique are capable of selectively detecting ultrasensitive chemical species in that by artificially modifying the polymer matrices, molecular imprinting increases the affinity and selectivity. Although molecularly imprinted polymers provide advantages in selective molecular recognition of nanosensors, the technique itself is relatively recent and there still remains challenges such as attenuation signals, detection systems lacking effective transducers, and surfaces lacking efficient detection. Further investigation and research on the field of molecularly imprinted polymers is crucial for development of highly effective nanosensors. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=603278 | 1,184,109 |
1,826,415 | Adam Leventhal (born 1979 in the United States) is an American software engineer, and one of the three authors of DTrace, a dynamic tracing facility in Solaris 10 (Sun Microsystems' latest OS) which allows users to observe, debug and tune system behavior in real time. Available to the public since November 2003, DTrace has since been used to find opportunities for performance improvements in production environments. Adam joined the Solaris kernel development team after graduating cum laude from Brown University in 2001 with his B.Sc. in Math and Computer Science. In 2006, Adam and his DTrace colleagues were chosen Gold winners in The Wall Street Journal's Technology Innovation Awards contest by a panel of judges representing industry as well as research and academic institutions. A year after Sun Microsystems was acquired by Oracle Corp, Leventhal announced he was leaving the company. He served as Chief Technology Officer at Delphix from 2010 to 2016. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15157719 | 1,825,376 |
622,486 | With a high concentration of troops in the New York City area, administration started to become burdensome. In 1921, Franklin Delano Roosevelt was persuaded to head a foundation overseeing the New York borough councils. Dr. George J. Fisher, a YMCA administrator, was recruited as the Deputy Chief Scout Executive. The US was divided 12 regions and then into areas directly reportable to the National Council. "Boys' Life" was in financial trouble by 1923 and West took over as editor. James J. Storrow replaced Colin Livingstone as president in 1925 and William Hillcourt, later known as "Green Bar Bill" began his association with the BSA. The first program for Scouts with disabilities was introduced in 1923. After Storrow died in 1926, Milton A. McRae became the president briefly, followed by Walter W. Head. The Silver Buffalo Award was created in 1926: the first awards were to Baden-Powell, the Unknown Scout (presented as a statue at Gilwell Park), W. D. Boyce, Livingstone, Storrow (posthumously) Beard, Seton and Robinson. Charles Lindbergh was elected as the 18th Honorary Scout in 1927 and awarded the Silver Buffalo in 1928. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6125637 | 622,154 |
1,383,396 | In 1985 he did a one-year fellowship in Sweden with Lars Leksell, who had invented a device to deliver targeted radiation at brain tumors, called the Gamma Knife. He was astonished and inspired but saw an opportunity to improve it. The Gamma Knife relied on a physical cage to coordinate the location of the subject's head and the device delivering the radiation; Adler wanted to use medical images to guide the beam, instead of the cage. When he returned to Stanford he worked with faculty in the engineering school to build a prototype and by 1987 was pitching his company to venture capitalists. They rejected his idea because the machines were enormous and expensive (the estimated price at that time was $3.5M), so he raised $800,000 from other neurosurgeons, friends, and family, and started a company, Accuray, in 1990. Adler served as chief medical officer, remaining on the Stanford faculty. The company ran out of money in 1994 and had other struggles; Adler took a leave of absence from Stanford in 1999 and took over as CEO, serving in that role until 2002, when he stepped back into being CMO. As of 2005, the company was selling about two machines each month. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7650765 | 1,382,629 |
677,469 | Book II of the "Experimenta Nova" is an extended philosophical essay in which von Guericke puts forward a view of the nature of space similar to that later espoused by Newton. He is explicitly critical of the plenist views of Aristotle and of their adoption by his younger contemporary Descartes. A particular and repeated target of his criticism is the manner in which the "nature abhors a vacuum" principle had migrated from simply a matter of experiment to a high principle of physics which could be invoked to explain phenomena such as suction but which itself was above question. In setting out his own view, von Guericke, while acknowledging the influence of previous philosophers such as Lessius (but not Gassendi), makes it clear that he considers his thinking on this topic to be original and new. There is no evidence that von Guericke was aware of the "Nouvelles Experiences touchant le vide" of Blaise Pascal published in 1647. In the "Experimenta Nova", Book III, Ch. 34, he relates how he first became aware of Torricelli's mercury tube experiment from Valerianus Magnus at Regensburg in 1654. Pascal's work built upon reports of the mercury tube experiment which had reached Paris via Marin Mersenne in 1644. An indication of the unresolved status of the "nature abhors a vacuum" principle at that time may be taken from Pascal's opinion, expressed in the conclusion of the "Nouvelles Experiences", when he writes: "I hold for true the maxims set out below: (a) that all bodies possess a repugnance to being separated one from another and from admitting a vacuum in the interval between them – that is to say that nature abhors a void." Pascal goes on to claim that this abhorrence of a void is, however, a limited force and thus that the creation of a vacuum is possible. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=49828 | 677,116 |
879,297 | Lentiviruses are a subclass of Retroviruses. They are sometimes used as vectors for gene therapy thanks to their ability to integrate into the genome of non-dividing cells, which is the unique feature of Lentiviruses as other Retroviruses can infect only dividing cells. The viral genome in the form of RNA is reverse-transcribed when the virus enters the cell to produce DNA, which is then inserted into the genome at a random position (recent findings actually suggest that the insertion of viral DNA is not random but directed to specific active genes and related to genome organisation) by the viral integrase enzyme. The vector, now called a provirus, remains in the genome and is passed on to the progeny of the cell when it divides. There are, as yet, no techniques for determining the site of integration, which can pose a problem. The provirus can disturb the function of cellular genes and lead to activation of oncogenes promoting the development of cancer, which raises concerns for possible applications of lentiviruses in gene therapy. However, studies have shown that lentivirus vectors have a lower tendency to integrate in places that potentially cause cancer than gamma-retroviral vectors. More specifically, one study found that lentiviral vectors did not cause either an increase in tumor incidence or an earlier onset of tumors in a mouse strain with a much higher incidence of tumors. Moreover, clinical trials that utilized lentiviral vectors to deliver gene therapy for the treatment of HIV experienced no increase in mutagenic or oncologic events. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5398413 | 878,834 |
1,032,957 | The storm curved north-northeastward on September 19, while offshore North Carolina. Esther began to weaken while approaching New England and fell to Category 2 intensity early on September 21. The storm turned eastward on the following day and gradually weakened to a tropical storm. It then executed a large cyclonic loop, until curving northward on September 25. Early on the following day, Esther made two landfalls in Massachusetts, first on Muskeget Island and then near South Yarmouth with winds of 60 mph (95 km/h). The storm then emerged over the Gulf of Maine and made landfall in Brunswick, Maine, around 11:00 UTC on September 26 with winds of 40 mph (65 km/h). Esther weakened to a tropical depression late on September 26 before weakening to a tropical depression and becoming extratropical over southeastern Quebec. The remnants persisted for about 12 hours, before dissipating early on September 27. Between North Carolina and New Jersey effects were primarily limited to strong winds and minor beach erosion and coastal flooding due to storm surge. In New York, strong winds led to severe crop losses and over 300,000 power outages. High tides caused coastal flooding and damage a number of pleasure boats. Similar impact was reported in Massachusetts. Additionally, some areas observed more than of rainfall, flooding basements, low-lying roads, and underpasses. Overall, damage was minor, totaling about $6 million. There were also seven deaths reported when United States Navy P5M aircraft crashed about north of Bermuda. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=760589 | 1,032,421 |
250,571 | 1866 saw the founding of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain and two years later the world's first aeronautical exhibition was held at the Crystal Palace, London, where John Stringfellow was awarded a £100 prize for the steam engine with the best power-to-weight ratio. In 1848, Stringfellow achieved the first powered flight using an unmanned wingspan steam-powered monoplane built in a disused lace factory in Chard, Somerset. Employing two contra-rotating propellers on the first attempt, made indoors, the machine flew ten feet before becoming destabilised, damaging the craft. The second attempt was more successful, the machine leaving a guidewire to fly freely, achieving thirty yards of straight and level powered flight. Francis Herbert Wenham presented the first paper to the newly formed Aeronautical Society (later the Royal Aeronautical Society), "On Aerial Locomotion". He advanced Cayley's work on cambered wings, making important findings. To test his ideas, from 1858 he had constructed several gliders, both manned and unmanned, and with up to five stacked wings. He realised that long, thin wings are better than bat-like ones because they have more leading edge for their area. Today this relationship is known as the aspect ratio of a wing. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177680 | 250,438 |
157,755 | According to the Savanna-based theory, hominines came down from the tree’s branches and adapted to life on the savanna by walking erect on two feet. The theory suggests that early hominids were forced to adapt to bipedal locomotion on the open savanna after they left the trees. One of the proposed mechanisms was the knuckle-walking hypothesis, which states that human ancestors used quadrupedal locomotion on the savanna, as evidenced by morphological characteristics found in "Australopithecus anamensis" and "Australopithecus afarensis" forelimbs, and that it is less parsimonious to assume that knuckle walking developed twice in genera "Pan" and "Gorilla" instead of evolving it once as synapomorphy for "Pan" and "Gorilla" before losing it in Australopithecus. The evolution of an orthograde posture would have been very helpful on a savanna as it would allow the ability to look over tall grasses in order to watch out for predators, or terrestrially hunt and sneak up on prey. It was also suggested in P. E. Wheeler's "The evolution of bipedality and loss of functional body hair in hominids", that a possible advantage of bipedalism in the savanna was reducing the amount of surface area of the body exposed to the sun, helping regulate body temperature. In fact, Elizabeth Vrba's turnover pulse hypothesis supports the savanna-based theory by explaining the shrinking of forested areas due to global warming and cooling, which forced animals out into the open grasslands and caused the need for hominids to acquire bipedality. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4210 | 157,683 |
26,932 | The institute's curricular interest is organized into the principal themes of development, security, and governance—with further focuses on globalization, economic uncertainty, security threats, environmental degradation, and poverty. Six Brown undergraduate concentrations are hosted by the Watson Institute: Development Studies, International and Public Affairs, International Relations, Latin American and Caribbean Studies, Middle East Studies, Public Policy, and South Asian Studies. Graduate programs offered at the Watson Institute include the Graduate Program in Development (Ph.D.) and the Master of Public Affairs (M.P.A) Program. The institute also offers postdoctoral, professional development and global outreach programming. In support of these programs, the institute houses various centers, including the Brazil Initiative, Brown-India Initiative, China Initiative, Middle East Studies center, The Center for Latin American and Caribbean Studies (CLACS) and the Taubman Center for Public Policy. In recent years, the most internationally cited product of the Watson Institute has been its Costs of War Project, first released in 2011 and continuously updated since. The project comprises a team of economists, anthropologists, political scientists, legal experts, and physicians, and seeks to calculate the economic costs, human casualties, and impact on civil liberties of the wars in Iraq, Afghanistan, and Pakistan since 2001. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4157 | 26,922 |
914,019 | Ac is applied in medicine to produce in a reusable generator or can be used alone as an agent for radiation therapy, in particular targeted alpha therapy (TAT). This isotope has a half-life of 10 days, making it much more suitable for radiation therapy than Bi (half-life 46 minutes). Additionally, Ac decays to nontoxic Bi rather than stable but toxic lead, which is the final product in the decay chains of several other candidate isotopes, namely Th, Th, and U. Not only Ac itself, but also its daughters, emit alpha particles which kill cancer cells in the body. The major difficulty with application of Ac was that intravenous injection of simple actinium complexes resulted in their accumulation in the bones and liver for a period of tens of years. As a result, after the cancer cells were quickly killed by alpha particles from Ac, the radiation from the actinium and its daughters might induce new mutations. To solve this problem, Ac was bound to a chelating agent, such as citrate, ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) or diethylene triamine pentaacetic acid (DTPA). This reduced actinium accumulation in the bones, but the excretion from the body remained slow. Much better results were obtained with such chelating agents as HEHA () or DOTA () coupled to trastuzumab, a monoclonal antibody that interferes with the HER2/neu receptor. The latter delivery combination was tested on mice and proved to be effective against leukemia, lymphoma, breast, ovarian, neuroblastoma and prostate cancers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=899 | 913,540 |
1,196,226 | "Elaphrosaurus" was first described by Janensch as a coelurosaurian. At the time, Coelurosauria was a wastebasket taxon for small theropods. Then, "Elaphrosaurus" was placed in the family Ornithomimidae by Franz Nopcsa in 1928 because of its light frame and the fact that its humerus is straight and slender, with a low deltopectoral crest. Janensch himself rejected this assignment, believing any resemblances could plausibly be explained by convergent evolution. By the middle of the twentieth century, "Elaphrosaurus" was usually seen as a member of the Coeluridae. However, Nopcsa's hypothesis was revived by Dale Alan Russell in 1972, and confirmed by Peter Malcolm Galton in 1982. In 1988 Gregory S. Paul remarked that upon closer examination its limbs approximate those of "Coelophysis" and suggested a position in the Coelophysidae. Nevertheless, in 1990 Barsbold, Teresa Maryańska and Osmólska and other researchers still classified it as an ornithomimid. More recent work by Carrano and Sampson (2008) and Carrano et al. (2012) assign "Elaphrosaurus" to the Ceratosauria. A re-study of the known fossil material, published in 2016, concluded that, due to characteristics of the scapulocoracod and metatarsals, "Elaphrosaurus" was actually an early member of the Noasauridae within Ceratosauria, and that it formed a distinct group with certain Asian noasaurids, which was named the Elaphrosaurinae. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3540085 | 1,195,586 |
1,939,780 | The University Library of today traces its roots back to the purchase of a chest of documents by the first Rector Marsilius von Inghen in 1388, which was stored in the Heiliggeistkirche, then the University Cathedral. Additional foundations of the library were laid through donations from bishops, chancellors, and early professors. Louis III willed his large and valuable collection to the university, as did also the Fugger of Augsburg. Otto Henry, Elector Palatine, combined the university's libraries in the 16th century, thus creating the Bibliotheca Palatina. In the 17th century, the greatest part of the Bibliotheca Palatina was donated to the Vatican in Rome as a loot of the Thirty Years War. Several manuscripts from the 10th to 18th century from the libraries of the secularized monasteries Salem and Petershausen later constituted the basis for the reconstruction. From 1901 to 1905, a richly ornamented four-wing red sandstone building was constructed for the library across from the Church of St. Peter. It was designed by Josef Durm, who adapted the Renaissance style of Heidelberg Castle and added numerous elements of Art Nouveau. The building was expanded several times, lately by enlarged basements under the courtyard of the neighboring New University. The frontage is punctuated with many windows for the sake of natural illumination. The University Library's stocks exceeded one million in 1934. Since 1978, the science branch of the University Library serves the institutes of natural sciences and medicine on the New Campus. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=17973922 | 1,938,670 |
126,836 | Despite being an invaluable tool in structural biology, protein crystallography carries some inherent problems in its methodology that hinder data interpretation. The crystal lattice, which is formed during the crystallization process, contains numerous units of the purified protein, which are densely and symmetrically packed in the crystal. When looking for a previously unknown protein, figuring out its shape and boundaries within the crystal lattice can be challenging. Proteins are usually composed of smaller subunits, and the task of distinguishing between the subunits and identifying the actual protein, can be challenging even for the experienced crystallographers. The non-biological interfaces that occur during crystallization are known as crystal-packing contacts (or simply, crystal contacts) and cannot be distinguished by crystallographic means. When a new protein structure is solved by X-ray crystallography and deposited in the Protein Data Bank, its authors are requested to specify the "biological assembly" which would constitute the functional, biologically-relevant protein. However, errors, missing data and inaccurate annotations during the submission of the data, give rise to obscure structures and compromise the reliability of the database. The error rate in the case of faulty annotations alone has been reported to be upwards of 6.6% or approximately 15%, arguably a non-trivial size considering the number of deposited structures. This "interface classification problem" is typically tackled by computational approaches and has become a recognized subject in structural bioinformatics. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=34151 | 126,784 |
617,462 | England added just 25 more runs for their last two wickets at the start of Day 2, Hilfenhaus trapping Anderson LBW for 0 in the second over of the day (ending his 54 innings sequence without a duck), before dismissing Broad for 37. Shane Watson and Simon Katich took Australia to 66/0 before rain forced lunch to be taken three minutes early, with the resumption of play delayed until almost 14:30. After lunch the Australian openers lasted just two overs before the start of a massive Broad-inspired batting collapse. First to fall was Watson, LBW on 34, then Ricky Ponting was deceived by a cutter from Broad and played onto his own stumps for just eight runs. Michaels Hussey and Clarke were next to go, Hussey LBW for a duck, before Clarke was caught low at short extra cover by Jonathan Trott. After a spell in which Broad took four wickets for just eight runs, Swann returned to the attack and immediately took the wicket of Marcus North, although replays subsequently showed that the Australian number 6 got an inside edge to the ball before it struck his pad. Katich reached his half-century in the 37th over of the innings, but was out the very next ball, caught by Alastair Cook at short leg. Broad completed his five-wicket haul in the 39th over, bowling Brad Haddin to give him wicket-to-wicket figures of 5/19 and leave only the Australian bowlers to dismiss. Swann took the next two wickets – albeit that of Stuart Clark was given incorrectly – leaving it to Flintoff to bowl Hilfenhaus and end the Australian innings for 160 runs. The English openers returned to the crease and put on 27 before Cook edged North to first slip for just nine. Mitchell Johnson then combined well with Simon Katich at short leg for the next two wickets, Katich catching Bell low before Johnson thumped a bouncer into Collingwood, looping the ball up for Katich to catch easily, leaving the home side at 39/3. Nevertheless, Strauss and Trott recovered well to take England into the third day at 58/3. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8708994 | 617,148 |
144,101 | During the war, advanced research for the government was managed at the site by the University of Chicago's Metallurgical Laboratory. In 1943, construction of the "Clinton Laboratories" was completed, later renamed to "Oak Ridge National Laboratory". The site was chosen for the X-10 Graphite Reactor, used to produce plutonium from natural uranium for the Manhattan project. Enrico Fermi and his colleagues developed the world's second self-sustaining nuclear reactor after Fermi's previous experiment, the Chicago Pile-1. The X-10 was the first reactor designed for continuous operation. After the end of World War II the demand for weapons-grade plutonium fell and the reactor and the laboratory's 1,000 employees were no longer involved in nuclear weapons. Instead, it was used for scientific research. In 1946 the first medical isotopes were produced in the X-10 reactor, and by 1950 almost 20,000 samples had been shipped to various hospitals. As the demand for military science had fallen dramatically, the future of the lab was uncertain. Management of the lab was contracted by the US government to Monsanto; however, they withdrew in 1947. The University of Chicago re-assumed responsibility, until in December 1947, when Union Carbide and Carbon Co., which already operated two other facilities at Oak Ridge, took control of the laboratory. Alvin Weinberg was named Director of Research, ORNL, and in 1955 Director of the Laboratory. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38147 | 144,043 |
917,990 | The bioelectric recognition assay (BERA) is a novel method for determination of various chemical and biological molecules by measuring changes in the membrane potential of cells immobilized in a gel matrix. Apart from the increased stability of the electrode-cell interface, immobilization preserves the viability and physiological functions of the cells. BERA is used primarily in biosensor applications in order to assay analytes that can interact with the immobilized cells by changing the cell membrane potential. In this way, when a positive sample is added to the sensor, a characteristic, "signature-like" change in electrical potential occurs. BERA is the core technology behind the recently launched pan-European FOODSCAN project, about pesticide and food risk assessment in Europe. BERA has been used for the detection of human viruses (hepatitis B and C viruses and herpes viruses), veterinary disease agents (foot and mouth disease virus, prions, and blue tongue virus), and plant viruses (tobacco and cucumber viruses) in a specific, rapid (1–2 minutes), reproducible, and cost-efficient fashion. The method has also been used for the detection of environmental toxins, such as pesticides and mycotoxins in food, and 2,4,6-trichloroanisole in cork and wine, as well as the determination of very low concentrations of the superoxide anion in clinical samples. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=156940 | 917,507 |
907,182 | In 1937, Dorothy Crowfoot married Thomas Lionel Hodgkin, an historian's son, who was then teaching an adult-education class in mining and industrial communities in the north of England after he resigned from the Colonial Office. He was an intermittent member of the Communist Party and later wrote several major works on African politics and history, becoming a well-known lecturer at Balliol College in Oxford. As his health was too poor for active military service, he continued working throughout World war 2, returning to Oxford on the weekends, where his wife remained working on penicillin. The couple had three children: Luke (b. 1938. d. Oct. 2020), Elizabeth (b. 1941) and Toby (b. 1946). Their children were talented and smart, just like their parents. The oldest son, Luke, became a mathematician. Their daughter, Elizabeth, followed her father's career, while the younger son, Toby, studied botany and agriculture. Overall, Thomas Hodgkin spent extended periods of time in West Africa, where he was enthusiastic supporter and chronicler of the emerging postcolonial states. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=105825 | 906,704 |
454,375 | Significant challenges for Mars habitats are maintaining an artificial environment and shielding from intense solar radiation. Humans require a pressurized environment at all times and protection from the toxic Martian atmosphere. Connecting habitats is useful, as moving between separate structures requires a pressure suit or perhaps a Mars rover. One of the largest issues lies in simply getting to Mars, which means escaping Earth's atmosphere, sustaining the journey to Mars, and finally landing on the surface of Mars. One helpful aspect is the Mars atmosphere, which allows for aerobraking, meaning less need for using propellant to slow a craft for safe landing. However, the amount of energy required to transfer material to the surface of Mars is an additional task beyond simply getting into orbit. During the late 1960s, the United States produced the Saturn V rocket, which was capable of launching enough mass into orbit required for a single-launch trip holding a crew of three to the surface of the Moon and back again. This feat required a number of specially designed pieces of hardware and the development of a technique known as the Lunar Orbit Rendezvous. The Lunar Orbit Rendezvous was a plan to coordinate the descent and ascent vehicles for a rendezvous in Lunar orbit. Referring to Mars, a similar technique would require a Mars Excursion Module, which combines a crewed descent-ascent vehicle and short stay surface habitat. Later plans have separated the descent-ascent vehicle and surface habitat, which further developed into separate descent, surface stay, and ascent vehicles using a new design architecture. In 2010 the Space Launch System, or growth variants therefore, is envisioned as having the payload capacity and qualities needed for human Mars missions, utilizing the Orion capsule. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42302371 | 454,153 |
267,401 | Nottingham is a research-led institution, and two academics connected with the university were awarded Nobel Prizes in 2003. Clive Granger was jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics. Much of the work on Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) was carried out at Nottingham, work for which Sir Peter Mansfield received the Nobel Prize for Medicine in 2003. Nottingham remains a strong centre for research into MRI. The university has contributed to a number of other significant scientific advances. Frederick Kipping, Professor of Chemistry (1897–1936), made the discovery of silicone polymers at Nottingham. Major developments in the in vitro culture of plants and micropropogation techniques were made by plant scientists at Nottingham, along with the first production of transgenic tomatoes by Don Grierson in the 1980s. Other innovations at the university include cochlear implants for deaf children and the brace-for-impact position used in aircraft. In 2015, the Assemble collective, of which the part-time Architecture Department tutor Joseph Halligan is a member, won the Turner Prize, Europe's most prestigious art award. Other facilities at Nottingham include a 46 teraflop supercomputer. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25086027 | 267,257 |
908,951 | After Fouchier offered an article describing this work to the leading academic journal "Science", the US National Science Advisory Board for Biosecurity (NSABB) recommended against publication of the full details of the study, and the one submitted to Nature by Yoshihiro Kawaoka of the University of Wisconsin describing related work. However, after additional consultations at the World Health Organization and by the NSABB, the NSABB reversed its position and recommended publication of revised versions of the two papers. However, then the Dutch government declared that this type of manuscripts required Fouchier to apply for an export permit in the light of EU directive 428/2009 on dual use goods. After much controversy surrounding the publishing of his research, Fouchier complied (under formal protest) with Dutch government demands to obtain a special permit for submitting his manuscript, and his research appeared in a special issue of the journal "Science" devoted to H5N1. The papers by Fouchier and Kawaoka conclude that it is entirely possible that a natural chain of mutations could lead to an H5N1 virus acquiring the capability of airborne transmission between mammals, and that a H5N1 influenza pandemic would not be impossible. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1019908 | 908,472 |
1,909,452 | Throughout 1950 to 1970, there was a very sharp decline in the species population. The population was stable until a drought in 1999 which made it near-extinct. The remaining individuals were taken and bred in captivity. In 2006, these fish were re-introduced to 12 rehabilitated sites in its previous range. Since then, large populations of various sizes and ages have been found in these areas. According to the authority's chief ecologist, this shows that efforts to rehabilitate the river have succeeded. Yarkon Bleak preservation efforts began in 1999, when the population dropped to only a few hundred. The project was a joint endeavor of the Yarkon River Authority, Tel Aviv University and the Israel Nature and National Parks Authority. The fish were transferred to special breeding pools at the university's zoological park, and an attempt was made to reintroduce them to the river in 2002 with little success. The scientists involved believed that this was because of a lack of suitable spawning sites, they built a pond filled with gravel and vegetation and soon there were many juvenile fish seen. In 2005, a second attempt to reintroduce them to the upper part of the river was reportedly more successful, following engineering to create suitable spawning sites In 2014, the IUCN declared this species sufficiently 'wild' (i.e. no direct intervention) to remove it from its "Extinct in the Wild" category, and is now considered "Vulnerable". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12183401 | 1,908,354 |
835,773 | The first thought experiment Dennett uses to demonstrate that qualia lacks the listed necessary properties for it to exist involves inverted qualia. The inverted qualia case concerns two people who could have different qualia and yet have all the same external physical behavior. But now the qualia supporter might then present an “intrapersonal” variation. Suppose a devious neurosurgeon fiddles with your brain and you wake up to discover that the grass looks red. Wouldn't this be a case where we could confirm the reality of qualia— by noticing how the qualia have changed while every other aspect of our conscious experience remains the same? Not quite, Dennett replies via the next intuition pump, “alternative neuro-surgery.” In fact there are two different ways the neurosurgeon might have accomplished the inversion above. First, she might have tinkered with something “early on,” so that the signals coming from the eye when you look at grass contain the information “red” rather than “green.” This would result in a genuine qualia inversion. But, alternatively, she might have instead tinkered with your memory. Here your qualia would remain the same, but your memory would be altered so that your current green experience would contradict your earlier memories of grass. Note, you would still feel that “the color of grass has changed”; only here it isn't the qualia that has changed, but your memories. But now, would you be able to tell which of these scenarios is correct? No: your perceptual experience tells you that something has changed but not whether your qualia have changed. Dennett concludes, since (by hypothesis) the two different surgical invasions can produce exactly the same introspective effects while only one operation inverts the qualia, nothing in the subject's experience can favor one of the hypothesis over the other. So unless he seeks outside help, the state of his own qualia must be as unknowable to him as the state of anyone else's qualia. This is hardly the privileged access or immediate acquaintance or direct apprehension the friends of qualia had supposed qualia to enjoy! It's questionable, in short, that we have direct, infallible access to our conscious experience. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=350945 | 835,324 |
1,298,308 | Another approach is to use an electron beam to melt welding wire onto a surface to build up a part. This is similar to the common 3D printing process of fused deposition modeling, but with metal, rather than plastics. With this process, an electron-beam gun provides the energy source used for melting metallic feedstock, which is typically wire. The electron beam is a highly efficient power source that can be both precisely focused and deflected using electromagnetic coils at rates well into thousands of hertz. Typical electron-beam welding systems have high power availability, with 30- and 42-kilowatt systems being most common. A major advantage of using metallic components with electron beams is that the process is conducted within a high-vacuum environment of 1 Torr or greater, providing a contamination-free work zone that does not require the use of additional inert gases commonly used with laser and arc-based processes. With EBDM, the feedstock material is fed into a molten pool created by the electron beam. Through the use of computer numeric controls (CNC), the molten pool is moved about on a substrate plate, adding material just where it is needed to produce the near net shape. This process is repeated in a layer-by-layer fashion until the desired 3D shape is produced. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9318647 | 1,297,595 |
165,853 | Surface EMG is used in a number of settings; for example, in the physiotherapy clinic, muscle activation is monitored using surface EMG and patients have an auditory or visual stimulus to help them know when they are activating the muscle (biofeedback). A review of the literature on surface EMG published in 2008, concluded that surface EMG may be useful to detect the presence of neuromuscular disease (level C rating, class III data), but there are insufficient data to support its utility for distinguishing between neuropathic and myopathic conditions or for the diagnosis of specific neuromuscular diseases. EMGs may be useful for additional study of fatigue associated with post-poliomyelitis syndrome and electromechanical function in myotonic dystrophy (level C rating, class III data). Recently, with the rise of technology in sports, sEMG has become an area of focus for coaches to reduce the incidence of soft tissue injury and improve player performance. Athos, a Silicon Valley startup, has led the way as the only company to have their measurements validated as accurate and reliable compared to a medical grade sEMG system. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=997173 | 165,768 |
1,806,562 | Until 1975, no Canadian museum had its own collection of Burgess Shale fossils. With the work of the GSC and its associates, the shale was rising to prominence, and in 1975 the Royal Ontario Museum (ROM) obtained permission from the National Parks authority, Parks Canada, to collect fossils from talus material in order to develop its own display. Parks Canada would redirect other museums' requests for material to the ROM, so the 1975 collection team gathered ample specimens to meet the anticipated teaching and display requirements. As well as 7750 specimens, this expedition yielded evidence that further fossil outcrops existed up-slope, and in 1981 a five-year reconnaissance program begun. This program would unearth further sites higher on Fossil Ridge; further around the steep cliffs of Mount Stephen; and on Odaray Mountain. These sites proved very productive, bearing a different fauna and spanning more time than the original beds. Excavation by ROM crews continues to this day, and has found fossils below the base of Walcott's quarry, and some 40 km away near the Stanley Glacier. The ROM's collections now stand proud of 140,000 specimens, and is continually yielding important new species and redescriptions. Statistical analysis suggests that new species will continue to be discovered for years to come. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23963520 | 1,805,544 |
585,932 | A review of the Constellation program in 2009 by the new Augustine Commission prompted by the new Obama administration had found that five years in, the service module development program was already running four years behind its 2020 lunar target and was woefully underfunded. The only element worth continuing was the Crew Exploration Vehicle in the role of a space station escape capsule. This led in 2010 to the Administration cancelling the programme by withdrawing funding in the proposed 2011 budget. A public outcry led to the programme being frozen rather than outright cancelled and a review launched in to how costs could be cut, which found that it was possible to continue if there was an emphasis on finding alternate funding, reducing the complexity by narrowing the scope to focus on the Moon and deep space rather than Mars, and by reusing existing hardware, reducing the range of equipment requiring development. The Ares I launcher intended for crew flights had significant design issues such as being overweight and prone to dangerous vibration, and in the case of a catastrophic failure its blast radius exceeded the escape system's ejection range. Its role as the Orion launch vehicle was replaced by the Space Launch System, and the three different Crew Exploration Vehicle designs were merged in to a single Multipurpose Crew Exploration Vehicle. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38310558 | 585,632 |
518,786 | "Branchiostoma lanceolatum" has an elongated body, flattened laterally and pointed at both ends. A stiffening rod of tightly packed cells, the notochord, extends the whole length of the body. Unlike vertebrates, the notochord persists in the adult, in form of simple dorsal neural tube slightly thickened in the anterior part (the cerebral vesicle). Above it is a nerve cord with a single frontal eye. The mouth is on the underside of the body and is surrounded by a tuft of 20 or 30 cirri or slender sensory appendages. The gut runs just below the notochord from the mouth to the anus, in front of the tail. There is a flap-like, vertical fin surrounding the pointed tail. Gas exchange takes place as water passes through gill slits in the mid region, and segmented gonads lie just behind these. The animal is pearly white and semi-transparent which enables the internal organs to be seen from outside. Its appearance is similar to a "primitive fish". It can grow up to 6 cm (2.5 in) long. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=33759227 | 518,517 |
843,872 | George McDonald Church (born August 28, 1954) is an American geneticist, molecular engineer, chemist, and a serial entrepreneur who is widely regarded as the "Founding Father of Genomics", and a pioneer in personal genomics and synthetic biology. He is the Robert Winthrop Professor of Genetics at Harvard Medical School, Professor of Health Sciences and Technology at Harvard University and Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and a founding member of the Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering at Harvard. Through his Harvard lab Church has co-founded around 50 biotech companies pushing the boundaries of innovation in the world of life sciences and making his lab as the hotbed of biotech startup activity in Boston. In 2018, the Church lab at Harvard made a record by spinning off 16 biotech companies in one year. The Church lab works on research projects that are distributed in diverse areas of modern biology like developmental biology, neurobiology, info processing, medical genetics, genomics, gene therapy, diagnostics, chemistry & bioengineering, space biology & space genetics, and ecosystem. Research and technology developments at the Church lab have impacted or made direct contributions to nearly all "next-generation sequencing (NGS)" methods and companies. In 2017, "Time" magazine listed him in "Time" 100, the list of "100 most influential people in the world". In 2022, he was featured among the most influential people in biopharma by "Fierce Pharma", and was listed among the "top 8 famous geneticists" of all time in human history. , Church serves as a member of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists' Board of Sponsors, established by Albert Einstein. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3813728 | 843,422 |
1,553,941 | Bohr argued that it was the uranium-235 isotope that was responsible for fission. Dunning realised that if this was the case, then an atomic bomb would be possible. His thoughts turned to devising a process for uranium enrichment, and by 1940 he was investigating gaseous diffusion, which he felt appeared to be more effective than the electromagnetic method of Alfred Nier and offered the best route to enrichment on an industrial scale. The researchers at Columbia became the Manhattan Project's Substitute Alloy Materials (SAM) Laboratories. Dunning headed the laboratory division responsible for all aspects of the gaseous diffusion program, including engineering problems, pilot plants and research activities. Four papers co-written with James Rainwater, William W. Havens, Jr., and Chien-Shiung Wu appeared in 1947 and 1948, but much remained classified. Due to the secrecy of this work, Dunning and three of his colleagues were awarded $300,000 each in lieu of patent royalties. For his part, Dunning was awarded the Medal for Merit by President Harry S. Truman. His citation read: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=880346 | 1,553,060 |
679,030 | From the early 20th century until after World War II, the utility roadster constituted most adult bicycles sold in the United Kingdom and in many parts of the British Empire. In Britain, the roadster declined noticeably in popularity during the early 1970s, as a boom in recreational cycling caused manufacturers to concentrate on lightweight (23-30 lb.), affordable derailleur sport bikes, actually slightly-modified versions of the racing bicycle of the era. In the 1980s, U.K. cyclists began to shift from road-only bicycles to all-terrain models such as the mountain bike. The mountain bike's sturdy frame and load-carrying ability gave it additional versatility as a utility bike, usurping the role previously filled by the roadster. By 1990, the roadster was almost dead; while annual U.K. bicycle sales reached an all-time record of 2.8 million, almost all of them were mountain and road/sport models. A different situation, however, was occurring in most Asian countries: roadsters are still widely made and used in countries such as China, India, Thailand, Vietnam and others as well in parts of north-western Europe. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=910509 | 678,676 |
2,171,825 | Vaa3D was created in 2007 to tackle the large-scale brain mapping project at Janelia Farm of the Howard Hughes Medical Institute. The initial goal was to quickly visualize any of the tens of thousands of large 3D laser scanning microscopy image stacks of fruit fly brains, each with a few gigabytes in volume. Low level OpenGL-based 3D rendering was developed to provide direct rendering of multi-dimensional image stacks. C/C++ and Qt were used to create cross-platform compatibility so the software can run on Mac, Linux and Windows. Strong functions for synchronizing multiple 2D/3D/4D/5D rendered views, generating global and local 3D viewers, and virtual finger, allow Vaa3D be able to streamline a number of operations for complicated brain science tasks, for example, brain comparison and neuron reconstruction. Vaa3D also provides an extensible plugin interface that currently hosts dozens of open source plugins contributed by researchers worldwide. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=43981985 | 2,170,586 |
1,877,562 | By 1939, in the last dire years of the Depression, Neibaur was destitute. He received a small pension from his Medal of Honor, and was a clerk for Works Progress Administration (WPA). He was unable to feed and care for his family on his low income. US Senator William Borah of Idaho attempted to pass a law in the US Congress promoting Neibaur to the rank of major in the regular army, and then placing him on the retired list. This failed. Discouraged by his misfortune, Neibaur mailed his Medal of Honor and other decorations to Congress in Washington stating that "I cannot eat them." Local newspapers covered the story. Three days later he secured a position as a night security officer at the state capitol in Boise. His wife Lois died in 1940, at the age of forty-eight from complications of rheumatic fever from her childhood. Neibaur married Lillian Golden in 1941, and a short time later he entered a veterans' hospital in Walla Walla, Washington for tuberculosis and died there on December 23, 1942, at the age of forty-four. Four young sons were sent to an orphanage in Eaton Rapids, Michigan. He and Lois are buried in Sugar City, Idaho. His awards and decorations were returned to Mrs. Lillian Neibaur who donated them to the Idaho State Historical Society. Thomas C. Neibaur Veteran Park is located in Sugar City, Idaho with a granite monument commemorating Neibaur. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9712163 | 1,876,484 |
992,848 | In June 1972, Bushnell and Dabney quit Nutting Associates after Bushnell was unable to convince Nutting to give him a 33 percent stake in the company, and moved to incorporate Syzygy Engineering; they instead named it Atari due to another company with a similar name. Bushnell later stated that he was encouraged by the success of "Computer Space" in regards to future game ideas, as he had never before created something that made so much money, and additionally felt that his time at Nutting gave him confidence in running his own company because he "couldn't screw it up more than they did". Nutting Associates did not make any further "Computer Space" games before closing in 1976. Bushnell's enthusiasm was soon vindicated, as Atari's first game, "Pong", went on to substantially greater success than "Computer Space". Although not as influential as "Pong", as the first arcade video game, "Computer Space" had a strong influence on future video game design, such as using terms and designs from prior mechanical arcade games, and providing a template for transforming a medium previously designed and played on research mainframes into a commercial model for general consumers. It directly inspired several video games and game designers, such as Steve Bristow, who came up with the idea for "Tank" (1974) to correct the perceived shortcomings of the game by having easier-to-control tanks instead, and Jerry Lawson, the designer of the Fairchild Channel F home console (1976). It also influenced Larry Rosenthal, who was partially inspired to make the vector graphics-based "Space Wars" (1977) by his dislike of "Computer Space"s simplification of "Spacewar!", and Ed Logg, who combined the controls and movement of the game with elements of "Space Invaders" (1978) to make "Asteroids" (1979). "Computer Space"s release marked the ending of the early history of video games and the start of the commercial video game industry. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=292879 | 992,331 |
729 | Hawking began his university education at University College, Oxford, in October 1959 at the age of 17. For the first eighteen months, he was bored and lonelyhe found the academic work "ridiculously easy". His physics tutor, Robert Berman, later said, "It was only necessary for him to know that something could be done, and he could do it without looking to see how other people did it." A change occurred during his second and third years when, according to Berman, Hawking made more of an effort "to be one of the boys". He developed into a popular, lively and witty college-member, interested in classical music and science fiction. Part of the transformation resulted from his decision to join the college boat-club, the University College Boat Club, where he coxed a rowing-crew. The rowing-coach at the time noted that Hawking cultivated a daredevil image, steering his crew on risky courses that led to damaged boats. Hawking estimated that he studied about 1,000 hours during his three years at Oxford. These unimpressive study habits made sitting his finals a challenge, and he decided to answer only theoretical physics questions rather than those requiring factual knowledge. A first-class degree was a condition of acceptance for his planned graduate study in cosmology at the University of Cambridge. Anxious, he slept poorly the night before the examinations, and the result was on the borderline between first- and second-class honours, making a "viva" (oral examination) with the Oxford examiners necessary. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19376148 | 729 |
1,009,745 | In Act II, Andreas has completed his masterpiece and has become a famous illuminator, and returns to pay his respects to the late Brother Piero, whom he saw as a friend and mentor, bringing his apprentice Caspar whom he treats as a surrogate son. He struggles with depression, having pursued his passion but finding the results lacking, as he is forced to paint vain commissions for nobles rather than focus on life's truths, as Piero advised, in addition to the death of his young son August from plague, which has strained his marriage. In town, a conflict is brewing between the abbey and the townspeople. The abbey, having lost many of its financiers and patrons after the death of the Baron, is heavily taxing the peasants in town to the brink of starvation. Otto, a charismatic firebrand, is rallying the town against Gernot, the abbot, who is inflexible in treatment of the peasants. Andreas steps in as a mediator, but after Otto is murdered in a staged accident, the father of the poorest household, Peter, becomes the new leader and demands violence against the abbey and its monks. Andreas has a limited amount of time to solve the case, as the lord's men are arriving within two days. Again, all of those with motivations against Otto have received cryptic letters in an ornate script encouraging the murder. As in Act I, there are several characters with possible motives to kill Otto, and all have equally valid yet inconclusive sets of evidence against them; it is up to the player, ultimately, to decide whom to convict, with the townspeople responding accordingly in the final act. Whoever is chosen is killed by the mob, and in the chaos, the library of the abbey is set on fire. Andreas rushes inside to save the books, and is assumed to be killed as the abbey burns down. The lord's soldiers, seeing the burning abbey, believe that the townspeople are revolting and subsequently kill many of the town's inhabitants. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=70997952 | 1,009,224 |
886,683 | On 16 June 1873, the university was founded in the centre of Christchurch as Canterbury College, the first constituent college of the University of New Zealand and was funded by the then Canterbury Provincial Council. It became the second institution in New Zealand providing tertiary-level education (following the University of Otago, established in 1869), and the fourth in Australasia. It was founded on the basis of the Oxbridge college system, but it differed from Oxbridge in that it admitted female students from its foundation. Its foundation professors arrived in 1874, namely, Charles Cook (Mathematics, University of Melbourne, St John's College, Cambridge), Alexander Bickerton (Chemistry and Physics, School of Mining, London), and John Macmillan Brown (University of Glasgow, Balliol College, Oxford). A year later the first lectures began and in 1875 the first graduations took place. In 1880, Helen Connon was the first woman to graduate from the college, and in 1894, Apirana Ngata became the first Māori-born student to graduate with a degree. The School of Art was founded in 1882, followed by the faculties of Arts, Science, Commerce, and Law in 1921, and Mental, Moral, and Social Sciences in 1924. The Students' Union, now known as the University of Canterbury Students Association, was founded in 1929 operating out of the Arts Centre of Christchurch Old Student Union Building, and the first edition of the student magazine "Canta" was published in 1930. In 1933, the name changed from Canterbury College to Canterbury University College. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=32242 | 886,219 |
1,808,800 | From about 1895 Lee attended Karl Pearson's statistics lectures at University College London and became interested in his application of statistical methods to evolutionary biology. Under his direction she studied for an advanced degree. Her research topic was an investigation of variation in cranial capacity in humans and its correlation with intellectual ability. Lee courted controversy with her first published paper on the subject in 1901 "A study of the correlation of the human skull". She examined three groups - women students from Bedford College, male faculty at University College, and a collection of distinguished male anatomists. The study demonstrated that there was no correlation between skull size and intelligence. Through a formula Lee calculated the cranial capacity from the anatomical measurements. The individuals in the groups were ranked in order of decreasing skull size, and identified by name. The dissertation was completed in 1899 and the findings caused considerable controversy. It was then an accepted theory in craniology that brain power increased with size, hence skull capacity was a measure of mental ability. As a consequence it was believed that men, who generally had larger heads than women, were mentally superior. Lee's findings shed doubt on that belief. Furthermore, one of the examiners of her dissertation was an anatomist with a low ranking in the skull capacity table of her study. Lee's study drew considerable criticism from her thesis examiners and from eugenicist Francis Galton, who questioned the originality and the scientific quality of her work. It was through Pearson's intervention that Lee was finally awarded a PhD in 1901. The following year Pearson published two papers which answered to the criticism that had been levelled at the findings of Lee's study. As there were no effective challenges this work was soon accepted. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39502937 | 1,807,779 |
2,081,981 | While FUS has many potential advantages for intracranial drug delivery, there are several limitations. Heterogeneity in the acoustic properties of the skull leads to distortion and attenuation of the ultrasound. Intracranial structures such as gray and white matter and dense vasculature also vary between patients, so each individual may have a unique threshold for BBB opening. Patient-specific ultrasound arrays may need to be used to address this concern. After the procedure, MRI contrast agents are given to patients to measure BBB opening, so currently there is no method for intraoperative monitoring of BBB disruption. For strategies that use magnetic resonance guidance, the need for pre-procedural removal of hair, substantial operating time, and use of stereotactic frame may limit the widespread use of FUS for intracranial drug delivery. Treatment protocols and dosing schedules for many therapeutic molecules still need to be better understood to ensure off-target toxicities are limited. Finally, many studies investigating FUS for intracranial drug delivery use animals with healthy BBBs, but several neurological diseases break down the BBB, so current animal models may not be very representative. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=70657482 | 2,080,781 |
327,741 | The book was widely translated in Darwin's lifetime, but problems arose with translating concepts and metaphors, and some translations were biased by the translator's own agenda. Darwin distributed presentation copies in France and Germany, hoping that suitable applicants would come forward, as translators were expected to make their own arrangements with a local publisher. He welcomed the distinguished elderly naturalist and geologist Heinrich Georg Bronn, but the German translation published in 1860 imposed Bronn's own ideas, adding controversial themes that Darwin had deliberately omitted. Bronn translated "favoured races" as "perfected races", and added essays on issues including the origin of life, as well as a final chapter on religious implications partly inspired by Bronn's adherence to "Naturphilosophie". In 1862, Bronn produced a second edition based on the third English edition and Darwin's suggested additions, but then died of a heart attack. Darwin corresponded closely with Julius Victor Carus, who published an improved translation in 1867. Darwin's attempts to find a translator in France fell through, and the translation by Clémence Royer published in 1862 added an introduction praising Darwin's ideas as an alternative to religious revelation and promoting ideas anticipating social Darwinism and eugenics, as well as numerous explanatory notes giving her own answers to doubts that Darwin expressed. Darwin corresponded with Royer about a second edition published in 1866 and a third in 1870, but he had difficulty getting her to remove her notes and was troubled by these editions. He remained unsatisfied until a translation by Edmond Barbier was published in 1876. A Dutch translation by Tiberius Cornelis Winkler was published in 1860. By 1864, additional translations had appeared in Italian and Russian. In Darwin's lifetime, "Origin" was published in Swedish in 1871, Danish in 1872, Polish in 1873, Hungarian in 1873–1874, Spanish in 1877 and Serbian in 1878. By 1977, "Origin" had appeared in an additional 18 languages, including Chinese by Ma Chün-wu who added non-Darwinian ideas; he published the preliminaries and chapters 1–5 in 1902–1904, and his complete translation in 1920. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29932 | 327,567 |
1,484,487 | Despite Charles Darwin's completion of his theory of biological evolution in the 19th century, the modern logical framework for evolutionary theories of ageing wouldn't emerge until almost a century later. Though August Weismann did propose his theory of programmed death, it was met with criticism and never gained mainstream attention. It wasn't until 1930 that Ronald Fisher first noted the conceptual insight which prompted the development of modern ageing theories. This concept, namely that the force of natural selection on an individual decreases with age, was analysed further by J. B. S. Haldane, who suggested it as an explanation for the relatively high prevalence of Huntington's disease despite the autosomal dominant nature of the mutation. Specifically, as Huntington's only presents after the age of 30, the force of natural selection against it would have been relatively low in pre-modern societies. It was based on the ideas of Fisher and Haldane that Peter Medawar was able to work out the first complete model explaining why ageing occurs, which he presented in a lecture in 1951 and then published in 1952 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=60885357 | 1,483,650 |
2,144,704 | Robert Murray McKay is a paleoceanographer who specialises in sedimentology, stratigraphy and palaeoclimatology, specifically gathering geological evidence to study how marine-based portions of the Antarctic ice sheet behave in response to abrupt climate and oceanic change. He has been involved in examination of marine sedimentary records and glacial deposits to show melting and cooling in Antarctica over the past 65 million years and how this has influenced global sea levels and climate. This has helped climate change scientists overcome uncertainty about how the ice sheets will respond to global warming and how this can be managed effectively in the 21st century. He has participated in international projects including ANDRILL and the International Ocean Discovery Program (IODP), led major New Zealand government-funded research teams and has received several awards in recognition of his work. Since 2012 McKay has been an associate professor at Victoria University of Wellington and from 2019, director of the Antarctic Research Centre. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=69498152 | 2,143,473 |
156,843 | During this part of the approach, the processor would normally be almost 85% loaded. The extra 6,400 cycle steals per second added the equivalent of 13% load, leaving just enough time for all scheduled tasks to run to completion. Five minutes into the descent, Buzz Aldrin gave the computer the command "1668", which instructed it to periodically calculate and display DELTAH (the difference between altitude sensed by the radar and the computed altitude). The "1668" added another 10% to the processor workload, causing executive overflow and a "1202" alarm. After being given the "GO" from Houston, Aldrin entered "1668" again and another "1202" alarm occurred. When reporting the second alarm, Aldrin added the comment "It appears to come up when we have a "1668" up". The AGC software had been designed with priority scheduling, and automatically recovered, deleting lower priority tasks including the "1668" display task, to complete its critical guidance and control tasks. Guidance controller Steve Bales and his support team that included Jack Garman issued several "GO" calls and the landing was successful. For his role, Bales received the US Presidential Medal of Freedom on behalf of the entire control center team and the three Apollo astronauts. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=188887 | 156,771 |
985,028 | Not all nuclear technology went into developing reactors, however. While designing a scanner for reactor fuel elements in 1957, Argonne physicist William Nelson Beck put his own arm inside the scanner and obtained one of the first ultrasound images of the human body. Remote manipulators designed to handle radioactive materials laid the groundwork for more complex machines used to clean up contaminated areas, sealed laboratories or caves. In 1964, the "Janus" reactor opened to study the effects of neutron radiation on biological life, providing research for guidelines on safe exposure levels for workers at power plants, laboratories and hospitals. Scientists at Argonne pioneered a technique to analyze the moon's surface using alpha radiation, which launched aboard the Surveyor 5 in 1967 and later analyzed lunar samples from the Apollo 11 mission. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=160773 | 984,514 |
1,633,460 | Electrochemotherapy is a type of chemotherapy that allows delivery of non-permeant drugs to the cell interior. It is based on the local application of short and intense electric pulses that transiently permeabilize the cell membrane, thus allowing transport of molecules otherwise not permitted by the membrane. Applications for treatment of cutaneous and subcutaneous tumors have reached clinical use by utilizing drugs such as bleomycin or cisplatin). Electrochemotherapy with bleomycin was used to treat a patient for the first time in 1991 at the Institute Gustave Roussy in France, while electrochemotherapy with cisplatin was used to treat for the first time in 1995 at the Institute of Oncology, Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since then, more than 4000 patients were treated with electrochemotherapy all over the world (Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Nicaragua, Poland, Portugal, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, UK, USA). Recently, new electrochemotherapy modalities have been developed for treatment of internal tumors using surgical procedures, endoscopic routes, or percutaneous approaches to gain access to the treatment area. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15081764 | 1,632,537 |
922,713 | Biomimetics is a field that aims to produce materials and systems that replicate those present in nature. In the context of tissue engineering, this is a common approach used by engineers to create materials for these applications that are comparable to native tissues in terms of their structure, properties, and biocompatibility. Material properties are largely dependent on physical, structural, and chemical characteristics of that material. Subsequently, a biomimetic approach to system design will become significant in material integration, and a sufficient understanding of biological processes and interactions will be necessary. Replication of biological systems and processes may also be used in the synthesis of bio-inspired materials to achieve conditions that produce the desired biological material. Therefore, if a material is synthesized having the same characteristics of biological tissues both structurally and chemically, then ideally the synthesized material will have similar properties. This technique has an extensive history originating from the idea of using natural phenomenon as design inspiration for solutions to human problems. Many modern advancements in technology have been inspired by nature and natural systems, including aircraft, automobiles, architecture, and even industrial systems. Advancements in nanotechnology initiated the application of this technique to micro- and nano-scale problems, including tissue engineering. This technique has been used to develop synthetic bone tissues, vascular technologies, scaffolding materials and integration techniques, and functionalized nanoparticles. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=307065 | 922,227 |
60,712 | It was in 18th-century England that the term 'classical' "first came to stand for a particular canon of works in performance." London had developed a prominent public concert music scene, unprecedented and unmatched by other European cities. The royal court had gradually lost its monopoly on music, in large part from instability that the Commonwealth of England's dissolution and the Glorious Revolution enacted on court musicians. In 1672 the former court musician John Banister began giving popular public concerts at a London tavern; his popularity rapidly inaugurated the prominence of public concerts in the London. The conception of "classical"—or more often "ancient music"—emerged, which was still built on the principles of formality and excellence, and according to Heartz "civic ritual, religion and moral activism figured significantly in this novel construction of musical taste". The performance of such music was specialized by the Academy of Ancient Music and later at the Concerts of Antient Music series, where the work of select 16th and 17th composers was featured, especially George Frideric Handel. In France, the reign of Louis XIV () saw a cultural renaissance, by the end of which writers such as Molière, Jean de La Fontaine and Jean Racine were considered to have surpassed the achievements of classical antiquity. They were thus characterized as "classical", as was the music of Jean-Baptiste Lully (and later Christoph Willibald Gluck), being designated as "l’opéra française classique". In the rest of continental Europe, the abandonment of defining "classical" as analogous to the Greco-Roman World was slower, primarily because the formation of canonical repertoires was either minimal or exclusive to the upper classes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6668778 | 60,687 |
859,914 | Although based on simple principles, Newcomen's engine was rather complex and showed signs of incremental development, problems being empirically addressed as they arose. It consisted of a boiler A, usually a haystack boiler, situated directly below the cylinder. This produced large quantities of very low pressure steam, no more than 1 – 2 psi (0.07 – 0.14 bar) – the maximum allowable pressure for a boiler that in earlier versions was made of copper with a domed top of lead and later entirely assembled from small riveted iron plates. The action of the engine was transmitted through a rocking "Great balanced Beam", the fulcrum E of which rested on the very solid end-gable wall of the purpose-built engine house with the pump side projecting outside of the building, the engine being located "in-house". The pump rods were slung by a chain from the arch-head F of the great beam. From the in-house arch-head D was suspended a piston P working in a cylinder B, the top end of which was open to the atmosphere above the piston and the bottom end closed, apart from the short admission pipe connecting the cylinder to the boiler; early cylinders were made of cast brass, but cast iron was soon found more effective and much cheaper to produce. The piston was surrounded by a seal in the form of a leather ring, but as the cylinder bore was finished by hand and not absolutely true, a layer of water had to be constantly maintained on top of the piston. Installed high up in the engine house was a water tank C (or "header tank") fed by a small in-house pump slung from a smaller arch-head. The header tank supplied cold water under pressure via a "stand-pipe" for condensing the steam in the cylinder with a small branch supplying the cylinder-sealing water; at each top stroke of the piston excess warm sealing water overflowed down two pipes, one to the in-house well and the other to feed the boiler by gravity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=165062 | 859,456 |
224,667 | Peptides based hydrogels possess exceptional biocompatibility and biodegradability qualities, giving rise to their wide use of applications, particularly in biomedicine; as such, their physical properties can be fine-tuned in order to maximise their use. Methods to do this are: modulation of the amino acid sequence, pH, chirality, and increasing the number of aromatic residues. The order of amino acids within the sequence is crucial for gelation, as has been shown many times. In one example, a short peptide sequence Fmoc-Phe-Gly readily formed a hydrogel, whereas Fmoc-Gly-Phe failed to do so as a result of the two adjacent aromatic moieties being moved, hindering the aromatic interactions. Altering the pH can also have similar effects, an example involved the use of the naphthalene (Nap) modified dipeptides Nap-Gly-Ala, and Nap- Ala-Gly, where a drop in pH induced gelation of the former, but led to crystallisation of the latter. 74 A controlled pH decrease method using glucono-δ-lactone (GdL), where the GdL is hydrolysed to gluconic acid in water is a recent strategy that has been developed as a way to form homogeneous and reproducible hydrogels. The hydrolysis is slow, which allows for a uniform pH change, and thus resulting in reproducible homogenous gels. In addition to this, the desired pH can be achieved by altering the amount of GdL added. The use of GdL has been used various times for the hydrogelation of Fmoc and Nap-dipeptides. In another direction, Morris et al reported the use of GdL as a ‘molecular trigger’ to predict and control the order of gelation. Chirality also plays an essential role in gel formation, and even changing the chirality of a single amino acid from its natural L-amino acid to its unnatural D-amino acid can significantly impact the gelation properties, with the natural forms not forming gels. Furthermore, aromatic interactions play a key role in hydrogel formation as a result of π- π stacking driving gelation, shown by many studies. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=844290 | 224,553 |
1,510,313 | Toxicants may also cause endocrine disruption through interacting with the estrogen receptor. This mechanism has been well-studied with PCBs. These chemicals have been used as coolants and lubricants in transformers and other electrical equipment due to their insulating properties. A purely anthropogenic substance, PCBs are no longer in production in the United States due to the adverse health effects associated with exposure, but they are highly persistent and are still widespread in the environment. PCBs are a xenoestrogen, which elicit an enhancing (rather than inhibiting) response, and are mediated by the estrogen receptor. These are often referred to as estrogen mimics because they mimic the effects of estrogen. PCBs often build up in sediments and bioaccumulate in organisms. These chemicals diffuse into the nucleus and bind to the estrogen receptor. The estrogen receptor is kept in an inactive conformation through interactions with proteins such as heat shock proteins 59, 70, and 90. After the toxicant binding occurs, the estrogen receptor is activated and forms a homodimer complex which seeks out estrogen response elements in the DNA. The binding of the complex to these elements causes a rearrangement of the chromatin and transcription of the gene, resulting in production of a specific protein. In doing this, PCBs elicit an estrogenic response which can affect numerous functions within the organism. These effects are observed in various aquatic species. The levels of PCBs in marine mammals are often very high as a result of bioaccumulation. Studies have demonstrated that PCBs are responsible for reproductive impairment in the harbor seal ("Phoca vitulina"). Similar effects have been found in the grey seal ("Halichoerus grypus"), the ringed seal ("Pusa hispida") and the California sea lion ("Zalophys californianus"). In the grey seals and ringed seals, uterine occlusions and stenosis were found which led to sterility. If exposed to a xenoestrogen such as PCBs, male fish have also been seen to produce vitellogenin. Vitellogenin is an egg protein female fish normally produce but is not usually present in males except at very low concentrations. This is often used as a biomarker for EDCs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39515585 | 1,509,463 |
1,507,498 | Semilandmarks, also called sliding landmarks, are used when the location of a landmark along a curvature might not be identifiable or repeatable. Semilandmarks were created in order to take landmark based geometric morphometrics to the next step by capturing the shape of difficult areas such as smooth curves and surfaces. In order to obtain a semilandmark, the curvature still has to start and end on definable landmarks, capture observed morphology, remain homologous across specimens in the same steps seen above for regular landmarks, be equal in number, and equally distant apart. When this approach was first proposed, Bookstein suggested gaining semilandmarks by densely sampling landmarks along the surface in a mesh and slowly thinning out the landmarks until the desired curvature was obtained. Newer landmark programs aid in the process but there are still some steps that must be taken in order for the semilandmarks to be the same across the whole sample. Semilandmarks are not placed on the actual curve or surface but on tangent vectors to the curve or tangent planes to the surface. The sliding of semilandmarks in new programs is performed by either selecting a specimen to be the model specimen for the rest of the specimens or using a computational sample mean from tangent vectors. Semilandmarks are automatically placed in most programs when the observer chooses a starting and ending point on definable landmarks and sliding the semilandmarks between them until the shape is captured. The semilandmarks are then mapped onto the rest of the specimens in the sample. Since shape will differ between specimens, the observer has to manually go through and make sure the landmarks and semilandmarks are on the surface for the rest of the specimens. If not they must be moved to touch the surface, but this process still maintains the correct location. There is still room for improvement to these methods but this is the most consistent option at the moment. Once mapped on, these semilandmarks can be treated just like landmarks for statistical analysis. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=45580833 | 1,506,652 |
882,717 | Strepsiptera were once believed to be the sister group to the beetle families Meloidae and Ripiphoridae, which have similar parasitic development and forewing reduction. Early molecular research suggested their inclusion as a sister group to the flies, in a clade called Halteria, which have one pair of the wings modified into halteres, and failed to support their relationship to the beetles. Further molecular studies, however, suggested they are outside the clade Mecopterida (containing the Diptera and Lepidoptera), but found no strong evidence for affinity with any other extant group. Study of their evolutionary position has been problematic due to difficulties in phylogenetic analysis arising from long branch attraction. Most modern molecular studies find strepsipterans as the sister group of beetles (Coleoptera), with both groups together forming the clade Coleopterida. The most basal strepsipteran is the fossil "Protoxenos janzeni" discovered in Eocene aged Baltic amber, while the most basal living strepsipteran is "Bahiaxenos relictus", the sole member of the family Bahiaxenidae. The earliest known strepsipteran fossils are those of "Cretostylops engeli" (Cretostylopdiae) and "Kinzelbachilla ellenbergeri", "Phthanoxenos nervosus" and "Heterobathmilla kakopoios" (Phthanoxenidae), discovered in middle Cretaceous Burmese amber from Myanmar, around 99 million years old, which all lie outside the crown group, but are all more closely related to modern strepsiperans than "Protoxenos" is. The finding of a parasitic first instar in the same deposit indicates that the parasitic lifestyle of the group has likely existed nearly unchanged for 100 million years, though their evolutionary history prior to this remains a mystery. The idea that mengellinids targeting of zygentomans represents the ancestral ecology of the group as a whole has been considered questionable. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=45598 | 882,253 |
457,876 | In 1953, the United States Air Force became interested in the L-1249A project. Two R7V-1 aircraft were again taken off the production lines in 1955 and converted to L-1249A standards. These aircraft, designated YC-121F, were identical to the R7V-2s in service with the Navy. The YC-121F was able to carry a crew of four and 87-106 passengers, depending on the conditions of the flight (transoceanic and overland). Lockheed also had a planned medical evacuation version, able to carry 73 Stretcher cases and a crew of 15. The R7V-2 and YC-121F both had a cabin similar to the R7V-1 and C-121C. The first YC-121F flew on 5 April 1955 and was delivered to the Air Force in July 1955. The aircraft were put into service with the Test Squadron of the 1700th Air Transport Group of the Military Air Transport Service, based at Kelly Air Force Base, Texas. Other aircraft in the Squadron included the YC-97J Stratofreighter and YC-124B Globemaster II, both also powered by T34 engines. After undergoing brief testing, the YC-121F was used on regular basis transportation flights. On one occasion, Lockheed test pilot Roy Wimmer managed to reach a top speed of in the YC-121F during a 20 degree dive. On 25 January 1957, a new transcontinental record for propeller aircraft was set by a YC-121F which flew from Long Beach to Andrews AFB, Maryland, in four hours and 43 minutes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=33350772 | 457,653 |
1,979,419 | The first molecular phylogenetic studies involving the Verrucariaceae, published between 2001 and 2006, were used to show the higher-level relationships in the Eurotiomycetes. This research showed that Verrucariales has a sister relationship to the Chaetothyriales, an order of non-lichenised fungi. In 2007 and 2009 publications, Cécile Gueidan and colleagues used molecular data from 83 Verrucariaceae taxa to demonstrate that many of the morphologically-defined genera were polyphyletic—of mixed evolutionary origins. In their analysis, they identified 4 major lineages in the family, including ten monophyletic subgroups. They proposed several taxonomic changes to more closely align the morphology-based classification with the molecular phylogeny, including the new genera "Parabagliettoa", "Hydropunctaria", and "Wahlenbergiella" and several new combinations. Ancestral state reconstruction analysis suggests that the most recent common ancestor of the Verrucariaceae was probably crustose, had a weakly differentiated upper , a hymenium free of algae, and ascospores (i.e., without septa). The first lichen-forming fungus to have its genome sequenced was the mycobiont of "Endocarpon pusillum", the type species of "Endocarpon" and a member of the Verrucariaceae. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21348884 | 1,978,281 |
1,466,300 | Physiology "is the scientific study of functions and mechanisms in a living system". More in-depth studies of physiology is between human and exercise physiology. Human Physiology is more anatomical structures, exercise physiology is physical exercise conditions and treatments. Kinesiology "identifies stress in our muscles and uses relaxation techniques to release tension and improve our mood, health, and overall well-being" Used in athletic training, focuses more on muscle anatomy and sport focused rehabilitation. Human anatomy studies the structures on the body including muscular systems, organs, respiratory, bone anatomy, veins, and arteries. This also includes physical examinations of the extremities. Which will include injury recognition, treatment, taping, bracing, and care. After the examination an AT might have to perform acute care of injury. This is implemented when dealing with trauma and illnesses sustained during sport participation. This includes field evaluation of medical emergencies, such as cessation of breathing or circulation, shock, concussion, and spinal injury. After performing care, somewhere down the road athletic trainers may have to provide rehabilitation strategies to go through with the athlete. ATs need to know about basic nutritional principles and concepts that lead to an athlete's personal health, relationship with food and overall optimal health. How a student eats is influential on their recovery time and overall athletic performance. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1742971 | 1,465,477 |
388,704 | Much of the innovation within NMR spectroscopy has been within the field of protein NMR spectroscopy, an important technique in structural biology. A common goal of these investigations is to obtain high resolution 3-dimensional structures of the protein, similar to what can be achieved by X-ray crystallography. In contrast to X-ray crystallography, NMR spectroscopy is usually limited to proteins smaller than 35 kDa, although larger structures have been solved. NMR spectroscopy is often the only way to obtain high resolution information on partially or wholly intrinsically unstructured proteins. It is now a common tool for the determination of Conformation Activity Relationships where the structure before and after interaction with, for example, a drug candidate is compared to its known biochemical activity. Proteins are orders of magnitude larger than the small organic molecules discussed earlier in this article, but the basic NMR techniques and some NMR theory also applies. Because of the much higher number of atoms present in a protein molecule in comparison with a small organic compound, the basic 1D spectra become crowded with overlapping signals to an extent where direct spectral analysis becomes untenable. Therefore, multidimensional (2, 3 or 4D) experiments have been devised to deal with this problem. To facilitate these experiments, it is desirable to isotopically label the protein with C and N because the predominant naturally occurring isotope C is not NMR-active and the nuclear quadrupole moment of the predominant naturally occurring N isotope prevents high resolution information from being obtained from this nitrogen isotope. The most important method used for structure determination of proteins utilizes NOE experiments to measure distances between atoms within the molecule. Subsequently, the distances obtained are used to generate a 3D structure of the molecule by solving a distance geometry problem. NMR can also be used to obtain information on the dynamics and conformational flexibility of different regions of a protein. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1908527 | 388,509 |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.