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= = Plot = =
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Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) dreams of a red light that leads him to the corpse of a young girl buried in a park in Manassas , Virginia . When he awakens , he heads to the park and finds the girl 's skeleton . The girl was determined to have been murdered by John Lee Roche ( Tom Noonan ) , a serial killer who murdere... |
Dana Scully 's ( Gillian Anderson ) autopsy of the skeleton finds that the victim died in 1975 , suggesting that Roche 's killing spree started much earlier than the FBI had previously thought . The agents search Roche 's old car , where they discover sixteen cut @-@ out hearts . Mulder and Scully subsequently visit R... |
The next day , Mulder asks Roche where he was the night Samantha was abducted . Roche claims he was on Martha 's Vineyard and had sold a vacuum cleaner to Mulder 's father . Mulder later finds the vacuum in his mother 's house . After convincing Walter Skinner to grant them further access to Roche , the agents questio... |
Upon arriving at his family 's old summer house , Roche explains exactly what happened the night of Samantha 's abduction . However , Mulder tells him that the house was bought by his father after Samantha 's abduction , convincing him that Roche is not telling the truth . Mulder plans to bring Roche back to prison , ... |
Using Mulder 's credentials , Roche kidnaps a girl in Swampscott , Massachusetts whom he met on his flight with Mulder to Boston . Scully and Skinner arrive the next day and the agents head to the site of Roche 's old apartment in Revere . They find him with the girl in an abandoned bus nearby . Roche holds the gun on... |
= = Production = =
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" Paper Hearts " was written specifically with Tom Noonan in mind for the role of Roche , and was amongst the first television work the actor had done . Writer Vince Gilligan came up with the concept for the episode when thinking about the series ' longest running storyline , the abduction of Samantha Mulder . Gilliga... |
Guest actor Tom Noonan , who played the killer John Lee Roche , recalled filming the scene in which his character is introduced , playing basketball in prison . Noonan , a capable basketball player , was asked to " downplay " how well he could play ; although he regretted not being able to play against David Duchovny ... |
= = Broadcast and reception = =
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" Paper Hearts " premiered on the Fox network on December 15 , 1996 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on November 12 , 1997 . The episode 's initial broadcast was viewed by approximately 16 @.@ 59 million people , which represented 16 % of the viewing audience during that time .
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Both Gillian Anderson and David Duchovny consider this among the best episodes of the fourth season . Composer Mark Snow was nominated for an Emmy Award for the music he produced for this episode . He said of the episode 's music , " It was a different kind of texture for the show . Light , magic , nothing terribly th... |
Website IGN named " Paper Hearts " their sixth favorite " standalone " episode of the show , calling it " creepy and unsettling " , and claiming Noonan 's character was " one of the most disturbing villains to make an appearance in the series " . Noonan 's acting has also been praised by Vince Gilligan , who says the ... |
= Retreat of glaciers since 1850 =
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The retreat of glaciers since 1850 affects the availability of fresh water for irrigation and domestic use , mountain recreation , animals and plants that depend on glacier @-@ melt , and , in the longer term , the level of the oceans . Studied by glaciologists , the temporal coincidence of glacier retreat with the me... |
Glacier mass balance is the key determinant of the health of a glacier . If the amount of frozen precipitation in the accumulation zone exceeds the quantity of glacial ice lost due to melting or in the ablation zone a glacier will advance ; if the accumulation is less than the ablation , the glacier will retreat . Gla... |
The Little Ice Age was a period from about 1550 to 1850 when the world experienced relatively cooler temperatures compared to the present . Subsequently , until about 1940 , glaciers around the world retreated as the climate warmed substantially . Glacial retreat slowed and even reversed temporarily , in many cases , ... |
The retreat of mountain glaciers , notably in western North America , Asia , the Alps and tropical and subtropical regions of South America , Africa and Indonesia , provide evidence for the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century . The acceleration of the rate of retreat since 1995 of key outlet glacie... |
= = Glacier mass balance = =
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The mass balance , or difference between accumulation and ablation ( melting and sublimation ) , of a glacier is crucial to its survival . Climate change may cause variations in both temperature and snowfall , resulting in changes in mass balance . A glacier with a sustained negative balance loses equilibrium and retr... |
Glacier retreat results in the loss of the low @-@ elevation region of the glacier . Since higher elevations are cooler , the disappearance of the lowest portion decreases overall ablation , thereby increasing mass balance and potentially reestablishing equilibrium . If the mass balance of a significant portion of the... |
Methods for measuring retreat include staking terminus location , global positioning mapping , aerial mapping and laser altimetry . The key symptom of disequilibrium is thinning along the entire length of the glacier . This indicates a diminishment of the accumulation zone . The result is marginal recession of the acc... |
= = Middle latitude glaciers = =
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Middle latitude glaciers are located either between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle , or between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle . Both areas support glacier ice from mountain glaciers , valley glaciers and even smaller icecaps , which are usually located in higher mountainous regions . All... |
= = = Eastern hemisphere = = =
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= = = = Europe = = = =
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In France all six of the major glaciers in that country are in retreat . On Mont Blanc , the highest peak in the Alps , the Argentière Glacier has receded 1 @,@ 150 m ( 3 @,@ 770 ft ) since 1870 . Other Mont Blanc glaciers have also been in retreat , including the Mer de Glace , which is the largest glacier in France ... |
Other researchers have found that glaciers across the Alps appear to be retreating at a faster rate than a few decades ago . In a paper published in 2009 by the University of Zurich , the Swiss glacier survey of 89 glaciers found 76 retreating , 5 stationary and 8 advancing from where they had been in 1973 . The Trift... |
The Morteratsch Glacier in Switzerland has had one of the longest periods of scientific study with yearly measurements of the glacier 's length commencing in 1878 . The overall retreat from 1878 to 1998 has been 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) with a mean annual retreat rate of approximately 17 m ( 56 ft ) per year . This long @-... |
Though the glaciers of the Alps have received more attention from glaciologists than in other areas of Europe , research indicates that glaciers in northern Europe are also retreating . Since the end of World War II , Storglaciären in Sweden has undergone the longest continuous mass balance study in the world conducte... |
Engabreen Glacier in Norway , an outlet glacier of the Svartisen ice cap , had several advances in the 20th century , though it retreated 200 m ( 660 ft ) between 1999 and 2014 . Brenndalsbreen glacier retreated 56 m ( 184 ft ) between the years 2000 and 2014 , while the Rembesdalsskåka glacier , which has retreated 2... |
In the Spanish Pyrenees , recent studies have shown important losses in extent and volume of the glaciers of the Maladeta massif during the period 1981 – 2005 . These include a reduction in area of 35 @.@ 7 % , from 2 @.@ 41 km2 ( 600 acres ) to 0 @.@ 627 km2 ( 155 acres ) , a loss in total ice volume of 0 @.@ 0137 km... |
As initial cause for glacier retreat in the alps since 1850 , a decrease of the glaciers albedo , caused by industrial black carbon can be identified . According to a report , this may have accelerated the retreat of glaciers in Europe which otherwise may have continued to expand until approximately the year 1910 .
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= = = = Siberia and the Russian Far East = = = =
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Siberia is typically classified as a polar region , owing to the dryness of the winter climate and has glaciers only in the high Altai Mountains , Verkhoyansk Range , Cherskiy Range and Suntar @-@ Khayata Range , plus possibly a few very small glaciers in the ranges near Lake Baikal , which have never been monitored a... |
In the more maritime and generally wetter Russian Far East , Kamchatka , exposed during winter to moisture from the Aleutian Low , has much more extensive glaciation totaling around 906 km2 ( 350 sq mi ) with 448 known glaciers as of 2010 . Despite generally heavy winter snowfall and cool summer temperatures , the hig... |
Details on the retreat of Siberian and Russian Far East glaciers less adequate than in most other glaciated areas of the world . There are several reasons for this , the principal one being that since the collapse of Communism there has been a large reduction in the number of monitoring stations . Another factor is th... |
= = = = Asia = = = =
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The Himalayas and other mountain chains of central Asia support large glaciated regions . An estimated 15 @,@ 000 glaciers can be found in the greater Himalayas , with double that number in the Hindu Kush and Karakoram and Tien Shan ranges , and comprise the largest glaciated region outside the poles . These glaciers ... |
In the Wakhan Corridor of Afghanistan 28 of 30 glaciers examined retreated significantly between 1976 – 2003 , with an average retreat of 11 m ( 36 ft ) per year . One of these glaciers , the Zemestan Glacier , retreated 460 m ( 1 @,@ 510 ft ) during this period , not quite 10 % of its 5 @.@ 2 km ( 3 @.@ 2 mi ) length... |
With the retreat of glaciers in the Himalayas , a number of glacial lakes have been created . A growing concern is the potential for GLOFs researchers estimate 21 glacial lakes in Nepal and 24 in Bhutan pose hazards to human populations should their terminal moraines fail . One glacial lake identified as potentially h... |
Glaciers in the Ak @-@ shirak Range in Kyrgyzstan experienced a slight loss between 1943 and 1977 and an accelerated loss of 20 % of their remaining mass between 1977 and 2001 . In the Tien Shan mountains , which Kyrgyzstan shares with China and Kazakhstan , studies in the northern areas of that mountain range show th... |
The Pamirs mountain range located primarily in Tajikistan , has approximately eight thousand glaciers , many of which are in a general state of retreat . During the 20th century , the glaciers of Tajikistan lost 20 km3 ( 4 @.@ 8 cu mi ) of ice . The 70 km ( 43 mi ) long Fedchenko Glacier , which is the largest in Taji... |
= = = = Oceania = = = =
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In New Zealand , mountain glaciers have been in general retreat since 1890 , with an acceleration since 1920 . Most have measurably thinned and reduced in size , and the snow accumulation zones have risen in elevation as the 20th century progressed . Between 1971 – 75 Ivory Glacier receded 30 m ( 98 ft ) from the glac... |
Several glaciers , notably the much @-@ visited Fox and Franz Josef Glaciers on New Zealand 's West Coast , have periodically advanced , especially during the 1990s , but the scale of these advances is small when compared to 20th @-@ century retreat . Both are more than 2 @.@ 5 km ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) shorter than a century... |
= = = Western hemisphere = = =
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North American glaciers are primarily located along the spine of the Rocky Mountains in the United States and Canada , and the Pacific Coast Ranges extending from northern California to Alaska . While Greenland is geologically associated with North America , it is also a part of the Arctic region . Apart from the few ... |
= = = = Cascade Range = = = =
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The Cascade Range of western North America extends from southern British Columbia in Canada to northern California . Excepting Alaska , about half of the glacial area in the U.S. is contained within the over 700 glaciers of the North Cascades , a portion of those located between the Canadian border and I @-@ 90 in cen... |
As recently as 1975 many North Cascade glaciers were advancing due to cooler weather and increased precipitation that occurred from 1944 to 1976 . By 1987 the North Cascade glaciers were retreating and the pace had increased each decade since the mid @-@ 1970s . Between 1984 and 2005 the North Cascade glaciers lost an... |
Glaciologists researching the North Cascades found that all 47 monitored glaciers are receding while four glaciers — Spider Glacier , Lewis Glacier , Milk Lake Glacier and David Glacier — have disappeared completely since 1985 . The White Chuck Glacier ( near Glacier Peak ) is a particularly dramatic example . The gla... |
= = = = U.S. Rocky Mountains = = = =
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On the sheltered slopes of the highest peaks of Glacier National Park in Montana , the eponymous glaciers are diminishing rapidly . The area of each glacier has been mapped for decades by the National Park Service and the U.S. Geological Survey . Comparing photographs from the mid @-@ 19th century with contemporary im... |
The semiarid climate of Wyoming still manages to support about a dozen small glaciers within Grand Teton National Park , which all show evidence of retreat over the past 50 years . Schoolroom Glacier is located slightly southwest of Grand Teton is one of the more easily reached glaciers in the park and it is expected ... |
= = = = Canadian Rockies and Coast and Columbia Mountains = = = =
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In the Canadian Rockies , glaciers are generally larger and more widespread than to the south in the Rocky Mountains . One of the more accessible in the Canadian Rockies is the Athabasca Glacier , which is an outlet glacier of the 325 km2 ( 125 sq mi ) Columbia Icefield . The Athabasca Glacier has retreated 1 @,@ 500 ... |
The Illecillewaet Glacier in British Columbia 's Glacier National Park ( Canada ) , part of the Selkirk Mountains ( west of the Rockies ) has retreated 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) since first photographed in 1887 .
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In Garibaldi Provincial Park in Southwestern British Columbia over 505 km2 ( 195 sq mi ) , or 26 % , of the park , was covered by glacier ice at the beginning of the 18th century . Ice cover decreased to 297 km2 ( 115 sq mi ) by 1987 – 1988 and to 245 km2 ( 95 sq mi ) by 2005 , 50 % of the 1850 area . The 50 km2 ( 19 ... |
= = = = Alaska = = = =
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There are thousands of glaciers in Alaska but only few have been named . The Columbia Glacier near Valdez in Prince William Sound has retreated 15 km ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) in the last 25 years . Its calved icebergs partially caused the Exxon Valdez oil spill , when the tanker changed course to avoid the ice tips . The Valdez... |
The Juneau Icefield Research Program has monitored outlet glaciers of the Juneau Icefield since 1946 . On the west side of the ice field , the terminus of the Mendenhall Glacier , which flows into suburban Juneau , Alaska , has retreated 580 m ( 1 @,@ 900 ft ) . Of the nineteen glaciers of the Juneau Icefield , eighte... |
Long @-@ term mass balance records from Lemon Creek Glacier in Alaska show slightly declining mass balance with time . The mean annual balance for this glacier was − 0 @.@ 23 m ( 0 @.@ 75 ft ) each year during the period of 1957 to 1976 . Mean annual balance has been increasingly negatively averaging − 1 @.@ 04 m ( 3 ... |
= = = = Andes and Tierra del Fuego = = = =
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A large region of population surrounding the central and southern Andes of Argentina and Chile reside in arid areas that are dependent on water supplies from melting glaciers . The water from the glaciers also supplies rivers that have in some cases been dammed for hydroelectric power . Some researchers believe that b... |
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