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wiki_57_chunk_2 | Bioinformatics | Image and signal processing allow extraction of useful results from large amounts of raw data. In the field of genetics, it aids in sequencing and annotating genomes and their observed mutations. It plays a role in the text mining of biological literature and the development of biological and gene ontologies to organiz... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_3 | Bioinformatics | History
Historically, the term bioinformatics did not mean what it means today. Paulien Hogeweg and Ben Hesper coined it in 1970 to refer to the study of information processes in biotic systems. This definition placed bioinformatics as a field parallel to biochemistry (the study of chemical processes in biological sys... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_4 | Bioinformatics | There has been a tremendous advance in speed and cost reduction since the completion of the Human Genome Project, with some labs able to sequence over 100,000 billion bases each year, and a full genome can be sequenced for a few thousand dollars. Computers became essential in molecular biology when protein sequences be... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_5 | Bioinformatics | Goals
To study how normal cellular activities are altered in different disease states, the biological data must be combined to form a comprehensive picture of these activities. Therefore, the field of bioinformatics has evolved such that the most pressing task now involves the analysis and interpretation of various ty... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_6 | Bioinformatics | Development and implementation of computer programs that enable efficient access to, management, and use of, various types of information.
Development of new algorithms (mathematical formulas) and statistical measures that assess relationships among members of large data sets. For example, there are methods to locate ... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_7 | Bioinformatics | The primary goal of bioinformatics is to increase the understanding of biological processes. What sets it apart from other approaches, however, is its focus on developing and applying computationally intensive techniques to achieve this goal. Examples include: pattern recognition, data mining, machine learning algorith... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_8 | Bioinformatics | Bioinformatics now entails the creation and advancement of databases, algorithms, computational and statistical techniques, and theory to solve formal and practical problems arising from the management and analysis of biological data. Over the past few decades, rapid developments in genomic and other molecular research... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_9 | Bioinformatics | Common activities in bioinformatics include mapping and analyzing DNA and protein sequences, aligning DNA and protein sequences to compare them, and creating and viewing 3-D models of protein structures. | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_10 | Bioinformatics | Relation to other fields
Bioinformatics is a science field that is similar to but distinct from biological computation, while it is often considered synonymous to computational biology. Biological computation uses bioengineering and biology to build biological computers, whereas bioinformatics uses computation to bett... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_11 | Bioinformatics | Analyzing biological data to produce meaningful information involves writing and running software programs that use algorithms from graph theory, artificial intelligence, soft computing, data mining, image processing, and computer simulation. The algorithms in turn depend on theoretical foundations such as discrete mat... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_12 | Bioinformatics | Since the Phage Φ-X174 was sequenced in 1977, the DNA sequences of thousands of organisms have been decoded and stored in databases. This sequence information is analyzed to determine genes that encode proteins, RNA genes, regulatory sequences, structural motifs, and repetitive sequences. A comparison of genes within a... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_13 | Bioinformatics | DNA sequencing Before sequences can be analyzed they have to be obtained from the data storage bank example Genbank. DNA sequencing is still a non-trivial problem as the raw data may be noisy or afflicted by weak signals. Algorithms have been developed for base calling for the various experimental approaches to DNA seq... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_14 | Bioinformatics | Most DNA sequencing techniques produce short fragments of sequence that need to be assembled to obtain complete gene or genome sequences. The so-called shotgun sequencing technique (which was used, for example, by The Institute for Genomic Research (TIGR) to sequence the first bacterial genome, Haemophilus influenzae) ... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_15 | Bioinformatics | Genome annotation In the context of genomics, annotation is the process of marking the genes and other biological features in a DNA sequence. This process needs to be automated because most genomes are too large to annotate by hand, not to mention the desire to annotate as many genomes as possible, as the rate of seque... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_16 | Bioinformatics | The first description of a comprehensive genome annotation system was published in 1995 by the team at The Institute for Genomic Research that performed the first complete sequencing and analysis of the genome of a free-living organism, the bacterium Haemophilus influenzae. Owen White designed and built a software syst... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_17 | Bioinformatics | Following the goals that the Human Genome Project left to achieve after its closure in 2003, a new project developed by the National Human Genome Research Institute in the U.S appeared. The so-called ENCODE project is a collaborative data collection of the functional elements of the human genome that uses next-generati... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_18 | Bioinformatics | Gene function prediction
While genome annotation is primarily based on sequence similarity (and thus homology), other properties of sequences can be used to predict the function of genes. In fact, most gene function prediction methods focus on protein sequences as they are more informative and more feature-rich. For i... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_19 | Bioinformatics | Evolutionary biology is the study of the origin and descent of species, as well as their change over time. Informatics has assisted evolutionary biologists by enabling researchers to:
trace the evolution of a large number of organisms by measuring changes in their DNA, rather than through physical taxonomy or physiolo... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_20 | Bioinformatics | The area of research within computer science that uses genetic algorithms is sometimes confused with computational evolutionary biology, but the two areas are not necessarily related. Comparative genomics | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_21 | Bioinformatics | The core of comparative genome analysis is the establishment of the correspondence between genes (orthology analysis) or other genomic features in different organisms. It is these intergenomic maps that make it possible to trace the evolutionary processes responsible for the divergence of two genomes. A multitude of ev... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_22 | Bioinformatics | Many of these studies are based on the detection of sequence homology to assign sequences to protein families. Pan genomics | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_23 | Bioinformatics | Pan genomics is a concept introduced in 2005 by Tettelin and Medini which eventually took root in bioinformatics. Pan genome is the complete gene repertoire of a particular taxonomic group: although initially applied to closely related strains of a species, it can be applied to a larger context like genus, phylum, etc.... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_24 | Bioinformatics | Genetics of disease | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_25 | Bioinformatics | With the advent of next-generation sequencing we are obtaining enough sequence data to map the genes of complex diseases infertility, breast cancer or Alzheimer's disease. Genome-wide association studies are a useful approach to pinpoint the mutations responsible for such complex diseases. Through these studies, thousa... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_26 | Bioinformatics | Analysis of mutations in cancer | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_27 | Bioinformatics | In cancer, the genomes of affected cells are rearranged in complex or even unpredictable ways. Massive sequencing efforts are used to identify previously unknown point mutations in a variety of genes in cancer. Bioinformaticians continue to produce specialized automated systems to manage the sheer volume of sequence da... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_28 | Bioinformatics | Two important principles can be used in the analysis of cancer genomes bioinformatically pertaining to the identification of mutations in the exome. First, cancer is a disease of accumulated somatic mutations in genes. Second cancer contains driver mutations which need to be distinguished from passengers. | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_29 | Bioinformatics | With the breakthroughs that this next-generation sequencing technology is providing to the field of Bioinformatics, cancer genomics could drastically change. These new methods and software allow bioinformaticians to sequence many cancer genomes quickly and affordably. This could create a more flexible process for class... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_30 | Bioinformatics | Analysis of gene expression
The expression of many genes can be determined by measuring mRNA levels with multiple techniques including microarrays, expressed cDNA sequence tag (EST) sequencing, serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE) tag sequencing, massively parallel signature sequencing (MPSS), RNA-Seq, also known ... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_31 | Bioinformatics | Analysis of protein expression
Protein microarrays and high throughput (HT) mass spectrometry (MS) can provide a snapshot of the proteins present in a biological sample. Bioinformatics is very much involved in making sense of protein microarray and HT MS data; the former approach faces similar problems as with microarr... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_32 | Bioinformatics | Analysis of regulation
Gene regulation is the complex orchestration of events by which a signal, potentially an extracellular signal such as a hormone, eventually leads to an increase or decrease in the activity of one or more proteins. Bioinformatics techniques have been applied to explore various steps in this proces... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_33 | Bioinformatics | For example, gene expression can be regulated by nearby elements in the genome. Promoter analysis involves the identification and study of sequence motifs in the DNA surrounding the coding region of a gene. These motifs influence the extent to which that region is transcribed into mRNA. Enhancer elements far away from ... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_34 | Bioinformatics | Expression data can be used to infer gene regulation: one might compare microarray data from a wide variety of states of an organism to form hypotheses about the genes involved in each state. In a single-cell organism, one might compare stages of the cell cycle, along with various stress conditions (heat shock, starvat... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_35 | Bioinformatics | Analysis of cellular organization
Several approaches have been developed to analyze the location of organelles, genes, proteins, and other components within cells. This is relevant as the location of these components affects the events within a cell and thus helps us to predict the behavior of biological systems. A gen... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_36 | Bioinformatics | Protein localization
The localization of proteins helps us to evaluate the role of a protein. For instance, if a protein is found in the nucleus it may be involved in gene regulation or splicing. By contrast, if a protein is found in mitochondria, it may be involved in respiration or other metabolic processes. Protein ... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_37 | Bioinformatics | Data from high-throughput chromosome conformation capture experiments, such as Hi-C (experiment) and ChIA-PET, can provide information on the spatial proximity of DNA loci. Analysis of these experiments can determine the three-dimensional structure and nuclear organization of chromatin. Bioinformatic challenges in this... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_38 | Bioinformatics | Protein structure prediction is another important application of bioinformatics. The amino acid sequence of a protein, the so-called primary structure, can be easily determined from the sequence on the gene that codes for it. In the vast majority of cases, this primary structure uniquely determines a structure in its n... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_39 | Bioinformatics | One of the key ideas in bioinformatics is the notion of homology. In the genomic branch of bioinformatics, homology is used to predict the function of a gene: if the sequence of gene A, whose function is known, is homologous to the sequence of gene B, whose function is unknown, one could infer that B may share A's func... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_40 | Bioinformatics | One example of this is hemoglobin in humans and the hemoglobin in legumes (leghemoglobin), which are distant relatives from the same protein superfamily. Both serve the same purpose of transporting oxygen in the organism. Although both of these proteins have completely different amino acid sequences, their protein stru... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_41 | Bioinformatics | Another aspect of structural bioinformatics include the use of protein structures for Virtual Screening models such as Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationship models and proteochemometric models (PCM). Furthermore, a protein's crystal structure can be used in simulation of for example ligand-binding studies and in... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_42 | Bioinformatics | Network analysis seeks to understand the relationships within biological networks such as metabolic or protein–protein interaction networks. Although biological networks can be constructed from a single type of molecule or entity (such as genes), network biology often attempts to integrate many different data types, su... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_43 | Bioinformatics | Systems biology involves the use of computer simulations of cellular subsystems (such as the networks of metabolites and enzymes that comprise metabolism, signal transduction pathways and gene regulatory networks) to both analyze and visualize the complex connections of these cellular processes. Artificial life or virt... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_44 | Bioinformatics | Tens of thousands of three-dimensional protein structures have been determined by X-ray crystallography and protein nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (protein NMR) and a central question in structural bioinformatics is whether it is practical to predict possible protein–protein interactions only based on these 3D... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_45 | Bioinformatics | Other interactions encountered in the field include Protein–ligand (including drug) and protein–peptide. Molecular dynamic simulation of movement of atoms about rotatable bonds is the fundamental principle behind computational algorithms, termed docking algorithms, for studying molecular interactions. Others Literature... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_46 | Bioinformatics | The growth in the number of published literature makes it virtually impossible to read every paper, resulting in disjointed sub-fields of research. Literature analysis aims to employ computational and statistical linguistics to mine this growing library of text resources. For example:
Abbreviation recognition – identi... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_47 | Bioinformatics | High-throughput image analysis
Computational technologies are used to accelerate or fully automate the processing, quantification and analysis of large amounts of high-information-content biomedical imagery. Modern image analysis systems augment an observer's ability to make measurements from a large or complex set of ... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_48 | Bioinformatics | High-throughput single cell data analysis Computational techniques are used to analyse high-throughput, low-measurement single cell data, such as that obtained from flow cytometry. These methods typically involve finding populations of cells that are relevant to a particular disease state or experimental condition. Bio... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_49 | Bioinformatics | Ontologies and data integration
Biological ontologies are directed acyclic graphs of controlled vocabularies. They are designed to capture biological concepts and descriptions in a way that can be easily categorised and analysed with computers. When categorised in this way, it is possible to gain added value from holis... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_50 | Bioinformatics | Databases are essential for bioinformatics research and applications. Many databases exist, covering various information types: for example, DNA and protein sequences, molecular structures, phenotypes and biodiversity. Databases may contain empirical data (obtained directly from experiments), predicted data (obtained f... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_51 | Bioinformatics | Some of the most commonly used databases are listed below. For a more comprehensive list, please check the link at the beginning of the subsection. Used in biological sequence analysis: Genbank, UniProt
Used in structure analysis: Protein Data Bank (PDB)
Used in finding Protein Families and Motif Finding: InterPro, P... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_52 | Bioinformatics | Software and tools
Software tools for bioinformatics range from simple command-line tools, to more complex graphical programs and standalone web-services available from various bioinformatics companies or public institutions. | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_53 | Bioinformatics | Open-source bioinformatics software
Many free and open-source software tools have existed and continued to grow since the 1980s. The combination of a continued need for new algorithms for the analysis of emerging types of biological readouts, the potential for innovative in silico experiments, and freely available open... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_54 | Bioinformatics | The range of open-source software packages includes titles such as Bioconductor, BioPerl, Biopython, BioJava, BioJS, BioRuby, Bioclipse, EMBOSS, .NET Bio, Orange with its bioinformatics add-on, Apache Taverna, UGENE and GenoCAD. To maintain this tradition and create further opportunities, the non-profit Open Bioinforma... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_55 | Bioinformatics | An alternative method to build public bioinformatics databases is to use the MediaWiki engine with the WikiOpener extension. This system allows the database to be accessed and updated by all experts in the field. Web services in bioinformatics
SOAP- and REST-based interfaces have been developed for a wide variety of bi... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_56 | Bioinformatics | Basic bioinformatics services are classified by the EBI into three categories: SSS (Sequence Search Services), MSA (Multiple Sequence Alignment), and BSA (Biological Sequence Analysis). The availability of these service-oriented bioinformatics resources demonstrate the applicability of web-based bioinformatics solution... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_57 | Bioinformatics | A bioinformatics workflow management system is a specialized form of a workflow management system designed specifically to compose and execute a series of computational or data manipulation steps, or a workflow, in a Bioinformatics application. Such systems are designed to
provide an easy-to-use environment for indivi... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_58 | Bioinformatics | Some of the platforms giving this service: Galaxy, Kepler, Taverna, UGENE, Anduril, HIVE. | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_59 | Bioinformatics | BioCompute and BioCompute Objects
In 2014, the US Food and Drug Administration sponsored a conference held at the National Institutes of Health Bethesda Campus to discuss reproducibility in bioinformatics. Over the next three years, a consortium of stakeholders met regularly to discuss what would become BioCompute par... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_60 | Bioinformatics | It was decided that the BioCompute paradigm would be in the form of digital 'lab notebooks' which allow for the reproducibility, replication, review, and reuse, of bioinformatics protocols. This was proposed to enable greater continuity within a research group over the course of normal personnel flux while furthering t... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_61 | Bioinformatics | In 2016, the group reconvened at the NIH in Bethesda and discussed the potential for a BioCompute Object, an instance of the BioCompute paradigm. This work was copied as both a "standard trial use" document and a preprint paper uploaded to bioRxiv. The BioCompute object allows for the JSON-ized record to be shared amon... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_62 | Bioinformatics | Education platforms
Software platforms designed to teach bioinformatics concepts and methods include Rosalind and online courses offered through the Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics Training Portal. The Canadian Bioinformatics Workshops provides videos and slides from training workshops on their website under a Creati... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_63 | Bioinformatics | MOOC platforms also provide online certifications in bioinformatics and related disciplines, including Coursera's Bioinformatics Specialization (UC San Diego) and Genomic Data Science Specialization (Johns Hopkins) as well as EdX's Data Analysis for Life Sciences XSeries (Harvard). University of Southern California of... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_64 | Bioinformatics | Conferences
There are several large conferences that are concerned with bioinformatics. Some of the most notable examples are Intelligent Systems for Molecular Biology (ISMB), European Conference on Computational Biology (ECCB), and Research in Computational Molecular Biology (RECOMB). See also References Further readi... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_65 | Bioinformatics | Sehgal et al. : Structural, phylogenetic and docking studies of D-amino acid oxidase activator(DAOA ), a candidate schizophrenia gene. Theoretical Biology and Medical Modelling 2013 10 :3.
Raul Isea The Present-Day Meaning Of The Word Bioinformatics, Global Journal of Advanced Research, 2015
Achuthsankar S Nair Compu... | wikipedia |
wiki_57_chunk_66 | Bioinformatics | External links Bioinformatics Resource Portal (SIB) | wikipedia |
wiki_58_chunk_0 | Cell (biology) | The cell (from the Latin word 'cellula' meaning "small room") is the basic structural and functional unit of life. Every cell consists of a cytoplasm enclosed within a membrane, which contains many biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids. | wikipedia |
wiki_58_chunk_1 | Cell (biology) | Most plant and animal cells are only visible under a light microscope, with dimensions between 1 and 100 micrometres. Electron microscopy gives a much higher resolution showing greatly detailed cell structure. Organisms can be classified as unicellular (consisting of a single cell such as bacteria) or multicellular (in... | wikipedia |
wiki_58_chunk_2 | Cell (biology) | Cell biology is the study of cells, which were discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, who named them for their resemblance to cells inhabited by Christian monks in a monastery. Cell theory, first developed in 1839 by Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, states that all organisms are composed of one or more cells,... | wikipedia |
wiki_58_chunk_3 | Cell (biology) | Cell types
Cells are of two types: eukaryotic, which contain a nucleus, and prokaryotic cells, which do not have a nucleus, but a nucleoid region is still present. Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms, while eukaryotes can be either single-celled or multicellular. Prokaryotic cells | wikipedia |
wiki_58_chunk_4 | Cell (biology) | Prokaryotes include bacteria and archaea, two of the three domains of life. Prokaryotic cells were the first form of life on Earth, characterized by having vital biological processes including cell signaling. They are simpler and smaller than eukaryotic cells, and lack a nucleus, and other membrane-bound organelles. Th... | wikipedia |
wiki_58_chunk_5 | Cell (biology) | A prokaryotic cell has three regions:
Enclosing the cell is the cell envelope – generally consisting of a plasma membrane covered by a cell wall which, for some bacteria, may be further covered by a third layer called a capsule. Though most prokaryotes have both a cell membrane and a cell wall, there are exceptions su... | wikipedia |
wiki_58_chunk_6 | Cell (biology) | Eukaryotic cells | wikipedia |
wiki_58_chunk_7 | Cell (biology) | Plants, animals, fungi, slime moulds, protozoa, and algae are all eukaryotic. These cells are about fifteen times wider than a typical prokaryote and can be as much as a thousand times greater in volume. The main distinguishing feature of eukaryotes as compared to prokaryotes is compartmentalization: the presence of me... | wikipedia |
wiki_58_chunk_8 | Cell (biology) | Subcellular components
All cells, whether prokaryotic or eukaryotic, have a membrane that envelops the cell, regulates what moves in and out (selectively permeable), and maintains the electric potential of the cell. Inside the membrane, the cytoplasm takes up most of the cell's volume. All cells (except red blood cells... | wikipedia |
wiki_58_chunk_9 | Cell (biology) | Cell membrane | wikipedia |
wiki_58_chunk_10 | Cell (biology) | The cell membrane, or plasma membrane, is a selectively permeable biological membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm of a cell. In animals, the plasma membrane is the outer boundary of the cell, while in plants and prokaryotes it is usually covered by a cell wall. This membrane serves to separate and protect a cell from ... | wikipedia |
wiki_58_chunk_11 | Cell (biology) | Cytoskeleton | wikipedia |
wiki_58_chunk_12 | Cell (biology) | The cytoskeleton acts to organize and maintain the cell's shape; anchors organelles in place; helps during endocytosis, the uptake of external materials by a cell, and cytokinesis, the separation of daughter cells after cell division; and moves parts of the cell in processes of growth and mobility. The eukaryotic cytos... | wikipedia |
wiki_58_chunk_13 | Cell (biology) | Genetic material Two different kinds of genetic material exist: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). Cells use DNA for their long-term information storage. The biological information contained in an organism is encoded in its DNA sequence. RNA is used for information transport (e.g., mRNA) and enzyma... | wikipedia |
wiki_58_chunk_14 | Cell (biology) | Prokaryotic genetic material is organized in a simple circular bacterial chromosome in the nucleoid region of the cytoplasm. Eukaryotic genetic material is divided into different, linear molecules called chromosomes inside a discrete nucleus, usually with additional genetic material in some organelles like mitochondria... | wikipedia |
wiki_58_chunk_15 | Cell (biology) | A human cell has genetic material contained in the cell nucleus (the nuclear genome) and in the mitochondria (the mitochondrial genome). In humans, the nuclear genome is divided into 46 linear DNA molecules called chromosomes, including 22 homologous chromosome pairs and a pair of sex chromosomes. The mitochondrial gen... | wikipedia |
wiki_58_chunk_16 | Cell (biology) | Foreign genetic material (most commonly DNA) can also be artificially introduced into the cell by a process called transfection. This can be transient, if the DNA is not inserted into the cell's genome, or stable, if it is. Certain viruses also insert their genetic material into the genome. Organelles | wikipedia |
wiki_58_chunk_17 | Cell (biology) | Organelles are parts of the cell that are adapted and/or specialized for carrying out one or more vital functions, analogous to the organs of the human body (such as the heart, lung, and kidney, with each organ performing a different function). Both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells have organelles, but prokaryotic orga... | wikipedia |
wiki_58_chunk_18 | Cell (biology) | There are several types of organelles in a cell. Some (such as the nucleus and Golgi apparatus) are typically solitary, while others (such as mitochondria, chloroplasts, peroxisomes and lysosomes) can be numerous (hundreds to thousands). The cytosol is the gelatinous fluid that fills the cell and surrounds the organell... | wikipedia |
wiki_58_chunk_19 | Cell (biology) | Cell nucleus: A cell's information center, the cell nucleus is the most conspicuous organelle found in a eukaryotic cell. It houses the cell's chromosomes, and is the place where almost all DNA replication and RNA synthesis (transcription) occur. The nucleus is spherical and separated from the cytoplasm by a double mem... | wikipedia |
wiki_58_chunk_20 | Cell (biology) | Endoplasmic reticulum: The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a transport network for molecules targeted for certain modifications and specific destinations, as compared to molecules that float freely in the cytoplasm. The ER has two forms: the rough ER, which has ribosomes on its surface that secrete proteins into the ER, ... | wikipedia |
wiki_58_chunk_21 | Cell (biology) | Eukaryotic and prokaryotic
Ribosomes: The ribosome is a large complex of RNA and protein molecules. They each consist of two subunits, and act as an assembly line where RNA from the nucleus is used to synthesise proteins from amino acids. Ribosomes can be found either floating freely or bound to a membrane (the rough ... | wikipedia |
wiki_58_chunk_22 | Cell (biology) | Plastids: Plastid are membrane-bound organelle generally found in plant cells and euglenoids and contain specific pigments, thus affecting the colour of the plant and organism. And these pigments also helps in food storage and tapping of light energy. There are three types of plastids based upon the specific pigments.... | wikipedia |
wiki_58_chunk_23 | Cell (biology) | Structures outside the cell membrane
Many cells also have structures which exist wholly or partially outside the cell membrane. These structures are notable because they are not protected from the external environment by the semipermeable cell membrane. In order to assemble these structures, their components must be ca... | wikipedia |
wiki_58_chunk_24 | Cell (biology) | Many types of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have a cell wall. The cell wall acts to protect the cell mechanically and chemically from its environment, and is an additional layer of protection to the cell membrane. Different types of cell have cell walls made up of different materials; plant cell walls are primarily ... | wikipedia |
wiki_58_chunk_25 | Cell (biology) | Capsule
A gelatinous capsule is present in some bacteria outside the cell membrane and cell wall. The capsule may be polysaccharide as in pneumococci, meningococci or polypeptide as Bacillus anthracis or hyaluronic acid as in streptococci.
Capsules are not marked by normal staining protocols and can be detected by Indi... | wikipedia |
wiki_58_chunk_26 | Cell (biology) | Flagella
Flagella are organelles for cellular mobility. The bacterial flagellum stretches from cytoplasm through the cell membrane(s) and extrudes through the cell wall. They are long and thick thread-like appendages, protein in nature. A different type of flagellum is found in archaea and a different type is found in ... | wikipedia |
wiki_58_chunk_27 | Cell (biology) | Fimbriae
A fimbria (plural fimbriae also known as a pilus, plural pili) is a short, thin, hair-like filament found on the surface of bacteria. Fimbriae are formed of a protein called pilin (antigenic) and are responsible for the attachment of bacteria to specific receptors on human cells (cell adhesion). There are spec... | wikipedia |
wiki_58_chunk_28 | Cell (biology) | Cell division involves a single cell (called a mother cell) dividing into two daughter cells. This leads to growth in multicellular organisms (the growth of tissue) and to procreation (vegetative reproduction) in unicellular organisms. Prokaryotic cells divide by binary fission, while eukaryotic cells usually undergo a... | wikipedia |
wiki_58_chunk_29 | Cell (biology) | DNA replication, or the process of duplicating a cell's genome, always happens when a cell divides through mitosis or binary fission. This occurs during the S phase of the cell cycle. In meiosis, the DNA is replicated only once, while the cell divides twice. DNA replication only occurs before meiosis I. DNA replication... | wikipedia |
wiki_58_chunk_30 | Cell (biology) | In general, cells of all organisms contain enzyme systems that scan their DNA for DNA damage and carry out repair processes when damage is detected. Diverse repair processes have evolved in organisms ranging from bacteria to humans. The widespread prevalence of these repair processes indicates the importance of maintai... | wikipedia |
wiki_58_chunk_31 | Cell (biology) | Growth and metabolism | wikipedia |
wiki_58_chunk_32 | Cell (biology) | Between successive cell divisions, cells grow through the functioning of cellular metabolism. Cell metabolism is the process by which individual cells process nutrient molecules. Metabolism has two distinct divisions: catabolism, in which the cell breaks down complex molecules to produce energy and reducing power, and ... | wikipedia |
wiki_58_chunk_33 | Cell (biology) | Protein synthesis Cells are capable of synthesizing new proteins, which are essential for the modulation and maintenance of cellular activities. This process involves the formation of new protein molecules from amino acid building blocks based on information encoded in DNA/RNA. Protein synthesis generally consists of t... | wikipedia |
wiki_58_chunk_34 | Cell (biology) | Transcription is the process where genetic information in DNA is used to produce a complementary RNA strand. This RNA strand is then processed to give messenger RNA (mRNA), which is free to migrate through the cell. mRNA molecules bind to protein-RNA complexes called ribosomes located in the cytosol, where they are tra... | wikipedia |
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