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wiki_19_chunk_44 | Kolmogorov complexity | This definition can be extended to define a notion of randomness for infinite sequences from a finite alphabet. These algorithmically random sequences can be defined in three equivalent ways. One way uses an effective analogue of measure theory; another uses effective martingales. The third way defines an infinite seq... | wikipedia |
wiki_19_chunk_45 | Kolmogorov complexity | Relation to entropy
For dynamical systems, entropy rate and algorithmic complexity of the trajectories are related by a theorem of Brudno, that the equality holds for almost all . It can be shown that for the output of Markov information sources, Kolmogorov complexity is related to the entropy of the information sourc... | wikipedia |
wiki_19_chunk_46 | Kolmogorov complexity | The conditional Kolmogorov complexity of two strings is, roughly speaking, defined as the Kolmogorov complexity of x given y as an auxiliary input to the procedure. There is also a length-conditional complexity , which is the complexity of x given the length of x'' as known/input. See also
Important publications in a... | wikipedia |
wiki_19_chunk_47 | Kolmogorov complexity | External links
The Legacy of Andrei Nikolaevich Kolmogorov
Chaitin's online publications
Solomonoff's IDSIA page
Generalizations of algorithmic information by J. Schmidhuber
Tromp's lambda calculus computer model offers a concrete definition of K()]
Universal AI based on Kolmogorov Complexity by M. Hutter:
... | wikipedia |
wiki_20_chunk_0 | Amathus | Amathus or Amathous () was an ancient city and one of the ancient royal cities of Cyprus until about 300 BC. Some of its impressive remains can be seen today on the southern coast in front of Agios Tychonas, about west of Larnaca and east of Limassol. Its ancient cult sanctuary of Aphrodite was the second most import... | wikipedia |
wiki_20_chunk_1 | Amathus | The pre-history of Amathus survives in both myth and archaeology. Archaeology has detected human activity from the earliest Iron Age, BC.
The city's legendary founder was Cinyras, linked with the birth of Adonis, who called the city after his mother Amathous. According to a version of the Ariadne legend noted by Plut... | wikipedia |
wiki_20_chunk_2 | Amathus | The earliest remains hitherto found on the site are tombs of the early Iron Age period of Graeco-Phoenician influences (1000-600 BC). Amathus is identified with Kartihadasti (Phoenician "New-Town") in the Cypriote tribute-list of Esarhaddon of Assyria (668 BC). It certainly maintained strong Phoenician sympathies, for... | wikipedia |
wiki_20_chunk_3 | Amathus | Amathus was a rich and densely populated kingdom with a flourishing agriculture (grain and sheep) and copper mines situated very close to the northeast Kalavasos. | wikipedia |
wiki_20_chunk_4 | Amathus | Hellenistic era
About 385-380 BC, the philhellene Evagoras of Salamis was similarly opposed by Amathus, allied with Citium and Soli; and even after Alexander the city resisted annexation, and was bound over to give hostages to Seleucus. Its political importance was now ended but its temple of Adonis and Aphrodite Amath... | wikipedia |
wiki_20_chunk_5 | Amathus | From the 4th century BC the pedestals of two sculptures donated by the last Basileus of Amathous, Androkles, representing his two sons, Orestheus and Andragoras, have survived. Their inscriptions are in both Eteocyprian and Greek languages. | wikipedia |
wiki_20_chunk_6 | Amathus | The decline of Amathus is often measured by the Ptolemaic gifts to Argos, where Amathus donated only 40 drachmas in 170-160 BC, but Kition and Salamis gave 208, Kourion 172, and Paphos 100. However, this figure contradicts the archaeologic evidence of new buildings in this period including a balneion, a bath, a gymnasi... | wikipedia |
wiki_20_chunk_7 | Amathus | Roman era In the Roman era Amathus became the capital of one of the four administrative regions of Cyprus. A Roman temple was built in the 1st century AD on top of the Hellenistic predecessor. The temple facilities remained so important in Roman times that 'Amathusia' was used as a synonym for 'Cypriot'. | wikipedia |
wiki_20_chunk_8 | Amathus | Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages
Later, in the 4th century AD, Amasus became the see of a Christian bishop and continued to flourish until the Byzantine period. Of its bishops, Heliodorus was at the Council of Chalcedon in 451 and Alexander at the Second Council of Nicaea in 787. In the late 6th century, Saint Ioanni... | wikipedia |
wiki_20_chunk_9 | Amathus | Today, Amathus is a see of the Church of Cyprus and is also listed (under the name "Amathus in Cypro", to distinguish it from "Amathus in Transjordan") as a titular see by the Catholic Church, which however, in line with the practice adopted after the Second Vatican Council, has made no appointments to the bishopric si... | wikipedia |
wiki_20_chunk_10 | Amathus | Anastasius Sinaita, the famous 7th-century prolific monk of Saint Catherine's Monastery, was born here. It is thought that he left Cyprus after the 649 Arab conquest of the island, setting out for the Holy Land, and eventually becoming a monk on Sinai. | wikipedia |
wiki_20_chunk_11 | Amathus | Amathus declined and was already almost deserted when Richard Plantagenet won Cyprus by a victory there over Isaac Comnenus in 1191. The tombs were plundered and the stones from the beautiful edifices were brought to Limassol to be used for new constructions. Much later, in 1869, a great number of blocks of stone from ... | wikipedia |
wiki_20_chunk_12 | Amathus | In modern times
A new settlement close to Amathus but further inland, Agios Tychonas, is named after the bishop Saint Tychon of Amathus. The site of the ruins is within the borders of this village, though the expansion of the Limassol tourist area has threatened the ruins: it is speculated that some of the hotels are o... | wikipedia |
wiki_20_chunk_13 | Amathus | The city had vanished, except for fragments of wall and of a great stone urn on the acropolis, dating from the 6th century BC of which a similar vessel was taken to the Musée du Louvre in 1867. It is tall and weighs 14 tons. It was made from a single piece of stone and has four curved handles carved with bulls. In the... | wikipedia |
wiki_20_chunk_14 | Amathus | Further archaeological objects found during the excavations are preserved at both the Cyprus Museum in Nicosia and the Limassol District Archaeological Museum.
In the agora there are marble columns decorated with spirals and a huge paved squares. On the coastal side of the city there is an Early Christian basilica wi... | wikipedia |
wiki_20_chunk_15 | Amathus | Two small sanctuaries, with terracotta votive offerings of Graeco-Phoenician age, lie not far off, but the location of the great shrines of Adonis and Aphrodite have not been identified (M. Ohnefalsch-Richter, Kypros, i. ch.1). Gallery Notes References
Richard Stillwell, ed. Princeton Encyclopaedia of Classical Sites, ... | wikipedia |
wiki_20_chunk_16 | Amathus | http://www.mcw.gov.cy/mcw/DA/DA.nsf/0/D20ED526826AB796C225719B00374A92?OpenDocument
Agias Tychonas: Amathus (English)
http://www.anastasiosofsinai.org/index.html (English)
StoryMap about Amathous (A. Cannavò, A. Rabot) Cities in ancient Cyprus
Archaeological sites in Cyprus
Former populated places in Cyprus | wikipedia |
wiki_21_chunk_0 | Alexander Anderson (mathematician) | Alexander Anderson ( in Aberdeen – in Paris) was a Scottish mathematician. Life
He was born in Aberdeen, possibly in 1582, according to a print which suggests he was aged 35 in 1617. It is unknown where he was educated, but it is likely that he initially studied writing and philosophy (the "belles lettres") in his hom... | wikipedia |
wiki_21_chunk_1 | Alexander Anderson (mathematician) | He then went to the continent, and was a professor of mathematics in Paris by the start of the seventeenth century. There he published or edited, between the years 1612 and 1619, various geometric and algebraic tracts. He described himself as having "more wisdom than riches" in the dedication of Vindiciae Archimedis (1... | wikipedia |
wiki_21_chunk_2 | Alexander Anderson (mathematician) | Work
He was selected by the executors of François Viète to revise and edit Viète's manuscript works. Viète died in 1603, and it is unclear if Anderson knew him, but his eminence was sufficient to attract the attention of the dead man's executors. Anderson corrected and expanded upon Viète's manuscripts, which extended ... | wikipedia |
wiki_21_chunk_3 | Alexander Anderson (mathematician) | Publications
The known works of Anderson amount to six thin quarto volumes, and as the last of them was published in 1619, it is probable that the author died soon after that year, but the precise date is unknown. He wrote other works that have since been lost. From his last work it appears he wrote another piece, "A T... | wikipedia |
wiki_21_chunk_4 | Alexander Anderson (mathematician) | 1612: Supplementum Apollonii Redivivi
1615: Ad Angularum Sectionem Analytica Theoremata F. Vieta
1615: Pro Zetetico Apolloniani
1615: Francisci Vietae Fontenaeensis
1616: Vindiciae Archimedis
1619: Alexandri Andersoni Exercitationum Mathematicarum Decas Prima See also
Marin Getaldić
Denis Henrion
Frans van Schooten ... | wikipedia |
wiki_21_chunk_5 | Alexander Anderson (mathematician) | 1580s births
1620 deaths
People from Aberdeen
Algebraists
Geometers
Scottish mathematicians
17th-century Scottish people
Scottish scholars and academics
University of Paris faculty
17th-century Scottish scientists
17th-century Scottish mathematicians | wikipedia |
wiki_22_chunk_0 | Ammianus Marcellinus | Ammianus Marcellinus (occasionally anglicised as Ammian) (born , died 400) was a Roman soldier and historian who wrote the penultimate major historical account surviving from antiquity (preceding Procopius). His work, known as the Res Gestae, chronicled in Latin the history of Rome from the accession of the Emperor Ner... | wikipedia |
wiki_22_chunk_1 | Ammianus Marcellinus | Ammianus was born in the East Mediterranean, possibly in Syria or Phoenicia, around 330. His native language is unknown but he likely knew Greek as well as Latin. The surviving books of his history cover the years 353 to 378. | wikipedia |
wiki_22_chunk_2 | Ammianus Marcellinus | Ammianus served as an officer in the army of the emperors Constantius II and Julian, he served in Gaul (Julian) and in the east (twice for Constantius, once under Julian). He professes to have been "a former soldier and a Greek" (miles quondam et graecus), and his enrollment among the elite protectores domestici (house... | wikipedia |
wiki_22_chunk_3 | Ammianus Marcellinus | He travelled with Ursicinus to Italy when Ursicinus was called on by Constantius to begin an expedition against Silvanus. Silvanus had been forced by the allegedly false accusations of his enemies into proclaiming himself emperor in Gaul. Ursicinus had one of his men assassinate Silvanus, restoring Gaul to Constantius.... | wikipedia |
wiki_22_chunk_4 | Ammianus Marcellinus | In 359 Constantius sent Ursicinus back to the east to help in the defence against a Persian invasion led by king Shapur II himself. Ammianus returned with his commander to the East and again served Ursicinus as a staff officer. Ursicinus, although he was the more experienced commander, was placed under the command of S... | wikipedia |
wiki_22_chunk_5 | Ammianus Marcellinus | After his mission in Corduene, Ammianus accompanied his commander when the latter rode out from his headquarters at Amida on a mission to make sure the bridges across the Euphrates were demolished. They were attacked by the Persian vanguard who had made a night march in an attempt to catch the Romans at Amida off guard... | wikipedia |
wiki_22_chunk_6 | Ammianus Marcellinus | When Ursicinus was dismissed from his military post by Constantius, Ammianus too seems to have retired from the military; however, reevaluation of his participation in Julian's Persian campaign has led modern scholarship to suggest that he continued his service but did not for some reason include the period in his hist... | wikipedia |
wiki_22_chunk_7 | Ammianus Marcellinus | He eventually settled in Rome and began the Res Gestae. The precise year of his death is unknown, but scholarly consensus places it somewhere between 392 and 400 at the latest. | wikipedia |
wiki_22_chunk_8 | Ammianus Marcellinus | Modern scholarship generally describes Ammianus as a pagan who was tolerant of Christianity. Marcellinus writes of Christianity as being a pure and simple religion that demands only what is just and mild, and when he condemns the actions of Christians, he does not do so on the basis of their Christianity as such. His l... | wikipedia |
wiki_22_chunk_9 | Ammianus Marcellinus | He was not blind to the faults of Christians or of pagans; he observed in his Res Gestae that "no wild beasts are so hostile to men as Christian sects in general are to one another" and he condemns the emperor Julian for excessive attachment to (pagan) sacrifice, and for his edict effectively barring Christians from te... | wikipedia |
wiki_22_chunk_10 | Ammianus Marcellinus | Work
While living in Rome in the 380s, Ammianus wrote a Latin history of the Roman empire from the accession of Nerva (96) to the death of Valens at the Battle of Adrianople (378), in effect writing a continuation of the history of Tacitus. He presumably completed the work before 391, as at 22.16.12 he praises the Sera... | wikipedia |
wiki_22_chunk_11 | Ammianus Marcellinus | The Res Gestae (Rerum gestarum Libri XXXI) was originally composed of thirty-one books, but the first thirteen have been lost. The surviving eighteen books cover the period from 353 to 378. It constitutes the foundation of modern understanding of the history of the fourth century Roman Empire. It is lauded as a clear, ... | wikipedia |
wiki_22_chunk_12 | Ammianus Marcellinus | His work has suffered substantially from manuscript transmission. Aside from the loss of the first thirteen books, the remaining eighteen are in many places corrupt and lacunose. The sole surviving manuscript from which almost every other is derived is a ninth-century Carolingian text, Vatican lat. 1873 (V), produced i... | wikipedia |
wiki_22_chunk_13 | Ammianus Marcellinus | His handling from his earliest printers was little better. The editio princeps was printed in 1474 in Rome by Georg Sachsel and Bartholomaeus Golsch, which broke off at the end of Book 26. The next edition (Bologna, 1517) suffered from its editor's conjectures upon the poor text of the 1474 edition; the 1474 edition wa... | wikipedia |
wiki_22_chunk_14 | Ammianus Marcellinus | Reception Edward Gibbon judged Ammianus "an accurate and faithful guide, who composed the history of his own times without indulging the prejudices and passions which usually affect the mind of a contemporary." But he also condemned Ammianus for lack of literary flair: "The coarse and undistinguishing pencil of Ammianu... | wikipedia |
wiki_22_chunk_15 | Ammianus Marcellinus | According to Kimberly Kagan, his accounts of battles emphasize the experience of the soldiers but at the cost of ignoring the bigger picture. As a result, it is difficult for the reader to understand why the battles he describes had the outcome they did. Ammianus' work contains a detailed description of the earthquake... | wikipedia |
wiki_22_chunk_16 | Ammianus Marcellinus | Works by Ammianus Marcellinus at Perseus Digital Library
Ammianus Marcellinus on-line project
Ammianus Marcellinus' works in Latin at the Latin Library
Ammianus Marcellinus' works in English at the Tertullian Project with introduction on the manuscripts
Bibliography for Ammianus Marcellinus at Bibliographia Latina ... | wikipedia |
wiki_22_chunk_17 | Ammianus Marcellinus | 330 births
390s deaths
4th-century births
4th-century Greek people
4th-century historians
4th-century Latin writers
4th-century Romans
Ancient Greeks in Rome
Ancient Roman equites
Ancient Roman soldiers
Late-Roman-era pagans
Latin historians
People of Roman Syria
People of the Roman–Sasanian Wars
Roman-era Greeks Year ... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_0 | American Civil Liberties Union | The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) is a nonprofit organization founded in 1920 "to defend and preserve the individual rights and liberties guaranteed to every person in this country by the Constitution and laws of the United States". The ACLU works through litigation and lobbying, and has over 1,200,000 members,... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_1 | American Civil Liberties Union | In addition to representing persons and organizations in lawsuits, the ACLU lobbies for policy positions that have been established by its board of directors. Current positions of the ACLU include opposing the death penalty; supporting same-sex marriage and the right of LGBT people to adopt; supporting reproductive rig... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_2 | American Civil Liberties Union | Legally, the ACLU consists of two separate but closely affiliated nonprofit organizations, namely the American Civil Liberties Union, a 501(c)(4) social welfare group; and the ACLU Foundation, a 501(c)(3) public charity. Both organizations engage in civil rights litigation, advocacy, and education, but only donations t... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_3 | American Civil Liberties Union | Overview
The ACLU was founded in 1920 by a committee including Helen Keller, Roger Nash Baldwin, Crystal Eastman, Walter Nelles, Morris Ernst, Albert DeSilver, Arthur Garfield Hays, Jane Addams, Felix Frankfurter, Elizabeth Gurley Flynn, and Rose Schneiderman. Its focus was on freedom of speech, primarily for anti-war ... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_4 | American Civil Liberties Union | By 1964, membership had risen to 80,000, and the ACLU participated in efforts to expand civil liberties. In the 1960s, the ACLU continued its decades-long effort to enforce separation of church and state. It defended several anti-war activists during the Vietnam War. The ACLU was involved in the Miranda case, which add... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_5 | American Civil Liberties Union | Organization Leadership
The ACLU is led by a president and an executive director, Deborah N. Archer and Anthony Romero, respectively, in 2021. The president acts as chair of the ACLU's board of directors, leads fundraising, and facilitates policy-setting. The executive director manages the day-to-day operations of the ... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_6 | American Civil Liberties Union | The leadership of the ACLU does not always agree on policy decisions; differences of opinion within the ACLU leadership have sometimes grown into major debates. In 1937, an internal debate erupted over whether to defend Henry Ford's right to distribute anti-union literature. In 1939, a heated debate took place over whe... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_7 | American Civil Liberties Union | Funding | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_8 | American Civil Liberties Union | In the year ending March 31, 2014, the ACLU and the ACLU Foundation had a combined income from support and revenue of $100.4 million, originating from grants (50.0%), membership donations (25.4%), donated legal services (7.6%), bequests (16.2%), and revenue (0.9%). Membership dues are treated as donations; members choo... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_9 | American Civil Liberties Union | The ACLU solicits donations to its charitable foundation. The ACLU is accredited by the Better Business Bureau, and the Charity Navigator has ranked the ACLU with a four-star rating. The local affiliates solicit their own funding; however, some also receive funds from the national ACLU, with the distribution and amount... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_10 | American Civil Liberties Union | In October 2004, the ACLU rejected $1.5 million from both the Ford Foundation and Rockefeller Foundation because the foundations had adopted language from the USA PATRIOT Act in their donation agreements, including a clause stipulating that none of the money would go to "underwriting terrorism or other unacceptable act... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_11 | American Civil Liberties Union | Due to the nature of its legal work, the ACLU is often involved in litigation against governmental bodies, which are generally protected from adverse monetary judgments; a town, state or federal agency may be required to change its laws or behave differently, but not to pay monetary damages except by an explicit statut... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_12 | American Civil Liberties Union | The ACLU has received court awarded fees from opponents, for example, the Georgia affiliate was awarded $150,000 in fees after suing a county demanding the removal of a Ten Commandments display from its courthouse; a second Ten Commandments case in the state, in a different county, led to a $74,462 judgment. The State ... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_13 | American Civil Liberties Union | Most of the organization's workload is performed by its local affiliates. There is at least one affiliate organization in each state, as well as one in Washington, D.C., and in Puerto Rico. California has three affiliates. The affiliates operate autonomously from the national organization; each affiliate has its own st... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_14 | American Civil Liberties Union | ACLU affiliates are the basic unit of the ACLU's organization and engage in litigation, lobbying, and public education. For example, in a twenty-month period beginning January 2004, the ACLU's New Jersey chapter was involved in fifty-one cases according to their annual reportthirty-five cases in state courts, and sixte... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_15 | American Civil Liberties Union | Positions
The ACLU's official position statements included the following policies:
Affirmative action – The ACLU supports affirmative action.
Birth control and abortion – The ACLU supports the right to abortion, as established in the Roe v. Wade decision. The ACLU believes that everyone should have affordable access ... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_16 | American Civil Liberties Union | Criminal law reform – The ACLU seeks an end to what it feels are excessively harsh sentences that "stand in the way of a just and equal society". The ACLU's Criminal Law Reform Project focuses on this issue.
Death penalty – The ACLU is opposed to the death penalty in all circumstances. The ACLU's Capital Punishment Pr... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_17 | American Civil Liberties Union | Support and opposition
The ACLU is supported by a variety of persons and organizations. There were over 1,000,000 members in 2017, and the ACLU annually receives thousands of grants from hundreds of charitable foundations. Allies of the ACLU in legal actions have included the National Association for the Advancement of... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_18 | American Civil Liberties Union | The ACLU has been criticized by liberals such as when it excluded communists from its leadership ranks, when it defended Neo-Nazis, when it declined to defend Paul Robeson, or when it opposed the passage of the National Labor Relations Act. Since the 1990s, the organization has come under heavy criticism from feminist... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_19 | American Civil Liberties Union | A major source of criticism are legal cases in which the ACLU represents an individual or organization that promotes offensive or unpopular viewpoints such as the Ku Klux Klan, neo-Nazis, the Nation of Islam, the North American Man/Boy Love Association, the Westboro Baptist Church or the Unite the Right rally. As of 20... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_20 | American Civil Liberties Union | CLB era The ACLU developed from the National Civil Liberties Bureau (CLB), co-founded in 1917 during World War I by Crystal Eastman, an attorney activist, and Roger Nash Baldwin. The focus of the CLB was on freedom of speech, primarily anti-war speech, and on supporting conscientious objectors who did not want to serve... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_21 | American Civil Liberties Union | Three United States Supreme Court decisions in 1919 each upheld convictions under laws against certain kinds of anti-war speech. In 1919, the Court upheld the conviction of Socialist Party leader Charles Schenck for publishing anti-war literature. In Debs v. United States, the court upheld the conviction of Eugene Debs... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_22 | American Civil Liberties Union | In 1918, Crystal Eastman resigned from the organization due to health issues. After assuming sole leadership of the CLB, Baldwin insisted that the organization be reorganized. He wanted to change its focus from litigation to direct action and public education. | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_23 | American Civil Liberties Union | The CLB directors concurred, and on January 19, 1920, they formed an organization under a new name, the American Civil Liberties Union. Although a handful of other organizations in the United States at that time focused on civil rights, such as the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and ... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_24 | American Civil Liberties Union | During the first decades of the ACLU, Baldwin continued as its leader. His charisma and energy attracted many supporters to the ACLU board and leadership ranks. Baldwin was ascetic, wearing hand-me-down clothes, pinching pennies, and living on a very small salary. The ACLU was directed by an executive committee, and it... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_25 | American Civil Liberties Union | Free speech era
In the 1920s, government censorship was commonplace. Magazines were routinely confiscated under the anti-obscenity Comstock laws; permits for labor rallies were often denied; and virtually all anti-war or anti-government literature was outlawed. Right-wing conservatives wielded vast amounts of power, an... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_26 | American Civil Liberties Union | ACLU leadership was divided on how to challenge the civil rights violations. One faction, including Baldwin, Arthur Garfield Hays and Norman Thomas, believed that direct, militant action was the best path. Hays was the first of many successful attorneys that relinquished their private practices to work for the ACLU. An... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_27 | American Civil Liberties Union | During the 1920s, the ACLU's primary focus was on freedom of speech in general, and speech within the labor movement particularly. Because most of the ACLU's efforts were associated with the labor movement, the ACLU itself came under heavy attack from conservative groups, such as the American Legion, the National Civic... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_28 | American Civil Liberties Union | In addition to labor, the ACLU also led efforts in non-labor arenas, for example, promoting free speech in public schools. The ACLU itself was banned from speaking in New York public schools in 1921. The ACLU, working with the NAACP, also supported racial discrimination cases. The ACLU defended free speech regardless o... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_29 | American Civil Liberties Union | The Communist Party USA was routinely hounded by government officials, leading it to be the primary client of the ACLU. At the same time, the Communists were very aggressive in their tactics, often engaging in illegal conduct such as denying their party membership under oath. This led to frequent conflicts between the ... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_30 | American Civil Liberties Union | Scopes trial
When 1925 arrived five years after the ACLU was formed the organization had virtually no success to show for its efforts. That changed in 1925, when the ACLU persuaded John T. Scopes to defy Tennessee's anti-evolution law in The State of Tennessee v. John Thomas Scopes. Clarence Darrow, a member of the A... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_31 | American Civil Liberties Union | The Scopes trial was a phenomenal public relations success for the ACLU. The ACLU became well known across America, and the case led to the first endorsement of the ACLU by a major US newspaper. The ACLU continued to fight for the separation of church and state in schoolrooms, decade after decade, including the 1982 ca... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_32 | American Civil Liberties Union | Baldwin himself was involved in an important free speech victory of the 1920s, after he was arrested for attempting to speak at a rally of striking mill workers in New Jersey. Although the decision was limited to the state of New Jersey, the appeals court's judgement in 1928 declared that constitutional guarantees of f... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_33 | American Civil Liberties Union | The most important ACLU case of the 1920s was Gitlow v. New York, in which Benjamin Gitlow was arrested for violating a state law against inciting anarchy and violence, when he distributed literature promoting communism. Although the Supreme Court did not overturn Gitlow's conviction, it adopted the ACLU's stance (late... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_34 | American Civil Liberties Union | After the First World War, many native-born Americans had a revival of concerns about assimilation of immigrants and worries about "foreign" values; they wanted public schools to teach children to be American. Numerous states drafted laws designed to use schools to promote a common American culture, and in 1922, the vo... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_35 | American Civil Liberties Union | The Oregon Compulsory Education Act required almost all children in Oregon between eight and sixteen years of age to attend public school by 1926. Associate Director Roger Nash Baldwin, a personal friend of Luke E. Hart, the then–Supreme Advocate and future Supreme Knight of the Knights of Columbus, offered to join for... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_36 | American Civil Liberties Union | The case became known as Pierce v. Society of Sisters, a seminal United States Supreme Court decision that significantly expanded coverage of the Due Process Clause in the Fourteenth Amendment. In a unanimous decision, the court held that the act was unconstitutional and that parents, not the state, had the authority t... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_37 | American Civil Liberties Union | Early strategy
Leaders of the ACLU were divided on the best tactics to use to promote civil liberties. Felix Frankfurter felt that legislation was the best long-term solution because the Supreme Court could not (and in his opinion should not) mandate liberal interpretations of the Bill of Rights. But Walter Pollak, M... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_38 | American Civil Liberties Union | Censorship was commonplace in the early 20th century. State laws and city ordinances routinely outlawed speech deemed to be obscene or offensive, and prohibited meetings or literature that promoted unions or labor organization. Starting in 1926, the ACLU began to expand its free speech activities to encompass censorshi... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_39 | American Civil Liberties Union | The Comstock laws banned distribution of sex education information, based on the premise that it was obscene and led to promiscuous behavior Mary Ware Dennett was fined $300 in 1928, for distributing a pamphlet containing sex education material. The ACLU, led by Morris Ernst, appealed her conviction and won a reversal,... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_40 | American Civil Liberties Union | The success prompted the ACLU to broaden their freedom of speech efforts beyond labor and political speech, to encompass movies, press, radio and literature. The ACLU formed the National Committee on Freedom from Censorship in 1931 to coordinate this effort. By the early 1930s, censorship in the United States was dimin... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_41 | American Civil Liberties Union | Two major victories in the 1930s cemented the ACLUs campaign to promote free speech. In Stromberg v. California, decided in 1931, the Supreme Court sided with the ACLU and affirmed the right of a communist party member to salute a communist flag. The result was the first time the Supreme Court used the Due Process Clau... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_42 | American Civil Liberties Union | 1930s
The late 1930s saw the emergence of a new era of tolerance in the United States. National leaders hailed the Bill of Rights, particularly as it protected minorities, as the essence of democracy. The 1939 Supreme Court decision in Hague v. Committee for Industrial Organization affirmed the right of communists to p... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_43 | American Civil Liberties Union | Expansion
In 1929, after the Scopes and Dennett victories, Baldwin perceived that there was vast, untapped support for civil liberties in the United States. Baldwin proposed an expansion program for the ACLU, focusing on police brutality, Native American rights, African American rights, censorship in the arts, and inte... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_44 | American Civil Liberties Union | The ACLU played a major role in passing the 1932 Norris–La Guardia Act, a federal law which prohibited employers from preventing employees from joining unions, and stopped the practice of outlawing strikes, unions, and labor organizing activities with the use of injunctions. The ACLU also played a key role in initiatin... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_45 | American Civil Liberties Union | Although the ACLU deferred to the NAACP for litigation promoting civil liberties for African Americans, the ACLU did engage in educational efforts, and published Black Justice in 1931, a report which documented institutional racism throughout the South, including lack of voting rights, segregation, and discrimination i... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_46 | American Civil Liberties Union | Depression era and the New Deal
In 1932twelve years after the ACLU was foundedit had achieved significant success; the Supreme Court had embraced the free speech principles espoused by the ACLU, and the general public was becoming more supportive of civil rights in general. But the Great Depression brought new assaults... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_47 | American Civil Liberties Union | The Franklin D. Roosevelt administration proposed the New Deal to combat the depression. ACLU leaders were of mixed opinions about the New Deal, since many felt that it represented an increase in government intervention into personal affairs, and because the National Recovery Administration suspended antitrust legislat... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_48 | American Civil Liberties Union | The economic policies of the New Deal leaders were often aligned with ACLU goals, but social goals were not. In particular, movies were subject to a barrage of local ordinances banning screenings that were deemed immoral or obscene. Even public health films portraying pregnancy and birth were banned; as was Life magazi... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_49 | American Civil Liberties Union | The Catholic Church attained increasing political influence in the 1930s, and used its influence to promote censorship of movies, and to discourage publication of birth control information. This conflict between the ACLU and the Catholic Church led to the resignation of the last Catholic priest from ACLU leadership in ... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_50 | American Civil Liberties Union | The ACLU took no official position on president Franklin Delano Roosevelt's 1937 court-packing plan, which threatened to increase the number of Supreme Court justices, unless the Supreme Court reversed its course and began approving New Deal legislation. The Supreme Court responded by making a major shift in policy, an... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_51 | American Civil Liberties Union | The first decision that marked the court's new direction was De Jonge v. Oregon, in which a communist labor organizer was arrested for calling a meeting to discuss unionization. The ACLU attorney Osmond Fraenkel, working with International Labor Defense, defended De Jonge in 1937, and won a major victory when the Supre... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_52 | American Civil Liberties Union | Senator Robert F. Wagner proposed the National Labor Relations Act in 1935, which empowered workers to unionize. Ironically, the ACLU, after 15 years of fighting for workers' rights, initially opposed the act (it later took no stand on the legislation) because some ACLU leaders feared the increased power the bill gave ... | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_53 | American Civil Liberties Union | The ACLU's support of the NLRB was a major development for the ACLU, because it marked the first time it accepted that a government agency could be responsible for upholding civil liberties. Until 1937, the ACLU felt that civil rights were best upheld by citizens and private organizations. | wikipedia |
wiki_23_chunk_54 | American Civil Liberties Union | Some factions in the ACLU proposed new directions for the organization. In the late 1930s, some local affiliates proposed shifting their emphasis from civil liberties appellate actions, to becoming a legal aid society, centered on store front offices in low income neighborhoods. The ACLU directors rejected that proposa... | wikipedia |
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