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wiki_14_chunk_54 | Ada (programming language) | Programming languages
.NET programming languages
Avionics programming languages
High Integrity Programming Language
Multi-paradigm programming languages
Programming language standards
Programming languages created in 1980
Programming languages with an ISO standard
Statically typed programming languages
Systems programm... | wikipedia |
wiki_15_chunk_0 | Advanced Encryption Standard | The Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), also known by its original name Rijndael (), is a specification for the encryption of electronic data established by the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in 2001. | wikipedia |
wiki_15_chunk_1 | Advanced Encryption Standard | AES is a variant of the Rijndael block cipher developed by two Belgian cryptographers, Joan Daemen and Vincent Rijmen, who submitted a proposal to NIST during the AES selection process. Rijndael is a family of ciphers with different key and block sizes. For AES, NIST selected three members of the Rijndael family, each ... | wikipedia |
wiki_15_chunk_2 | Advanced Encryption Standard | AES has been adopted by the U.S. government. It supersedes the Data Encryption Standard (DES), which was published in 1977. The algorithm described by AES is a symmetric-key algorithm, meaning the same key is used for both encrypting and decrypting the data. | wikipedia |
wiki_15_chunk_3 | Advanced Encryption Standard | In the United States, AES was announced by the NIST as U.S. FIPS PUB 197 (FIPS 197) on November 26, 2001. This announcement followed a five-year standardization process in which fifteen competing designs were presented and evaluated, before the Rijndael cipher was selected as the most suitable (see Advanced Encryption ... | wikipedia |
wiki_15_chunk_4 | Advanced Encryption Standard | AES is included in the ISO/IEC 18033-3 standard. AES became effective as a U.S. federal government standard on May 26, 2002, after approval by the U.S. Secretary of Commerce. AES is available in many different encryption packages, and is the first (and only) publicly accessible cipher approved by the U.S. National Sec... | wikipedia |
wiki_15_chunk_5 | Advanced Encryption Standard | FIPS PUB 197: Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)
ISO/IEC 18033-3: Block ciphers | wikipedia |
wiki_15_chunk_6 | Advanced Encryption Standard | Description of the ciphers
AES is based on a design principle known as a substitution–permutation network, and is efficient in both software and hardware. Unlike its predecessor DES, AES does not use a Feistel network. AES is a variant of Rijndael, with a fixed block size of 128 bits, and a key size of 128, 192, or 25... | wikipedia |
wiki_15_chunk_7 | Advanced Encryption Standard | AES operates on a 4 × 4 column-major order array of bytes, termed the state. Most AES calculations are done in a particular finite field. For instance, 16 bytes, are represented as this two-dimensional array: The key size used for an AES cipher specifies the number of transformation rounds that convert the input, call... | wikipedia |
wiki_15_chunk_8 | Advanced Encryption Standard | Each round consists of several processing steps, including one that depends on the encryption key itself. A set of reverse rounds are applied to transform ciphertext back into the original plaintext using the same encryption key. High-level description of the algorithm | wikipedia |
wiki_15_chunk_9 | Advanced Encryption Standard | round keys are derived from the cipher key using the AES key schedule. AES requires a separate 128-bit round key block for each round plus one more.
Initial round key addition:
each byte of the state is combined with a byte of the round key using bitwise xor.
9, 11 or 13 rounds:
a non-linear substitution step where... | wikipedia |
wiki_15_chunk_10 | Advanced Encryption Standard | The step | wikipedia |
wiki_15_chunk_11 | Advanced Encryption Standard | In the step, each byte in the state array is replaced with a using an 8-bit substitution box. Note that before round 0, the state array is simply the plaintext/input. This operation provides the non-linearity in the cipher. The S-box used is derived from the multiplicative inverse over , known to have good non-line... | wikipedia |
wiki_15_chunk_12 | Advanced Encryption Standard | The step The step operates on the rows of the state; it cyclically shifts the bytes in each row by a certain offset. For AES, the first row is left unchanged. Each byte of the second row is shifted one to the left. Similarly, the third and fourth rows are shifted by offsets of two and three respectively. In this way,... | wikipedia |
wiki_15_chunk_13 | Advanced Encryption Standard | In the step, the four bytes of each column of the state are combined using an invertible linear transformation. The function takes four bytes as input and outputs four bytes, where each input byte affects all four output bytes. Together with , provides diffusion in the cipher. During this operation, each column is t... | wikipedia |
wiki_15_chunk_14 | Advanced Encryption Standard | Matrix multiplication is composed of multiplication and addition of the entries. Entries are bytes treated as coefficients of polynomial of order . Addition is simply XOR. Multiplication is modulo irreducible polynomial . If processed bit by bit, then, after shifting, a conditional XOR with 1B16 should be performed if ... | wikipedia |
wiki_15_chunk_15 | Advanced Encryption Standard | In more general sense, each column is treated as a polynomial over and is then multiplied modulo with a fixed polynomial . The coefficients are displayed in their hexadecimal equivalent of the binary representation of bit polynomials from . The step can also be viewed as a multiplication by the shown particular MDS ... | wikipedia |
wiki_15_chunk_16 | Advanced Encryption Standard | In the step, the subkey is combined with the state. For each round, a subkey is derived from the main key using Rijndael's key schedule; each subkey is the same size as the state. The subkey is added by combining each byte of the state with the corresponding byte of the subkey using bitwise XOR. | wikipedia |
wiki_15_chunk_17 | Advanced Encryption Standard | Optimization of the cipher
On systems with 32-bit or larger words, it is possible to speed up execution of this cipher by combining the and steps with the step by transforming them into a sequence of table lookups. This requires four 256-entry 32-bit tables (together occupying 4096 bytes). A round can then be perf... | wikipedia |
wiki_15_chunk_18 | Advanced Encryption Standard | Using a byte-oriented approach, it is possible to combine the , , and steps into a single round operation. | wikipedia |
wiki_15_chunk_19 | Advanced Encryption Standard | Security
The National Security Agency (NSA) reviewed all the AES finalists, including Rijndael, and stated that all of them were secure enough for U.S. Government non-classified data. In June 2003, the U.S. Government announced that AES could be used to protect classified information:
The design and strength of all ke... | wikipedia |
wiki_15_chunk_20 | Advanced Encryption Standard | AES has 10 rounds for 128-bit keys, 12 rounds for 192-bit keys, and 14 rounds for 256-bit keys. By 2006, the best known attacks were on 7 rounds for 128-bit keys, 8 rounds for 192-bit keys, and 9 rounds for 256-bit keys. | wikipedia |
wiki_15_chunk_21 | Advanced Encryption Standard | Known attacks
For cryptographers, a cryptographic "break" is anything faster than a brute-force attack – i.e., performing one trial decryption for each possible key in sequence (see Cryptanalysis). A break can thus include results that are infeasible with current technology. Despite being impractical, theoretical brea... | wikipedia |
wiki_15_chunk_22 | Advanced Encryption Standard | The key space increases by a factor of 2 for each additional bit of key length, and if every possible value of the key is equiprobable, this translates into a doubling of the average brute-force key search time. This implies that the effort of a brute-force search increases exponentially with key length. Key length in ... | wikipedia |
wiki_15_chunk_23 | Advanced Encryption Standard | AES has a fairly simple algebraic framework. In 2002, a theoretical attack, named the "XSL attack", was announced by Nicolas Courtois and Josef Pieprzyk, purporting to show a weakness in the AES algorithm, partially due to the low complexity of its nonlinear components. Since then, other papers have shown that the atta... | wikipedia |
wiki_15_chunk_24 | Advanced Encryption Standard | During the AES selection process, developers of competing algorithms wrote of Rijndael's algorithm "we are concerned about [its] use ... in security-critical applications." In October 2000, however, at the end of the AES selection process, Bruce Schneier, a developer of the competing algorithm Twofish, wrote that while... | wikipedia |
wiki_15_chunk_25 | Advanced Encryption Standard | Until May 2009, the only successful published attacks against the full AES were side-channel attacks on some specific implementations. In 2009, a new related-key attack was discovered that exploits the simplicity of AES's key schedule and has a complexity of 2119. In December 2009 it was improved to 299.5. This is a fo... | wikipedia |
wiki_15_chunk_26 | Advanced Encryption Standard | Another attack was blogged by Bruce Schneier
on July 30, 2009, and released as a preprint
on August 3, 2009. This new attack, by Alex Biryukov, Orr Dunkelman, Nathan Keller, Dmitry Khovratovich, and Adi Shamir, is against AES-256 that uses only two related keys and 239 time to recover the complete 256-bit key of a 9-ro... | wikipedia |
wiki_15_chunk_27 | Advanced Encryption Standard | The practicality of these attacks with stronger related keys has been criticized, for instance, by the paper on chosen-key-relations-in-the-middle attacks on AES-128 authored by Vincent Rijmen in 2010. | wikipedia |
wiki_15_chunk_28 | Advanced Encryption Standard | In November 2009, the first known-key distinguishing attack against a reduced 8-round version of AES-128 was released as a preprint.
This known-key distinguishing attack is an improvement of the rebound, or the start-from-the-middle attack, against AES-like permutations, which view two consecutive rounds of permutation... | wikipedia |
wiki_15_chunk_29 | Advanced Encryption Standard | The first key-recovery attacks on full AES were by Andrey Bogdanov, Dmitry Khovratovich, and Christian Rechberger, and were published in 2011. The attack is a biclique attack and is faster than brute force by a factor of about four. It requires 2126.2 operations to recover an AES-128 key. For AES-192 and AES-256, 2190.... | wikipedia |
wiki_15_chunk_30 | Advanced Encryption Standard | This is a very small gain, as a 126-bit key (instead of 128-bits) would still take billions of years to brute force on current and foreseeable hardware. Also, the authors calculate the best attack using their technique on AES with a 128-bit key requires storing 288 bits of data. That works out to about 38 trillion tera... | wikipedia |
wiki_15_chunk_31 | Advanced Encryption Standard | According to the Snowden documents, the NSA is doing research on whether a cryptographic attack based on tau statistic may help to break AES. At present, there is no known practical attack that would allow someone without knowledge of the key to read data encrypted by AES when correctly implemented. Side-channel attack... | wikipedia |
wiki_15_chunk_32 | Advanced Encryption Standard | Side-channel attacks do not attack the cipher as a black box, and thus are not related to cipher security as defined in the classical context, but are important in practice. They attack implementations of the cipher on hardware or software systems that inadvertently leak data. There are several such known attacks on va... | wikipedia |
wiki_15_chunk_33 | Advanced Encryption Standard | In April 2005, D. J. Bernstein announced a cache-timing attack that he used to break a custom server that used OpenSSL's AES encryption. The attack required over 200 million chosen plaintexts. The custom server was designed to give out as much timing information as possible (the server reports back the number of machin... | wikipedia |
wiki_15_chunk_34 | Advanced Encryption Standard | In October 2005, Dag Arne Osvik, Adi Shamir and Eran Tromer presented a paper demonstrating several cache-timing attacks against the implementations in AES found in OpenSSL and Linux's dm-crypt partition encryption function. One attack was able to obtain an entire AES key after only 800 operations triggering encryption... | wikipedia |
wiki_15_chunk_35 | Advanced Encryption Standard | In December 2009 an attack on some hardware implementations was published that used differential fault analysis and allows recovery of a key with a complexity of 232. | wikipedia |
wiki_15_chunk_36 | Advanced Encryption Standard | In November 2010 Endre Bangerter, David Gullasch and Stephan Krenn published a paper which described a practical approach to a "near real time" recovery of secret keys from AES-128 without the need for either cipher text or plaintext. The approach also works on AES-128 implementations that use compression tables, such ... | wikipedia |
wiki_15_chunk_37 | Advanced Encryption Standard | In March 2016, Ashokkumar C., Ravi Prakash Giri and Bernard Menezes presented a side-channel attack on AES implementations that can recover the complete 128-bit AES key in just 6–7 blocks of plaintext/ciphertext, which is a substantial improvement over previous works that require between 100 and a million encryptions. ... | wikipedia |
wiki_15_chunk_38 | Advanced Encryption Standard | NIST/CSEC validation
The Cryptographic Module Validation Program (CMVP) is operated jointly by the United States Government's National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Computer Security Division and the Communications Security Establishment (CSE) of the Government of Canada. The use of cryptographic module... | wikipedia |
wiki_15_chunk_39 | Advanced Encryption Standard | The Government of Canada also recommends the use of FIPS 140 validated cryptographic modules in unclassified applications of its departments. | wikipedia |
wiki_15_chunk_40 | Advanced Encryption Standard | Although NIST publication 197 (“FIPS 197”) is the unique document that covers the AES algorithm, vendors typically approach the CMVP under FIPS 140 and ask to have several algorithms (such as Triple DES or SHA1) validated at the same time. Therefore, it is rare to find cryptographic modules that are uniquely FIPS 197 v... | wikipedia |
wiki_15_chunk_41 | Advanced Encryption Standard | The Cryptographic Algorithm Validation Program (CAVP) allows for independent validation of the correct implementation of the AES algorithm. Successful validation results in being listed on the NIST validations page. This testing is a pre-requisite for the FIPS 140-2 module validation described below. However, successfu... | wikipedia |
wiki_15_chunk_42 | Advanced Encryption Standard | FIPS 140-2 validation is challenging to achieve both technically and fiscally. There is a standardized battery of tests as well as an element of source code review that must be passed over a period of a few weeks. The cost to perform these tests through an approved laboratory can be significant (e.g., well over $30,000... | wikipedia |
wiki_15_chunk_43 | Advanced Encryption Standard | Test vectors
Test vectors are a set of known ciphers for a given input and key. NIST distributes the reference of AES test vectors as AES Known Answer Test (KAT) Vectors. Performance
High speed and low RAM requirements were criteria of the AES selection process. As the chosen algorithm, AES performed well on a wide v... | wikipedia |
wiki_15_chunk_44 | Advanced Encryption Standard | On Intel Core and AMD Ryzen CPUs supporting AES-NI instruction set extensions, throughput can be multiple GB/s (even over 10 GB/s). Implementations See also
AES modes of operation
Disk encryption
Network encryption
Whirlpool – hash function created by Vincent Rijmen and Paulo S. L. M. Barreto
List of free and open-sou... | wikipedia |
wiki_15_chunk_45 | Advanced Encryption Standard | Animation of Rijndael – AES deeply explained and animated using Flash (by Enrique Zabala / University ORT / Montevideo / Uruguay). This animation (in English, Spanish, and German) is also part of CrypTool 1 (menu Indiv. Procedures → Visualization of Algorithms → AES).
HTML5 Animation of Rijndael – Same Animation as ab... | wikipedia |
wiki_16_chunk_0 | The Apache Software Foundation | The Apache Software Foundation (ASF) is an American nonprofit corporation (classified as a 501(c)(3) organization in the United States) to support a number of open source software projects. The ASF was formed from a group of developers of the Apache HTTP Server, and incorporated on March 25, 1999. As of 2021, it inclu... | wikipedia |
wiki_16_chunk_1 | The Apache Software Foundation | The Apache Software Foundation is a decentralized open source community of developers. The software they produce is distributed under the terms of the Apache License and is a non-copyleft form of free and open-source software (FOSS). The Apache projects are characterized by a collaborative, consensus-based development ... | wikipedia |
wiki_16_chunk_2 | The Apache Software Foundation | Among the ASF's objectives are: to provide legal protection to volunteers working on Apache projects; to prevent the Apache brand name from being used by other organizations without permission. The ASF also holds several ApacheCon conferences each year, highlighting Apache projects and related technology. | wikipedia |
wiki_16_chunk_3 | The Apache Software Foundation | History
The history of the Apache Software Foundation is linked to the Apache HTTP Server, development beginning in February 1993. A group of eight developers started working on enhancing the NCSA HTTPd daemon. They came to be known as the Apache Group. On March 25, 1999, the Apache Software Foundation was formed. The ... | wikipedia |
wiki_16_chunk_4 | The Apache Software Foundation | The foundation states that the name 'Apache' was chosen "from respect for the Native American Apache Nation, well known for their superior skills in warfare strategy and their inexhaustible endurance". Projects | wikipedia |
wiki_16_chunk_5 | The Apache Software Foundation | Apache divides its software development activities into separate semi-autonomous areas called "top-level projects" (formally known as a "Project Management Committee" in the bylaws), some of which have a number of sub-projects. Unlike some other organizations that host FOSS projects, before a project is hosted at Apach... | wikipedia |
wiki_16_chunk_6 | The Apache Software Foundation | Board of directors
The Board of Directors of The Apache Software Foundation (ASF) is responsible for management and oversight of the business and affairs of the corporation in accordance with the Bylaws. This includes management of the corporate assets (funds, intellectual property, trademarks, and support equipment), ... | wikipedia |
wiki_16_chunk_7 | The Apache Software Foundation | Since March 17, 2021, the board of directors has been: Bertrand Delacretaz
Roy T. Fielding
Sharan Foga
Justin Mclean
Sam Ruby
Craig L Russell
Roman Shaposhnik
Sander Striker
Sheng Wu See also List of Apache Software Foundation projects
Apache Attic
Apache Incubator
Log4Shell
CNCF
Linux Foundation Notes Fur... | wikipedia |
wiki_16_chunk_8 | The Apache Software Foundation | 1999 establishments in Maryland
Free and open-source software organizations
Non-profit organizations based in Maryland
Software companies established in 1999
501(c)(3) organizations | wikipedia |
wiki_17_chunk_0 | Atanasoff–Berry computer | The Atanasoff–Berry computer (ABC) was the first automatic electronic digital computer. Limited by the technology of the day, and execution, the device has remained somewhat obscure. The ABC's priority is debated among historians of computer technology, because it was neither programmable, nor Turing-complete. Conventi... | wikipedia |
wiki_17_chunk_1 | Atanasoff–Berry computer | Its unique contribution was to make computing faster by being the first to use vacuum tubes to do the arithmetic calculations. Prior to this, slower electro-mechanical methods were used by the Harvard Mark I and Konrad Zuse's machines. The first electronic, programmable, digital machine, the Colossus computer from 1943... | wikipedia |
wiki_17_chunk_2 | Atanasoff–Berry computer | Overview
Conceived in 1937, the machine was built by Iowa State College mathematics and physics professor John Vincent Atanasoff with the help of graduate student Clifford Berry. It was designed only to solve systems of linear equations and was successfully tested in 1942. However, its intermediate result storage mecha... | wikipedia |
wiki_17_chunk_3 | Atanasoff–Berry computer | Atanasoff and Berry's computer work was not widely known until it was rediscovered in the 1960s, amidst patent disputes over the first instance of an electronic computer. At that time ENIAC, that had been created by John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert, was considered to be the first computer in the modern sense, but in ... | wikipedia |
wiki_17_chunk_4 | Atanasoff–Berry computer | Design and construction | wikipedia |
wiki_17_chunk_5 | Atanasoff–Berry computer | According to Atanasoff's account, several key principles of the Atanasoff–Berry computer were conceived in a sudden insight after a long nighttime drive to Rock Island, Illinois, during the winter of 1937–38. The ABC innovations included electronic computation, binary arithmetic, parallel processing, regenerative capac... | wikipedia |
wiki_17_chunk_6 | Atanasoff–Berry computer | The ABC was built by Atanasoff and Berry in the basement of the physics building at Iowa State College during 1939–1942. The initial funds were released in September, and the 11-tube prototype was first demonstrated in October 1939. A December demonstration prompted a grant for construction of the full-scale machine. T... | wikipedia |
wiki_17_chunk_7 | Atanasoff–Berry computer | It was not programmable, which distinguishes it from more general machines of the same era, such as Konrad Zuse's 1941 Z3 and the Colossus computers of 1943–1945. Nor did it implement the stored-program architecture, first implemented in the Manchester Baby of 1948, required for fully general-purpose practical computin... | wikipedia |
wiki_17_chunk_8 | Atanasoff–Berry computer | The memory of the Atanasoff–Berry computer was a system called regenerative capacitor memory, which consisted of a pair of drums, each containing 1600 capacitors that rotated on a common shaft once per second. The capacitors on each drum were organized into 32 "bands" of 50 (30 active bands and two spares in case a cap... | wikipedia |
wiki_17_chunk_9 | Atanasoff–Berry computer | The alternating current power-line frequency of 60 Hz was the primary clock rate for the lowest-level operations. | wikipedia |
wiki_17_chunk_10 | Atanasoff–Berry computer | The arithmetic logic functions were fully electronic, implemented with vacuum tubes. The family of logic gates ranged from inverters to two- and three-input gates. The input and output levels and operating voltages were compatible between the different gates. Each gate consisted of one inverting vacuum-tube amplifier, ... | wikipedia |
wiki_17_chunk_11 | Atanasoff–Berry computer | The ALU operated on only one bit of each number at a time; it kept the carry/borrow bit in a capacitor for use in the next AC cycle. | wikipedia |
wiki_17_chunk_12 | Atanasoff–Berry computer | Although the Atanasoff–Berry computer was an important step up from earlier calculating machines, it was not able to run entirely automatically through an entire problem. An operator was needed to operate the control switches to set up its functions, much like the electro-mechanical calculators and unit record equipmen... | wikipedia |
wiki_17_chunk_13 | Atanasoff–Berry computer | There were two forms of input and output: primary user input and output and an intermediate results output and input. The intermediate results storage allowed operation on problems too large to be handled entirely within the electronic memory. (The largest problem that could be solved without the use of the intermediat... | wikipedia |
wiki_17_chunk_14 | Atanasoff–Berry computer | Intermediate results were binary, written onto paper sheets by electrostatically modifying the resistance at 1500 locations to represent 30 of the 50-bit numbers (one equation). Each sheet could be written or read in one second. The reliability of the system was limited to about 1 error in 100,000 calculations by these... | wikipedia |
wiki_17_chunk_15 | Atanasoff–Berry computer | Primary user input was decimal, via standard IBM 80-column punched cards, and output was decimal, via a front-panel display. | wikipedia |
wiki_17_chunk_16 | Atanasoff–Berry computer | Function
The ABC was designed for a specific purpose the solution of systems of simultaneous linear equations. It could handle systems with up to 29 equations, a difficult problem for the time. Problems of this scale were becoming common in physics, the department in which John Atanasoff worked. The machine could be fe... | wikipedia |
wiki_17_chunk_17 | Atanasoff–Berry computer | George W. Snedecor, the head of Iowa State's Statistics Department, was very likely the first user of an electronic digital computer to solve real-world mathematics problems. He submitted many of these problems to Atanasoff. | wikipedia |
wiki_17_chunk_18 | Atanasoff–Berry computer | Patent dispute
On June 26, 1947, J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly were the first to file for patent on a digital computing device (ENIAC), much to the surprise of Atanasoff. The ABC had been examined by John Mauchly in June 1941, and Isaac Auerbach, a former student of Mauchly's, alleged that it influenced his later ... | wikipedia |
wiki_17_chunk_19 | Atanasoff–Berry computer | Campbell-Kelly and Aspray conclude: The case was legally resolved on October 19, 1973, when U.S. District Judge Earl R. Larson held the ENIAC patent invalid, ruling that the ENIAC derived many basic ideas from the Atanasoff–Berry computer. Judge Larson explicitly stated: Herman Goldstine, one of the original developers... | wikipedia |
wiki_17_chunk_20 | Atanasoff–Berry computer | In 1997, a team of researchers led by Dr. Delwyn Bluhm and John Gustafson from Ames Laboratory (located on the Iowa State University campus) finished building a working replica of the Atanasoff–Berry computer at a cost of $350,000 (equivalent to $ in ). The replica ABC was on display in the first floor lobby of the Du... | wikipedia |
wiki_17_chunk_21 | Atanasoff–Berry computer | External links
The Birth of the ABC
Reconstruction of the ABC, 1994-1997
John Gustafson, Reconstruction of the Atanasoff-Berry Computer
The ENIAC patent trial
Honeywell v. Sperry Rand Records, 1846-1973, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota.
The Atanasoff-Berry Computer In Operation (YouTube) 1940s comput... | wikipedia |
wiki_18_chunk_0 | APL (programming language) | APL (named after the book A Programming Language) is a programming language developed in the 1960s by Kenneth E. Iverson. Its central datatype is the multidimensional array. It uses a large range of special graphic symbols to represent most functions and operators, leading to very concise code. It has been an important... | wikipedia |
wiki_18_chunk_1 | APL (programming language) | Mathematical notation
A mathematical notation for manipulating arrays was developed by Kenneth E. Iverson, starting in 1957 at Harvard University. In 1960, he began work for IBM where he developed this notation with Adin Falkoff and published it in his book A Programming Language in 1962. The preface states its premise... | wikipedia |
wiki_18_chunk_2 | APL (programming language) | Iverson also used his notation in a draft of the chapter A Programming Language, written for a book he was writing with Fred Brooks, Automatic Data Processing, which would be published in 1963. In 1979, Iverson received the Turing Award for his work on APL. Development into a computer programming language
As early as ... | wikipedia |
wiki_18_chunk_3 | APL (programming language) | In 1963, Herbert Hellerman, working at the IBM Systems Research Institute, implemented a part of the notation on an IBM 1620 computer, and it was used by students in a special high school course on calculating transcendental functions by series summation. Students tested their code in Hellerman's lab. This implementati... | wikipedia |
wiki_18_chunk_4 | APL (programming language) | In 1963, Falkoff, Iverson, and Edward H. Sussenguth Jr., all working at IBM, used the notation for a formal description of the IBM System/360 series machine architecture and functionality, which resulted in a paper published in IBM Systems Journal in 1964. After this was published, the team turned their attention to an... | wikipedia |
wiki_18_chunk_5 | APL (programming language) | After Lawrence M. Breed and Philip S. Abrams of Stanford University joined the team at IBM Research, they continued their prior work on an implementation programmed in FORTRAN IV for a part of the notation which had been done for the IBM 7090 computer running on the IBSYS operating system. This work was finished in lat... | wikipedia |
wiki_18_chunk_6 | APL (programming language) | Hardware | wikipedia |
wiki_18_chunk_7 | APL (programming language) | A key development in the ability to use APL effectively, before the wide use of cathode ray tube (CRT) terminals, was the development of a special IBM Selectric typewriter interchangeable typing element with all the special APL characters on it. This was used on paper printing terminal workstations using the Selectric ... | wikipedia |
wiki_18_chunk_8 | APL (programming language) | Many APL symbols, even with the APL characters on the Selectric typing element, still had to be typed in by over-striking two extant element characters. An example is the grade up character, which had to be made from a delta (shift-H) and a Sheffer stroke (shift-M). This was necessary because the APL character set was ... | wikipedia |
wiki_18_chunk_9 | APL (programming language) | Commercial availability
The first APL interactive login and creation of an APL workspace was in 1966 by Larry Breed using an IBM 1050 terminal at the IBM Mohansic Labs near Thomas J. Watson Research Center, the home of APL, in Yorktown Heights, New York. | wikipedia |
wiki_18_chunk_10 | APL (programming language) | IBM was chiefly responsible for introducing APL to the marketplace. The first publicly available version of APL was released in 1968 for the IBM 1130. IBM provided APL\1130 for free but without liability or support. It would run in as little as 8k 16-bit words of memory, and used a dedicated 1 megabyte hard disk. | wikipedia |
wiki_18_chunk_11 | APL (programming language) | APL gained its foothold on mainframe timesharing systems from the late 1960s through the early 1980s, in part because it would support multiple users on lower-specification systems that had no dynamic address translation hardware. Additional improvements in performance for selected IBM System/370 mainframe systems incl... | wikipedia |
wiki_18_chunk_12 | APL (programming language) | Early IBM APL interpreters for IBM 360 and IBM 370 hardware implemented their own multi-user management instead of relying on the host services, thus they were their own timesharing systems. First introduced for use at IBM in 1966, the APL\360 system was a multi-user interpreter. The ability to programmatically communi... | wikipedia |
wiki_18_chunk_13 | APL (programming language) | In 1973, IBM released APL.SV, which was a continuation of the same product, but which offered shared variables as a means to access facilities outside of the APL system, such as operating system files. In the mid-1970s, the IBM mainframe interpreter was even adapted for use on the IBM 5100 desktop computer, which had a... | wikipedia |
wiki_18_chunk_14 | APL (programming language) | In 1973–1974, Patrick E. Hagerty directed the implementation of the University of Maryland APL interpreter for the 1100 line of the Sperry UNIVAC 1100/2200 series mainframe computers. At the time, Sperry had nothing. In 1974, student Alan Stebbens was assigned the task of implementing an internal function. Xerox APL wa... | wikipedia |
wiki_18_chunk_15 | APL (programming language) | In the 1960s and 1970s, several timesharing firms arose that sold APL services using modified versions of the IBM APL\360 interpreter. In North America, the better-known ones were IP Sharp Associates, Scientific Time Sharing Corporation (STSC), Time Sharing Resources (TSR), and The Computer Company (TCC). CompuServe al... | wikipedia |
wiki_18_chunk_16 | APL (programming language) | Sharp APL was available from IP Sharp Associates, first as a timesharing service in the 1960s, and later as a program product starting around 1979. Sharp APL was an advanced APL implementation with many language extensions, such as packages (the ability to put one or more objects into a single variable), file system, n... | wikipedia |
wiki_18_chunk_17 | APL (programming language) | APL interpreters were available from other mainframe and mini-computer manufacturers also, notably Burroughs, Control Data Corporation (CDC), Data General, Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), Harris, Hewlett-Packard (HP), Siemens, Xerox and others. | wikipedia |
wiki_18_chunk_18 | APL (programming language) | Garth Foster of Syracuse University sponsored regular meetings of the APL implementers' community at Syracuse's Minnowbrook Conference Center in Blue Mountain Lake, New York. In later years, Eugene McDonnell organized similar meetings at the Asilomar Conference Grounds near Monterey, California, and at Pajaro Dunes nea... | wikipedia |
wiki_18_chunk_19 | APL (programming language) | Microcomputers
On microcomputers, which became available from the mid 1970s onwards, BASIC became the dominant programming language. Nevertheless, some microcomputers provided APL instead - the first being the Intel 8008-based MCM/70 which was released in 1974 and which was primarily used in education. Another machine... | wikipedia |
wiki_18_chunk_20 | APL (programming language) | In 1976, Bill Gates claimed in his Open Letter to Hobbyists that Microsoft Corporation was implementing APL for the Intel 8080 and Motorola 6800 but had "very little incentive to make [it] available to hobbyists" because of software piracy. It was never released. | wikipedia |
wiki_18_chunk_21 | APL (programming language) | APL2
Starting in the early 1980s, IBM APL development, under the leadership of Jim Brown, implemented a new version of the APL language that contained as its primary enhancement the concept of nested arrays, where an array can contain other arrays, and new language features which facilitated integrating nested arrays ... | wikipedia |
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