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Justinian was born in Tauresium around 482 . A native speaker of Latin ( possibly the last Roman emperor to be one ) , he came from a peasant family believed to have been of Illyro @-@ Roman or Thraco @-@ Roman origins . The cognomen Iustinianus , which he took later , is indicative of adoption by his uncle Justin . D...
When Emperor Anastasius died in 518 , Justin was proclaimed the new emperor , with significant help from Justinian . During Justin 's reign ( 518 – 527 ) , Justinian was the emperor 's close confidant . Justinian showed much ambition , and it has been thought that he was functioning as virtual regent long before Justi...
As a ruler , Justinian showed great energy . He was known as " the emperor who never sleeps " on account of his work habits . Nevertheless , he seems to have been amiable and easy to approach . Around 525 , he married his mistress , Theodora , in Constantinople . She was by profession a courtesan and some twenty years...
Justinian 's rule was not universally popular ; early in his reign he nearly lost his throne during the Nika riots , and a conspiracy against the emperor 's life by dissatisfied businessmen was discovered as late as 562 . Justinian was struck by the plague in the early 540s but recovered . Theodora died in 548 at a re...
= = Reign = =
= = = Legislative activities = = =
Justinian achieved lasting fame through his judicial reforms , particularly through the complete revision of all Roman law , something that had not previously been attempted . The total of Justinian 's legislature is known today as the Corpus juris civilis . It consists of the Codex Iustinianus , the Digesta or Pandec...
Early in his reign , Justinian appointed the quaestor Tribonian to oversee this task . The first draft of the Codex Iustinianus , a codification of imperial constitutions from the 2nd century onward , was issued on 7 April 529 . ( The final version appeared in 534 . ) It was followed by the Digesta ( or Pandectae ) , ...
The Corpus forms the basis of Latin jurisprudence ( including ecclesiastical Canon Law ) and , for historians , provides a valuable insight into the concerns and activities of the later Roman Empire . As a collection it gathers together the many sources in which the leges ( laws ) and the other rules were expressed or...
He passed laws to protect prostitutes from exploitation and women from being forced into prostitution . Rapists were treated severely . Further , by his policies : women charged with major crimes should be guarded by other women to prevent sexual abuse ; if a woman was widowed , her dowry should be returned ; and a hu...
= = = Nika riots = = =
Justinian 's habit of choosing efficient , but unpopular advisers nearly cost him his throne early in his reign . In January 532 , partisans of the chariot racing factions in Constantinople , normally divided among themselves , united against Justinian in a revolt that has become known as the Nika riots . They forced ...
The destruction that had taken place during the revolt provided Justinian with an opportunity to tie his name to a series of splendid new buildings , most notably the architectural innovation of the domed Hagia Sophia .
= = = Military activities = = =
One of the most spectacular features of Justinian 's reign was the recovery of large stretches of land around the Western Mediterranean basin that had slipped out of Imperial control in the 5th century . As a Christian Roman emperor , Justinian considered it his divine duty to restore the Roman Empire to its ancient b...
= = = = War with the Sassanid Empire , 527 – 532 = = = =
From his uncle , Justinian inherited ongoing hostilities with the Sassanid Empire . In 530 a Persian army was defeated at Dara , but the next year saw the defeat of Roman forces under Belisarius near Callinicum . When king Kavadh I of Persia died ( September 531 ) , Justinian concluded an " Eternal Peace " ( which cos...
= = = = Conquest of North Africa , 533 – 534 = = = =
The first of the western kingdoms Justinian attacked was that of the Vandals in North Africa . King Hilderic , who had maintained good relations with Justinian and the North African Catholic clergy , had been overthrown by his cousin Gelimer in 530 . Imprisoned , the deposed king appealed to Justinian .
In 533 , Belisarius with a fleet of 92 dromons escorting 500 transports , landed at Caput Vada ( modern Ras Kaboudia ) in modern Tunisia with an army of about 15 @,@ 000 men , as well as a number of barbarian troops . They defeated the Vandals , who were caught completely off guard , at Ad Decimum on 14 September 533 ...
An African prefecture , centered in Carthage , was established in April 534 , but it would teeter on the brink of collapse during the next 15 years , amidst warfare with the Moors and military mutinies . The area was not completely pacified until 548 , but remained peaceful thereafter and enjoyed a measure of prosperi...
= = = = War in Italy , first phase , 535 – 540 = = = =
As in Africa , dynastic struggles in Ostrogothic Italy provided an opportunity for intervention . The young king Athalaric had died on 2 October 534 , and a usurper , Theodahad , had imprisoned queen Amalasuntha , Theodoric 's daughter and mother of Athalaric , on the island of Martana in Lake Bolsena , where he had h...
Justinian sent another general , Narses , to Italy , but tensions between Narses and Belisarius hampered the progress of the campaign . Milan was taken , but was soon recaptured and razed by the Ostrogoths . Justinian recalled Narses in 539 . By then the military situation had turned in favour of the Romans , and in 5...
= = = = War with the Sassanid Empire , 540 – 562 = = = =
Belisarius had been recalled in the face of renewed hostilities by the Persians . Following a revolt against the Empire in Armenia in the late 530s and possibly motivated by the pleas of Ostrogothic ambassadors , King Khosrau I broke the " Eternal Peace " and invaded Roman territory in the spring of 540 . He first sac...
Belisarius arrived in the East in 541 , but , after some success , was again recalled to Constantinople in 542 . The reasons for his withdrawal are not known , but it may have been instigated by rumours of disloyalty on behalf of the general reaching the court . The outbreak of the plague caused a lull in the fighting...
= = = = War in Italy , second phase , 541 – 554 = = = =
While military efforts were directed to the East , the situation in Italy took a turn for the worse . Under their respective kings Ildibad and Eraric ( both murdered in 541 ) and especially Totila , the Ostrogoths made quick gains . After a victory at Faenza in 542 , they reconquered the major cities of Southern Italy...
Finally , Justinian dispatched a force of approximately 35 @,@ 000 men ( 2 @,@ 000 men were detached and sent to invade southern Visigothic Hispania ) under the command of Narses . The army reached Ravenna in June 552 , and defeated the Ostrogoths decisively within a month at the battle of Busta Gallorum in the Apenni...
= = = = Other campaigns = = = =
In addition to the other conquests , the Empire established a presence in Visigothic Hispania , when the usurper Athanagild requested assistance in his rebellion against King Agila I. In 552 , Justinian dispatched a force of 2 @,@ 000 men ; according to the historian Jordanes , this army was led by the octogenarian Li...
During Justinian 's reign , the Balkans suffered from several incursions by the Turkic and Slavic peoples who lived north of the Danube . Here , Justinian resorted mainly to a combination of diplomacy and a system of defensive works . In 559 a particularly dangerous invasion of Sklavinoi and Kutrigurs under their khan...
= = = Results = = =
Justinian 's ambition to restore the Roman Empire to its former glory was only partly realized . In the West , the brilliant early military successes of the 530s were followed by years of stagnation . The dragging war with the Goths was a disaster for Italy , even though its long @-@ lasting effects may have been less...
Events of the later years of the reign showed that Constantinople itself was not safe from barbarian incursions from the north , and even the relatively benevolent historian Menander Protector felt the need to attribute the Emperor 's failure to protect the capital to the weakness of his body in his old age . In his e...
= = = Religious activities = = =
Justinian saw the orthodoxy of his empire threatened by diverging religious currents , especially Monophysitism , which had many adherents in the eastern provinces of Syria and Egypt . Monophysite doctrine , which maintains that Jesus Christ had one divine nature or a synthesis of a divine and human nature , had been ...
Near the end of his life , Justinian became ever more inclined towards the Monophysite doctrine , especially in the form of Aphthartodocetism , but he died before being able to issue any legislation . The empress Theodora sympathized with the Monophysites and is said to have been a constant source of pro @-@ Monophysi...
= = = = Religious policy = = = =
As in his secular administration , despotism appeared also in the Emperor 's ecclesiastical policy . He regulated everything , both in religion and in law .
At the very beginning of his reign , he deemed it proper to promulgate by law the Church 's belief in the Trinity and the Incarnation ; and to threaten all heretics with the appropriate penalties ; whereas he subsequently declared that he intended to deprive all disturbers of orthodoxy of the opportunity for such offe...
Although the despotic character of his measures is contrary to modern sensibilities , he was indeed a " nursing father " of the Church . Both the Codex and the Novellae contain many enactments regarding donations , foundations , and the administration of ecclesiastical property ; election and rights of bishops , pries...
= = = = Religious relations with Rome = = = =
From the middle of the 5th century onward , increasingly arduous tasks confronted the emperors of the East in ecclesiastical matters . Justinian entered the arena of ecclesiastical statecraft shortly after his uncle 's accession in 518 , and put an end to the Acacian schism . Previous Emperors had tried to alleviate t...
This new @-@ found unity between East and West did not , however , not solve the ongoing disputes in the east . Justinian 's policies switched between attempts to force Monophysites to accept the Chalcedonian creed by persecuting their bishops and monks - thereby embittering their sympathizers in Egypt and other provi...
= = = = Suppression of other religions and philosophies = = = =
Justinian 's religious policy reflected the Imperial conviction that the unity of the Empire presupposed unity of faith , and it appeared to him obvious that this faith could only be the orthodox ( Nicaean ) . Those of a different belief were subjected to persecution , which imperial legislation had effected from the ...
In Asia Minor alone , John of Ephesus reported to have converted 70 @,@ 000 pagans . Other peoples also accepted Christianity : the Heruli , the Huns dwelling near the Don , the Abasgi , and the Tzanni in Caucasia .
The worship of Amun at Augila in the Libyan desert was abolished ; and so were the remnants of the worship of Isis on the island of Philae , at the first cataract of the Nile . The Presbyter Julian and the Bishop Longinus conducted a mission among the Nabataeans , and Justinian attempted to strengthen Christianity in ...
The civil rights of Jews were restricted and their religious privileges threatened . Justinian also interfered in the internal affairs of the synagogue , and encouraged the Jews to use the Greek Septuagint in their synagogues in Constantinople .
The Emperor faced significant opposition from the Samaritans , who resisted conversion to Christianity and were repeatedly in insurrection . He persecuted them with rigorous edicts , but yet could not prevent reprisals towards Christians from taking place in Samaria toward the close of his reign . The consistency of J...
= = = Architecture , learning , art and literature = = =
Justinian was a prolific builder ; the historian Procopius bears witness to his activities in this area . Under Justinian 's patronage the San Vitale in Ravenna , which features two famous mosaics representing Justinian and Theodora , was completed . Most notably , he had the Hagia Sophia , originally a basilica @-@ s...
Another prominent church in the capital , the Church of the Holy Apostles , which had been in a very poor state near the end of the 5th century , was likewise rebuilt . Works of embellishment were not confined to churches alone : excavations at the site of the Great Palace of Constantinople have yielded several high @...
Justinian also strengthened the borders of the Empire from Africa to the East through the construction of fortifications , and ensured Constantinople of its water supply through construction of underground cisterns ( see Basilica Cistern ) . To prevent floods from damaging the strategically important border town Dara ...
In Justinian 's reign , and partly under his patronage , Byzantine culture produced noteworthy historians , including Procopius and Agathias , and poets such as Paul the Silentiary and Romanus the Melodist flourished . On the other hand , centres of learning as the Platonic Academy in Athens and the famous Law School ...
= = = Economy and administration = = =
As was the case under Justinian 's predecessors , the Empire 's economic health rested primarily on agriculture . In addition , long @-@ distance trade flourished , reaching as far north as Cornwall where tin was exchanged for Roman wheat . Within the Empire , convoys sailing from Alexandria provided Constantinople wi...
One important luxury product was silk , which was imported and then processed in the Empire . In order to protect the manufacture of silk products , Justinian granted a monopoly to the imperial factories in 541 . In order to bypass the Persian landroute , Justinian established friendly relations with the Abyssinians ,...
Gold and silver were mined in the Balkans , Anatolia , Armenia , Cyprus , Egypt and Nubia .
At the start of Justinian I 's reign he had inherited a surplus 28 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 solidi ( 400 @,@ 000 pounds of gold ) in the imperial treasury from Anastasius I and Justin I. Under Justinian 's rule , measures were taken to counter corruption in the provinces and to make tax collection more efficient . Greater admi...
Throughout Justinian 's reign , the cities and villages of the East prospered , although Antioch was struck by two earthquakes ( 526 , 528 ) and sacked and evacuated by the Persians ( 540 ) . Justinian had the city rebuilt , but on a slightly smaller scale .
Despite all these measures , the Empire suffered several major setbacks in the course of the 6th century . The first one was the plague , which lasted from 541 to 543 and , by decimating the Empire 's population , probably created a scarcity of labor and a rising of wages . The lack of manpower also led to a significa...
= = Natural disasters = =