doc_id int32 18 2.25M | text stringlengths 245 2.96k | source stringlengths 38 44 | __index_level_0__ int64 18 2.25M |
|---|---|---|---|
1,910,333 | Preservation of skin clothing, even in a museum, is difficult, because the organic materials used to make the garments are subject to decay, hair loss, and insect infestation if not preserved with enormous care. Historically, garments were often displayed in museums without any protection whatsoever. Storage areas were often poorly-maintained, dusty, and full of insects. These poor display and storage methods led to the deterioration or outright loss of many items. Since the 1960s, methods for storage of cultural heritage objects have become increasingly sophisticated. Skin garments today are typically kept in cold storage facilities when not on display. When on the museum floor, they are kept in airtight showcases with controlled temperature and light intensity. Although protective measures are important, research has found that the original preparation process, as well as previous ordinary use of the garments, are also significant factors which influence the degree of deterioration in skin garments. Driscoll-Engelstad suggested that museums should work with Inuit artisans to repair damaged clothing and artifacts. Knowledge obtained from preservation of Inuit skin garments, particularly regarding collagen deterioration, has been used to assist in the preservation of important historical documents including the Royal Charter of the Hudson's Bay Company and the United States Declaration of Independence. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=67335138 | 1,909,235 |
1,147,586 | The reliance on untreated well water in the rural regions of the Marcellus leaves communities at a strong disadvantage if aquifer contamination would occur. It has been found that methane concentrations in well water within one kilometer from an active gas well were 17 times higher than in those outside of active gas production area. Produced water includes naturally occurring radioactive materials, as well as high levels of brine, barium, strontium, and radium. At high exposure levels, these contaminants have been shown to cause skin rashes, nausea, abdominal pain, breathing difficulties, headaches, dizziness, eye irritations, throat irritations, and nosebleeds. Residents are also exposed to a myriad of air pollutants through mechanisms such as well-venting and flaring. Volatile organic compounds, diesel particulate matter, and methane are found in elevated levels around producing wells, often in concentrations that exceed EPA guidelines for carcinogenic health risks. Unfortunately, there have been no studies to try and quantify the cumulative impacts of multiple low dose exposures. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=40594547 | 1,146,981 |
456,601 | There are about 188,000 people around the world who have received cochlear implants. In the United States alone, there are about 30,000 adults and over 30,000 children who are recipients of cochlear implants. This number continues to grow as cochlear implantation is becoming more and more accepted. In 1961, Dr. William House began work on the predecessor for today's cochlear implant. William House is an Otologist and is the founder of House ear institute in Los Angeles, California. This groundbreaking device, which was manufactured by 3M company was approved by the FDA in 1984. Although this was a single channel device, it paved the way for future multi channel cochlear implants. Currently, as of 2007, the three cochlear implant devices approved for use in the U.S. are manufactured by Cochlear, Med-El, and Advanced Bionics. The way a cochlear implant works is sound is received by the cochlear implant's microphone, which picks up input that needs to be processed to determine how the electrodes will receive the signal. This is done on the external component of the cochlear implant called the sound processor. The transmitting coil, also an external component transmits the information from the speech processor through the skin using frequency modulated radio waves. The signal is never turned back into an acoustic stimulus, unlike a hearing aid. This information is then received by the cochlear implant's internal components. The receiver stimulator delivers the correct amount of electrical stimulation to the appropriate electrodes on the array to represent the sound signal that was detected. The electrode array stimulates the remaining auditory nerve fibers in the cochlea, which carry the signal on to the brain, where it is processed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6259764 | 456,378 |
63,927 | MBT main guns are generally between 100 and 125 mm caliber, and can fire both anti-armour and, more recently, anti-personnel rounds. The cannon serves a dual role, able to engage other armoured targets such as tanks and fortifications, and soft targets such as light vehicles and infantry. It is fixed to the turret, along with the loading and fire mechanism. Modern tanks use a sophisticated fire-control system, including rangefinders, computerized fire control, and stabilizers, which are designed to keep the cannon stable and aimed even if the hull is turning or shaking, making it easier for the operators to fire on the move and/or against moving targets. Gun-missile systems are complicated and have been particularly unsatisfactory to the United States who abandoned gun-missile projects such as the M60A2 and MBT-70, but have been diligently developed by the Soviet Union, who even retrofitted them to T-55 tanks, in an effort to double the effective range of the vehicle's fire. The MBT's role could be compromised because of the increasing distances involved and the increased reliance on indirect fire. The tank gun is still useful in urban combat for precisely delivering powerful fire while minimizing collateral damage. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=26595097 | 63,902 |
925,239 | The Skylon is a fully reusable SSTO vehicle, able to achieve orbit without staging, which is intended to be used principally as a reusable launch system. Proponents of the SSTO approach have often claimed that staging involves a number of inherent complications and problems due to complexity, such as being difficult or typically impossible to recover and reuse most elements, thus unavoidably incurring great expense to produce entirely new launch vehicles instead; therefore, they believe that SSTO designs hold the promise of providing a reduction to the high cost of space flights. Operationally, it is envisioned for the non-crewed Skylon to take off from a specially strengthened runway, gain altitude in a fashion akin to a conventional aeroplane and perform an ascent at very high speeds, in excess of five times the speed of sound (), to attain a peak air-breathing altitude of roughly , where payloads would typically be launched prior to the vehicle's re-entry into the atmosphere, upon which it will conduct a relatively gentle descent before performing a traditional landing upon a runway. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=550928 | 924,753 |
398,964 | The tests were initially developed for research purposes. Because of their independence of language and reading and writing skills, and the simplicity of their use and interpretation, they quickly found widespread practical application. For example, all entrants to the British armed forces from 1942 onwards took a twenty-minute version of the RSPM, and potential officers took a specially adapted version as part of British War Office Selection Boards. The routine administration of what became the Standard Progressive Matrices to all entrants (conscripts) to many military services throughout the world (including the Soviet Union) continued at least until the present century. It was by bringing together these data that James R. Flynn was able to place the intergenerational increase in scores beyond reasonable doubt. Flynn's path-breaking publications on IQ gains around the world have led to the phenomenon of the gains being known as the Flynn effect. Among Robert L. Thorndike and other researchers who preceded Flynn in finding evidence of IQ score gains was John Raven, reporting on studies with the RPM. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2389210 | 398,766 |
958,434 | In the early 1970s, Stephen Wiesner, then at Columbia University in New York, introduced the concept of quantum conjugate coding. His seminal paper titled "Conjugate Coding" was rejected by the IEEE Information Theory Society, but was eventually published in 1983 in "SIGACT News". In this paper he showed how to store or transmit two messages by encoding them in two "conjugate observables", such as linear and circular polarization of photons, so that either, but not both, of which may be received and decoded. It was not until Charles H. Bennett, of the IBM's Thomas J. Watson Research Center and Gilles Brassard met in 1979 at the 20th IEEE Symposium on the Foundations of Computer Science, held in Puerto Rico, that they discovered how to incorporate the findings of Wiesner. "The main breakthrough came when we realized that photons were never meant to store information, but rather to transmit it" In 1984, building upon this work Bennett and Brassard proposed a method for secure communication, which is now called BB84. Independently, in 1991 Artur Ekert proposed to use Bell's inequalities to achieve secure key distribution. Ekert's protocol for the key distribution, as it was subsequently shown by Dominic Mayers and Andrew Yao, offers device-independent quantum key distribution. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=28676005 | 957,928 |
1,236,000 | Born in Lehe, near Bremerhaven, he started his studies at the University of Marburg. For his PhD he joined the working group of the Nobel laureate Adolf Windaus at the University of Göttingen and he finished his studies with a PhD in chemistry in 1927. His doctoral research was on the chemistry of the insecticidal toxin found in the roots of "Derris elliptica" which he isolated and characterized. After his Habilitation he became lecturer in Göttingen 1931. He became a professor ordinarius at the Technical University of Danzig 1933–1936. In 1933 Butenandt signed the "Vow of allegiance of the Professors of the German Universities and High-Schools to Adolf Hitler and the National Socialistic State". In 1936 he applied for the directorship of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institut (later the Max Planck Institute for Biochemistry) in Berlin-Dahlem while also joining the NSDAP on 1 May 1936 (party member No. 3716562). The earlier director of the Kaiser Wilhelm institute was Carl Neuberg, who had been removed for being a Jew. His work on rotenones was considered useful by the Nazi leadership as it could be useful for controlling lice among soldiers in the trenches. As the head of a leading institute, he applied for government funding on concentrated research labeled "kriegswichtig" (important for the war), some of which focused on military projects like the improvement of oxygen uptake for high-altitude bomber pilots. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=728231 | 1,235,336 |
1,910,971 | Atomic force microscopy (AFM) has been used in recent years to image and probe the physical properties of lipid bilayers. AFM is a promising technique because it has the potential to image with nanometer resolution at room temperature and even underwater, conditions necessary for natural bilayer behavior. These capabilities have allowed direct imaging of the subtle ripple phase transition in a supported bilayer. Another AFM experiment performed in a tapping mode under aqueous buffer medium allowed (1) to determine the formation of transmembrane pores (holes) around nanoparticles of approximately 1.2 to 22 nm diameter via subtraction of AFM images from series recorded during the lipid bilayer formation and (2) to observe adsorption of single insulin molecules onto exposed nanoparticles. Another advantage is that AFM does not require fluorescent or isotopic labeling of the lipids, as the probe tip interacts mechanically with the bilayer surface. Because of this, the same scan can reveal information about both the bilayer and any associated structures, even to the extent of resolving individual membrane proteins. In addition to imaging, AFM can also probe the mechanical nature of small delicate structures such as lipid bilayers. One study demonstrated the possibility of measuring the elastic modulus of individual nano-scale membranes suspended over porous anodic alumina. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21453848 | 1,909,872 |
797,484 | A challenge facing the development of organic solar cells utilizing non-fullerene acceptors (NFAs) is the selection of a solvent that has a high boiling point and is environmentally friendly, whereas conventional solvents such as chloroform (CF) tend to exhibit low boiling points and toxicity. Such a solvent is required for further scale-up of organic solar cells, but has also been associated with decreases in PCE due to poor solubility of donor and acceptor materials within the solvent. Appending alkyl chains to NFAs has led to increases in solubility but decreases in molecular packing (π-stacking), which leads to no net impact on PCE. The use of guest assistance has been found to benefit both solubility and molecular packing. A guest molecule named BTO with oligo(ethylene glycol) (OEG) side chains used in conjunction with the NFA Y6 as the acceptor, PM6 as the donor, and paraxylene (PX) as the high-melting-point and sustainable solvent led to an increase in PCE from 11% to over 16%, regarded an acceptable level of efficiency. A further modification that has been successful in the development of cleaner organic photovoltaics is the hot-spin coating of substrates by non-halogenated solvents. It was found that the temperature at which hot-spin coating was operated altered the solution to solid phase evolution of the acceptor-donor blends so that higher temperatures resulted in a higher acceptor concentration in the surface of the substrate. This is because higher temperatures facilitated decreased aggregation and precipitation, allowing the substrate to retain a higher acceptor concentration. In an experiment, organic solar cells constructed with ternary blends of PM6 donor and Y6-1O and BO-4Cl acceptors and various non-halogenated solvents including o-xylene and toluene exhibited PCE values of over 18%, which are the most efficient organic photovoltaics constructed with non-halogenated solvents, to date. Further morphological analyses showed that the hot-spun OPVs prepared with non-halogenated solvents exhibited similar morphological characteristics to that of OPVs prepared with halogenated solvents. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18397250 | 797,059 |
1,529,642 | One major finding is that survival processing has been shown to yield better retention than imagery, self-reference and pleasantness, which are all considered to be among the best conditions for remembering learned information. Otgaar, Smeets and van Bergen hypothesized that since visual processing developed earlier than language, there ought to be a survival advantage for images as well as words, and they found such an advantage. Grasslands survival scenarios showed higher retention than near-identical scenarios in which the word 'grasslands' was replaced with 'city' and the word 'predators' replaced with 'attackers'. It is suspected that this result is due to the human mind being attuned to scenarios relevant to our species' ancestral past, even though threats present in a modern urban society are far more relevant today. There was a greater memory recall in both the ancestral and modern survival conditions when compared to pleasantness control conditions, but only the ancestral condition presented significantly greater word recall. Both conditions are fitness-relevant, but there was no memory enhancement for survival processing in the modern context. Additionally, as females typically performed gathering tasks over the span of human evolution, and males performed hunting tasks, research into this gender dichotomy was conducted. No significant data were found. The implications of this research lie in helping to understand how the mind evolved and how it works. The idea that we are able to retain information most relevant to our own survival provides a foundation of research for empirical studying of memory through an evolutionary lens. Understanding the circumstances when memory is at its best can help with the study of the functions of memory as a whole, and help understand what memory is capable of. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31058472 | 1,528,778 |
1,607,029 | The concept serves to explain how natural selection can perpetuate altruism. If there is an "altruism gene" (or complex of genes or heritable factors) that influence an organism's behavior in such a way that is helpful and protective of relatives and their offspring, this behavior can also increase the proportion of the altruism gene in the population, because relatives are likely to share genes with the altruist due to common descent. In formal terms, if such a complex of genes arises, Hamilton's rule (rb>c) specifies the selective criteria (in terms of relatedness (r), cost (c) benefit (b)) for such a trait to increase in frequency in the population (see Inclusive fitness for more details). Hamilton noted that inclusive fitness theory does not by itself predict that a given species will necessarily evolve such altruistic behaviors, since an opportunity or context for interaction between individuals is a more primary and necessary requirement in order for any social interaction to occur in the first place. As Hamilton put it, "Altruistic or selfish acts are only possible when a suitable social object is available. In this sense behaviours are conditional from the start." (Hamilton 1987, 420). In other words, whilst inclusive fitness theory specifies a set of necessary criteria for the evolution of certain altruistic traits, it does not specify a sufficient condition for their evolution in any given species, since the typical ecology, demographics and life pattern of the species must also allow for social interactions between individuals to occur before any potential elaboration of social traits can evolve in regard to those interactions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50797822 | 1,606,124 |
1,790,823 | An example of the close integration between agriculture and the raising of livestock occurs in the Kano Close-Settled Zone of Nigeria. This account is significant due to the scale and length of time over which the region has carried out intensive farming. With a population of approximately five (5) million in the region excluding the more than one and a half million living in Kano city, the challenges facing the people of the area, in terms of meeting their growing needs are great. More than eighty-five per cent of the surface land in this area is dedicated to farmland, and the farmers themselves are strongly oriented towards the conservation of land resources. They pay more attention to the protection of organic matter in the soil than other things. This is demonstrated by their management of animals and their wastes. During the dry season, animals are only penned at night and are left free to roam the fields by day. Although, they are confined to their pens and fed on cut fodder during the growing season, their bedding and manure are mixed and returned to the fields. In addition to this, crop residue, tree browse, and weeds are fed to the animals thereby recycling the Nutrients. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=26203387 | 1,789,817 |
378,780 | Earth remains the only place in the universe known to harbor life. The origin of life on Earth was at least 3.77 billion years ago, possibly as early as 4.28 billion years ago. The Earth's biosphere extends down to at least below the surface, and up to at least into the atmosphere, and includes soil, hydrothermal vents, and rock. Further, the biosphere has been found to extend at least below the ice of Antarctica, and includes the deepest parts of the ocean, down to rocks kilometers below the sea floor. In July 2020, marine biologists reported that aerobic microorganisms (mainly), in "quasi-suspended animation", were found in organically-poor sediments, up to 101.5 million years old, below the seafloor in the South Pacific Gyre (SPG) ("the deadest spot in the ocean"), and could be the longest-living life forms ever found. Under certain test conditions, life forms have been observed to survive in the vacuum of outer space. More recently, in August 2020, bacteria were found to survive for three years in outer space, according to studies conducted on the International Space Station. The total mass of the biosphere has been estimated to be as much as 4 trillion tons of carbon. According to one researcher, "You can find microbes everywhere – [they are] extremely adaptable to conditions, and survive wherever they are." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=53365898 | 378,585 |
20,730 | Bell was a supporter of aerospace engineering research through the Aerial Experiment Association (AEA), officially formed at Baddeck, Nova Scotia, in October 1907 at the suggestion of his wife Mabel and with her financial support after the sale of some of her real estate. The AEA was headed by Bell and the founding members were four young men: American Glenn H. Curtiss, a motorcycle manufacturer at the time and who held the title "world's fastest man", having ridden his self-constructed motor bicycle around in the shortest time, and who was later awarded the Scientific American Trophy for the first official one-kilometre flight in the Western hemisphere, and who later became a world-renowned airplane manufacturer; Lieutenant Thomas Selfridge, an official observer from the U.S. Federal government and one of the few people in the army who believed that aviation was the future; Frederick W. Baldwin, the first Canadian and first British subject to pilot a public flight in Hammondsport, New York; and J. A. D. McCurdy–Baldwin and McCurdy being new engineering graduates from the University of Toronto. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=852 | 20,721 |
417,923 | Nuclear physicists knew about fission, but not the hydrodynamics of conventional explosions. As a result, there were two additions to the team that made significant contributions in this area of physics. First was James Tuck whose field of expertise was in shaped charges used in anti tank weapons for armour piercing. In terms of the plutonium bomb the scientists at Los Alamos were trying to wrestle with the idea of the implosion issue. Tuck was sent to Los Alamos in April 1944 and used a radical concept of explosive lensing which was then put into place. Tuck also designed the Urchin initiator for the bomb working closely with Seth Neddermeyer. This work was crucial to the success of the plutonium atomic bomb: Italian-American scientist Bruno Rossi later stated that without Tuck's work the plutonium bomb could not have exploded in August 1945. The other was Sir Geoffrey Taylor, an important consultant who arrived a month later to also work on the issue. Taylor's presence was desired so much at Los Alamos, Chadwick informed London, "that anything short of kidnapping would be justified". He was sent, and provided crucial insights into the Rayleigh–Taylor instability. The acute need for scientists with an understanding of explosives also led Chadwick to obtain the release of William Penney from the Admiralty, and William Marley from the Road Research Laboratory. Peierls and Fuchs worked on the hydrodynamics of the explosive lenses. Bethe considered Fuchs "one of the most valuable men in my division" and "one of the best theoretical physicists we had." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41957579 | 417,719 |
566,594 | The cylinder heads were made of RR50 aluminium alloy due to that material's high rate of heat conduction and light weight, the latter estimated by William Heynes to give a weight saving of some compared with a similar head made of cast iron. Special attention was paid to the gas flow, with Harry Weslake and Heynes designing a curved inlet port to impart swirl to the air-fuel mixture for improved combustion. The same basic cylinder head layout was preserved throughout the production life of the engine but with many detail changes. Valve and port sizes and angles, camshaft lift, compression ratio and carburetion were frequently amended from model to model, depending upon whether power or torque was being emphasised. Very early XK engines fitted to the XK 120 sports car and Mark VII saloon lacked fixing studs at the front part of the cam covers, where they covered the timing chains, which leaked oil as a result. From 1951 onwards, all XK engines had studs around the full perimeter of the cam covers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=881983 | 566,304 |
757,388 | In addition to its traditional cultivation as a bio-fertilizer for wetland paddies, "Azolla" is finding increasing use for sustainable production of livestock feed. "Azolla" is rich in protein, essential amino acids, vitamins, and minerals. Studies describe feeding "Azolla" to dairy cattle, pigs, ducks, and chickens, with reported increases in milk production, weight of broiler chickens and egg production of layers, as compared to conventional feed. One FAO study describes how "Azolla" integrates into a tropical biomass agricultural system, reducing the need for food supplements. Concerns about biomagnification exist because the plant may contain the neurotoxin BMAA that remains present in the bodies of animals consuming it and BMAA has been documented as passing along the food chain. "Azolla" may contain this substance that is a possible cause of neurodegenerative diseases. "Azolla" has been suggested as a foodstuff for human consumption, however, no long-term studies of the safety of eating "Azolla" have been made on humans. Previous studies attributed neurotoxin production to "Anabaena flos-aquae" species, which is also a type of nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria. Further research may be needed to ascertain if "A. azollae" produces neurotoxins. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=507709 | 756,984 |
454,926 | Florensky, often read for his contributions to the religious renaissance of his time or scientific thinking, came to be studied in a broader perspective in the 1960s, a change associated with the revival of interest in neglected aspects of his oeuvre shown by the Tartu school of semiotics, which evaluated his works in terms of their anticipation of themes that formed part of the theoretical avant-garde's interests in a general theory of cultural signs at that time. Read in this light, the evidence that Florensky's thinking actively responded to the art of the Russian modernists. Of particular importance in this regard was their publication of his 1919 essay, delivered as a lecture the following year, on spatial organization in the Russian icon tradition, entitled "Reverse Perspective", a concept which Florensky, like Erwin Panofsky later, picked up from Oskar Wulff's 1907 essay, 'Die umgekehrte Perspektive und die Niedersicht. Here Florensky contrasted the dominant concept of spatiality in Renaissance art analysing the visual conventions employed in the iconological tradition. This work has remained since its publication a seminal text in this area down to the present day. In that essay, his interpretation has recently been developed and reformulated critically by Clemena Antonova, who argues rather that what Florensky analysed is better described in terms of "simultaneous planes". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2848919 | 454,704 |
929,029 | Heritability estimates' prominent critics, such as Steven Rose, Jay Joseph, and Richard Bentall, focus largely on heritability estimates in behavioral sciences and social sciences. Bentall has claimed that such heritability scores are typically calculated counterintuitively to derive numerically high scores, that heritability is misinterpreted as genetic determination, and that this alleged bias distracts from other factors that researches have found more causally important, such as childhood abuse causing later psychosis. Heritability estimates are also inherently limited because they do not convey any information regarding whether genes or environment play a larger role in the development of the trait under study. For this reason, David Moore and David Shenk describe the term "heritability" in the context of behavior genetics as "...one of the most misleading in the history of science" and argue that it has no value except in very rare cases. When studying complex human traits, it is impossible to use heritability analysis to determine the relative contributions of genes and environment, as such traits result from multiple causes interacting. In particular, Feldman and Lewontin emphasize that heritability is itself a function of environmental variation. However, some researchers argue that it is possible to disentangle the two. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=155624 | 928,538 |
1,099,130 | Alan Turing, a mathematician, logician and computer scientist, linked computing systems to thinking. One of his most notable papers outlined a hypothetical test to assess the intelligence of a machine which came to be known as the Turing test. Essentially, the test would have a person communicate with two other agents, a human and a computer asking questions to both recipients. The computer passes the test if it can respond in such a way that the human posing the questions cannot differentiate between the other human and the computer. The Turing test has been used in its essence for more than two decades as a model for current ITS development. The main ideal for ITS systems is to effectively communicate. As early as the 1950s programs were emerging displaying intelligent features. Turing's work as well as later projects by researchers such as Allen Newell, Clifford Shaw, and Herb Simon showed programs capable of creating logical proofs and theorems. Their program, The Logic Theorist exhibited complex symbol manipulation and even generation of new information without direct human control and is considered by some to be the first AI program. Such breakthroughs would inspire the new field of Artificial Intelligence officially named in 1956 by John McCarthy at the Dartmouth Conference. This conference was the first of its kind that was devoted to scientists and research in the field of AI. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3765637 | 1,098,570 |
1,693,008 | In addition to the more powerful engine, the aircraft now had an ejection seat, additional cockpit armor, and a revised canopy. More importantly, it was fitted with new wings with a greater span and more surface area; they also had a new airfoil designed to delay Mach tuck. The area of the tailplane and the vertical stabilizer was also increased. Two prototypes were built and the first one was completed in February 1947 and made its first flight on 1 March. The second prototype joined the manufacturer's trials later that month. One of these aircraft participated in the Tushino flypast on 3 August 1947, where it was given the USAF reporting name of Type 5. The additional power increased the aircraft's top speed by over the 152. The second prototype began state acceptance trials on 9 September and demonstrated a maximum speed of at an altitude of . It could reach in four minutes using afterburner. The aircraft was rejected by the Soviet Air Forces when the trials were concluded on 28 January 1948. The report said that the "YuF" engine was required more work before it was ready for production, the aircraft had problems with longitudinal stability, excessive stick forces from the ailerons and elevators, and the undercarriage was troublesome. Lavochkin consequently canceled the program. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22476055 | 1,692,057 |
1,210,961 | In 1911, he set out to build his first airplane, an airplane he named "Silverwing". His first design was a monoplane, constructed of spruce and linen and which took the form of an American version of the Bleriot XI. The engine was a modified Elbridge motorboat motor, dubbed the "aero special", which was a 2-stroke, 4-cylinder engine with a maximum of and 1,050 rpm. Upon completion, he sought to test the aircraft at the Great Salt Plains (adjacent to the Salt Plains National Wildlife Refuge) in Alfalfa County, Oklahoma. His first attempt at flight ended in a ground loop, which required $100 to repair. After repairs, Cessna attempted flight 13 more times, each time ending in some sort of failure. Finally on his 13th attempt, Cessna got a glimpse of hope as his aircraft bounced up into the air for a short time before crashing into the trees as he attempted to turn it. After his crash, Cessna exclaimed in frustration, "I'm going to fly this thing, then I'm going to set it afire and never have another thing to do with aeroplanes!". Finally, in June 1911 Cessna had his first successful flight. The crowds that had scoffed at his failures changed their tone and began calling him a "daring hero" and nicknamed him the "Birdman of Enid". Cessna continued to teach himself how to fly over the next several months until December 1911, when he made a successful flight and a successful landing at the point of departure. He was the first person to build and fly an airplane in the Heartland of the United States—between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1915525 | 1,210,313 |
1,244,620 | As of 2011, research is focused on the two-way communication between neurons and glial cells. Communication between these two types of cells allows for axonal conduction, synaptic transmission, as well as the processing of information to regulate and better control the processes of the central nervous system. The various forms of communication include neurotransmission, ion fluxes and signaling molecules. As recently as 2002, new information on the process of neuron-glia communication was published by R. Douglas Fields and Beth Stevens-Graham. They used advanced imaging methods to explain that the ion channels seen in glial cells did not contribute to action potentials but rather allowed the glia to determine the level of neuronal activity within proximity. Glial cells were determined to communicate with one another solely with chemical signals and even had specialized glial-glial and neuron-glial neurotransmitter signaling systems. Additionally, neurons were found to release chemical messengers in extrasynaptic regions, suggesting that the neuron-glial relationship includes functions beyond synaptic transmission. Glia have been known to assist in synapse formation, regulating synapse strength, and information processing as mentioned above. The process for adenosine triphosphate (ATP), glutamate, and other chemical messenger release from glia is debated and is seen as a direction for future research. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6547308 | 1,243,947 |
1,689,317 | Indirect detection efforts typically focus on locations where WIMP dark matter is thought to accumulate the most: in the centers of galaxies and galaxy clusters, as well as in the smaller satellite galaxies of the Milky Way. These are particularly useful since they tend to contain very little baryonic matter, reducing the expected background from standard astrophysical processes. Typical indirect searches look for excess gamma rays, which are predicted both as final-state products of annihilation, or are produced as charged particles interact with ambient radiation via inverse Compton scattering. The spectrum and intensity of a gamma ray signal depends on the annihilation products, and must be computed on a model-by-model basis. Experiments that have placed bounds on WIMP annihilation, via the non-observation of an annihilation signal, include the Fermi-LAT gamma ray telescope and the VERITAS ground-based gamma ray observatory. Although the annihilation of WIMPs into Standard Model particles also predicts the production of high-energy neutrinos, their interaction rate is too low to reliably detect a dark matter signal at present. Future observations from the IceCube observatory in Antarctica may be able to differentiate WIMP-produced neutrinos from standard astrophysical neutrinos; however, by 2014, only 37 cosmological neutrinos had been observed, making such a distinction impossible. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=33721 | 1,688,371 |
2,144,950 | For his contributions to developing an understanding of the implications of historical environmental change in the Antarctica for ongoing global warming, McKay received the New Zealand Prime Minister's MacDiarmid Emerging Scientist Prize 2011. Tim Naish, described McKay as an "articulate communicator and a talented emerging scientist that New Zealand needs to maintain its world class Antarctic and climate research capability", and Robert Dunbar, Professor of Earth Science at Stanford University noted that McKay's work in "analysing what happened the last time Earth experienced atmospheric CO levels comparable to what we expect in the next 20 years is leading edge, invaluable research as we struggle to understand our future in the face of a rapidly changing climate." At the time, McKay said he was planning to use the award to base himself in Europe for some time, "to work on international projects such as the Andrill McMurdo Ice Shelf Project and the Integrated Ocean Drilling Programme Expedition." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=69498152 | 2,143,719 |
1,255,871 | In 1911, 22-year-old Capablanca won the San Sebastián chess tournament ahead of most of the world's leading players apart from Lasker. Later that year he challenged Lasker to a match for the world title. Lasker was unwilling to play the traditional first-to-win-ten-games-type of match in the semi-tropical conditions of Havana, especially as drawn games were becoming more frequent and the match might last for over six months. He therefore made a counter-proposal: if neither player had a lead of at least two games by the end of the match, it should be considered a draw; the match should be limited to the best of thirty games, counting draws; except that if either player won six games "and" led by at least two games before thirty games were completed, he should be declared the winner; the champion should decide the venue and stakes, and should have the exclusive right to publish the games; the challenger should deposit a forfeit of US$2,000 (equivalent to roughly $343,000 in 2022 values, based on income value); the time limit should be twelve moves per hour; play should be limited to two sessions of 2½ hours each per day, five days a week. Capablanca objected to the time limit, the short playing times, the thirty-game limit, and especially the requirement that he must win by two games to claim the title, which he regarded as unfair. Lasker took offence at the terms in which Capablanca criticized the two-game lead condition and broke off negotiations, and until 1914 Lasker and Capablanca were not on speaking terms. However, at the St. Petersburg 1914 chess tournament, Capablanca proposed a set of rules for the conduct of World Championship matches, which were accepted by all the leading players, including Lasker. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15671155 | 1,255,187 |
957,527 | The two-seat trainer had the internal OKB designations of I-301T and "izdeliye" FT and the first prototype was converted from one of the "parade" aircraft during 1946. Its fuel capacity had to be reduced by one third to make room for the second tandem cockpit. Dual controls were fitted along with an intercom to allow the instructor and student to communicate in the air. Each man had an ejection seat designed after that used by the Germans in their Heinkel He 162 fighter. This aircraft was delivered on 17 January 1947, although flight testing was not completed until 5 April. The ejection seats were not tested in the air, but they required extensive testing on the ground to ensure the proper operation of the seat. State acceptance trials were not completed until 2 June and the aircraft was rejected because of the poor visibility from the rear cockpit. A second aircraft was completed on 15 July and the visibility from the rear cockpit was improved by replacing the original bulletproof windscreen with a larger glass plate, reshaping the canopy's side panels, and removing a partition between the cockpits. This aircraft was fitted with air brakes in the wings and two drop tanks hung under its wingtips. It passed its state acceptance trials later in 1947 and was recommended for production with the service designation of UTI MiG-9. The ejection seats were extensively tested during 1948 and approved for use, but by this time the aircraft was deemed obsolete and there was no point in building a training version. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=304224 | 957,021 |
167,619 | For 1970 Tyrrell was asked by Matra to use their V12, but decided to retain the Cosworth instead. As Matra was now a Chrysler affiliate and Tyrrell derived much of its income from Ford and Elf (associated with Renault) the partnership ended. Ken Tyrrell bought March 701 chassis as an interim solution while developing his own car for the next season. The new wedge-shaped Lotus 72 was a very innovative car featuring variable flexibility torsion bar suspension, hip-mounted radiators, inboard front brakes, and an overhanging rear wing. The 72 originally had suspension problems, but once resolved the car quickly showed its superiority, and Lotus's new leader, the Austrian Jochen Rindt, dominated the championship until he was killed at Monza when a brake shaft broke. He took the title posthumously for Lotus. 1970 saw the introduction of slick tyres by Goodyear. Ferrari's new flat-12 engine proved to be more powerful than the Ford-Cosworth DFV; but slightly heavier. Their performance started to improve at the end of that season, and Belgian Jacky Ickx won 3 races- but this proved to not be enough to overhaul Rindt's points total; Ickx later said he was happy to not have won the championship that year. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=640098 | 167,532 |
987,587 | A PICC line is an invasive medical procedure, and may require local or general anesthesia during the placement. The basilic vein is an appropriate size, but is not preferred in children due to its depth and surrounding tissue. On the other hand, the cephalic vein may be used, though in some people it will not be possible to advance the line to the desired location through the cephalic vein. The brachial vein is large enough for a PICC line, but is also located close to other features such as the brachial artery and plexus. Imaging is commonly used to evaluate the length and path of the potential veins before the practitioner selects the most appropriate vein. The catheter size for PICC lines is generally measured in French gauge, and may range from 2 to 6. The number of lumens may vary from one to three, allowing for concurrent administration of different medications which cannot be mixed. Catheters are also manufactured from multiple materials, including silicone and polyurethane. The insertable portion of a PICC varies from 25 to 60 cm in length, which is sufficient to reach the desired end position in most cases. Some catheters are designed to be trimmed to the required length before insertion whereas others are simply inserted to the needed depth with the excess remaining outside the body. Catheters are supplied with a guidewire. This wire is provided to stiffen the (otherwise very flexible) line so it can be more easily threaded through the veins, and is removed after insertion. Some PICC lines are manufactured with an antimicrobial coating intended to reduce the chance of an infection from the line, but these are not yet in widespread use. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1551811 | 987,071 |
827,041 | For reflecting telescopes, which use a curved mirror in place of the objective lens, theory preceded practice. The theoretical basis for curved mirrors behaving similar to lenses was probably established by Alhazen, whose theories had been widely disseminated in Latin translations of his work. Soon after the invention of the refracting telescope, Galileo, Giovanni Francesco Sagredo, and others, spurred on by their knowledge that curved mirrors had similar properties to lenses, discussed the idea of building a telescope using a mirror as the image forming objective. The potential advantages of using parabolic mirrors (primarily a reduction of spherical aberration with elimination of chromatic aberration) led to several proposed designs for reflecting telescopes, the most notable of which was published in 1663 by James Gregory and came to be called the Gregorian telescope, but no working models were built. Isaac Newton has been generally credited with constructing the first practical reflecting telescopes, the Newtonian telescope, in 1668 although due to their difficulty of construction and the poor performance of the speculum metal mirrors used it took over 100 years for reflectors to become popular. Many of the advances in reflecting telescopes included the perfection of parabolic mirror fabrication in the 18th century, silver coated glass mirrors in the 19th century, long-lasting aluminum coatings in the 20th century, segmented mirrors to allow larger diameters, and active optics to compensate for gravitational deformation. A mid-20th century innovation was catadioptric telescopes such as the Schmidt camera, which uses both a lens (corrector plate) and mirror as primary optical elements, mainly used for wide field imaging without spherical aberration. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=266611 | 826,597 |
1,718,090 | Tssui was born in Cleveland, Ohio, the child of Chinese immigrants, and raised in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Despite the encouragement of his friends and family to pursue medicine, and a wide variety of interests in his youth (including piano and drum playing, martial arts, and flamenco dance), Tssui decided to pursue architecture. After working in numerous offices and institutions, including the Organizing Committee of the 1976 Montreal Summer Olympics, he was accepted at Columbia University's Graduate School of Design, based on his professional work in architecture offices. His unconventional designs did not match the expectations of the university, and he left to be apprenticed under architect Bruce Goff instead. He later received a bachelor of architecture from the University of Oregon, along with graduate studies at the University of California, Berkeley, where he earned two masters and a doctorate. Tssui specializes in nature influenced architecture, preferring shapes and forms inspired by living creatures and natural constructions to standard rectilinear designs. He has won numerous scholarships and grants for his work in architecture, including those from the Graham Foundation and the National Endowment for the Arts. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11578437 | 1,717,120 |
1,242,274 | It was not determined at the time of transfer of ownership how much the Sheahan family would receive in just compensation for the government acquisition of Groom Mine; the USAF in 2015 estimated the land to be worth $1.2 million. In November 2015, the Sheahan family suggested the mine be protected as a national historic site; this coincides with a suggestion in a 1980s USAF report that recommended nominating Groom Mining District to be listed on the National Register of Historic Places. By 2016, the USAF only valued Groom Mine at under a third of a million dollars; the Sheahan family's legal counsel valued the property as being worth over $100 million. In 2017, the family claimed they were forced to leave millions of dollars worth of property at Groom Mine following the seizure; part of the property which was abandoned includes an antique anvil that was missing when personal property was reviewed in November 2015. In August 2019, it was reported that the family was hoping to have a jury trial to determine the value of the property. The trial was ultimately conducted in front of a three-member Land Commission. Prior to trial, the landowners accepted the Government's valuation of the mineral interests at $104,000 and went to trial only to contest the value of the surface rights. The landowner's experts valued those rights at $50 million based on the property being developed into a commercial tourism enterprise offering views of Area 51. The Government's experts valued it at $254,000 based on continued use as a rural recreation retreat. On May 29, 2020 the Land Commission ruled that just compensation for the taking of the surface rights is $1,100,000 based on the property's continued use for rural recreation, with a premium over the Government's valuation to account for its view of Area 51 and its historic use as a family owned mining operation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=56836491 | 1,241,602 |
256,254 | 5-HTP's short half-life (<2h) may inherently limit its therapeutic potential, as systemic 5-HTP exposure levels will fluctuate substantially even with relatively frequent dosing. Such exposure fluctuations are usually associated with increased adverse event burdens resulting from C (time to maximal systemic concentration) drug spikes, and decreased clinical efficacy resulting from sub-therapeutic exposure for large parts of the day, when taken as a single dose unit or at intervals significantly larger than C. It has been proposed that 5-HTP dosage forms achieving prolonged delivery would be more effective, as has been demonstrated many times with other pharmaceuticals with short durations of action. For example, controlled release oxycodone (OxyContin) or morphine (MS-Contin) are intended to, via novel delivery mechanisms, permit pain relief for up to twelve hours with an active ingredient which only provides relief for 3–6 hours. Unfortunately, the inherent variability amongst different people with respect to drug metabolism makes this task more difficult than one might expect. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=822579 | 256,120 |
711,870 | Le Corbusier deemed the house as "the true cubic house" (French: "le vrai maison cubique"), as its constructional plan originated from a square, rendering its cubic form. Round pilotis elevate the main building from the ground, allowing for a driveway leading to the enclosed garage; correspondingly, the main entrance is also underneath the overall structure. The free design of the façade enables all perspectives of the building to be viewed concurrently, and conceals any visible supporting structures. Striped sliding windows surround the length of the exterior; and the roof garden embodies a natural progression of previous open floor plans. The house is divided into four quadrants, determined by a column grid, separating key living areas that are situated on the top floor and connect to the roof garden, the most easily accessible external area; while the downstairs bedrooms subvert the traditional vertical organization of a residence, also clearly demonstrating the free plan. This vertical configuration was partially due to the constraints of an urban environment, with limited external dimensions, it was logical to conceive of a stackable cube, separated into four levels and bookended by an underside entrance and a large roof garden. The centrepiece of the residence is the roof terrace, spherically enlarged to afford distant views of the Bois de Boulogne parklands, serving as a refuge from its congested surroundings. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38574765 | 711,498 |
663,186 | Eutrophic systems contain a high concentration of phosphorus (~30 µg/L), nitrogen (~1500 µg/L), or both. Phosphorus enters lentic waters from sewage treatment effluents, discharge from raw sewage, or from runoff of farmland. Nitrogen mostly comes from agricultural fertilizers from runoff or leaching and subsequent groundwater flow. This increase in nutrients required for primary producers results in a massive increase of phytoplankton growth, termed a "plankton bloom." This bloom decreases water transparency, leading to the loss of submerged plants. The resultant reduction in habitat structure has negative impacts on the species that utilize it for spawning, maturation, and general survival. Additionally, the large number of short-lived phytoplankton result in a massive amount of dead biomass settling into the sediment. Bacteria need large amounts of oxygen to decompose this material, thus reducing the oxygen concentration of the water. This is especially pronounced in stratified lakes, when the thermocline prevents oxygen-rich water from the surface to mix with lower levels. Low or anoxic conditions preclude the existence of many taxa that are not physiologically tolerant of these conditions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4479734 | 662,841 |
152,654 | During the last 60,000 years, including the end of the last glacial period, approximately 51 genera of large mammals have become extinct in North America. Of these, many genera extinctions can be reliably attributed to a brief interval of 11,500 to 10,000 radiocarbon years before present, shortly following the arrival of the Clovis people in North America . Prominent paleontological sites include Mexico and Panama, the crossroads of the American Interchange. Most other extinctions are poorly constrained in time, though some definitely occurred outside of this narrow interval. A genetic study published in 2021 indicates that horses, that were directly related to the modern horses, were still present in Yukon at least until 5,700 years ago or mid-Holocene. In contrast, only about half a dozen small mammals disappeared during this time. Previous North American extinction pulses had occurred at the end of glaciations, but not with such an ecological imbalance between large mammals and small ones (Moreover, previous extinction pulses were not comparable to the Quaternary extinction event; they involved primarily species replacements within ecological niches, while the latter event resulted in many ecological niches being left unoccupied). Such include the last native North American terror bird ("Titanis"), rhinoceros ("Aphelops") and hyena ("Chasmaporthetes"). Human habitation commenced unequivocally approximately 22,000 BCE north of the glacier, and 13,500 BCE south, however disputed evidence of southern human habitation exists from 130,000 BCE and 17,000 BCE onwards, described from sites in California and Meadowcroft in Pennsylvania. North American extinctions (noted as herbivores (H) or carnivores (C)) included: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18783051 | 152,586 |
2,099,502 | Method development in theoretical biophysics plays an increasingly important role in the study of macromolecular complexes and has made essential contributions to many studies in the other research areas of CEF. Bridging between fundamental physics, chemistry and biology, CEF scientists studied biomolecular processes over a broad resolution range, from quantum mechanics to chemical kinetics, from atomistic descriptions of physical processes and chemical reactions in molecular dynamics (MD) simulations to highly coarse-grained models of the non-equilibrium operation of molecular machines and network descriptions of protein interactions. Their goal is to develop detailed and quantitative descriptions of key biomolecular processes, including energy conversion, molecular transport, signal transduction, and enzymatic catalysis. Within CEF, they worked in close collaboration with experimental scientists who employ a wide variety of methods. Their computational and theoretical studies aided in the interpretation of increasingly complex measurements, and guided the design of future experiments. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=63334526 | 2,098,294 |
93,491 | As the USMC wanted a substantially improved Harrier without the development of a new engine, the plan for Harrier II development was authorized by the United States Department of Defense (DoD) in 1976. The United States Navy (USN), which had traditionally procured military aircraft for the USMC, insisted that the new design be verified with flight testing. McDonnell Douglas modified two AV-8As with new wings, revised intakes, redesigned exhaust nozzles, and other aerodynamic changes; the modified forward fuselage and cockpit found on all subsequent aircraft were not incorporated on these prototypes. Designated YAV-8B, the first converted aircraft flew on 9 November 1978. The aircraft performed three vertical take-offs and hovered for seven minutes at Lambert–St. Louis International Airport. The second aircraft followed on 19 February 1979 but crashed that November because of an engine flameout; the pilot ejected safely. Flight testing of these modified AV-8s continued into 1979. The results showed greater than expected drag, hampering the aircraft's maximum speed. Further refinements to the aerodynamic profile yielded little improvement. Positive test results in other areas, including payload, range, and V/STOL performance, led to the award of a development contract in 1979. The contract stipulated a procurement of 12 aircraft initially, followed by a further 324. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18940560 | 93,450 |
205,195 | In 1971, Don Rawitsch, a history major and senior at Carleton College in Northfield, Minnesota, taught an 8th-grade history class at Jordan Junior High School in Minneapolis as a student teacher. His supervising teacher assigned him to prepare a unit on "The Western Expansion of the Mid-19th Century", and Rawitsch decided to create a board game activity about the Oregon Trail for the students. After one week of planning the lessons, he was in the process of drawing out the trail on sheets of paper on the floor of his apartment when his roommates, fellow Carleton students Bill Heinemann and Paul Dillenberger, came in. Heinemann, who along with Dillenberger was a math student and student teacher with experience in programming, discussed the project with Rawitsch, and told him that it would be well-suited to a computer program, as it could keep track of the player's progress and calculate their chances of success based on their supplies instead of a dice roll. Rawitsch was initially hesitant, as the unit needed to be complete within two weeks, but Heinemann and Dillenberger felt it could be done if they worked long hours each day on it. The trio then spent the weekend designing and coding the game on paper. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=354015 | 205,089 |
873,265 | Among the impacts of deep sea mining, sediment plumes could have the greatest impact. Plumes are caused when the tailings from mining (usually fine particles) are dumped back into the ocean, creating a cloud of particles floating in the water. Two types of plumes occur: near bottom plumes and surface plumes. Near bottom plumes occur when the tailings are pumped back down to the mining site. The floating particles increase the turbidity, or cloudiness, of the water, clogging filter-feeding apparatuses used by benthic organisms. Surface plumes cause a more serious problem. Depending on the size of the particles and water currents the plumes could spread over vast areas. The plumes could impact zooplankton and light penetration, in turn affecting the food web of the area. A study conducted in Portmán Bay (Murcia, Spain) revealed that sediment plumes carry concentrations of metals that can accumulate in tissues of shellfish and persist for several hours after initial mining activities. Mine tailing deposits and resuspension plume sites caused the worst environmental conditions of their area compared to sites just off the mine tailing deposits, leaving significant ecotoxicological impacts on fauna within a short period of time. The accumulation of toxic metals in an organism, known as bioaccumulation, works its way through the food web causing detrimental health effects in larger organisms and essentially humans. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10431114 | 872,805 |
1,907,210 | In December 1986, Arnold Arboretum of the Harvard University in Massachusetts, requested permission from government of Sarawak to collaborate with Sarawak forest department to collect plants from Sarawak for phytochemical analysis. Permission was granted in May 1987. The plants collection project was part of the many expeditions launched by United States National Cancer Institute (NCI), to find new natural substances to treat cancer and AIDS infection. In September 1987, a botanist named John Burley went on a mission to collect plant samples from a swamp forest at Lundu, Sarawak, Malaysia. He and his team routinely collected a kilogram of fruits, leaves, and twigs from each type of plant they encountered. Part of the samples were sent to NCI for analysis and the other part was sent to Harvard University Herbaria for safekeeping for future research. A sample which was labelled "Burley-and-Lee-351" although showing no effect when tested against cancer cells in cultures, was able to stop viral replication when tested against HIV-1 virus. The sample was later determined to have come from a tree identified as "Calophyllum lanigerum" (locally known as Bintangor tree) of variety "austrocoriaceum". Sarawak Forest Department was informed of the result in late 1991. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14562897 | 1,906,114 |
54,383 | By November 1941, many of the initial assembly-line challenges had been met, which freed up time for the engineering team to tackle the problem of frozen controls in a dive. Lockheed had a few ideas for tests that would help them find an answer. The first solution tried was the fitting of spring-loaded servo tabs on the elevator trailing edge designed to aid the pilot when control yoke forces rose over , as would be expected in a high-speed dive. At that point, the tabs would begin to multiply the effort of the pilot's actions. Expert test pilot Ralph Virden was given a specific high-altitude test sequence to follow and was told to restrict his speed and fast maneuvering in denser air at low altitudes, since the new mechanism could exert tremendous leverage under those conditions. A note was taped to the instrument panel of the test craft underscoring this instruction. On 4 November 1941, Virden climbed into YP-38 #1 and completed the test sequence successfully, but 15 minutes later, was seen in a steep dive followed by a high-G pullout. The tail unit of the aircraft failed at about during the high-speed dive recovery; Virden was killed in the subsequent crash. The Lockheed design office was justifiably upset, but their design engineers could only conclude that servo tabs were "not" the solution for loss of control in a dive. Lockheed still had to find the problem; the Army Air Forces personnel were sure it was flutter and ordered Lockheed to look more closely at the tail. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25041 | 54,363 |
985,764 | The term has been used since by many scientists, and philosophers overall being adapted to several different areas of study. Some notable mentions of biophilia include Edward O. Wilson’s book "Biophilia" (1984) where he took a biologist’s approach and first coined the “Biophilia hypothesis” and popularized the notion. Wilson defined biophilia as “the innate tendency to focus on life and lifelike processes”, claiming a link with nature is not only physiological (as Fromm suggested) but has a genetic basis. The biophilia hypothesis is the idea that humans have an inherited need to connect to nature and other biotic forms due to our evolutionary dependence on it for survival and personal fulfillment. This idea is relevant in daily life – humans travel and spend money to sightsee in national parks and nature preserves, relax on beaches, hike mountains, and explore jungles. Further, many sports revolve around nature such as skiing, mountain biking, and surfing. From a home perspective, people are more likely to spend more on houses that have views of nature; buyers are willing to spend 7% more on homes with excellent landscaping, 58% more on properties that look at water, and 127% more on those that are waterfront. Humans also value companionship with animals. In America 60.2 million people own dogs and 47.1 million own cats. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=59271750 | 985,249 |
1,772,595 | The motto: Drauf Und Dran was established in 1960 by Cdr. Robert P. Foreman, Commanding Officer during a visit to the ship by officers of the German Navy whose ships were visiting the Charleston, SC Naval Base. In October, 1960, she departed for a goodwill trip with four other ships to South America and Africa called SOLANT AMITY as part of President Eisenhower's "People to People Program." Ports of call included Trinidad, Belem Brazil, Senegal, Guinea, Gambia, Sierra Leone, Ivory Coast, Cameroon, Congo, and South Africa. Highlights of the trip included members of the crew singing Christmas carols for Milton Margai, the first prime minister of an independent Sierra Leone at his residence. The prime minister invited the crew into his home, offered everyone a glass of wine, and played the violin for us. In early 1961, Vogelgesang and USS Gearing (DD-710) were called to intercept the Santa Maria, a Portuguese cruise ship which had been hijacked in the Caribbean. Both ships left Abidjan, Ivory Coast, crossed the Atlantic, and followed Santa Maria into Recife, Brazil. The story is featured in Charles Kuralt's book, A Life on the Road. During the African tour, Vogelgesang diverted course and conducted a brief "Crossing the Line" ceremony at 0 degrees latitude and 0 degrees longitude. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=545459 | 1,771,598 |
645,800 | Scott, Worden, and Irwin were publicly named as the crew of Apollo15 on March 26, 1970. Apollo15 was originally scheduled to be an H mission, with a limited stay of 33 hours on the Moon and two moonwalks, but the cancellation of two Apollo missions in mid-1970 meant the flight would be a Jmission, with three moonwalks during its three-day stay, the first Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV), and in the service module (SM) a suite of scientific instruments to probe the Moon. It was Worden's job, as his crewmates walked on the Moon, to operate these devices. For the first time, observations from lunar orbit were made a formal mission objective, and, like the CMPs of Apollo 13 and Apollo 14, Worden worked with geologist Farouk El-Baz during training, learning to interpret what he saw as he flew over the mountains and deserts of the western United States. Worden found El-Baz to be an enjoyable and inspiring teacher. He also accompanied his crewmates on geology training which took them to places where they walked over terrain resembling the Moon's, including sites in Hawaii, Mexico, and Iceland. He trained for the possibility he might have to return without Scott and Irwin or rescue them if the LM launched into the wrong orbit. When he was not busy with that or other training, Worden spent much of his time at North American Rockwell's facilities at Downey, supervising the construction and testing of Apollo15's command and service module (CSM). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=677187 | 645,460 |
1,092,215 | At Yale, an embarrassing situation occurred: he had been hired as a postdoctoral fellow, but it was discovered that he had never received a Ph.D. While he had submitted an outline of his work in reciprocal relations to the Norwegian Institute of Technology, they had decided it was too incomplete to qualify as a doctoral dissertation. He was told that he could submit one of his published papers to the Yale faculty as a dissertation, but insisted on doing a new research project instead. His dissertation laid the mathematical background for his interpretation of deviations from Ohm’s law in weak electrolytes. It dealt with the solutions of the Mathieu equation of period 4 pi and certain related functions and was beyond the comprehension of the chemistry and physics faculty. Only when some members of the mathematics department, including the chairman, insisted that the work was good enough that "they" would grant the doctorate if the chemistry department would not, was he granted a Ph.D. in chemistry in 1935. Even before the dissertation was finished, he was appointed assistant professor in 1934, and promoted to associate professor in 1940. He quickly showed at Yale the same traits he had at JHU and Brown: he produced brilliant theoretical research, but was incapable of giving a lecture at a level that a student (even a graduate student) could comprehend. He was also unable to direct the research of graduate students, except for the occasional outstanding one. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37175 | 1,091,655 |
133,264 | After the death of the Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius in 180 CE, the favorable conditions for scholarship and learning in the Roman Empire were upended by political unrest, civil war, urban decay, and looming economic crisis. In around 250 CE, barbarians began attacking and invading the Roman frontiers. These combined events led to a general decline in political and economic conditions. The living standards of the Roman upper class was severely impacted, and their loss of leisure diminished scholarly pursuits. Moreover, during the 3rd and 4th centuries CE, the Roman Empire was administratively divided into two halves: Greek East and Latin West. These administrative divisions weakened the intellectual contact between the two regions. Eventually, both halves went their separate ways, with the Greek East becoming the Byzantine Empire. Christianity was also steadily expanding during this time and soon became a major patron of education in the Latin West. Initially, the Christian church adopted some of the reasoning tools of Greek philosophy in the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE to defend its faith against sophisticated opponents. Nevertheless, Greek philosophy received a mixed reception from leaders and adherents of the Christian faith. Some such as Tertullian (c. 155-c. 230 CE) were vehemently opposed to philosophy, denouncing it as heretic. Others such as Augustine of Hippo (354-430 CE) were ambivalent and defended Greek philosophy and science as the best ways to understand the natural world and therefore treated it as a handmaiden (or servant) of religion. Education in the West began its gradual decline, along with the rest of Western Roman Empire, due to invasions by Germanic tribes, civil unrest, and economic collapse. Contact with the classical tradition was lost in specific regions such as Roman Britain and northern Gaul but continued to exist in Rome, northern Italy, southern Gaul, Spain, and North Africa. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14400 | 133,211 |
206,447 | The boom of Ion exchange chromatography primarily began between 1935–1950 during World War II and it was through the "Manhattan project" that applications and IC were significantly extended. Ion chromatography was originally introduced by two English researchers, agricultural Sir Thompson and chemist J T Way. The works of Thompson and Way involved the action of water-soluble fertilizer salts, ammonium sulfate and potassium chloride. These salts could not easily be extracted from the ground due to the rain. They performed ion methods to treat clays with the salts, resulting in the extraction of ammonia in addition to the release of calcium. It was in the fifties and sixties that theoretical models were developed for IC for further understanding and it was not until the seventies that continuous detectors were utilized, paving the path for the development from low-pressure to high-performance chromatography. Not until 1975 was "ion chromatography" established as a name in reference to the techniques, and was thereafter used as a name for marketing purposes. Today IC is important for investigating aqueous systems, such as drinking water. It is a popular method for analyzing anionic elements or complexes that help solve environmentally relevant problems. Likewise, it also has great uses in the semiconductor industry. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1787246 | 206,341 |
283,611 | However, the upper atmosphere of Venus has much more Earthlike conditions and has been suggested as a plausible colonization location since at least 1971 by Soviet scientists. At just over 50 km altitude (the cloud tops), atmospheric pressure is roughly equal to that on Earth's surface, and temperatures range from 0–50 °C. The volatile elements necessary for life are present (hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur), and above the clouds, solar energy is abundant. Pressurization would not be required; humans could even go outside the habitats safely with oxygen provision and clothing to protect against the sulfuric acid droplets. Geoffrey Landis has pointed out that breathable air is a lifting gas in Venus' atmosphere: a cubic meter of air would lift half a kilogram, and an oxygen- and nitrogen-filled aerostat the size of a city on Venus would be able to lift the mass of a city. This suggests floating aerostat cities as a colonization method for Venus. The lack of pressure differences between the outside and inside means that there is ample time to repair habitat breaches. With just over three times the land area of Earth, there would be space even for a billion such cities. The atmosphere provides enough radiation shielding at this altitude, and Venus' 0.90g gravity is likely sufficient to prevent the negative health effects of microgravity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29248 | 283,458 |
556,346 | Kalecki went to París for a while, then moved to Montreal, where he stayed for fifteen months working at the International Labour Office. In July 1946 he accepted the Polish government's invitation to head the Central Planning Office of the Ministry of Economics, but he left some months later. By the end of 1946, he assumed the job of Deputy Director in the Department of Economic Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat in New York. He remained there until 1955, mainly preparing the World Economic Reports. Kalecki resigned that position as a result of McCarthyist pressures. It was argued that he was punished on political grounds (a non-merited economic planner stance was attributed to him). He became depressed by Senator Joseph McCarthy's witch-hunt, as many of his close friends were directly affected. Denounced in the US Senate as a supporter of communism, Kalecki ultimately failed to achieve professional success in the US (although he influenced the future post-Keynesians there), unlike in England, where he had a large following and was supported especially by his friend Joan Robinson. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2205338 | 556,057 |
1,939,123 | Bradley has written or edited thirteen books on climatic change including "Paleoclimatology: Reconstructing Climates of the Quaternary" (3rd edition, 2014) [Elsevier/Academic Press, San Diego; , which won a 2015 Award from the Text and Academic Authors Association. Other books include, "The Hadley Circulation, Present, Past and Future" (eds. H.F. Diaz, and R.S. Bradley, 2004. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht); "Paleoclimate, Global Change and the Future" (eds. K. Alverson, R.S. Bradley and T.F. Pedersen, 2003; Springer, Berlin); "Climate Change and Society" (R.S. Bradley and N.E. Law, 2001, Stanley Thornes, Cheltenham, U.K.); "Climate Variations and Forcing Mechanisms of the Last 2000 years" (eds. P.D. Jones, R.S. Bradley and J. Jouzel, 1996. Springer, Berlin), and "Climate Since A.D. 1500" (eds. R.S. Bradley and P.D. Jones, 1995. Routledge, London). In addition, Bradley has authored/co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed articles on climate change, covering a wide range of topics. He has a particular focus on the climate of the Arctic, and of mountainous areas, reflecting his long-standing interests in those regions. He has carried out extensive fieldwork in the Arctic and North Atlantic region (Canadian High Arctic, Greenland, Svalbard, the Faroe Islands and northern Norway). Bradley's research has been supported primarily by the National Science Foundation, the Department of Energy, NOAA and the National Geographic Society. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4242197 | 1,938,013 |
1,388,982 | The origin of the term "balance of performance" dates back to the creation of Group GT3 in 2005 for the 2006 racing season, using experience learned from homologation special phenomenon in previous GT classes, although other series such as British Touring Car Championship and Japanese Super GT series had applied different concept in the past (and still in effect today) called "success ballast", which only affected the weight of a competing car for each round in case of win or placement in previous events. (Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters also previously featured a success ballast system named as BoP between 2015 to 2017 until it was scrapped with two races left in the 2017 season). The aim of the system is to allow development of various racing models within a class, without leading to expensive development wars between manufacturers. The system was later adopted for other production-based racing classes such as Group GT4, LM GTE and TCR Touring Cars. Although one-make, open-wheel and prototype car racing typically do not use a BoP system, a similar system was devised for LMP1 class in FIA World Endurance Championship called equivalence of technology (abbreviated EoT), that allows for parity between hybrid and non-hybrid cars in the class. Additionally, DPi cars in the IMSA WeatherTech SportsCar Championship are subject to balance of performance as well. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=65161567 | 1,388,212 |
266,374 | This idea that Bacon was a modern experimental scientist reflected two views of the period: that the principal form of scientific activity is experimentation and that 13th-century Europe still represented the "Dark Ages". This view, which is still reflected in some 21st-century popular science books, portrays Bacon as an advocate of modern experimental science who emerged as a solitary genius in an age hostile to his ideas. Based on Bacon's apocrypha, he is also portrayed as a visionary who predicted the invention of the submarine, aircraft, and automobile. Consistent with this view of Bacon as a man ahead of his time, H.G. Wells's "Outline of History" attributes this prescient passage to him:Machines for navigating are possible without rowers, so that great ships suited to river or ocean, guided by one man, may be borne with greater speed than if they were full of men. Likewise cars may be made so that without a draught animal they may be moved "cum impetu inaestimabili", as we deem the scythed chariots to have been from which antiquity fought. And flying machines are possible, so that a man may sit in the middle turning some device by which artificial wings may beat the air in the manner of a flying bird. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25879 | 266,230 |
14,952 | The series features a cyberpunk story of the technological fall of humanity, in which the creation of artificial intelligence led the way to a race of self-aware machines that imprisoned mankind in a virtual reality system—the Matrix—to be farmed as a power source. Occasionally, some of the prisoners manage to break free from the system and, considered a threat, become pursued by the artificial intelligence both inside and outside of it. The films focus on the plight of Neo (Keanu Reeves), Trinity (Carrie-Anne Moss), and Morpheus (Laurence Fishburne and Yahya Abdul-Mateen II) trying to free humanity from the system while pursued by its guardians, such as Agent Smith (Hugo Weaving, Abdul-Mateen II, and Jonathan Groff). The story incorporates references to numerous philosophical, religious, or spiritual ideas, among others the dilemma of choice vs. control, the brain in a vat thought experiment, messianism, and the concepts of inter-dependency and love. Influences include the principles of mythology, anime, and Hong Kong action films (particularly "heroic bloodshed" and martial arts movies). The film series is notable for its use of heavily choreographed action sequences and "bullet time" slow motion effects, which revolutionized action films to come. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=376228 | 14,947 |
28,126 | Various other specialized tests may be used to distinguish between different types of meningitis. A latex agglutination test may be positive in meningitis caused by "Streptococcus pneumoniae", "Neisseria meningitidis", "Haemophilus influenzae", "Escherichia coli" and "group B streptococci"; its routine use is not encouraged as it rarely leads to changes in treatment, but it may be used if other tests are not diagnostic. Similarly, the limulus lysate test may be positive in meningitis caused by Gram-negative bacteria, but it is of limited use unless other tests have been unhelpful. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a technique used to amplify small traces of bacterial DNA in order to detect the presence of bacterial or viral DNA in cerebrospinal fluid; it is a highly sensitive and specific test since only trace amounts of the infecting agent's DNA is required. It may identify bacteria in bacterial meningitis and may assist in distinguishing the various causes of viral meningitis (enterovirus, herpes simplex virus 2 and mumps in those not vaccinated for this). Serology (identification of antibodies to viruses) may be useful in viral meningitis. If tuberculous meningitis is suspected, the sample is processed for Ziehl–Neelsen stain, which has a low sensitivity, and tuberculosis culture, which takes a long time to process; PCR is being used increasingly. Diagnosis of cryptococcal meningitis can be made at low cost using an India ink stain of the CSF; however, testing for cryptococcal antigen in blood or CSF is more sensitive. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21009963 | 28,116 |
643,951 | Most of the design criticisms these days are built on crashworthiness. Even with the greatest attention to airworthiness, accidents still occur. Crashworthiness is the qualitative evaluation of how aircraft survive an accident. The main objective is to protect the passengers or valuable cargo from the damage caused by an accident. In the case of airliners the stressed skin of the pressurized fuselage provides this feature, but in the event of a nose or tail impact, large bending moments build all the way through the fuselage, causing fractures in the shell, causing the fuselage to break up into smaller sections. So the passenger aircraft are designed in such a way that seating arrangements are away from areas likely to be intruded in an accident, such as near a propeller, engine nacelle undercarriage etc. The interior of the cabin is also fitted with safety features such as oxygen masks that drop down in the event of loss of cabin pressure, lockable luggage compartments, safety belts, lifejackets, emergency doors and luminous floor strips. Aircraft are sometimes designed with emergency water landing in mind, for instance the Airbus A330 has a 'ditching' switch that closes valves and openings beneath the aircraft slowing the ingress of water. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29564581 | 643,611 |
1,322,170 | The rich dinosaur fauna of Niger was brought to scientific attention through French and Italian excavations in the 1960s and 1970s. This led to the description of new genera from Lower Cretaceous rocks, most prominently the iguanodontian "Ouranosaurus". An older succession of rocks, the Tiourarén Formation, was explored by American palaeontologist Paul Sereno, who conducted a large-scale excavation campaign in Niger between 1999 and 2003. Although initially thought to fall within the Lower Cretaceous, the formation is now thought to be of a much older Middle Jurassic age. Sereno named new dinosaurs such as the sauropod "Jobaria" and the theropod "Afrovenator" from the Tiourarén; most finds were discovered along a cliff known as the "Falaise de Tiguidit" in the southern Agadez Region. In Marendet, Sereno left partial "Jobaria" skeletons in the field as a tourist attraction. Starting in 2003, the PALDES project ("Paleontología y Desarrollo" – "Palaeontology and development") was conducting excavations in the southern Agadez Region. A cooperative effort between Spanish science and humanitarian institutions, PALDES aimed to combine palaeontological research with a developmental program for the region. This included the improvement of infrastructure, education structures, and the promotion of tourism, including the planned construction of a new palaeontological museum in Tadibene. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=24361405 | 1,321,444 |
1,377,290 | Currently there are many methods used to determine the zygosity status of a gene at a particular locus. These methods include the use of PCR with specifically designed probes to detect the variants of the genes (SNP typing is the simplest case). In cases where longer stretches of variation is implicated, post PCR analysis of the amplicons may be required. Changes in enzyme restriction, electrophoretic and chromatographic profiles can be measured. These methods are usually more time-consuming and increase the risk of amplicon contamination in the laboratory, due to the need to work with high concentrations of amplicons in the lab post-PCR. The use of HRM reduces the time required for analysis and the risk of contamination. HRM is a more cost-effective solution and the high resolution element not only allows the determination of homo and heterozygosity, it also resolves information about the type of homo and heterozygosity, with different gene variants giving rise to differing melt curve shapes. A study by Gundry et al. 2003, showed that fluorescent labelling of one primer (in the pair) has been shown to be favourable over using an intercalating dye such as SYBR green I. However, progress has been made in the development and use of improved intercalating dyes which reduce the issue of PCR inhibition and concerns over non-saturating intercalation of the dye. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21003747 | 1,376,528 |
2,097,261 | The life cycle of "Plasmodiophora bicaudata" is complex. It includes resting spores which can lie dormant, awaiting suitable conditions to infect a new plant. Its other forms include two types of plasmodia, the feeding stage that derive their energy from the host cells, and two types of zoospores. The motile zoospores are the only form that can move outside the host cells. They have whiplash flagella and can swim to reach new seagrass plants and can also crawl on the surface of the leaves in an amoeboid way by extending pseudopodia forward. This parasite causes galls to form in the internodes of the rhizomes of its host seagrasses, species of the genus "Zostera". The condition is known as wasting disease, the nodes bunch up together and root development is poor so the plants are more easily uprooted in storms. Detached floating plants may spread the infection to new areas and when the seagrass has been planted for erosion control, the target seabed cover may not be achieved. The growth of leaves seems little affected by the parasite but flowering of the seagrass does not take place. The galls contain a large number of thick-walled, dormant spores 4-6 μm in diameter that are separate from one another. The infection of seagrasses by this parasite has been little studied but it is possible that it is a vector, able to transmit disease-causing viruses between plants as happens in some terrestrial species in this genus. This has not yet been observed in the marine environment. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39502217 | 2,096,053 |
1,024,831 | While there is no present licensed vaccine, there are many factors which make a vaccine against HTLV-1 feasible. The virus displays relatively low antigenic variability, natural immunity does occur in humans, and experimental vaccination using envelope antigens has been shown to be successful in animal models. Plasmid DNA vaccines elicit potent and protective immune responses in numerous small-animal models of infectious diseases. However, their immunogenicity in primates appears less potent. In the past two decades a large initiative has been put forth to understand the biological and pathogenic properties of the human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1); this has ultimately led to the development of various experimental vaccination and therapeutic strategies to combat HTLV-1 infection. These strategies include the development of envelope glycoprotein derived B-cell epitopes for the induction of neutralizing antibodies, as well as a strategy to generate a multivalent cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL) response against the HTLV-1 Tax antigen. A vaccine candidate that can elicit or boost anti-gp46 neutralizing antibody response may have a potential for prevention and therapy against HTLV-1 infection. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21354427 | 1,024,298 |
2,083,987 | 25th HAG was attached to X Corps in Fourth Army, which was preparing for that summer's 'Big Push' (the Battle of the Somme), with the group preparing new observation posts (OPs) and gun positions. X Corps' task was to advance astride the River Ancre to capture the high ground in front, with 36th (Ulster) Division attacking up the river valley towards the Schwaben Redoubt and 32nd Division assaulting Thiepval and the Leipzig Redoubt before advancing to Mouquet Farm ('Mucky Farm'). The bombardment programme was to extend over five days, U, V, W, X and Y, before the assault was launched on Z day. The strenuous work of firing the heavy guns was divided into 2-hour periods to allow the gunners to rest, Forward Observation Officers (FOOs) to be relieved, and the guns to cool. The bombardment began on 24 June, 41st Siege Bty firing 800 rounds per day on its assigned tasks against front, support and communication trenches in the Thiepval Salient, observed from an OP in Mesnil-Martinsart. The firing was so intense that on 29 June three of the battery's guns were out of action at various times with leaking hydro-pneumatic recuperators. Poor quality 6-inch ammunition was also causing problems, with frequent misfires and 'blinds' that failed to explode. But on several days the weather was too bad for good air or ground observation and the programme was extended by two days (Y1 and Y2), when the battery only fired 400 rounds per day. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=69464934 | 2,082,787 |
956,742 | The worm has a hydrostatic skeleton and moves by longitudinal and circular muscular contractions. Setae – tiny hair-like projections – provide leverage against the surrounding soil. Surface movements on moist, flat terrain were reported at a speed of 20 m/h and, based on measurements of the length of the trail, nocturnal activity away from the burrow was estimated at up to 19 m during a single surface foray. Such movement is apparent during and after heavy rainfall and usually happens when people become aware of relatively large numbers of earthworms in, for example, urban ecosystems. This form of activity is often considered a way to escape floods and waterlogged burrows. However, this cannot be the case since "L. terrestris", like other earthworms, can live in oxygenated water for long periods of time, stretching to weeks. Under less severe environmental conditions where air temperature and moisture are sufficient, the worm often moves around on the surface. This may be driven by resource availability or the desire to avoid mating with close relatives. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=199798 | 956,237 |
1,832,743 | Several Chinese immigrants to the United States have also been awarded the Nobel Prize, including:, Samuel C. C. Ting, Chen Ning Yang, Tsung-Dao Lee, Daniel C. Tsui, and Gao Xingjian. Other overseas ethnic Chinese that have achieved success in sciences include Fields Medal recipient Shing-Tung Yau and Terence Tao, and Turing Award recipient Andrew Yao. Tsien Hsue-shen was a prominent scientist at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, while Chien-Shiung Wu contributed to the Manhattan Project (some argue she never received the Nobel Prize unlike her colleagues Tsung-Dao Lee and Chen Ning Yang due to sexism by the selection committee). Others include Charles K. Kao, a pioneer in fiber optics technology, and Dr. David Ho, one of the first scientists to propose that AIDS was caused by a virus, thus subsequently developing combination antiretroviral therapy to combat it. Dr. Ho was named TIME magazine's 1996 Man of the Year. In 2015, Tu Youyou, a pharmaceutical chemist, became the first native Chinese scientist, born and educated and carried out research exclusively in the People's Republic of China, to receive the Nobel Prize in natural sciences. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12082329 | 1,831,695 |
1,967,560 | To achieve this, Diesel now wanted to raise point 3 in his diagram instead of increasing the length of the admission period 2–3 by reducing injection time. Diesel, who had obtained a patent (DRP 67 207) for a combustion process without significant changes in either pressure or temperature, thought that this patent would also cover constant pressure combustion curves, but to ensure that the changes in his combustion process would also be covered by a patent, he applied for a new additional patent on 29 November 1893, which was later awarded to him (DRP 82 168). Yet again, Diesel made a mistake: Instead of injecting the fuel faster, injecting "more" fuel would have been the correct solution in this case. When making calculations for a modification of his test engine in September 1893, he compared his test engine with a regular paraffin engine: "″Average paraffin engines have a fuel consumption of approximately 600 g/PSh = 750 cm/PSh paraffin, thus 7,500 cm for 10 PSh. We would have to assume the same quantity of fuel for our engine running at maximum load and 150×60=9000 injections per hour.″" This is how Diesel found out that he has to use an air-fuel ratio of ~14:1 rather than ~100:1 for a working engine. Furthermore, Diesel finally decided to abandon his concept of a high compression pressure in favour of a lower pressure of 30 atm (3 MPa) more suitable for 1890s machines. Correctly, he assumed that lower compression, despite causing less thermal efficiency, would result in less friction, which would allow an engine having a higher total efficiency, than an engine with a greater thermal efficiency but more friction losses: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=59706535 | 1,966,430 |
1,672,145 | Despite the concerns of Hippocrates, Galen of Pergamon (129–199) and Aretaeus of Cappadocia (both of whom lived in Rome in the 2nd century AD) credit Asclepiades of Bithynia (–40 BC) as being the first physician to perform a non-emergency tracheotomy. However, Aretaeus warned against the performance of tracheotomy because he believed that incisions made into the tracheal cartilage were prone to secondary wound infections and therefore would not heal. He wrote that "The lips of the wound do not coalesce, for they are both cartilaginous and not of a nature to unite". Antyllus, another Greek surgeon who lived in Rome in the 2nd century AD, was reported to have performed tracheotomy when treating oral diseases. He refined the technique to be more similar to that used in modern times, recommending that a transverse incision be made between the third and fourth tracheal rings for the treatment of life-threatening airway obstruction. Antyllus wrote that tracheotomy was not effective however in cases of severe laryngotracheobronchitis because the pathology was distal to the operative site. Antyllus' original writings were lost, but they were preserved by Oribasius (–400) and Paul of Aegina (–690), both of whom were Greek physicians as well as historians. Galen clarified the anatomy of the trachea and was the first to demonstrate that the larynx generates the voice. Galen may have understood the importance of artificial ventilation, because in one of his experiments he used bellows to inflate the lungs of a dead animal. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=28862297 | 1,671,204 |
11,548 | In 1903 the brothers built the powered "Wright Flyer", using their preferred material for construction, spruce, a strong and lightweight wood, and Pride of the West muslin for surface coverings. They also designed and carved their own wooden propellers, and had a purpose-built gasoline engine fabricated in their bicycle shop. They thought propeller design would be a simple matter and intended to adapt data from shipbuilding. However, their library research disclosed no established formulae for either marine or air propellers, and they found themselves with no sure starting point. They discussed and argued the question, sometimes heatedly, until they concluded that an aeronautical propeller is essentially a wing rotating in the vertical plane. On that basis, they used data from more wind tunnel tests to design their propellers. The finished blades were just over eight feet long, made of three laminations of glued spruce. The Wrights decided on twin "pusher" propellers (counter-rotating to cancel torque), which would act on a greater quantity of air than a single relatively slow propeller and not disturb airflow over the leading edge of the wings. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58410 | 11,543 |
1,984,866 | Matt Jarvis, for the UK print magazine "Tabletop Gaming", wrote, "Magic: The Gathering’s Archenemy format is a fantastic idea [...]. Unfortunately, the original 2010 release was far from approachable for those not already well versed in the complexities of building a custom Magic deck, offering four separate decks of normal cards and the oversized scheme cards for four different superpowered baddies, but requiring that players construct their own 60-card setups for their heroes, individually crafted to adjust for the different setup. This year’s follow-up fixes that problem, focusing on a single big bad: the titular god-pharaoh Nicol Bolas. [...] Two of the three planeswalkers break with Magic tradition and offer decks built solely around a single type of mana and play style, rather than the traditional two, making it key to work together as a team to dish out damage while fending off Bolas’ crippling attacks – the boss gets three types of mana to wield. In a major change from the 2010 rules, players can now choose to block an attack on their teammates using their own creatures, which both strengthens the feeling of co-operation and helps to even the odds a little. [...] It’s not quite easy or simple enough to be a gentle introduction to Magic, but the three-on-one format is a thrilling way to experience the card-battler with a larger group that feels like a fantastic game in its own right". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27710709 | 1,983,727 |
45,086 | Given the universality of free fall, there is no observable distinction between inertial motion and motion under the influence of the gravitational force. This suggests the definition of a new class of inertial motion, namely that of objects in free fall under the influence of gravity. This new class of preferred motions, too, defines a geometry of space and time—in mathematical terms, it is the geodesic motion associated with a specific connection which depends on the gradient of the gravitational potential. Space, in this construction, still has the ordinary Euclidean geometry. However, space"time" as a whole is more complicated. As can be shown using simple thought experiments following the free-fall trajectories of different test particles, the result of transporting spacetime vectors that can denote a particle's velocity (time-like vectors) will vary with the particle's trajectory; mathematically speaking, the Newtonian connection is not integrable. From this, one can deduce that spacetime is curved. The resulting Newton–Cartan theory is a geometric formulation of Newtonian gravity using only covariant concepts, i.e. a description which is valid in any desired coordinate system. In this geometric description, tidal effects—the relative acceleration of bodies in free fall—are related to the derivative of the connection, showing how the modified geometry is caused by the presence of mass. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12024 | 45,069 |
981,271 | The Peirce–Jastrow experiments were conducted as part of Peirce's application of his pragmaticism program to human perception; other studies considered the perception of light, etc. Jastrow wrote the following summary: "Mr. Peirce’s courses in logic gave me my first real experience of intellectual muscle. Though I promptly took to the laboratory of psychology when that was established by Stanley Hall, it was Peirce who gave me my first training in the handling of a psychological problem, and at the same time stimulated my self-esteem by entrusting me, then fairly innocent of any laboratory habits, with a real bit of research. He borrowed the apparatus for me, which I took to my room, installed at my window, and with which, when conditions of illumination were right, I took the observations. The results were published over our joint names in the "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences". The demonstration that traces of sensory effect too slight to make any registry in consciousness could none the less influence judgment, may itself have been a persistent motive that induced me years later to undertake a book on "The Subconscious"." This work clearly distinguishes observable cognitive performance from the expression of consciousness. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=438004 | 980,759 |
746,545 | The "King George V" design had four 0.5-inch quadruple machine gun mounts, but in 1939 these were replaced by two Mark VI pom-pom mounts. In 1940, to combat air attack, four Unrotated Projectile mountings were fitted, on "B" turret, two on "Y" turret, one replaced a pom-pom mount added in 1939 at the stern. The pom-poms mounted in the "King George V" were designed and produced by Vickers Armstrongs as a result of a post-First World War requirement for a multiple mounting which was effective against close-range bombers or torpedo planes. The first model, tested in 1927, was superior to anything developed in other countries at the time and in 1938 the Mark VI* had a muzzle velocity of 2,400 feet per second, a 1.594-inch bore and a barrel length of 40 calibres. They fired a shell at a rate of 96–98 rounds per minute for controlled fire and 115 rounds per minute for automatic fire. The range of the Mark VI* was , at a muzzle velocity of 2,300 feet per second. The Mark VI octuple mount weighed 16 tons. The Mark VII quadruple mount weighed 10.8 tons if power operated; it could be elevated to 80 degrees and depressed to 10 degrees at a rate of 25 degrees per second which was also the rate of train. The normal ammunition supply on board for the Mark VI was 1,800 rounds per barrel. "King George V" introduced the Mk IV Pom-pom director to the Royal Navy in 1940, becoming the first ship in the world to feature gyroscopic target tracking in tachymetric anti-aircraft directors. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=485616 | 746,150 |
66,197 | Following the Russian invasion of Ukraine, Haas terminated its contract with their driver Nikita Mazepin. Magnussen returned to the team as his replacement on a multi-year deal, partnering existing driver Mick Schumacher for the 2022 season. In his return for Haas at Bahrain, Magnussen managed to start 7th and finish 5th, scoring one of only five top five finishes in Haas's history up to that point. In the 2022 Saudi Arabian Grand Prix, he made it into Q3 and qualified tenth. He later turned that into a ninth-place finish, securing Haas consecutive points for the first time since 2019. Magnussen finished 10th at Silverstone with his teammate Mick Schumacher finishing eighth giving Haas a first double-point finish since Germany 2019, and the pair would continue this run by scoring points again in the following round in Austria, despite the Dane experiencing engine issues during the race. At the 2022 São Paulo Grand Prix, Magnussen took his and Haas’ first pole position in Formula One. Magnussen qualified first after George Russell spun at turn 4, bringing out a red flag during which track conditions deteriorated meaning no driver could set a faster time than before the crash. Magnussen became just the second driver in F1 history to set a pole for a non-Ferrari team using a Ferrari engine, 14 years after Sebastian Vettel did so for Toro Rosso at the 2008 Italian Grand Prix. He would ultimately finish the sprint race in 8th position, and would retire from the Grand Prix on the opening lap following a collision with Daniel Ricciardo. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25418449 | 66,172 |
1,159,328 | With the need for a remote site obviated, it was decided to build the facility on the coast of Cumberland at a former Royal Ordnance Factory, ROF Drigg. This was soon switched to a more suitable site at the nearby former ROF Sellafield. To avoid any confusion with Springfields, the name was changed to Windscale. Construction began in September 1947. The danger of the Wigner Effect was not overlooked. Walter Zinn visited Britain in 1948 and provided crucial information. New calculations based on this meant that the layout of the graphite blocks, which were already being machined, had to be changed. The two Windscale reactors became operational in October 1950 and June 1951. Due to faulty calculations at the design stage, the reactors did not produce the expected output. As a result, extraordinary measures had to be taken to provide Penney with a first shipment of plutonium in June 1952, and sufficient quantity for a core by the 1 August 1952 deadline. Improvements in the bomb design ultimately meant that he could get by with 15 per cent less plutonium. Starting in 1953, the Windscale reactors were able to use slightly enriched uranium as a fuel. They were shut down after the Windscale fire in October 1957. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=52573493 | 1,158,713 |
351,277 | Melanins have very diverse roles and functions in various organisms. A form of melanin makes up the ink used by many cephalopods (see cephalopod ink) as a defense mechanism against predators. Melanins also protect microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi, against stresses that involve cell damage such as UV radiation from the sun and reactive oxygen species. Melanin also protects against damage from high temperatures, chemical stresses (such as heavy metals and oxidizing agents), and biochemical threats (such as host defenses against invading microbes). Therefore, in many pathogenic microbes (for example, in "Cryptococcus neoformans", a fungus) melanins appear to play important roles in virulence and pathogenicity by protecting the microbe against immune responses of its host. In invertebrates, a major aspect of the innate immune defense system against invading pathogens involves melanin. Within minutes after infection, the microbe is encapsulated within melanin (melanization), and the generation of free radical byproducts during the formation of this capsule is thought to aid in killing them. Some types of fungi, called radiotrophic fungi, appear to be able to use melanin as a photosynthetic pigment that enables them to capture gamma rays and harness this energy for growth. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50513 | 351,094 |
492,058 | New X-ray observations by the Chandra X-ray Observatory show three distinct structures: an outer, horseshoe-shaped ring about 2 light years in diameter, a hot inner core about 3 light-months in diameter, and a hot central source less than 1 light-month in diameter which may contain the superstar that drives the whole show. The outer ring provides evidence of another large explosion that occurred over 1,000 years ago. These three structures around Eta Carinae are thought to represent shock waves produced by matter rushing away from the superstar at supersonic speeds. The temperature of the shock-heated gas ranges from 60 MK in the central regions to 3 MK on the horseshoe-shaped outer structure. "The Chandra image contains some puzzles for existing ideas of how a star can produce such hot and intense X-rays," says Prof. Kris Davidson of the University of Minnesota. Davidson is principal investigator for the Eta Carina observations by the Hubble Space Telescope. "In the most popular theory, X-rays are made by colliding gas streams from two stars so close together that they'd look like a point source to us. But what happens to gas streams that escape to farther distances? The extended hot stuff in the middle of the new image gives demanding new conditions for any theory to meet." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44062 | 491,804 |
1,110,974 | "Nereus" was sent to complete the first systematic study of a deep-ocean trench as part of the NSF-sponsored Hadal Ecosystems Study (HADES) project under chief scientist Timothy Shank, a WHOI biologist who also helped conceive the vehicle. It was being controlled from the Research Vessel "Thomas G. Thompson". Thirty days into the forty-day mission, about seven hours into a nine-hour dive, communications with "Nereus" were lost. When standard emergency recovery protocols were unsuccessful, the team initiated a search near the dive site. They then spotted several pieces of debris on the surface nearby later identified to be parts of "Nereus", indicating a catastrophic implosion. The ship's crew recovered the debris to confirm its identity and to discover more information about the nature of the failure. Despite this, WHOI Director of Research Larry Madin still says that WHOI will continue to develop, build, and operate more underwater research craft for oceanographic exploration. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13767482 | 1,110,408 |
597,770 | Only a fraction of the permafrost zone consists of actual ground ice. The remainder (dry permafrost) is simply soil or rock at subfreezing temperatures. The ice volume is generally greatest in the uppermost permafrost layers and mainly comprises pore and segregated ice in Earth material. Measurements of bore-hole temperatures in permafrost can be used as indicators of net changes in temperature regime. Gold and Lachenbruch (1973) infer a 2–4 °C warming over 75 to 100 years at Cape Thompson, Alaska, where the upper 25% of the 400-m thick permafrost is unstable with respect to an equilibrium profile of temperature with depth (for the present mean annual surface temperature of −5 °C). Maritime influences may have biased this estimate, however. At Prudhoe Bay similar data imply a 1.8 °C warming over the last 100 years (Lachenbruch "et al." 1982). Further complications may be introduced by changes in snow-cover depths and the natural or artificial disturbance of the surface vegetation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=47527 | 597,465 |
2,116,362 | At the beginning of the following decade, Olson was the recipient of the 1992 Genetics Society of America Medal for his genetic achievements. During the same year, he returned to UW and joined their Department of Molecular Biotechnology. In 1994, Olson was elected to the United States National Academy of Sciences. At the turn of the century, Olson was a lead scientist on a study mapping the genome of Pseudomonas aeruginosa which was published in "Nature". The implications of this study led to the possibility of new treatments for patients with cystic fibrosis and patients with severe burns and others who develop this type of infection. As a result of his pioneering gene research, he was the co-recipient of Durham, North Carolina's City of Medicine Award. The citation specifically noted that without his discovery, sequencing the human genome "would not have been possible." In 2003, Olson was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences for "developing technological and experimental innovations critical to genome sequencing." He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 2005. He was also the recipient of the 2002 Canada Gairdner International Award and 2007 Gruber Prize in Genetics. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12198794 | 2,115,145 |
1,522,047 | The NYIT School of Management offers graduate degrees, including Master of Business Administration degree (M.B.A.) and Master of Science degree in Risk Management (M.S.R.M), among others. The school also offers many undergraduate degrees, including in business administration, finance, management, and marketing at its overseas campuses in United States, Canada, and China. The School of Management also collaborates with multiple colleges and universities worldwide, offering joint programs, dual degrees, summer study programs, study abroad options, and faculty and student exchange. The NYIT SOM emphasis is on the combination of business and technology to solve complex problems involving decision making and resource allocation. The Master of Business Administration degree, a general management version, and specialized concentrations in business analytics, finance, marketing, operations and supply chain management offers candidates the opportunity to prepare themselves in a wide variety of areas for administrative posts in the business world. The School of Management Faculty is as varied as the global mosaic of world regions in which contemporary business operates. They teach global business strategies and techniques based on their intimate knowledge of cultures, social dynamics and infrastructures. All of the core faculty holds doctoral degrees from top American and overseas universities. The NYIT SoM does not use teaching assistants, graders, preceptors, etc. in either traditional or virtual classrooms. Students interact directly with faculty, in matters concerning course material, term projects, exams, academic advising and professional development. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6559051 | 1,521,186 |
1,474,399 | As is the standard for all evolutionary adaptations, the human muscle system evolved in its efforts to increase survivability. Since muscles and the accompanying ligaments and tendons are present all throughout the body aiding in many functions, it is apparent that our behavior and decisions are based upon what we are and how we can operate. It is believed that our ancestor’s original habitat was not on the ground but in the trees and we developed new habits that eventually allowed us to thrive on the ground, such as changes in diet, gathering of food, energy expenditure, social interactions, and predators. Life in the canopy meant a food supply similar to that of herbivores: leaves, fruits, berries; mostly low-protein foods that did not require a large amount of energy to find. However, if any could be found, meat was also consumed. At this time our ancestors had not yet switched to full-time bipedalism and so searching for food on the ground did not make sense because there was too much energy and risk involved. This habitat also lacked the predators found on the ground that our chimp-like ancestors would have been poor defenders against. As they became bipedal, they began to live in groups that used weapons to fend off predators and hunt down prey. Running became a key aspect to the survival of the species. Even with all this, it is the development of the brain that has guided the development of the muscle functions and structures in humans. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=32156908 | 1,473,568 |
2,020,995 | The history of artificial intelligence goes hand in hand with the appointment of Wolfgang Bibel, who had been rejected by professors at the Technical University of Munich because they did not believe in the future of artificial intelligence. In the winter semester 1985/1986 Bible represented the chair at the Technische Hochschule Darmstadt (TH Darmstadt) as deputy professor for the first time, to which the university later appointed him. Hans-Jürgen Hoffmann, Professor for Programming Languages and Translators, was involved in the deputy professorship. He accepted the call to TH Darmstadt on 1 October 1988 and became Professor of Intellectics at the Department of Computer Science. Bible is one of the founders of artificial intelligence in Germany and Europe. He built up the necessary institutions, conferences and scientific journals and provided the necessary research programmes to establish the field of artificial intelligence. For the academic year 1991/1992 he took over the office as Dean of the Department of Computer Science of TH Darmstadt. During this time he chaired three appointment commissions. Among them were Oskar von Stryk and Karsten Weihe. In his time, he also built up his research group and made the Technische Universität Darmstadt (TU Darmstadt) one of the leading universities for artificial intelligence worldwide. The most outstanding scientific project was the National Priority Program Deduction, funded by the German Research Foundation (DFG). The project led to Germany assuming a leading position in artificial intelligence. He has been professor emeritus since 2004. He gave his farewell lecture on February 13, 2004. By 2017, twenty-five of his doctoral students or staff had become professors, so that the majority of today's German AI researchers are graduates of TU Darmstadt. For his achievements he was honored by the Gesellschaft für Informatik as one of the ten influential minds in German AI history. He was also one of the first Fellows of the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=62391933 | 2,019,832 |
869,909 | After a distinguished career in astronomy and shortly before becoming Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Samuel Pierpont Langley started a serious investigation into aerodynamics at what is today the University of Pittsburgh. In 1891, he published "Experiments in Aerodynamics" detailing his research, and then turned to building his designs. He hoped to achieve automatic aerodynamic stability, so he gave little consideration to in-flight control. On 6 May 1896, Langley's "Aerodrome No. 5" made the first successful sustained flight of an unpiloted, engine-driven heavier-than-air craft of substantial size. It was launched from a spring-actuated catapult mounted on top of a houseboat on the Potomac River near Quantico, Virginia. Two flights were made that afternoon, one of and a second of , at a speed of approximately . On both occasions, the "Aerodrome No. 5" landed in the water as planned, because in order to save weight, it was not equipped with landing gear. On 28 November 1896, another successful flight was made with the "Aerodrome No. 6". This flight, of , was witnessed and photographed by Alexander Graham Bell. The "Aerodrome No. 6" was actually "Aerodrome No. 4" greatly modified. So little remained of the original aircraft that it was given a new designation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1607990 | 869,449 |
250,592 | After a distinguished career in astronomy and shortly before becoming Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Samuel Pierpont Langley started a serious investigation into aerodynamics at what is today the University of Pittsburgh. In 1891, he published "Experiments in Aerodynamics" detailing his research, and then turned to building his designs. He hoped to achieve automatic aerodynamic stability, so he gave little consideration to in-flight control. On 6 May 1896, Langley's "Aerodrome No. 5" made the first successful sustained flight of an unpiloted, engine-driven heavier-than-air craft of substantial size. It was launched from a spring-actuated catapult mounted on top of a houseboat on the Potomac River near Quantico, Virginia. Two flights were made that afternoon, one of and a second of , at a speed of approximately . On both occasions, the "Aerodrome No. 5" landed in the water as planned, because, in order to save weight, it was not equipped with landing gear. On 28 November 1896, another successful flight was made with the "Aerodrome No. 6". This flight, of , was witnessed and photographed by Alexander Graham Bell. The "Aerodrome No. 6" was actually "Aerodrome No. 4" greatly modified. So little remained of the original aircraft that it was given a new designation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177680 | 250,459 |
221,269 | Midway through his undergraduate years at Oregon State University, he served two years in the United States Navy as a radio and radar technician in the Philippines. It was there, on the remote island of Leyte in a small traditional hut on stilts, that he read Vannevar Bush's article "As We May Think", which would have a large influence on his thinking and work. He returned to Oregon State and completed his bachelor's degree in electrical engineering in 1948. While at Oregon State, he was a member of Sigma Phi Epsilon social fraternity. He was hired by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics at the Ames Research Center, where he worked in wind tunnel maintenance. In his off hours he enjoyed hiking, camping, and folk dancing. It was there he met Ballard Fish (August 18, 1928 – June 18, 1997), who was just completing her training to become an occupational therapist. They were married in Portola State Park on May 5, 1951. Soon after, Engelbart left Ames to pursue graduate studies at the University of California, Berkeley. There, he received an M.S. in electrical engineering in 1953 and a PhD in the discipline in 1955. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8081 | 221,160 |
728,038 | Stanley Porter has also questioned Nongbri's assertion that valid comparisons can be made between 𝔓 and documentary papyri of the later second and early third centuries; noting the warning from Eric Turner that, "Comparison of book hands with dated documentary hands will be less reliable, the intention of the scribe is different in the two cases." and in respect of this Porter cautions against what he terms Nongbri's 'overly skeptical' insistence on disregarding comparators without an explicit date, forcing comparators for literary texts inappropriately to be confined to purely documentary hands. Porter suggests that Nongbri's proposed late second and third century comparators are in several cases quite different from 𝔓 so that they force comparison to focus on detailed letter forms without consideration of the overall formation, trajectory and style of the script. If, rather than undertaking comparisons document by document, typological letter comparisons are instead applied using published series of dated representative script alphabets, then, Porter asserts, both 𝔓 and P.Egerton 2 "fit comfortably within the second century. There are of course some letters that are similar to those in the third century (as there are some in the first century) but the letters that tend to be given the most individualization, such as alpha, mu and even sigma, appear to be second century." Both Porter and Nongbri note that Eric Turner, notwithstanding his proposal of P.Amh. 2.78 as a parallel for 𝔓, nevertheless continued to maintain that "The Rylands papyrus may therefore be accepted as of the first half of the second century". Nongbri has subsequently pointed out the limited usefulness of Porter's study due to the fact that it makes no reference to manuscripts with secure dates and thus is entirely circular (several undated manuscripts are used to provide a date for another undated manuscript). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=848618 | 727,655 |
405,962 | In 1790, Adair Crawford, a physician engaged in the preparation of barium, and his colleague William Cruickshank, recognised that the Strontian ores exhibited properties that differed from those in other "heavy spars" sources. This allowed Crawford to conclude on page 355 "... it is probable indeed, that the scotch mineral is a new species of earth which has not hitherto been sufficiently examined." The physician and mineral collector Friedrich Gabriel Sulzer analysed together with Johann Friedrich Blumenbach the mineral from Strontian and named it strontianite. He also came to the conclusion that it was distinct from the witherite and contained a new earth (neue Grunderde). In 1793 Thomas Charles Hope, a professor of chemistry at the University of Glasgow studied the mineral and proposed the name "strontites". He confirmed the earlier work of Crawford and recounted: "... Considering it a peculiar earth I thought it necessary to give it an name. I have called it Strontites, from the place it was found; a mode of derivation in my opinion, fully as proper as any quality it may possess, which is the present fashion." The element was eventually isolated by Sir Humphry Davy in 1808 by the electrolysis of a mixture containing strontium chloride and mercuric oxide, and announced by him in a lecture to the Royal Society on 30 June 1808. In keeping with the naming of the other alkaline earths, he changed the name to "strontium". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27118 | 405,762 |
2,085,901 | The need for local expertise incited a handful of knowledgeable, intuitive, and earnest individuals to develop an academic-based venue to train members of the JTASC and members of the contract team right here in the region. That fall semester (1994) Eugene Newman, coordinator of Technical/Business Development for JTASC, and Roland Mielke, ODU professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering, worked on a proposal inviting the University to take the lead in providing this academic training. Meetings were held with the University President and Provost (Drs. James Koch and JoAnn Gora) and academic deans (Drs. James Cross and William Swart) to make them aware of the immediate need at the JTASC and to stress the fact that this would fill an education void in the region while fostering a professional relationship with the USJFCOM. Dr. Mielke proffered the introduction of short courses to begin formal academic training at the JTASC. ODU agreed to review the matter; by spring 1995, Dr. Mielke taught the very first short course and within months Jack Stoughton, ODU professor of Electrical and Computing Engineering, was assigned an office at USJFCOM to better accomplish his task of determining the validity of the requirement to prepare trainers for joint training. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12580104 | 2,084,699 |
1,828,512 | The Section was also in charge of distributing the introduced plant material for evaluation and potential incorporation into U.S. agricultural production. Initially, the introduced material went to State Agricultural Experiment Stations or other reliable cooperators for testing. The need for facilities to test lesser known crops and later to quarantine plants to prevent introduction of plant pests led to the establishment of Federal Plant Introduction Gardens. The first such garden was established in Miami, Florida in 1898, followed by notable gardens at Chico, California in 1904, Savannah, Georgia in 1919, and Glen Dale, Maryland in 1919. Although these gardens propagated, tested and distributed promising plant materials, they were not intended for long-term maintenance. Early in its history, the Section also began fulfilling foreign and domestic requests for plant materials curated in the U.S. that were needed for research. This distribution mission remains a primary objective of the NPGS today, with about 250,000 samples being supplied annually to global plant breeders and other research scientists. Over the decades, germplasm exchange between countries has formed the basis for bilateral and multilateral collaborations involving training and research that benefit all parties. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31519537 | 1,827,473 |
1,559,441 | This was a race between three strong teams with many athletes at their peak. From the gun, Alice Brown was out fastest for the US in lane 6, almost making up the stagger on Zvetanka Ilieva leading off for Bulgaria on her outside. Meanwhile, East German star, 1987 World Champion Silke Möller was losing ground in lane 5 as Soviet Lyudmila Kondratyeva was gaining in lane 4. All the handoffs were efficient before both Kerstin Behrendt and Galina Malchugina closed the gap on the American Sheila Echols on the second leg. The American handoff to the year's phenom, world record holder Florence Griffith-Joyner was safe but not particularly efficient, the East German underhanded pass to Ingrid Auerswald is a textbook demonstration of an efficient handoff, and gave East Germany the lead. It would still be expected that the way FloJo dominated the sprint events, she would be able to pull away from Auerswald, but running the longer distance around the turn she only made a marginal gain and Marina Zhirova also put the Soviet team in close contention. Both the Soviet team and East German teams executed efficient handoffs, leaving Natalya Pomoshchnikova just slightly behind 1983 World Champion Marlies Göhr. The American handoff was not as efficient as Griffith-Joyner ran up on veteran anchor Evelyn Ashford leaving USA two metres behind. Pomoshchnikova accelerated and was able to pull even with Göhr while Ashford was in full stride and gaining. 50 metres from the finish it was three abreast across the center of the track. Ashford continued right past Göhr to a meter and a half victory. The three teams were so far ahead of the rest of the world that Pomoshchnikova, despite pulling a muscle 30 m from the finish, was able to limp across the finish line ahead of the West German team for the bronze medal. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14575205 | 1,558,555 |
7,071 | In 2005, the entire fleet of 356 A-10 and OA-10 aircraft began receiving the Precision Engagement upgrades including an improved fire control system (FCS), electronic countermeasures (ECM), and smart bomb targeting. The aircraft receiving this upgrade were redesignated A-10C. The Government Accountability Office in 2007 estimated the cost of upgrading, refurbishing, and service life extension plans for the A-10 force to total $2.25 billion through 2013. In July 2010, the USAF issued Raytheon a contract to integrate a Helmet Mounted Integrated Targeting (HMIT) system into the A-10C. The Air Force Materiel Command's Ogden Air Logistics Center at Hill AFB, Utah completed work on its 100th A-10 precision engagement upgrade in January 2008. The final aircraft was upgraded to A-10C configuration in June 2011. The aircraft also received all-weather combat capability, and a Hand-on-Throttle-and-Stick configuration mixing the F-16's flight stick with the F-15's throttle. Other changes included two multifunction displays, a modern communications suite including a Link-16 radio and SATCOM. The LASTE system was replaced with the integrated flight and fire control computer (IFFCC) included in the PE upgrade. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12502446 | 7,068 |
1,208,488 | The algorithm used is intended to inform the diver of a decompression profile that will keep the risk of decompression sickness (DCS) to an acceptable level. Researchers use experimental diving programmes or data that has been recorded from previous dives to validate an algorithm. The dive computer measures depth and time, then uses the algorithm to determine decompression requirements or estimate remaining no-stop times at the current depth. An algorithm takes into account the magnitude of pressure reduction, breathing gas changes, repetitive exposures, rate of ascent, and time at altitude. Algorithms are not able to reliably account for age, previous injury, ambient temperature, body type, alcohol consumption, dehydration, and other factors such as patent foramen ovale, because the effects of these factors have not been experimentally quantified, though some may attempt to compensate for these by factoring in user input, and for diver peripheral temperature and workload by having sensors that monitor ambient temperature and cylinder pressure changes as a proxy. Water temperature is known to be a poor proxy for body temperature, as it does not account for the effectiveness of the diving suit or heat generated by work or active heating systems. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=302027 | 1,207,842 |
1,032,829 | In September 2005, Microsoft introduced the "Natural Ergonomic Keyboard 4000" at a retail price of . This keyboard provides a significantly changed ergonomic design, including an integrated leatherette wrist rest, noticeably concave key banks, and a removable front stand to generate negative slope, which helps to straighten the wrist and allows the fingers to drop naturally onto the keys. The multimedia keys have again been redesigned, and the six-key nav/edit cluster has been fixed by returning to the standard 3×2 horizontal rectangular layout. The F Lock key now defaults to "on", providing the original function key features rather than the new "enhanced" functions, and retains its setting across reboots. The 4000 has the indicator lights for Caps lock, etc. moved back to between the banks of keys, although they are now below the space bar, rather than above. The 4000 is also significantly quieter to type on, with less of the distinctive "click clack" noise that is common with older keyboards; as it is likely uses cheaper membrane key switches (as opposed to mechanical), which tend to be quieter but have twice as much travel before depression. The space bar, however, has been reported by several reviewers to be unusually noisy and difficult to depress. The 4000 is available in two variants, Business and Retail. The exact differences are not known, although product descriptions imply that the packaging is different, and prices are often slightly higher for the Business edition. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=520254 | 1,032,293 |
2,141,679 | The spacecraft approximated a short polygon in diameter and high. The antennas in the X-Y plane measured tip-to-tip, and on the Z-axis are tip-to-tip. Two booms are provided for remote measurements. Power is supplied by a solar cell array, mounted on the side and end panels. The spacecraft is spin-stabilized, with the spin axis normal to the orbital plane, and the spin rate at 10 ± 0.1 rpm. A pulse-code modulation (PCM) telemetry data system is used that operates in real time or in a tape recorder mode. Data have been acquired on a science-problem-oriented basis, with closely coordinated operations of the various instruments, both satellites, and supportive experiments. Data acquired from the instruments are temporarily stored on tape recorders before transmission at an 8:1 playback-to-record ratio. Additional operational flexibility allows a playback-to-record ratio of 4:1. The primary data rate is 16,384 bits per second. Since commands are stored in a command memory unit, spacecraft operations are not real time, except for the transmission of the wideband analog data from the Plasma Wave Instrument (1981-070A-02). On 22 October 1990, the science operations were terminated. On 28 February 1991, Dynamics Explorer 1 operations were officially terminated. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10537022 | 2,140,448 |
1,464,188 | Thirsk was in the family medicine residency program at the Queen Elizabeth Hospital in Montreal when he was selected in December 1983 by the National Research Council of Canada to join the Canadian astronaut program. He began astronaut training in February 1984 and served as backup payload specialist to Marc Garneau for space shuttle mission STS-41-G, which flew October 5 to 13, 1984. He has participated in several parabolic flight experiment campaigns on board NASA's KC-135 aircraft and has been involved in various projects relating to space medicine, the International Space Station, mission planning, and education with the Canadian Space Agency. He led an international research team investigating the effect of weightlessness on the heart and blood vessels. His team designed and tested an experimental "anti-gravity suit" that may help astronauts withstand the effects of extended spaceflight on the cardiovascular system. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=402554 | 1,463,365 |
870,514 | Acorn's video solution for its own computers was the Replay system, introducing compression formats and associated software for playback and authoring. However, laserdisc technology, which had been used several years earlier by Acorn for interactive video applications, notably in the BBC Domesday Project, was still seen as being a "promising rival" to CD-based video formats, having finally "become successful in multimedia training" and by then "being aimed at well-heeled home video enthusiasts". Reservations about the read-only nature of CD-ROM discs was also seen as a "wounding flaw", leaving users to consider alternatives for convenient bulk storage, with magneto-optical drives emerging at this time. Nevertheless, CD-ROM adoption was seen as inevitable, particularly given the format's benefits for holding large amounts of text and making the searching of such text convenient, and with government initiatives having helped to make an estimated 100 titles available for both MS-DOS and RISC OS. The dual-function nature of the media and the ability to use drives to play audio also made such products generally attractive purchases, particularly for home users and with Photo CD also regarded as an attraction, although the introduction of Philips' CD-i and Commodore's CDTV risked a level of confusion in this market as well as presenting another challenge in terms of compatibility for Acorn's own products and technologies. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=63145 | 870,054 |
1,316,266 | Newly synthesized LC3's C-terminus is hydrolyzed by a cysteine protease called ATG4B exposing Gly120, termed LC3-I. LC3-I, through a series of ubiquitin-like reactions involving enzymes ATG7, ATG3, and ATG12-ATG5-ATG16, becomes conjugated to the head group of the lipid phosphatidylethanolamine. The lipid modified form of LC3, referred to as LC3-II, is believed to be involved in autophagosome membrane expansion and fusion events. However, the exact role of LC3 in the autophagic pathway is still discussed, and the question of whether LC3 is required for autophagy is debated since knockdown of MAP1LC3B is compensated by the other members of the MAP1LC3 subfamily. Previous studies showed that MAP1LC3B knock out mice develop normally, possibly due to a then unknown compensatory mechanism. Further work, however, demonstrated that LC3 is required for autophagy by simultaneously down-regulating all of the MAP1LC3 subfamily members. While yet another study argues that MAP1LC3 knockdown does not affect bulk autophagy, whereas its GABARAP family members are crucial for the process. LC3 also functions—together with autophagy receptors (e.g. SQSTM1)--in the selective capture of cargo for autophagic degradation. Independent of autophagosomes, a single soluble LC3 is associated with an approximately 500 kDa complex in the cytoplasm. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14778310 | 1,315,541 |
183,892 | The circulation in Venus's troposphere follows the so-called cyclostrophic flow. Its windspeeds are roughly determined by the balance of the pressure gradient and centrifugal forces in almost purely zonal flow. In contrast, the circulation in the Earth's atmosphere is governed by the geostrophic balance. Venus's windspeeds can be directly measured only in the upper troposphere (tropopause), between 60 and 70 km, altitude, which corresponds to the upper cloud deck. The cloud motion is usually observed in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum, where the contrast between clouds is the highest. The linear wind speeds at this level are about 100 ± 10 m/s at lower than 50° latitude. They are retrograde in the sense that they blow in the direction of the retrograde rotation of the planet. The winds quickly decrease towards the higher latitudes, eventually reaching zero at the poles. Such strong cloud-top winds cause a phenomenon known as the super-rotation of the atmosphere. In other words, these high-speed winds circle the whole planet faster than the planet itself rotates. The super-rotation on Venus is differential, which means that the equatorial troposphere super-rotates more slowly than the troposphere at the midlatitudes. The winds also have a strong vertical gradient. They decline deep in the troposphere with the rate of 3 m/s per km. The winds near the surface of Venus are much slower than that on Earth. They actually move at only a few kilometres per hour (generally less than 2 m/s and with an average of 0.3 to 1.0 m/s), but due to the high density of the atmosphere at the surface, this is still enough to transport dust and small stones across the surface, much like a slow-moving current of water. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6410946 | 183,795 |
1,105,393 | For simple model systems, modern computers are powerful enough to calculate exact nucleation rates numerically. An example is the nucleation of the crystal phase in a system of hard spheres, which is a simple model of colloids consisting of perfectly hard spheres in thermal motion. The agreement of CNT with the simulated rates for this system confirms that the classical theory is a reasonable approximation. For simple models CNT works quite well; however it is unclear if it describes complex (e.g., molecular) systems equally well. For example, in the context of vapor to liquid nucleation, the CNT predictions for the nucleation rate are incorrect by several orders of magnitude on an "absolute scale" — that is, without renormalizing with respect to experimental data. Nevertheless, certain variations on the classical theory have been claimed to represent the temperature dependence adequately, even if the absolute magnitude is inaccurate. Jones "et al." computationally explored the nucleation of small water clusters using a classical water model. It was found that CNT could describe the nucleation of clusters of 8-50 water molecules well, but failed to describe smaller clusters. Corrections to CNT, obtained from higher accuracy methods such as quantum chemical calculations, may improve the agreement with experiment. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44846612 | 1,104,830 |
1,083,063 | Most vibration analysis instruments today utilize a fast Fourier transform (FFT) which is a special case of the generalized discrete Fourier transform and converts the vibration signal from its time domain representation to its equivalent frequency domain representation. However, frequency analysis (sometimes called Spectral Analysis or Vibration Signature Analysis) is only one aspect of interpreting the information contained in a vibration signal. Frequency analysis tends to be most useful on machines that employ rolling element bearings and whose main failure modes tend to be the degradation of those bearings, which typically exhibit an increase in characteristic frequencies associated with the bearing geometries and constructions. Depending on the type of machine, its typical malfunctions, the bearing types employed, rotational speeds, and other factors, the CM specialist may use additional diagnostic tools, such as examination of the time domain signal, the phase relationship between vibration components and a timing mark on the machine shaft (often known as a keyphasor), historical trends of vibration levels, the shape of vibration, and numerous other aspects of the signal along with other information from the process such as load, bearing temperatures, flow rates, valve positions and pressures to provide an accurate diagnosis. This is particularly true of machines that use fluid bearings rather than rolling-element bearings. To enable them to look at this data in a more simplified form vibration analysts or machinery diagnostic engineers have adopted a number of mathematical plots to show machine problems and running characteristics, these plots include the bode plot, the waterfall plot, the polar plot and the orbit time base plot amongst others. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2890021 | 1,082,506 |
250,559 | The first published paper on aviation was "Sketch of a Machine for Flying in the Air" by Emanuel Swedenborg published in 1716. This flying machine consisted of a light frame covered with strong canvas and provided with two large oars or wings moving on a horizontal axis, arranged so that the upstroke met with no resistance while the downstroke provided lifting power. Swedenborg knew that the machine would not fly, but suggested it as a start and was confident that the problem would be solved. He wrote: "It seems easier to talk of such a machine than to put it into actuality, for it requires greater force and less weight than exists in a human body. The science of mechanics might perhaps suggest a means, namely, a strong spiral spring. If these advantages and requisites are observed, perhaps in time to come someone might know how better to utilize our sketch and cause some addition to be made so as to accomplish that which we can only suggest. Yet there are sufficient proofs and examples from nature that such flights can take place without danger, although when the first trials are made you may have to pay for the experience, and not mind an arm or leg". Swedenborg would prove prescient in his observation that a method of powering of an aircraft was one of the critical problems to be overcome. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177680 | 250,426 |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.