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wiki_39710_chunk_10 | Ecological values of mangroves | Relatively few studies have been undertaken on the benthic assemblages and species of mangrove forests in New Zealand. The benthic invertebrate fauna of New Zealand’s mangroves forests appear to be modest in both abundances and species diversity compared to other estuarine habitats. Fish fauna of mangrove ecosystems | wikipedia |
wiki_39710_chunk_11 | Ecological values of mangroves | Recent studies have shown that the temperate mangrove forests of northern New Zealand support high abundances of small fishes, but that New Zealand support high abundances of small fishes compared to other estuarine habitats, with most of the small fish assemblage dominated by juveniles of the ubiquitous yellow-eyed mu... | wikipedia |
wiki_39710_chunk_12 | Ecological values of mangroves | Use of mangroves by birds While many species make extensive use of mangroves for roosting, feeding and breeding, no bird species is totally dependent on mangroves in New Zealand. The range of bird species that are found regularly in New Zealand mangroves includes several native species, such as banded rail, white-faced... | wikipedia |
wiki_39710_chunk_13 | Ecological values of mangroves | This question has not been fully addressed in relation to New Zealand mangroves. However, previous and ongoing research, is extending the understanding of the role of mangrove contribution to habitat change.> Remains of rows of mangroves planted to stabilize the coast by early generations of Maoris can still be seen in... | wikipedia |
wiki_39710_chunk_14 | Ecological values of mangroves | International level At the international level, the common approach to major environmental policy issues has been to formulate conventions, treaties and agreements, which all concerned countries become signatories to. Mangroves are today a global issue because more than 100 countries worldwide have mangrove resources. ... | wikipedia |
wiki_39710_chunk_15 | Ecological values of mangroves | In 1971, a convention to protect "Wetlands of International Importance" was adopted in the Iranian city of Ramsar. To become a signatory to the Ramsar Convention, a country had to designate at least one such site and guarantee its protection. Around 110 countries have become signatories to the treaty. Some 850 "Ramsar ... | wikipedia |
wiki_39710_chunk_16 | Ecological values of mangroves | Spalding reviewed the global status for mangrove conservation: “There are 685 protected areas containing mangroves globally, distributed between 73 countries and territories. Countries with very large areas of mangroves have a significant number of protected areas notably Australia (180), Indonesia (64) and Brazil (63)... | wikipedia |
wiki_39710_chunk_17 | Ecological values of mangroves | Historically the responsibility of mangrove management at the national level in many tropical mangrove countries have been assigned on a sectoral basis to executing agencies of the government, institutions for example Forestry, Fishery or Agriculture Departments. The agencies responsible for administering mangroves dif... | wikipedia |
wiki_39710_chunk_18 | Ecological values of mangroves | Lack of knowledge of mangrove ecosystems, their extent, status and linkages to other ecosystems hampers efforts to conserve and manage mangroves, leading to the unsustainable exploitation of this productive coastal resources. According to a comprehensive information database of mangrove biodiversity in each country ... | wikipedia |
wiki_39710_chunk_19 | Ecological values of mangroves | In New Zealand for example much of the basic information required to address concerns and manage mangrove is lacking. Research has established that, regardless of which approach is decided upon, sustainable management can only be achieved if evaluation of mangrove areas is undertaken on a site-by-site basis. See also E... | wikipedia |
wiki_39710_chunk_20 | Ecological values of mangroves | Horst, W. 1998. Mangroves. Retrieved 14 March from http://www.athiel.com/lib10
Environment Australia. 2000. Migratory Birds, Let’s Ensure Their Future. Wetlands, Waterways and Waterbirds Unit, Environment Australia, Canberra, Australia.
Ellison, J. 2004. Vulnerability of Fiji’s Mangroves and Associated Coral Reefs to C... | wikipedia |
wiki_39710_chunk_21 | Ecological values of mangroves | IUCN, 2005. Early Observations of Tsunami Effects on Mangroves and Coastal Forests. Statement from the IUCN Forest Conservation Programme. 7 January 2005. Retrieved March 17 from http://www.iucn.org/info_and_news/press.pdf Law, Beverly E. and Nancy A. Pyrell Mangroves-Florida’s Coastal Trees Forest Resources and Conser... | wikipedia |
wiki_39710_chunk_22 | Ecological values of mangroves | Macintosh, D. J. and Ashton, E. C. (2002). A Review of Mangrove Biodiversity Conservation and Management. Centre for Tropical Ecosystems Research, University of Aarhus, Denmark. | wikipedia |
wiki_39710_chunk_23 | Ecological values of mangroves | Spalding, M.D. (1997), The global distribution and status of mangrove ecosystems’, Mangrove Edition, International Newsletter of Coastal Management (Intercoast Network) Special Edition #1. Narragansett: Coastal Resources Center, University of Rhode Island, 20-21.
UNEP-WCMC (2006) In the front line: shoreline protection... | wikipedia |
wiki_39711_chunk_0 | Vetrino–Isaccea–Yuzhnoukrainsk powerline | The Vetrino–Isaccea–Yuzhnoukrainsk powerline is the third 750 kilovolts powerline running from Ukraine to the European Union. History
Construction of a 750 kV powerline from Ukraine through Romania to Bulgaria was agreed on together with construction of the South Ukraine Nuclear Power Plant. The agreement was signed in... | wikipedia |
wiki_39711_chunk_1 | Vetrino–Isaccea–Yuzhnoukrainsk powerline | Route
The powerline starts in Bulgaria at Vetrino (Suvorovo) substation near Varna and runs northward. In Dobrudja it crosses the border between Romania and Bulgaria and terminates at Isaccea substation in Romania. From there the line crosses Danube River, which forms the border between Ukraine and Romania in a 938 met... | wikipedia |
wiki_39711_chunk_2 | Vetrino–Isaccea–Yuzhnoukrainsk powerline | Hereby it crosses at least four times the border between Moldova and Ukraine. However, there is and was no branch to the power grid in Moldova, although it passes Vulcăneşti substation. | wikipedia |
wiki_39711_chunk_3 | Vetrino–Isaccea–Yuzhnoukrainsk powerline | Description
The used towers are designed for carrying a single circuit in a single level. As conductors bundle conductors of 4 ropes are used. Nearly all suspension towers are portal pylons, most of them guyed, but also several free-standing. The free-standing portal pylons carry the conductor in the middle on a V-sha... | wikipedia |
wiki_39711_chunk_4 | Vetrino–Isaccea–Yuzhnoukrainsk powerline | Current state
The section between Vetrino and Isaccea is since the synchronisation of the Romanian power grid with that of Western Europe, which took after 6 years of trial operation finally take place in 2003 , operated with 400 kV.
The section between Isaccea and Yuzhnoukrainsk is since the synchronisation of the Ro... | wikipedia |
wiki_39711_chunk_5 | Vetrino–Isaccea–Yuzhnoukrainsk powerline | According to Google Maps the line ends actually short after Danube Crossing on a strainer. In the further section the conductors are except few exceptions missings and even some towers are demolished. As more one follows the line northward, the number of missing pylons increases and north of it is impossible to follow... | wikipedia |
wiki_39711_chunk_6 | Vetrino–Isaccea–Yuzhnoukrainsk powerline | The first section starting from Yuzhnoukrainsk substation until a point situated at is still existing with pylons carrying conductors, then there are some further pylons without conductors until a strainer at after which there are no visible traces of the line on Google Maps. However, there are still some further pyl... | wikipedia |
wiki_39711_chunk_7 | Vetrino–Isaccea–Yuzhnoukrainsk powerline | Between Krasnoye and Kuchurhan just before the last crossing of border between Moldova and Ukraine, there is still a section of the line with conductors. Sites Waypoints Vetrino-Isaccea Waypoints Isaccea–Yuzhnoukrainsk See also Albertirsa–Zakhidnoukrainska–Vinnytsia powerline
Rzeszów–Khmelnytskyi powerline | wikipedia |
wiki_39711_chunk_8 | Vetrino–Isaccea–Yuzhnoukrainsk powerline | External links
Picture of demolished pylon
https://web.archive.org/web/20071119014744/http://www.eco.md/article/4337/
https://www.panoramio.com/photo/55787410 References Energy infrastructure completed in 1988
Electric power infrastructure in Bulgaria
Electric power infrastructure in Romania
Electric power transmiss... | wikipedia |
wiki_39712_chunk_0 | Petra Mathers | Petra Mathers (born 1945) is a German-born American writer and illustrator of children's picture books. | wikipedia |
wiki_39712_chunk_1 | Petra Mathers | Life and work
Petra Mathers was born in the Black Forest in Germany at the end of the second World War. Instead of University, she opted for a three year apprenticeship in the book business. "Wanting to see the world", she and her husband came to the United States and settled in Portland, Oregon. Working first as a ... | wikipedia |
wiki_39712_chunk_2 | Petra Mathers | Style
Mathers is a self-taught artist and has a very distinct artistic style. Critic H. Nichols B. Clark describes her formal aesthetic, explaining that Mathers "[creates] simplified forms that comprise flat shapes. She assembles a carefully articulated formal arrangement whose visual dynamics are as integral to the pr... | wikipedia |
wiki_39712_chunk_3 | Petra Mathers | Awards and honors
Petra Mathers' work has earned much acclaim, including the following accolades: | wikipedia |
wiki_39712_chunk_4 | Petra Mathers | 1985—Ezra Jack Keats Award for Maria Theresa
1986—New York Times Best Illustrated Children's Book of the Year for Molly's New Washing Machine (by Laura Geringer).
1988—New York Times Best Illustrated Children's Book of the Year for Theodor and Mr. Balbini.
1990—New York Times Best Illustrated Children's Book of the Ye... | wikipedia |
wiki_39712_chunk_5 | Petra Mathers | References External links Children's Literature Independent Information and Reviews 1945 births
American women illustrators
American children's writers
Living people
People from Waldshut-Tiengen
German emigrants to the United States
20th-century American writers
21st-century American writers
American children's book il... | wikipedia |
wiki_39713_chunk_0 | Aftermath Services | Aftermath Services is a limited liability company (LLC) that performs crime scene clean up, homicide cleanup, suicide cleanup, hoarding cleanup, unattended death cleanup, infectious disease disinfection, and other trauma cleanup and specialty biohazard cleaning services such as hoarding and tear gas cleanup. Headquarte... | wikipedia |
wiki_39713_chunk_1 | Aftermath Services | Companies based in DuPage County, Illinois
Economy of Aurora, Illinois
Crime in the United States | wikipedia |
wiki_39714_chunk_0 | List of Engineering Faculties in Egypt | List of Engineering Faculties in Egypt:
Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams University
Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University
Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University
Faculty of Electronic Engineering, Menoufia University
Faculty of Engineering, Menoufia University
Faculty of Engineering, Mansoura University
Facul... | wikipedia |
wiki_39714_chunk_1 | List of Engineering Faculties in Egypt | Egypt education-related lists
Education in Egypt
Egypt | wikipedia |
wiki_39715_chunk_0 | Hyposmocoma fuscodentata | Hyposmocoma fuscodentata is a species of moth of the family Cosmopterigidae. It was first described by Lord Walsingham in 1907. It is endemic to the island of Hawaii. The type locality is Kīlauea. External links fuscodentata
Endemic moths of Hawaii | wikipedia |
wiki_39716_chunk_0 | Hyposmocoma ocellata | Hyposmocoma ocellata is a species of moth of the family Cosmopterigidae. It was first described by Lord Walsingham in 1907. It is endemic to the Hawaiian island of Kauai. The type locality is Kaholuamano, where it was collected at an elevation of . External links ocellata
Endemic moths of Hawaii | wikipedia |
wiki_39717_chunk_0 | Cliff Quay Power Station | Cliff Quay Power Station was a coal-fired power station situated to the south of Ipswich, Suffolk in the East of England. The station was designed by Sir Alexander Gibb & Partners and built by the Cleveland Bridge Company. History
Cliff Quay power station was a larger replacement for the earlier Ipswich power station ... | wikipedia |
wiki_39717_chunk_1 | Cliff Quay Power Station | Ipswich power station
In 1923 Ipswich power station comprised two 3 MW turbo alternators and one 225 kW reciprocating machine providing a 3-phase, 50 Hz, 230 and 400 Volt AC supply. In addition there were two 1 MW turbines and one 500 kW reciprocating machines generating a 230 and 460 Volt DC supply. The generators we... | wikipedia |
wiki_39717_chunk_2 | Cliff Quay Power Station | Upon nationalisation of the British electricity supply industry in 1948 the ownership of Ipswich power station was vested in the British Electricity Authority, and subsequently the Central Electricity Authority and the Central Electricity Generating Board (CEGB). At the same time the electricity distribution and sales ... | wikipedia |
wiki_39717_chunk_3 | Cliff Quay Power Station | In 1961 Ipswich power station had an installed electricity generating capacity of 17.25 MW. This was from one 6.25 MW, one 5 MW and two 3 MW Brush-Ljungstrom turbo-alternators. A DC supply was available from two 2 MW and one 1 MW Mather Platt and one 1.5 MW British Thomson-Houston rotary converters. The three Babcock ... | wikipedia |
wiki_39717_chunk_4 | Cliff Quay Power Station | Ipswich power station was decommissioned in 1967. Cliff Quay
Cliff Quay power station was sanctioned in March 1939 and construction commenced in June 1945 undertaken by the Ipswich Corporation. Upon nationalisation on 1 April 1948 ownership and construction became the responsibility of the British Electricity Authorit... | wikipedia |
wiki_39717_chunk_5 | Cliff Quay Power Station | Cliff Quay power station was built on a 104-acre (42.1 ha) site on the north bank of the River Orwell 2 miles south of Ipswich. The area included 17 acres (6.9 ha) of foreshore reclaimed as a coal store and 40 acres (16.1 ha) reclaimed as an ash lagoon. | wikipedia |
wiki_39717_chunk_6 | Cliff Quay Power Station | Specification
The station had a total installed generating capacity of 276 megawatt (MW) and comprised six 46 MW turbo generators made by Metropolitan-Vickers. The station's nine boilers were made by Babcock Power Ltd, and burned pulverised bituminous coal. The boilers produced steam at a total rate of 3,285,000 lb/hr... | wikipedia |
wiki_39717_chunk_7 | Cliff Quay Power Station | In 1958 the Ipswich electricity district supplied an area of 103 square miles and a population of 145,700. The amount of electricity sold and the number and types of consumers was as follows: In 1958 the above totals were made up of the following: Closure
A fire in September 1982 caused major damage to the station. It... | wikipedia |
wiki_39717_chunk_8 | Cliff Quay Power Station | Buildings and structures demolished in 1994
Power stations in the East of England
Greenwich, Ipswich
Demolished power stations in the United Kingdom
Former power stations in England
Coal-fired power stations in England | wikipedia |
wiki_39718_chunk_0 | Power (Barrabás album) | Power is a 1973 album by the Spanish group Barrabás. It was the first album to feature new vocalist José Luís Tejada, and drummer José María Moll, who had previously only played with the band in concerts. Tejada had replaced original singer and bassist Iñaki Egaña on vocals, with Miguel Morales moving to bass guitar. B... | wikipedia |
wiki_39718_chunk_1 | Power (Barrabás album) | Track listing
"Mr Money" (Fernando Arbex) – 5:01
"Boogie Rock" (Arbex) – 6:15
"Keep on Moving" (Enrique Morales) – 3:32
"The Horse" (Miguel Morales) – 3:27
"Casanova" (Arbex) – 5:04
"You Know" (E. Morales, M. Morales, José Luís Tejada) – 3:51
"Children" (Arbex, M. Morales) – 3:40
"Time to Love" (M. Morales, M. González... | wikipedia |
wiki_39718_chunk_2 | Power (Barrabás album) | Personnel
José Luís Tejada – lead vocals (except track 8), harmonica
Enrique "Ricky" Morales – lead and acoustic guitars, backing vocals
Miguel Morales – bass guitar, acoustic guitar, lead (track 8) and backing vocals
Ernesto "Tito" Duarte – saxophone, flute, bass guitar, percussion, backing vocals
Juan Vidal – keyboar... | wikipedia |
wiki_39718_chunk_3 | Power (Barrabás album) | Release information
Spain – RCA Victor LSP 10487
Germany – RCA Victor LSP 10404
USA – RCA SPL1-2000
Disconforme DISC 1992CD (2000 CD) Chart performance References Entry at Allmusic []
Album cover / sleeve notes 1973 albums
Barrabás albums | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_0 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | The Eastern Command of the Pakistan Army was a corps-sized military formation headed by an appointed lieutenant-general, who was designated the Commander of the Eastern Command. After the partition of India by United Kingdom, the Islamic Republic of Pakistan was divided into two territories separated by (prior to the ... | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_1 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | After Pakistan launched Operation Searchlight and Operation Barisal to curb the Awami League-led political movement in March 1971 (leading to the creation of Mukti Bahini and insurgency throughout Bangladesh), Lieutenant General A. A. K. Niazi (last commander of the Eastern Command) revised the existing plan according ... | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_2 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | Background
The Pakistan Army inherited six infantry divisions and an armoured brigade after independence in 1947 from the British Indian Army, deploying most of their armed assets in West Pakistan. East Pakistan had one infantry brigade in 1948, which was made up of two infantry battalions, the 1st East Bengal Regiment... | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_3 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | 1949–1965
The Pakistan Armed Forces grew significantly in size between the wars of 1949 and 1965. The number of infantry divisions jumped from 6 to 13; it also boasted two armoured divisions and several independent infantry and armoured brigades by 1965. All these formations had the required artillery, commando, engine... | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_4 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | Reforms of Yahya Khan
When Yahya Khan became Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistan Army in 1966, he initiated a series of reforms to revamp the combat capability of the Pakistan army. In East Pakistan a corps headquarters was to be established (initially designated as the III corps which later known as the Eastern Command... | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_5 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | The Pakistan Eastern Command headquarters was inaugurated in Dacca Cantonment, Dacca on 23 August 1969 and Lt. Gen. Sahabzada Yaqub Khan was appointed as the commander; on 1 September 1969, the Chief Martial Law Administrator of the country, General Yahya Khan, sent Vice-Admiral Syed Mohammad Ahsan as Martial Law Admin... | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_6 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | Operation X-Sundarbans-1 | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_7 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | Pakistani planners assumed that the main Indian assault would take place on the western border of East Pakistan, and the army in East Pakistan would not defend every inch of the province. Pakistani staff planners identified the following features as significant for setting up a defence plan:
Monsoon rains turn the most... | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_8 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | In brief, the plan was:
Pakistani troops in Rangpur will move south, defend the area around Hili – Bogra and fall back to the Dhaka Bowl while troops from Rajshahi (after defending the Hardinge Bridge) retreated to the Dhaka Bowl.
Troops in Jessore will fall back to the Madhumati river and defend the area between Magur... | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_9 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | Operation Titu Mir
A series of exercises, codenamed "Titu Mir", was conducted by the Eastern Command in 1970; the last was staged in January. The conclusions drawn were:
India would launch the main assault on East Pakistan from the west, aiming to capture the area up to the river Jamuna; secondary efforts, directed tow... | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_10 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | Operations Searchlight and Barisal | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_11 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | During 1971, Pakistan experienced riots and civil disobedience against the military dictatorship in both east and west. The Martial law administrator of East Pakistan, Vice-Admiral S.M. Ahsan was East Pakistan's governor also. The positions of the Pakistan armed forces under Admiral Ahsan were changed and deployed at t... | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_12 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | Before the start of military operations a final high-level meeting was held (chaired by General Yahya Khan) at the General Headquarters (GHQ), where the participants were unanimously in favour of the military operation (despite the calls from Admiral Ahsan and Air Commodore Masud for a political settlement). One of the... | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_13 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | Major General Khadim Hussain Raja (GOC 14th Infantry Division) and Maj. Gen. Rao Farman Ali devised the scheme for Operation Searchlight in March 1971 (to curb the Awami League-led non-co-operation movement through military action) within 10 days of launching the scheme. Rear-Admiral Mohammad Shariff, commander of the ... | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_14 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | 1971 High Command plan | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_15 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | The size and disposition of Pakistan combat forces in East Pakistan changed during Operation Searchlight. The 14th Division was reinforced by the 9th (made up of the 27th, 313th and 117th Brigades) and the 16th (comprising the 34th and 205th Brigades) Divisions (minus their heavy equipment and most of their supporting ... | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_16 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | May 1971 army redeployment
Following the change in command, the 14th Division initially had its brigades posted at Comilla (53rd), Dhaka (57th), Rangpur (23rd) and Jessore (107th) before March 1971. During Operation Searchlight the 57th and the 107th moved to Jessore, while the 53rd had relocated to Chittagong. The Eas... | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_17 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | Changes to Titu Mir | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_18 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | Brig. Gulam Jilani (later DG ISI), chief of staff for Gen. Niazi, reviewed the existing East Pakistan defence plan in June 1971 in light of the prevailing circumstances and left the plan basically unchanged. The following assumptions were made while re-evaluating the plan:
The main Indian thrust would come from the eas... | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_19 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | Eastern offensive proposal
The Pakistan Army had built up an intelligence network to track Mukti Bahini infiltrations along the border with India, so that they could be intercepted. Gen. Niazi claimed to have suggested the following measures to Gen. Hamid (COS Pakistan Army) during his visit in June:
Attack the Mukti ... | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_20 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | The Indian military at this time was vulnerable, with its main formations posted away from the East Pakistan border. Col. Z.A. Khan (commander of the Special Services Group in East Pakistan) also advocated aggressive action against select Indian targets. General Hamid ruled out any provocations that might provoke India... | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_21 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | The main plan remained unchanged until September 1971: Pakistani units were to fight a series of defensive battles before deploying to defend the Dhaka Bowl, but every inch of the province would not be defended. The Pakistan army occupied all the towns and fortified 90 of the 370 BoPs (half of the BoPs were destroyed b... | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_22 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | Western Command strategy
The Pakistani high command began contemplating full-scale war with India to settle all issues as the insurgency in Bangladesh began to escalate after August; with Mukti Bahini activities more aggressive and effective, Pakistani forces were in disarray. In doing so they had to contemplate fighti... | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_23 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | Western battle plan | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_24 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | The Pakistani army had thirteen infantry and two armoured divisions (in addition to several independent brigade groups) in West Pakistan in 1971. After transferring the 9th and 16th Divisions (known as "China Divisions" because these formations were given new Chinese equipment) to East Pakistan, they had a rough parity... | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_25 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | Aside from these formations, Pakistan also had two independent artillery and two infantry brigade groups deployed on the border. The initial Pakistani plan was to launch diversionary attacks along the whole Indian border with West Pakistan to keep Indian reserve forces away from the main target areas, then attack the P... | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_26 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | Importance of airstrikes
To negate Indian superiority in infantry (in addition to the 13 divisions deployed along the Pakistan border, it could call up the main reserve force if needed), the Pakistan Air Force (OC Air Marshal A. Rahim Khan) needed to achieve air superiority on the western front. In 1971 it had 17 front... | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_27 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | Naval role
The Pakistan Navy was in no position to counter the Indian threat, despite appeals to enhance naval capabilities over the years. The Pakistan Navy under commander-in-chief Vice Admiral Muzaffar Hasan (Fleet CO: Rear Admiral MAK Lodhi), with one cruiser, three frigates, five destroyers, four submarines and se... | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_28 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | Problems in East Pakistan military
Pakistan Eastern Command HQ began to revise the operational plan from September onwards under the following assumptions:
India would launch a conventional attack in East Pakistan aiming to liberate a large area, transfer the Mukti Bahini and the refugees in the liberated area and see... | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_29 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | Manpower shortage
The East Pakistan garrison was reinforced with two infantry divisions in April 1971 to restore order and fight the insurgency. All divisional heavy equipment needed to fight a conventional war was left in the west. A comparison of the deployed units between March and November shows: | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_30 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | According to one estimate, the Eastern Command needed at least 250,000 personnel; it barely had 150,000 (50,000 regular soldiers) by November 1971. To fill the manpower gap, the East Pakistan Civil Armed Force (EPCAF) (17 planes and approximately 23,000 personnel) and Razakars (40,000 members, against a target of 100,0... | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_31 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | Ad hoc units
The lack of regular units also forced the Eastern Command to improvise in two ways: creating ad hoc formations to mimic regular army formations and mixing regular troops with paramilitary units. When Pakistani planners assumed India would launch its main attack in the east along the Akhaura – Brahmanbaria ... | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_32 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | Deception
General Niazi hoped that by creating five divisional HQs and simulating the signal traffic of numerous brigades, he would deceive the Indian Eastern Command into committing at least 15 infantry divisions and other assorted supporting forces in the east; this would mean India would have less to deploy in the w... | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_33 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | Subtraction by addition
All paramilitary units (EPCAF/Razakar/Mujahid) were not up to army standards in terms of equipment and effectiveness, and the Eastern Command began to mix them with regular units to bolster their efficiency. Pakistani battalions were given two-thirds-companies of paramilitary units, while a comp... | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_34 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | Logistical woes
The underdeveloped state of the Bangladeshi communication infrastructures and the river system cutting through the plains was a formidable challenge to the movement of troops and supplies. General Niazi had ordered the Pakistan army to live off the land because of logistical difficulties, and Maj. Gener... | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_35 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | The Eastern Command staff kept the plan unchanged after the review; Pakistani troop deployments were not altered after the July appraisal. Pakistani units were kept at the border with the intention to withdraw them towards Dhaka after a series of defensive battles. The Eastern Command completed a final revision of the ... | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_36 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | Final plan: October 1971
General Niazi (along with General Jamshed (GOC EPCAF), General Rahim (2IC Eastern Command), Brig. Bakir (COS Eastern Command), Rear Admiral Sharif and Air Commodore Inamul Haque Khan) reviewed the existing plan and updated it to factor in the manpower shortage, logistical difficulties, and the ... | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_37 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | Defensive considerations
The review committee analysed four strategic concepts when formulating the revised plan:
Deploying all available forces to defend the Dhaka Bowl along the Meghna, Jamuna and Padma Rivers. The Pakistan Army could use interior lines to switch forces as needed, and build up a strategic reserve whi... | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_38 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | The fortress concept was adopted; the planners decided on a single defensive deployment of troops on the border, which went against the troop deployments advocated by earlier plans. This was done to stick to the GHQ order of not surrendering any territory to the Mukti Bahini. When devising troop deployments, the planne... | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_39 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | Defensive lines
Once the fortress defence was chosen, General Niazi and his staff designated the following cities as fortresses: Jessore, Jhenida, Bogra, Rangpur, Comilla and Bhairab Bazar (these were located on communication hubs), Jamalpur and Mymensingh (defending the northern perimeter of the Dhaka bowl), and Sylhe... | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_40 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | Planned Pakistani deployments
Pakistani planners assumed (based on intelligence estimates) that an Indian force of 8 to 12 infantry divisions, an armoured brigade and the Mukti Bahini would launch the invasion of East Pakistan during the winter. The Pakistani army had divided the country into four sectors:
Northern S... | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_41 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | The 16th Infantry Division (CO Maj. Gen. Nazar Hussain Shah, HQ Bogra, then Nator) defended this area. It had the 29th Cavalry, two artillery regiments and a heavy mortar battery (the 117th Independent Mortar Battery), in addition to three infantry brigades: the 23rd (CO Brig. S.A. Ansari, HQ Rangpur), the 205th (CO Br... | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_42 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | Western Sector: This area (south of the Padma and east of the Meghna) contained the Khulna, Jessore, Kushtia, Faridpur, Barisal and Patuakhali districts and was defended by the 9th Division (CO Maj. Gen. Ansari) made up of two infantry brigades: the 107th (CO Brig. Makhdum Hayat, HQ Jessore), covering the border from J... | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_43 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | The main attack would come in the Calcutta – Banapol – Jessore axis.
Another thrust would be made, either using the Krishnanagar – Darshana – Chuadanga axis or the Murshidabad – Rajapur – Kushtia axis.
The 107th Brigade (the 12th Punjab, the 15th and 22nd FF Battalions) was tasked with guarding the Benapol axis. This b... | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_44 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | The 57th Brigade (the 18th Punjab and 29th Baloch) was deployed to cover the Darshana and Meherpur areas. The 49th Field Artillery regiment was attached to this brigade, and the 50th Punjab reinforced the unit in November. To defend the Hardinge Bridge, a tank squadron was placed under the Eastern Command control near ... | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_45 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | Dhaka Bowl: Pakistani planners anticipated a brigade size attack on the Kamalpur – Sherpur – Jamalpur axis, and another along the Haluaghat – Mymensingh axis. They deemed this area impassable because of the hilly terrain on the Indian side and the Modhupur Jungle and Brahmaputra River to the north of Dhaka. The 27th Br... | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_46 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | Eastern Sector: This sector included the Chittagong, Noakhali, Comilla and Sylhet districts. The anticipated lines of advance were:
The Agartala – Akhaura – Bhairab Bazar axis would be the main thrust, with another attack coming towards Maulavi Bazar – Shamshernagar and a third near Comilla.
The 14th Division (CO: Maj.... | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_47 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | Chittagong: Independent defence zone
The 97th independent Infantry Brigade (CO Brig. Ata Md. Khan Malik, HQ Chittagong) was to cover the Chittagong fortress and hill tracks. The 24th FF Battalion (along with two EPCAF wings and a Marine battalion) guarded Chittagong itself. The Second SSG was at Kaptai while the 60th a... | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_48 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | Distribution of artillery and armour
The Eastern Command could not attach an artillery regiment to each of the infantry brigades, so only the 23rd, 205th, 57th, 107th, and 117th brigades were given an artillery regiment each. An artillery regiment (the 31st) was split between the 202nd ad hoc and the 27th Brigades, whi... | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_49 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | Last-minute changes: November 1971 | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_50 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | As events unfolded in Bangladesh and the Pakistani Army began to face ever-increasing difficulties, some officers at GHQ began to have second thoughts about the existing operational plan to defend East Pakistan. General Abdul Hamid, COS of the Pakistani Army, approved of the existing deployment of troops close to the b... | wikipedia |
wiki_39719_chunk_51 | Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan | Final reinforcements and directives
In November, Gen. Niazi sent Maj. Gen Jamshed and Brig. Bakir Siddiqi to Rawalpindi to request two more divisions as reinforcements (as well as all the heavy equipment left behind by the 9th and 16th Divisions for East Pakistan). The GHQ promised to send 8 infantry battalions and an ... | wikipedia |
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