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Because of their large size, intact proteins can be difficult to study using analytical techniques, such as mass spectrometry. Consequently, it is often desirable to break a large polypeptide down into smaller pieces. Proteases are enzymes that typically break peptide bonds by binding to specific amino acid sequences i... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_For_All_(Ahern_Rajagopal_and_Tan)/08%3A_Basic_Techniques/8.11%3A_Protein_Cleavage.txt |
In this chapter we introduce the subject and talk about the scientific aspects of the most important and most abundant liquid on the face of Earth - water.
01: Cells Water and Buffers
Biochemistry is a relatively young science, but the rate of its expansion has been truly impressive. This rapid pace of discoveries,... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/01%3A_Cells_Water_and_Buffers/1.01%3A_Introduction.txt |
Water can ionize to a slight extent ($10^{-7}\; M$ is about 6 molecules per 100 million of pure water) to form $H^+$ (proton) and $OH^-$ (hydroxide). We measure the proton concentration of a solution with pH, which we define as the negative log of the proton concentration.
$pH = -\log[H^+] \label{1.4.1}$
If the proto... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/01%3A_Cells_Water_and_Buffers/1.04%3A_Buffers_Keep_the_Cellular_Environment_Stable.txt |
It is useful to be able to predict the response of the $HAc$ system to changes in $H^+$ concentration. The Henderson-Hasselbalch equation defines the relationship between pH and the ratio of $Ac^-$ and $HAc$. It is as follows
$pH = pK_a + \log \left(\dfrac{[Ac^-]}{[HAc]}\right) \label{1.5.1}$
This simple equation def... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/01%3A_Cells_Water_and_Buffers/1.05%3A_Henderson-Hasselbalch_Approximation.txt |
Living organisms are made up of cells, and cells contain many biochemical components such as proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates. But, living cells are not random collections of these molecules. They are extraordinarily organized or "ordered". By contrast, in the nonliving world, there is a universal tendency to increa... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/02%3A_Energy/2.01%3A_Oxidative_Energy.txt |
Biochemical processes that break things down from larger to smaller are called catabolic processes. Catabolic processes are often oxidative in nature and energy releasing. Some, but not all of that energy is captured as ATP. If not all of the energy is captured as ATP, what happens to the rest of it? The answer is simp... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/02%3A_Energy/2.02%3A_Oxidation_vs_Reduction_in_Metabolism.txt |
Most of the time, ATP is the “storage battery” of cells (See also ‘Molecular Battery Backups for Muscles below). In order to understand how energy is captured, we must first understand Gibbs free energy and in doing so, we begin to see the role of energy in determining the directions chemical reactions take. Wikipedia ... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/02%3A_Energy/2.05%3A_Gibbs_Free_Energy.txt |
Formation of triphosphates is essential to meet the cell’s immediate energy needs for synthesis, motion, and signaling. In a given day, an average human being uses more than their body weight in triphosphates. Since triphosphates are the “currency” that meet immediate needs of the cell, it is important to understand ho... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/02%3A_Energy/2.06%3A_Cellular_Phosphorylations.txt |
Cells are not 100% efficient in energy use; nothing that we know of is. Consequently, cells do not get as much energy out of catabolic processes as they put into anabolic processes. A good example is the synthesis and breakdown of glucose, something liver cells are frequently doing. The complete conversion of glucose t... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/02%3A_Energy/2.07%3A_Energy_Efficiency.txt |
Function flows from structure. In order to understand the function of biomolecules, we must first understand their structures.
• 3.1: Introduction to Structure & Function
If we hope to understand function in biological systems, we must first understand structure.
• 3.2: Building Blocks
Biological macromolecules are al... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/03%3A_Structure__Function/3.01%3A_Introduction_to_Structure__Function.txt |
Whereas nucleotides all are water soluble and have the same basic composition (sugar, base, phosphate) and the sugars also are water soluble and mostly contain 5 or 6 carbons (a few exceptions), the amino acids (general structure below) are structurally and chemically diverse.
Though all of the amino acids are, in fac... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/03%3A_Structure__Function/3.03%3A_Proteins.txt |
Determination of the structure of the most common form of DNA, known as the B form, was one of the most important scientific advances of the 20th century. Using data from Rosalind Franklin, James Watson and Francis Crick initiated the modern era of molecular biology with their paper in the April 25, 1953 issue of Natur... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/03%3A_Structure__Function/3.04%3A_Nucleic_Acids.txt |
The last class of macromolecules we will consider structurally here is the carbohydrates. Built of sugars or modified sugars, carbohydrates have several important functions, including structural integrity, cellular identification, and energy storage.
Monosaccharides
Simple sugars, also known as monosaccharides, can g... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/03%3A_Structure__Function/3.05%3A_Carbohydrates.txt |
Lipids are a broad class of molecules that all share the characteristic that they have at least a portion of them that is hydrophobic. The class of molecules includes fats, oils (and their substituent fatty acids), steroids, fat-soluble vitamins, prostaglandins, glycerophospholipids, and sphingolipids. Interestingly, e... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/03%3A_Structure__Function/3.06%3A_Lipids_and_Membranes.txt |
In living systems, speed is everything. Providing the reaction speeds necessary to support life are the catalysts, mostly in the form of enzymes.
• 4.1: Introduction to Catalysis
• 4.2: Activation Energy
Notice that the reactants start at the same energy level for both conditions and that the products end at the same ... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/04%3A_Catalysis/4.01%3A_Introduction_to_Catalysis.txt |
Figure 4.1.1 schematically depicts the energy changes that occur during the progression of a simple reaction. In the figure, the energy differences during the reaction are compared for a catalyzed (plot on the right) and an uncatalyzed reaction (plot on the left). Notice that the reactants start at the same energy leve... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/04%3A_Catalysis/4.02%3A_Activation_Energy.txt |
Consider the mechanism of catalysis of the enzyme known as chymotrypsin. Found in our digestive system, chymotrypsin’s catalytic action is cleaving peptide bonds in proteins and it uses the side chain of a serine in its mechanism of catalysis. Many other protein- cutting enzymes employ a very similar mechanism and they... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/04%3A_Catalysis/4.07%3A_Chymotrypsin.txt |
Scientists spend a considerable amount of time characterizing enzymes. To understand how they do this and what the characterizations tell us, we must first understand a few parameters. Imagine I wished to study the reaction catalyzed by an enzyme I have just isolated. I would be interested to understand how fast the en... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/04%3A_Catalysis/4.08%3A_Enzyme_Parameters.txt |
Now, if we think about what an ideal enzyme might be, it would be one that has a very high velocity and a very high affinity for its substrate. That is, it wouldn’t take much substrate to get to \(V_{max}/2\) and the \(K_{cat}\) would be very high. Such enzymes would have values of \(K_{cat} / K_M\) that are maximum. I... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/04%3A_Catalysis/4.09%3A_Perfect_Enzymes.txt |
Inhibition of specific enzymes by drugs can be medically useful. Understanding the mechanisms of enzyme inhibition is therefore of considerable importance. We will discuss four types of enzyme inhibition – competitive, non- competitive, uncompetitive, and suicide. Of these, the first three types are reversible. The las... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/04%3A_Catalysis/4.11%3A_Enzyme_Inhibition.txt |
It is appropriate that we talk at this point about mechanisms cells use to control enzymes. There are four general methods that are employed. They include
1. allosterism
2. covalent modification
3. access to substrate
4. control of enzyme synthesis/breakdown
Some enzymes are controlled by more than one of these metho... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/04%3A_Catalysis/4.12%3A_Control_of_Enzymes.txt |
As the cell’s so-called blueprint, DNA must be copied to pass on to new cells and its integrity safeguarded. The information in the DNA must also be accessed and transcribed to make the RNA instructions that direct the synthesis of proteins.
• 5.1: DNA Replication
The only way to make new cells is by the division of p... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/05%3A_Flow_of_Genetic_Information/5.01%3A_DNA_Replication.txt |
Maintaining the Integrity of the Cell's Information: DNA Repair
In the last section we considered the ways in which cells deal with the challenges associated with replicating their DNA, a vital process for all cells. It is evident that if DNA is the master copy of instructions for an organism, then it is important not... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/05%3A_Flow_of_Genetic_Information/5.02%3A_DNA_Repair.txt |
In the preceding sections, we have discussed the replication of the cell's DNA and the mechanisms by which the integrity of the genetic information is carefully maintained. What do cells do with this information? How does the sequence in DNA control what happens in a cell? If DNA is a giant instruction book containing ... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/05%3A_Flow_of_Genetic_Information/5.03%3A_Transcription.txt |
The processes described above are required whenever any gene is transcribed. But what determines which genes are transcribed at a given time. What are the molecular switches that turn transcription on or off? Although there are entire books written on this one topic, the basic mechanism by which transcription is regula... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/05%3A_Flow_of_Genetic_Information/5.04%3A_Regulation_of_Transcription.txt |
So far, we have looked at the mechanism by which the information in genes (DNA) is transcribed into RNA. The newly made RNA, also known as the primary transcript (the product of transcription is known as a transcript) is further processed before it is functional. Both prokaryotes and eukaryotes process their ribosomal ... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/05%3A_Flow_of_Genetic_Information/5.05%3A_RNA_Processing.txt |
Translation is the process by which information in mRNAs is used to direct the synthesis of proteins. As you have learned in introductory biology, in eukaryotic cells, this process is carried out in the cytoplasm of the cell, by large RNA-protein machines called ribosomes. Ribosomes contain ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs) and p... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/05%3A_Flow_of_Genetic_Information/5.06%3A_Translation.txt |
The cost of living is energy and the producers and consumers of energy in the cell are the chemical reactions known collectively as metabolism. Metabolic processes are governed by the same laws of energy as the rest of the universe, so they must be viewed in the light of Gibbs free energy. For the most part, the driver... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/06%3A_Metabolism_I_-_Oxidative_Reductive_Processes/6.01%3A_Definitions.txt |
We can view metabolism at several levels. At the highest level, we have nutrients, such as sugars, fatty acids and amino acids entering cells and carbon dioxide and other waste products (such as urea) exiting. Cells use the incoming materials for energy and substance to synthesize sugars, nucleotides, and other amino a... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/06%3A_Metabolism_I_-_Oxidative_Reductive_Processes/6.02%3A_Perspectives.txt |
The anabolic counterpart to glycolysis is gluconeogenesis, which occurs mostly in the cells of the liver and kidney. In seven of the eleven reactions of gluconeogenesis (starting from pyruvate), the same enzymes are used as in glycolysis, but the reaction directions are reversed. Notably, the \(\Delta\)G values of thes... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/06%3A_Metabolism_I_-_Oxidative_Reductive_Processes/6.04%3A_Gluconeogenesis.txt |
A pathway related to the Citric Acid Cycle (CAC) is the glyoxylate pathway (Figure 6.6.1). This pathway, which overlaps all of the non-decarboxylation reactions of the CAC does not operate in animals, because they lack two enzymes necessary for the pathway – isocitrate lyase and malate synthase. Isocitrate lyase cataly... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/06%3A_Metabolism_I_-_Oxidative_Reductive_Processes/6.06%3A_Glyoxylate_Pathway.txt |
In ketone body synthesis, an acetyl-CoA is split off from HMG-CoA, yielding acetoacetate, a four carbon ketone body that is somewhat unstable, chemically. It will decarboxylate spontaneously to some extent to yield acetone. Ketone bodies are made when the blood levels of glucose fall very low. Ketone bodies can be conv... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/06%3A_Metabolism_I_-_Oxidative_Reductive_Processes/6.09%3A_Ketone_Body_Synthesis.txt |
Synthesis of fatty acids occurs in the cytoplasm and endoplasmic reticulum of the cell and is chemically similar to the beta-oxidation process, but with a couple of key differences. The first of these occur in preparing substrates for the reactions that grow the fatty acid. Transport of acetyl-CoA from the mitochondria... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/06%3A_Metabolism_I_-_Oxidative_Reductive_Processes/6.12%3A_Fatty_Acid_Synthesis.txt |
In the last chapter, we focused on metabolic pathways that played important oxidative/reductive roles relative to cellular energy. In this chapter, the pathways that we cover have lesser roles from an energy perspective, but important roles, nonetheless, in catabolism and anabolism of building blocks of proteins and nu... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/07%3A_Metabolism_II/7.01%3A_Carbohydrate_Storage_and_Breakdown.txt |
The Pentose Phosphate Pathway (PPP) is one that many students are confused by. Perhaps the reason for this is that it does not really have a single direction in which it proceeds, as will be apparent below.
Portions of the PPP are similar to the Calvin Cycle of plants, also known as the dark reactions of photosynthesi... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/07%3A_Metabolism_II/7.02%3A_Pentose_Phospate_Pathway.txt |
The Calvin Cycle is the means by which plants assimilate carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, ultimately into glucose. Plants use two general strategies for doing so. The first is employed by plants called C3 plants (most plants) and it simply involves the pathway described above. Another class of plants, called C4 plan... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/07%3A_Metabolism_II/7.04%3A_C4_Plants.txt |
Breakdown of glutamine by glutaminase is a source of ammonium ion in the cell. The other product is glutamate. Glutamate, of course, can be converted by a transamination reaction to alpha-ketoglutarate, which can be oxidized in the citric acid cycle.
• Asparagine can similarly be broken to ammonium and aspartate by as... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/07%3A_Metabolism_II/7.08%3A_Amino_Acid_Catabolism.txt |
Synthesis of purine nucleotides differs fundamentally from that of pyrimidine nucleotides in that the bases are built on the ribose ring. The starting material is ribose 5-phosphate, which is phosphorylated by PRPP synthetase to PRPP using two phosphates from ATP. PRPP amidotransferase catalyzes the transfer of an amin... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/07%3A_Metabolism_II/7.11%3A_Purine_de_novo_Biosynthesis.txt |
Cells must receive and respond to signals from their surroundings. Cellular signals and the pathways through which they are passed on and amplified to produce the desired effects on their targets are the focus of this section.
• 8.1: Cell Signaling
How do cells receive signals from their environment and how do they co... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/08%3A_Signaling/8.01%3A_Cell_Signaling.txt |
The simplest and fastest of signal pathways is seen in the case of signals whose receptors are gated ion channels. Gated ion channels are made up of multiple transmembrane proteins that create a pore, or channel, in the cell membrane. Depending upon its type, each ion channel is specific to the passage of a particular ... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/08%3A_Signaling/8.02%3A_Ligand-gated_Ion_Channel_Receptors.txt |
G-protein coupled receptors are involved in responses of cells to many different kinds of signals, from epinephrine, to odors, to light. In fact, a variety of physiological phenomena including vision, taste, smell and the fight-or-flight response are mediated by GPCRs.
What are G-protein coupled receptors?
G-protein ... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/08%3A_Signaling/8.04%3A_G-protein_Coupled_Receptors_%28GPCRs%29.txt |
Receptor tyrosine kinases mediate responses to a large number of signals, including peptide hormones like insulin and growth factors like epidermal growth factor. Like the GPCRs, receptor tyrosine kinases bind a signal, then pass the message on through a series of intracellular molecules, the last of which acts on targ... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/08%3A_Signaling/8.05%3A_Receptor_Tyrosine_Kinases_%28RTKs%29.txt |
The environment of a cell is very complex, making it very diffcult, if not impossible, to study individual reactions, enzymes, or pathways within it. For this reason, biochemists prefer to isolate molecules (enzymes, DNAs, RNAs, and other molecules of interest) so they can be analyzed without interference from the mill... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/09%3A_Techniques/9.01%3A_Cell_Disruption.txt |
Fractionation of samples typically starts with centrifugation. Using a centrifuge, one can remove cell debris, and fractionate organelles, and cytoplasm. For example, nuclei, being relatively large, can be spun down at fairly low speeds. Once nuclei have been sedimented, the remaining solution, or supernatant, can be c... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/09%3A_Techniques/9.02%3A_Fractionation.txt |
DNA molecules are long and loaded with negative charges, thanks to their phosphate backbones. Electrophoretic methods separate large molecules, such as DNA, RNA, and proteins based on their charge and size. For DNA and RNA, the charge of the nucleic acid is proportional to its size (length). For proteins, which do not ... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/09%3A_Techniques/9.08%3A_Electrophoresis.txt |
Working with intact proteins in analytical techniques, such as mass spectrometry, can be problematic. Consequently, it is often desirable to break a large polypeptide down into smaller, more manageable pieces. There are two primary approaches to accomplishing this - use of chemical reagents or use of proteolytic enzyme... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/09%3A_Techniques/9.09%3A_Protein_Cleavage.txt |
Blotting provides a means of identifying specific molecules out of a mixture. It employs three main steps. First, the mixture of molecules is separated by gel electrophoresis. The mixture could be DNA (Southern Blot), RNA (Nothern Blot), or protein (Western Blot) and the gel could be agarose (for DNA/RNA) or polyacryla... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/09%3A_Techniques/9.11%3A_Blotting.txt |
A powerful tool for biotechnologists is the lac Z gene. You may recall from an earlier section on the control of gene expression, that lac Z is part of the lac operon of E. coli and encodes the enzyme ß galactosidase. This enzyme catalyzes the hydrolysis of lactose into glucose and galactose, allowing the bacteria to u... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/09%3A_Techniques/9.14%3A_Lac_Z_Blue-White_Screening.txt |
With this chapter, we tie up a bunch of loose ends and ponder what lies in the future of biochemistry.
• 10.1: Looking Back
Thousands of enzymes and their substrates have been identified, and hundreds of metabolic pathways traced. The structure of hundreds of proteins is known down to the position of every atom. Follo... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/10%3A_Putting_It_All_Together/10.01%3A_Looking_Back.txt |
Toward the end of the twentieth century, new methods began to change the face of biochemistry. The launching of the Human Genome Project and the development of faster and cheaper sequencing technologies provided biochemists with entire genome sequences, not only of humans, but of numerous other organisms. Huge database... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Book%3A_Biochemistry_Free_and_Easy_(Ahern_and_Rajagopal)/10%3A_Putting_It_All_Together/10.02%3A_Looking_Forward.txt |
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Introduction
You have probably studied the cell many times, either in high school or in college biology classes. There are many websites available that review both prokaryotic (bacterial and archaeal cell types) and eukaryotic cells (protist, fungi, plant, and animal cell types). A... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/01%3A_The_Foundations_of_Biochemistry/1.01%3A_Cellular_Foundations.txt |
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Organic Molecules
On Earth, all carbon-containing molecules have originated from biological, living organisms causing them to be termed organic compounds. The number of known organic compounds is quite large. In fact, there are many times more organic compounds known than all the o... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/01%3A_The_Foundations_of_Biochemistry/1.02%3A_Chemical_Foundations.txt |
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The types and numbers of chemical reactions that occur in biological cells are staggering. Compared to both physical and chemical reactions that occur in a controlled and closed environment, biological reactions occur in open systems with input and output of both energy and chemical... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/01%3A_The_Foundations_of_Biochemistry/1.03%3A_Physical-Chemical_Foundations.txt |
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Introduction
The development of complex biological organisms on our planet has arisen through the evolutionary mechanism of natural selection. The British naturalist, Charles Darwin proposed the theory of biological evolution by natural selection in his book, ‘On the Origins of Spe... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/01%3A_The_Foundations_of_Biochemistry/1.04%3A_Genetic__Foundations.txt |
Section 1 Questions
Question \(1\)
In Figure 1.2, two examples of types of enzyme-substrate binding are shown: the Lock-and-Key model and Induced-Fit. What are some situations in which one style of the enzyme would be favored over the other?
Answer
Lock and key enzymes are highly specific for their substrate and th... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/01%3A_The_Foundations_of_Biochemistry/1.05%3A_Chapter_1_Questions.txt |
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“Nothing in the world is as soft and yielding as it,
Yet nothing can better overcome the hard and strong,
For they can neither control nor do away with it.
The soft overcomes the hard,
The yielding overcomes the strong;”
These words come from the Tao Te Ching by Lao Zu. Let’s conve... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/02%3A_Water_and_its_Role_in_Life/2.01%3A_The_multiple_roles_of_water.txt |
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The previous section described the general acid/base properties of water. There are many functional groups in both small and large biomolecules that act as acids and bases. Common weak acids are carboxylic acids and derivatives of phosphoric acid which become negatively charged on d... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/02%3A_Water_and_its_Role_in_Life/2.02%3A_Weak_Acids_and_Bases_pH_and_pKa.txt |
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Introduction
As one way to ensure homeostasis, the pH is maintained between 7.35 and 7.45 in humans. (Much lower pH values, around 4.5, are found in the lysosome). Lower pH values are associated with metabolic and respiratory acidosis while higher pH values are characteristic of me... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/02%3A_Water_and_its_Role_in_Life/2.03%3A_Buffering_against_pH_Changes_in_Biological_Systems.txt |
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Introduction
In section 2.1, we explored the role of water as a solvent. Using the adage "like dissolves like" that you may have learned in introductory chemistry and biology courses, we can rationalize what substance might dissolve in water. We related this to the types and streng... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/02%3A_Water_and_its_Role_in_Life/2.04%3A_Solubility_in_an_aqueous_world_-_noncovalent_interactions_in_depth.txt |
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Introduction
Many biomolecules such as triacylglycerols, cholesterol esters, and waxes are nonpolar. Other biomolecules such as proteins and many lipids have both polar and nonpolar parts. We know from experience that oil floats on the surface of water, showing that it is less dens... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/02%3A_Water_and_its_Role_in_Life/2.05%3A_Solubility_in_an_aqueous_world_-_The_Hydrophobic_Effect.txt |
Section 1 Questions:
Q1) Based on the interactive figure 2.1.1 in the default view, do you hypothesize that water could enter the core of the micelle? Now, let's test your hypothesis! Open the interactive figure, and click Style → Surface Type → Solvent Accessibility. Based on the space-filled solvent accessibility ma... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/02%3A_Water_and_its_Role_in_Life/2.06%3A_Chapter_2_Questions.txt |
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Introduction
Proteins are one of the most abundant organic molecules in living systems and have the most diverse range of functions of all macromolecules. Proteins may be structural, regulatory, contractile, or protective; they may serve in transport, storage, or membranes; or they... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/03%3A_Amino_Acids_Peptides_and_Proteins/3.01%3A_Amino_Acids_and_Peptides.txt |
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Introduction
In the last chapter section, we discussed how to purify a protein (mostly through differential salt precipitation and column chromatography) and follow the purity of a protein (mostly through various types of electrophoresis) during the process. Now we want to continue... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/03%3A_Amino_Acids_Peptides_and_Proteins/3.03%3A_Proteins_-_Analyses_and_Structural_Predictions_of_Protein_Structure.txt |
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Introduction
Before a protein or other biological macromolecule can be rigorously studied from a structural and functional basis, it must be purified. The problems that can arise during protein purification become clear when one considers that a single protein has to be purified fr... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/03%3A_Amino_Acids_Peptides_and_Proteins/3.04%3A_Protein_Purification.txt |
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Written by ?? Needs work
We will describe three different uses of antibodies for the detection and quantitation of analytes.
Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA)
(work derived from the Human Atlas Project)
Since the very first use of antibodies for the detection of antigens... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/03%3A_Amino_Acids_Peptides_and_Proteins/3.05%3A_Extension_-_Antibodies_in_Quantitation_and_In_Vivo_Detection.txt |
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Peptide Bond Formation and Primary Protein Structure
Proteins are polymers of amino acids that fold into shapes that confer function on the proteins. In biological systems, the amino acids are linked together by a large ribonucleic acid/protein nanoparticle called the ribosome. Thu... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/03%3A_Amino_Acids_Peptides_and_Proteins/3.2%3A_The_Structure_of_Proteins-_An_Overview.txt |
Section 1 Questions:
Q1) A small protein has the amino acid sequence below:
C1NVC2KYAPITALYC3AEEC4QQH
There are four cysteine residues in the sequence and are designated by the subscripts. The protein is digested with chymotrypsin, and the resulting slurry is followed by an anionic exchange column.
a) Where are the di... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/03%3A_Amino_Acids_Peptides_and_Proteins/3.6%3A_Chapter_3_Questions.txt |
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Introduction
In Chapter section 3.2, we discussed primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures of proteins. We used as an example the protein hydroxynitrile lyase (5Y02). An interactive iCn3D model of hydroxynitrile lyase is shown in Figure \(1\).
Figure \(1\): hydroxyn... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/04%3A_The_Three-Dimensional_Structure_of_Proteins/4.01%3A_Main_Chain_Conformations.txt |
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Secondary structures are those repetitive structures involving H bond between amide Hs and carbonyl Os in the protein backbone. These include
• helices (alpha - α , 310 and pi - π), in which the hydrogen bonds are within a short continuous stretch of amino acids (a strand),
• beta ... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/04%3A_The_Three-Dimensional_Structure_of_Proteins/4.02%3A_Secondary_Structure_and_Loops.txt |
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Tertiary Structure
The tertiary structure of a single chain protein is the overall 3D structure of the protein. A protein of a given primary structure folds to form a 3D structure with embedded secondary structures, super secondary structures and domains. Folded proteins can have a... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/04%3A_The_Three-Dimensional_Structure_of_Proteins/4.03%3A_Tertiary_and_Quaternary_Structures.txt |
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Common Structural Motifs
Given the number of possible combinations of 1o, 2o, and 3o structures, one might guess that the 3D structure of each protein is quite distinctive. This is in general true. However, it has been found that similar substructures are found in proteins. For ins... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/04%3A_The_Three-Dimensional_Structure_of_Proteins/4.04%3A_Secondary_Structural_Motifs_and_Domains.txt |
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Proteins can also be classified as to the type and extent of secondary structure found in the protein. A detailed description of protein classes can be found at CATH. Here we will describe the basiv types with a few examples offered for each.
Alpha proteins
In these proteins, the ... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/04%3A_The_Three-Dimensional_Structure_of_Proteins/4.05%3A_Protein_with_Alpha_Alpha-Beta_Beta_and_Little_Secondary_Struct.txt |
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Intrinsically Disordered Proteins (IDPs) and Metamorphic Proteins
Many examples of proteins that are partially or completely disordered but still retain biological function have been found. At first glance this might appear to be unexpected, since how could such a protein bind its ... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/04%3A_The_Three-Dimensional_Structure_of_Proteins/4.06%3A_Intrinsically_Disordered_Proteins.txt |
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Introduction
Most proteins have a roughly spherical or "globular" tertiary structure. However, there are many proteins that form elongated fibrils with properties like elasticity, which allows deformation on the application of a force and subsequent return to the original state. El... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/04%3A_The_Three-Dimensional_Structure_of_Proteins/4.07%3A_Fibrillar_Proteins.txt |
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Introduction
We've seen many static and rotatable images of lipid aggregates (the micelle) as well as proteins. We have learned some rules about the disposition of amino acid side chains in a folded proteins. However, when we think about how proteins fold, we have to think dynamica... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/04%3A_The_Three-Dimensional_Structure_of_Proteins/4.08%3A_Protein_Folding_and_Unfolding_%28Denaturation%29_-_Dynamics.txt |
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Introduction to Protein Stability
This material is not easy, and is perhaps the most intellectually challenging of the entire book. Much of the organizational framework for this section comes from an article by Ken Dill, Biochemistry, 29, 7133-7155 (1990) as that article so clearly... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/04%3A_The_Three-Dimensional_Structure_of_Proteins/4.09%3A_Protein_Stability_-_Thermodynamics.txt |
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Introduction to Protein Aggregates
We have studied different types of protein aggregation, including aggregation of the native state (to form dimers, trimers, multimers, and filaments). We've also studied how misfolded proteins can aggregate and how a whole family of molecular chap... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/04%3A_The_Three-Dimensional_Structure_of_Proteins/4.10%3A_Protein_Aggregates_-_Amyloids_Prions_and_Intracellular_Granule.txt |
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Structure determines everything in biology and chemistry. Since you learned to represent molecules with Lewis structures, it's been drilled into you that the structure of a molecule determines its physical and chemical properties. Physical properties would include melting points, bo... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/04%3A_The_Three-Dimensional_Structure_of_Proteins/4.11%3A_Biomolecular_Visualization_-_Conceptions_and_Misconceptions.txt |
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Introduction
Multiple methods can be used to investigate the denaturation of a protein. These include UV, fluorescence, CD, and viscosity measurement. In all these methods the dependent variable (y) is measured as a function of the independent variable, which is often temperature (... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/04%3A_The_Three-Dimensional_Structure_of_Proteins/4.12%3A_Laboratory_Determination_of_the_Thermodynamic_Parameters_for_P.txt |
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Reversible Binding of a Ligand to a Macromolecule
Reversible, noncovalent binding of two or molecules is the first step in the expression of the biological properties of almost all biomacromolecules. If one of the molecules is small, it's often called a ligand. Ligands are often re... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/05%3A_Protein_Function/5.01%3A__Binding_-_The_First_Step_Toward_Protein_Function.txt |
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It is often essential to determine the KD for a ML complex since given that number and the concentrations of M and L in the system, we can then predict if M is bound under physiological conditions. Again, this is important since whether M is bound or free will govern its activity. T... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/05%3A_Protein_Function/5.02%3A_Techniques_to_Measure_Binding.txt |
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Myoglobin, Hemoglobin, and their Ligands
Almost all biochemistry textbooks start their description of the biological functions of proteins using myoglobin and hemoglobin as exemplars. On the surface this is a rational approach since they have become model systems to describe the bi... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/05%3A_Protein_Function/5.03%3A_Oxygen-Binding_Proteins_and_Allosterism.txt |
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Introduction to the Immune System
Now let's consider the daunting task faced by the immune system - to recognize all possible "foreign" molecules and react to them, either by targeting them for elimination or, paradoxically, to recognize them but not react to them (a process called... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/05%3A_Protein_Function/5.04%3A_Complementary_Interactions_between_Proteins_and_Ligands_-_The_Immune_System_and_Immunoglo.txt |
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9/21/21: The material below is derived from (shortened and summarized): Overview of the mechanism of cytoskeletal motors based on structure. Kato et al. Biophys Rev. 2018 Apr; 10(2): 571–581. Published online 2017 Dec 12. doi: 10.1007/s12551-017-0368-1. Creative Commons Attribution ... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/05%3A_Protein_Function/5.05%3A_Protein_Interactions_Modulated_by_Chemical_Energy-_Actin_Myosin_and_Molecular_Motors.txt |
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Conformational Selection
In our study of hemoglobin structure in the MWC model, we developed the idea that there were two forms of hemoglobin in solution, the taut and relaxed form, which are pre-existing and interconvertible even in the absence of dioxygen. Oxygen was presumed to ... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/05%3A_Protein_Function/5.06%3A__Binding_-_Conformational_Selections_and_Intrinsically_Disordered_Proteins.txt |
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Introduction
Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) are used widely in biotechnology, pharmaceutical and clinical medicine labs. At the same time, they appear to be underrepresented in chemistry and biochemistry curricula, even though their sensitivity, selectivity, and ease o... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/05%3A_Protein_Function/5.07%3A__Binding_-_Enzyme_Linked_Immunosorbant_Assays_%28ELISAs%29.txt |
Thumbnail: Dihydrofolate reductase is inhibited by methotrexate which prevents binding of its substrate, folic acid. (CC BY 4.0 International; Thomas Shafee (modified) via Wikipedia)
06: Enzyme Activity
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In this section, we will explore chemical and physical factors that speed up... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/06%3A_Enzyme_Activity/6.01%3A_How_Enzymes_Work.txt |
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Single Step Reactions
First, we will explore the kinetics of non-catalyzed reactions, which is needed to understand the kinetic of the more complicated enzyme-catalyzed reactions.
Calculus: Derivatives and Integrals
In this book, we will refer to the change of concentration of a ... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/06%3A_Enzyme_Activity/6.02%3A_Kinetics_without_Enzymes.txt |
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An enzyme alters the pathways for converting a reactant to a product by binding to the reactant and facilitating the intramolecular conversion of bound substrate to bound product before it releases the product. Enzymes do not affect the thermodynamics of reactions. For reversible re... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/06%3A_Enzyme_Activity/6.03%3A_Kinetics_with_Enzymes.txt |
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Irreversible Covalent Inhibition
Given what you already know about protein structure, it should be easy to determine how to inhibit an enzyme. Since structure mediates function, anything that would significantly alter the structure of an enzyme would inhibit the activity of the enz... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/06%3A_Enzyme_Activity/6.04%3A_Enzyme_Inhibition.txt |
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This chapter section has been written by Kristen Procko and Henry Jakubowski.
We can apply what we learned about catalysis by small molecules (e.g., acids and bases) to enzyme-catalyzed reactions. To understand the mechanism of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction, we try to alter as many ... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/06%3A_Enzyme_Activity/6.05%3A_Enzymatic_Reaction_Mechanisms.txt |
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Many different mechanisms control protein activity within a cell. The primary sequence of a protein is a main determinant of protein folding and final conformation as well as biochemical activity, stability, and half-life. However, at any given moment, the proteome, the full complem... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/06%3A_Enzyme_Activity/6.06%3A_Enzyme_and_Protein_Regulation.txt |
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Ribozymes
Any molecule that displays any of the catalytic motifs seen in the earlier chapters (general acid/base catalysis, electrostatic catalysis, nucleophilic catalysis, intramolecular catalysis, and transition state stabilization) can be a catalyst. So far we have examined only... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/06%3A_Enzyme_Activity/6.07%3A__Ribozymes_-_RNA_Enzymes.txt |
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Cofactors and Electron Pushing: Sources and Sinks
To make and break bonds, electrons have to be moved. In drawing reaction mechanisms, we showed how electrons move from "sources" to "sinks". In many enzyme-catalyzed reactions, vitamin derivatives are used as substrates or "cofactor... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/06%3A_Enzyme_Activity/6.08%3A__Cofactors_and_Catalysis__-_A_Little_Help_From_My_Friends.txt |
Thumbnail: Cellulose molecular structure (CC BY-SA 3.0 Unported; Pintor4257 via Wikipedia)
07: Carbohydrates and Glycobiology
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Introduction
Carbohydrate or glycan biochemistry is very complex and challenging owing to the stereochemical complexity of simple sugars, a large number... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/07%3A_Carbohydrates_and_Glycobiology/7.01%3A_Monosaccharides_and_Disaccharides.txt |
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Polysaccharides contain many monosaccharides in glycosidic links and may have many branches. They serve as either structural components or energy storage molecules. Polysaccharides consisting of single monosaccharides are homopolymers. The most common are starch, glycogen, dextran, ... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/07%3A_Carbohydrates_and_Glycobiology/7.02%3A_Polysaccharides.txt |
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Many proteins, especially those destined for secretion or insertion into membranes, are post-translationally modified by the attachment of carbohydrates. They are usually attached through either Asn or Ser side chains. Carbohydrate modifications on the protein appear to be involved ... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/07%3A_Carbohydrates_and_Glycobiology/7.03%3A_Glycoconjugates_-_Proteoglycans_Glycoproteins_Glycolipids_and_Cell_Walls.txt |
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Introduction
By now, you should be convinced that the structures of glycans are extraordinarily complex and, in many ways, much more complicated than proteins and nucleic acids. Their structure diversity is staggering, given the number of different sugar monomers, stereocenters, li... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/07%3A_Carbohydrates_and_Glycobiology/7.04%3A__The_Sugar_Code_and_Lectin_Decoding.txt |
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The material in this chapter is derived from the open access article referenced below and used under the following Creative Common's License.
Shirakawa, A.; Manabe, Y.; Fukase, K. Recent Advances in the Chemical Biology of N-Glycans. Molecules 2021, 26, 1040. https://doi.org/10.339... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/07%3A_Carbohydrates_and_Glycobiology/7.05%3A_Working_with_Carbohydrates.txt |
• 8.1: Nucleic Acids - Structure and Function
Alongside proteins, lipids and complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides), nucleic acids are one of the four major types of macromolecules that are essential for all known forms of life. The nucleic acids consists of two major macromolecules, Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ri... | textbooks/bio/Biochemistry/Fundamentals_of_Biochemistry_(Jakubowski_and_Flatt)/01%3A_Unit_I-_Structure_and_Catalysis/08%3A_Nucleotides_and_Nucleic_Acids/8.01%3A_Nucleic_Acids_-_Structure_and_Function.txt |
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