qchapp/MNLP_M3_rag_documents · Datasets at Hugging Face

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wiki_5_chunk_159	American Civil War	Civil War commemoration The American Civil War has been commemorated in many capacities ranging from the reenactment of battles to statues and memorial halls erected, to films being produced, to stamps and coins with Civil War themes being issued, all of which helped to shape public memory. This varied advent occurred in greater proportions on the 100th and 150th anniversary.	wikipedia
wiki_5_chunk_160	American Civil War	Hollywood's take on the war has been especially influential in shaping public memory, as seen in such film classics as The Birth of a Nation (1915), Gone with the Wind (1939), and Lincoln (2012). Ken Burns's PBS television series The Civil War (1990) is especially well-remembered, though criticized for its historical accuracy.	wikipedia
wiki_5_chunk_161	American Civil War	Technological significance Numerous technological innovations during the Civil War had a great impact on 19th-century science. The Civil War was one of the earliest examples of an "industrial war", in which technological might is used to achieve military supremacy in a war. New inventions, such as the train and telegraph, delivered soldiers, supplies and messages at a time when horses were considered to be the fastest way to travel. It was also in this war that aerial warfare, in the form of reconnaissance balloons, was first used. It saw the first action involving steam-powered ironclad warships in naval warfare history. Repeating firearms such as the Henry rifle, Spencer rifle, Colt revolving rifle, Triplett & Scott carbine and others, first appeared during the Civil War; they were a revolutionary invention that would soon replace muzzle-loading and single-shot firearms in warfare. The war also saw the first appearances of rapid-firing weapons and machine guns such as the Agar gun and the Gatling gun.	wikipedia
wiki_5_chunk_162	American Civil War	In works of culture and art The Civil War is one of the most studied events in American history, and the collection of cultural works around it is enormous. This section gives an abbreviated overview of the most notable works.	wikipedia
wiki_5_chunk_163	American Civil War	Literature When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd and O Captain! My Captain! (1865) by Walt Whitman, famous eulogies to Lincoln Battle-Pieces and Aspects of the War (1866) poetry by Herman Melville The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government (1881) by Jefferson Davis The Private History of a Campaign That Failed (1885) by Mark Twain Texar's Revenge, or, North Against South (1887) by Jules Verne An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge (1890) by Ambrose Bierce The Red Badge of Courage (1895) by Stephen Crane Gone with the Wind (1936) by Margaret Mitchell North and South (1982) by John Jakes	wikipedia
wiki_5_chunk_164	American Civil War	Film	wikipedia
wiki_5_chunk_165	American Civil War	The Birth of a Nation (1915, US) The General (1926, US) Operator 13 (1934, US) Gone with the Wind (1939, US) The Red Badge of Courage (1951, US) The Horse Soldiers (1959, US) Shenandoah (1965, US) The Good, the Bad and the Ugly (1966, Italy-Spain-FRG) The Beguiled (1971, US) The Outlaw Josey Wales (1976, US) Glory (1989, US) The Civil War (1990, US) Gettysburg (1993, US) The Last Outlaw (1993, US) Cold Mountain (2003, US) Gods and Generals (2003, US) North and South (miniseries) Lincoln (2012, US) 12 Years a Slave (2013, US) Free State of Jones (2016, US)	wikipedia
wiki_5_chunk_166	American Civil War	Music Dixie Battle Cry of Freedom Battle Hymn of the Republic The Bonnie Blue Flag John Brown's Body When Johnny Comes Marching Home Marching Through Georgia The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down Video games	wikipedia
wiki_5_chunk_167	American Civil War	North & South (1989, FR) Sid Meier's Gettysburg! (1997, US) Sid Meier's Antietam! (1999, US) American Conqest: Divided Nation (2006, US) Forge of Freedom: The American Civil War (2006, US) The History Channel: Civil War – A Nation Divided (2006, US) Ageod's American Civil War (2007, US/FR) History Civil War: Secret Missions (2008, US) Call of Juarez: Bound in Blood (2009, US) Darkest of Days (2009, US) Victoria II: A House Divided (2011, US) Ageod's American Civil War II (2013, US/FR) Ultimate General: Gettysburg (2014, UKR) Ultimate General: Civil War (2016, UKR)	wikipedia
wiki_5_chunk_168	American Civil War	See also General reference American Civil War Corps Badges List of American Civil War battles List of costliest American Civil War land battles List of weapons in the American Civil War Second American Civil War Union Presidency of Abraham Lincoln Uniform of the Union Army Confederacy Central Confederacy Uniforms of the Confederate States Armed Forces Ethnic articles African Americans in the American Civil War German Americans in the American Civil War Irish Americans in the American Civil War Italian Americans in the American Civil War Native Americans in the American Civil War	wikipedia
wiki_5_chunk_169	American Civil War	Topical articles Commemoration of the American Civil War Commemoration of the American Civil War on postage stamps Dorothea Dix Education of freed people during the Civil War Spies in the American Civil War Infantry in the American Civil War List of ships captured in the 19th century#American Civil War Slavery during the American Civil War National articles Canada in the American Civil War Foreign enlistment in the American Civil War Prussia in the American Civil War United Kingdom in the American Civil War State articles :Category:American Civil War by state	wikipedia
wiki_5_chunk_170	American Civil War	Memorials List of Confederate monuments and memorials List of memorials and monuments at Arlington National Cemetery List of memorials to Jefferson Davis List of memorials to Robert E. Lee List of memorials to Stonewall Jackson List of monuments erected by the United Daughters of the Confederacy List of monuments of the Gettysburg Battlefield List of Union Civil War monuments and memorials Memorials to Abraham Lincoln Removal of Confederate monuments and memorials Other modern civil wars in the world Boxer Rebellion Chinese Civil War Finnish Civil War Mexican Revolution Russian Civil War Spanish Civil War Taiping Rebellion References Notes Citations Bibliography	wikipedia
wiki_5_chunk_171	American Civil War	Beringer, Richard E., Archer Jones, and Herman Hattaway, Why the South Lost the Civil War (1986), influential analysis of factors; an abridged version is The Elements of Confederate Defeat: Nationalism, War Aims, and Religion (1988) Gallagher, Gary W. (2011). The Union War. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. . Gara, Larry. 1964. The Fugitive Slave Law: A Double Paradox in Essays on the Civil War and Reconstruction, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970 (originally published in Civil War History, X, No. 3, September 1964) Nevins, Allan. Ordeal of the Union, an 8-volume set (1947–1971). the most detailed political, economic and military narrative; by Pulitzer Prize-winner 1. Fruits of Manifest Destiny, 1847–1852 online; 2. A House Dividing, 1852–1857; 3. Douglas, Buchanan, and Party Chaos, 1857–1859; 4. Prologue to Civil War, 1859–1861; vols 5–8 have the series title War for the Union; 5. The Improvised War, 1861–1862; 6. online; War Becomes Revolution, 1862–1863; 7. The Organized War, 1863–1864; 8. The Organized War to Victory, 1864–1865 Sheehan-Dean, Aaron. A Companion to the U.S. Civil War 2 vol. (April 2014) Wiley-Blackwell, New York . 1232pp; 64 Topical chapters by scholars and experts; emphasis on historiography. Stoker, Donald. The Grand Design: Strategy and the U.S. Civil War (2010) excerpt Borrow book at: archive.org	wikipedia
wiki_5_chunk_172	American Civil War	Further reading Bibliography of the American Civil War Bibliography of American Civil War naval history	wikipedia
wiki_5_chunk_173	American Civil War	External links West Point Atlas of Civil War Battles Civil War photos at the National Archives View images from the Civil War Photographs Collection at the Library of Congress American Battlefield Trust – A non-profit land preservation and educational organization with two divisions, the Civil War Trust and the Revolutionary War Trust, dedicated to preserving America's battlefields through land acquisitions. Civil War Era Digital Collection at Gettysburg College – This collection contains digital images of political cartoons, personal papers, pamphlets, maps, paintings and photographs from the Civil War Era held in Special Collections at Gettysburg College. Civil War 150 – Washington Post interactive website on the 150th Anniversary of the American Civil War. Civil War in the American South – An Association of Southeastern Research Libraries (ASERL) portal with links to almost 9,000 digitized Civil War-era items—books, pamphlets, broadsides, letters, maps, personal papers, and manuscripts—held at ASERL member libraries The Civil War – site with 7,000 pages, including the complete run of Harper's Weekly newspapers from the Civil War "American Civil World" maps at the Persuasive Cartography, The PJ Mode Collection, Cornell University Library Civil War Manuscripts at Shapell Manuscript Foundation Statements of each state as to why they were seceding	wikipedia
wiki_5_chunk_174	American Civil War	Rebellions against the United States Conflicts in 1861 Conflicts in 1862 Conflicts in 1863 Conflicts in 1864 Conflicts in 1865 19th-century conflicts Civil War 1860s in the United States Wars of independence Internal wars of the United States 1860s conflicts	wikipedia
wiki_6_chunk_0	Advanced Chemistry	Advanced Chemistry is a German hip hop group from Heidelberg, a scenic city in Baden-Württemberg, South Germany. Advanced Chemistry was founded in 1987 by Toni L, Linguist, Gee-One, DJ Mike MD (Mike Dippon) and MC Torch. Each member of the group holds German citizenship, and Toni L, Linguist, and Torch are of Italian, Ghanaian, and Haitian backgrounds, respectively.	wikipedia
wiki_6_chunk_1	Advanced Chemistry	Influenced by North American socially conscious rap and the Native tongues movement, Advanced Chemistry is regarded as one of the main pioneers in German hip hop. They were one of the first groups to rap in German (although their name is in English). Furthermore, their songs tackled controversial social and political issues, distinguishing them from early German hip hop group "Die Fantastischen Vier" (The Fantastic Four), which had a more light-hearted, playful, party image.	wikipedia
wiki_6_chunk_2	Advanced Chemistry	Career Advanced Chemistry frequently rapped about their lives and experiences as children of immigrants, exposing the marginalization experienced by most ethnic minorities in Germany, and the feelings of frustration and resentment that being denied a German identity can cause. The song "Fremd im eigenen Land" (Foreign in your own nation) was released by Advanced Chemistry in November 1992. The single became a staple in the German hip hop scene. It made a strong statement about the status of immigrants throughout Germany, as the group was composed of multi-national and multi-racial members. The video shows several members brandishing their German passports as a demonstration of their German citizenship to skeptical and unaccepting 'ethnic' Germans.	wikipedia
wiki_6_chunk_3	Advanced Chemistry	This idea of national identity is important, as many rap artists in Germany have been of foreign origin. These so-called Gastarbeiter (guest workers) children saw breakdance, graffiti, rap music, and hip hop culture as a means of expressing themselves. Since the release of "Fremd im eigenen Land", many other German-language rappers have also tried to confront anti-immigrant ideas and develop themes of citizenship. However, though many ethnic minority youth in Germany find these German identity themes appealing, others view the desire of immigrants to be seen as German negatively, and they have actively sought to revive and recreate concepts of identity in connection to traditional ethnic origins.	wikipedia
wiki_6_chunk_4	Advanced Chemistry	Advanced Chemistry helped to found the German chapter of the Zulu nation.	wikipedia
wiki_6_chunk_5	Advanced Chemistry	The rivalry between Advanced Chemistry and Die Fantastischen Vier has served to highlight a dichotomy in the routes that hip hop has taken in becoming a part of the German soundscape. While Die Fantastischen Vier may be said to view hip hop primarily as an aesthetic art form, Advanced Chemistry understand hip hop as being inextricably linked to the social and political circumstances under which it is created. For Advanced Chemistry, hip hop is a “vehicle of general human emancipation,”. In their undertaking of social and political issues, the band introduced the term "Afro-German" into the context of German hip hop, and the theme of race is highlighted in much of their music.	wikipedia
wiki_6_chunk_6	Advanced Chemistry	With the release of the single “Fremd im eigenen Land”, Advanced Chemistry separated itself from the rest of the rap being produced in Germany. This single was the first of its kind to go beyond simply imitating US rap and addressed the current issues of the time. Fremd im eigenen Land which translates to “foreign in my own country” dealt with the widespread racism that non-white German citizens faced. This change from simple imitation to political commentary was the start of German identification with rap. The sound of “Fremd im eigenen Land” was influenced by the 'wall of noise' created by Public Enemy's producers, The Bomb Squad.	wikipedia
wiki_6_chunk_7	Advanced Chemistry	After the reunification of Germany, an abundance of anti-immigrant sentiment emerged, as well as attacks on the homes of refugees in the early 1990s. Advanced Chemistry came to prominence in the wake of these actions because of their pro-multicultural society stance in their music. Advanced Chemistry's attitudes revolve around their attempts to create a distinct "Germanness" in hip hop, as opposed to imitating American hip hop as other groups had done. Torch has said, "What the Americans do is exotic for us because we don't live like they do. What they do seems to be more interesting and newer. But not for me. For me it's more exciting to experience my fellow Germans in new contexts...For me, it's interesting to see what the kids try to do that's different from what I know." Advanced Chemistry were the first to use the term "Afro-German" in a hip hop context. This was part of the pro-immigrant political message they sent via their music.	wikipedia
wiki_6_chunk_8	Advanced Chemistry	While Advanced Chemistry's use of the German language in their rap allows them to make claims to authenticity and true German heritage, bolstering pro-immigration sentiment, their style can also be problematic for immigrant notions of any real ethnic roots. Indeed, part of the Turkish ethnic minority of Frankfurt views Advanced Chemistry's appeal to the German image as a "symbolic betrayal of the right of ethnic minorities to 'roots' or to any expression of cultural heritage." In this sense, their rap represents a complex social discourse internal to the German soundscape in which they attempt to negotiate immigrant assimilation into a xenophobic German culture with the maintenance of their own separate cultural traditions. It is quite possibly the feelings of alienation from the pure-blooded German demographic that drive Advanced Chemistry to attack nationalistic ideologies by asserting their "Germanness" as a group composed primarily of ethnic others. The response to this pseudo-German authenticity can be seen in what Andy Bennett refers to as "alternative forms of local hip hop culture which actively seek to rediscover and, in many cases, reconstruct notions of identity tied to cultural roots." These alternative local hip hop cultures include oriental hip hop, the members of which cling to their Turkish heritage and are confused by Advanced Chemistry's elicitation of a German identity politics to which they technically do not belong. This cultural binary illustrates that rap has taken different routes in Germany and that, even among an already isolated immigrant population, there is still disunity and, especially, disagreement on the relative importance of assimilation versus cultural defiance. According to German hip hop enthusiast 9@home, Advanced Chemistry is part of a "hip-hop movement [which] took a clear stance for the minorities and against the [marginalization] of immigrants who...might be German on paper, but not in real life," which speaks to the group's hope of actually being recognized as German citizens and not foreigners, despite their various other ethnic and cultural ties.	wikipedia
wiki_6_chunk_9	Advanced Chemistry	Influences Advanced Chemistry's work was rooted in German history and the country's specific political realities. However, they also drew inspiration from African-American hip-hop acts like A Tribe Called Quest and Public Enemy, who had helped bring a soulful sound and political consciousness to American hip-hop. One member, Torch, later explicitly listed his references on his solo song "Als (When I Was in School):" "My favorite subject, which was quickly discovered poetry in load Poets, awakens the intellect or policy at Chuck D I'll never forget the lyrics by Public Enemy." Torch goes on to list other American rappers like Biz Markie, Big Daddy Kane and Dr. Dre as influences.	wikipedia
wiki_6_chunk_10	Advanced Chemistry	Discography 1992 - "Fremd im eigenen Land" (12"/MCD, MZEE) 1993 - "Welcher Pfad führt zur Geschichte" (12"/MCD, MZEE) 1994 - "Operation § 3" (12"/MCD) 1994 - "Dir fehlt der Funk!" (12"/MCD) 1995 - Advanced Chemistry (2xLP/CD) External links Official Website of MC Torch Website of Toni L Official Website of Linguist Official Website DJ Mike MD (Mike Dippon) Website of 360° Records	wikipedia
wiki_6_chunk_11	Advanced Chemistry	Bibliography El-Tayeb, Fatima “‘If You Cannot Pronounce My Name, You Can Just Call Me Pride.’ Afro-German Activism, Gender, and Hip Hop,” Gender & History15/3(2003):459-485. Felbert, Oliver von. “Die Unbestechlichen.” Spex (March 1993): 50–53. Weheliye, Alexander G. Phonographies:Grooves in Sonic Afro-Modernity, Duke University Press, 2005. References German hip hop groups	wikipedia
wiki_7_chunk_0	Alcohol (chemistry)	In chemistry, an alcohol is a type of organic compound that carries at least one hydroxyl functional group (−OH) bound to a saturated carbon atom. The term alcohol originally referred to the primary alcohol ethanol (ethyl alcohol), which is used as a drug and is the main alcohol present in alcoholic drinks. An important class of alcohols, of which methanol and ethanol are the simplest members, includes all compounds for which the general formula is . Simple monoalcohols that are the subject of this article include primary (), secondary () and tertiary () alcohols.	wikipedia
wiki_7_chunk_1	Alcohol (chemistry)	The suffix -ol appears in the IUPAC chemical name of all substances where the hydroxyl group is the functional group with the highest priority. When a higher priority group is present in the compound, the prefix hydroxy- is used in its IUPAC name. The suffix -ol in non-IUPAC names (such as paracetamol or cholesterol) also typically indicates that the substance is an alcohol. However, many substances that contain hydroxyl functional groups (particularly sugars, such as glucose and sucrose) have names which include neither the suffix -ol, nor the prefix hydroxy-.	wikipedia
wiki_7_chunk_2	Alcohol (chemistry)	History The inflammable nature of the exhalations of wine was already known to ancient natural philosophers such as Aristotle (384–322 BCE), Theophrastus (c. 371–287 BCE), and Pliny the Elder (23/24–79 CE). However, this did not immediately lead to the isolation of alcohol, even despite the development of more advanced distillation techniques in second- and third-century Roman Egypt. An important recognition, first found in one of the writings attributed to Jābir ibn Ḥayyān (ninth century CE), was that by adding salt to boiling wine, which increases the wine's relative volatility, the flammability of the resulting vapors may be enhanced. The distillation of wine is attested in Arabic works attributed to al-Kindī (c. 801–873 CE) and to al-Fārābī (c. 872–950), and in the 28th book of al-Zahrāwī's (Latin: Abulcasis, 936–1013) Kitāb al-Taṣrīf (later translated into Latin as Liber servatoris). In the twelfth century, recipes for the production of aqua ardens ("burning water", i.e., alcohol) by distilling wine with salt started to appear in a number of Latin works, and by the end of the thirteenth century it had become a widely known substance among Western European chemists.	wikipedia
wiki_7_chunk_3	Alcohol (chemistry)	The works of Taddeo Alderotti (1223–1296) describe a method for concentrating alcohol involving repeated fractional distillation through a water-cooled still, by which an alcohol purity of 90% could be obtained. The medicinal properties of ethanol were studied by Arnald of Villanova (1240–1311 CE) and John of Rupescissa (c. 1310–1366), the latter of whom regarded it as a life-preserving substance able to prevent all diseases (the aqua vitae or "water of life", also called by John the quintessence of wine).	wikipedia
wiki_7_chunk_4	Alcohol (chemistry)	Nomenclature	wikipedia
wiki_7_chunk_5	Alcohol (chemistry)	Etymology The word "alcohol" is from the Arabic kohl (), a powder used as an eyeliner. Al- is the Arabic definite article, equivalent to the in English. Alcohol was originally used for the very fine powder produced by the sublimation of the natural mineral stibnite to form antimony trisulfide . It was considered to be the essence or "spirit" of this mineral. It was used as an antiseptic, eyeliner, and cosmetic. The meaning of alcohol was extended to distilled substances in general, and then narrowed to ethanol, when "spirits" was a synonym for hard liquor.	wikipedia
wiki_7_chunk_6	Alcohol (chemistry)	Bartholomew Traheron, in his 1543 translation of John of Vigo, introduces the word as a term used by "barbarous" authors for "fine powder." Vigo wrote: "the barbarous auctours use alcohol, or (as I fynde it sometymes wryten) alcofoll, for moost fine poudre."	wikipedia
wiki_7_chunk_7	Alcohol (chemistry)	The 1657 Lexicon Chymicum, by William Johnson glosses the word as "antimonium sive stibium." By extension, the word came to refer to any fluid obtained by distillation, including "alcohol of wine," the distilled essence of wine. Libavius in Alchymia (1594) refers to "vini alcohol vel vinum alcalisatum". Johnson (1657) glosses alcohol vini as "quando omnis superfluitas vini a vino separatur, ita ut accensum ardeat donec totum consumatur, nihilque fæcum aut phlegmatis in fundo remaneat." The word's meaning became restricted to "spirit of wine" (the chemical known today as ethanol) in the 18th century and was extended to the class of substances so-called as "alcohols" in modern chemistry after 1850.	wikipedia
wiki_7_chunk_8	Alcohol (chemistry)	The term ethanol was invented in 1892, blending "ethane" with the "-ol" ending of "alcohol", which was generalized as a libfix.	wikipedia
wiki_7_chunk_9	Alcohol (chemistry)	Systematic names IUPAC nomenclature is used in scientific publications and where precise identification of the substance is important, especially in cases where the relative complexity of the molecule does not make such a systematic name unwieldy. In naming simple alcohols, the name of the alkane chain loses the terminal e and adds the suffix -ol, e.g., as in "ethanol" from the alkane chain name "ethane". When necessary, the position of the hydroxyl group is indicated by a number between the alkane name and the -ol: propan-1-ol for , propan-2-ol for . If a higher priority group is present (such as an aldehyde, ketone, or carboxylic acid), then the prefix hydroxy-is used, e.g., as in 1-hydroxy-2-propanone ().	wikipedia
wiki_7_chunk_10	Alcohol (chemistry)	In cases where the hydroxy group is bonded to an sp2 carbon on an aromatic ring, the molecule is classified separately as a phenol and is named using the IUPAC rules for naming phenols. Phenols have distinct properties and are not classified as alcohols.	wikipedia
wiki_7_chunk_11	Alcohol (chemistry)	Common names In other less formal contexts, an alcohol is often called with the name of the corresponding alkyl group followed by the word "alcohol", e.g., methyl alcohol, ethyl alcohol. Propyl alcohol may be n-propyl alcohol or isopropyl alcohol, depending on whether the hydroxyl group is bonded to the end or middle carbon on the straight propane chain. As described under systematic naming, if another group on the molecule takes priority, the alcohol moiety is often indicated using the "hydroxy-" prefix.	wikipedia
wiki_7_chunk_12	Alcohol (chemistry)	Alcohols are then classified into primary, secondary (sec-, s-), and tertiary (tert-, t-), based upon the number of carbon atoms connected to the carbon atom that bears the hydroxyl functional group. (The respective numeric shorthands 1°, 2°, and 3° are also sometimes used in informal settings.) The primary alcohols have general formulas . The simplest primary alcohol is methanol (), for which R=H, and the next is ethanol, for which , the methyl group. Secondary alcohols are those of the form RR'CHOH, the simplest of which is 2-propanol (). For the tertiary alcohols the general form is RR'R"COH. The simplest example is tert-butanol (2-methylpropan-2-ol), for which each of R, R', and R" is . In these shorthands, R, R', and R" represent substituents, alkyl or other attached, generally organic groups.	wikipedia
wiki_7_chunk_13	Alcohol (chemistry)	In archaic nomenclature, alcohols can be named as derivatives of methanol using "-carbinol" as the ending. For instance, can be named trimethylcarbinol. Applications	wikipedia
wiki_7_chunk_14	Alcohol (chemistry)	Alcohols have a long history of myriad uses. For simple mono-alcohols, which is the focus on this article, the following are most important industrial alcohols: methanol, mainly for the production of formaldehyde and as a fuel additive ethanol, mainly for alcoholic beverages, fuel additive, solvent 1-propanol, 1-butanol, and isobutyl alcohol for use as a solvent and precursor to solvents C6–C11 alcohols used for plasticizers, e.g. in polyvinylchloride fatty alcohol (C12–C18), precursors to detergents Methanol is the most common industrial alcohol, with about 12 million tons/y produced in 1980. The combined capacity of the other alcohols is about the same, distributed roughly equally.	wikipedia
wiki_7_chunk_15	Alcohol (chemistry)	Toxicity With respect to acute toxicity, simple alcohols have low acute toxicities. Doses of several milliliters are tolerated. For pentanols, hexanols, octanols and longer alcohols, LD50 range from 2–5 g/kg (rats, oral). Methanol and ethanol are less acutely toxic. All alcohols are mild skin irritants.	wikipedia
wiki_7_chunk_16	Alcohol (chemistry)	The metabolism of methanol (and ethylene glycol) is affected by the presence of ethanol, which has a higher affinity for liver alcohol dehydrogenase. In this way methanol will be excreted intact in urine.	wikipedia
wiki_7_chunk_17	Alcohol (chemistry)	Physical properties In general, the hydroxyl group makes alcohols polar. Those groups can form hydrogen bonds to one another and to most other compounds. Owing to the presence of the polar OH alcohols are more water-soluble than simple hydrocarbons. Methanol, ethanol, and propanol are miscible in water. Butanol, with a four-carbon chain, is moderately soluble.	wikipedia
wiki_7_chunk_18	Alcohol (chemistry)	Because of hydrogen bonding, alcohols tend to have higher boiling points than comparable hydrocarbons and ethers. The boiling point of the alcohol ethanol is 78.29 °C, compared to 69 °C for the hydrocarbon hexane, and 34.6 °C for diethyl ether.	wikipedia
wiki_7_chunk_19	Alcohol (chemistry)	Occurrence in nature Simple alcohols are found widely in nature. Ethanol is the most prominent because it is the product of fermentation, a major energy-producing pathway. Other simple alcohols, chiefly fusel alcohols, are formed in only trace amounts. More complex alcohols however are pervasive, as manifested in sugars, some amino acids, and fatty acids. Production Ziegler and oxo processes In the Ziegler process, linear alcohols are produced from ethylene and triethylaluminium followed by oxidation and hydrolysis. An idealized synthesis of 1-octanol is shown:	wikipedia
wiki_7_chunk_20	Alcohol (chemistry)	The process generates a range of alcohols that are separated by distillation. Many higher alcohols are produced by hydroformylation of alkenes followed by hydrogenation. When applied to a terminal alkene, as is common, one typically obtains a linear alcohol: Such processes give fatty alcohols, which are useful for detergents.	wikipedia
wiki_7_chunk_21	Alcohol (chemistry)	Hydration reactions Some low molecular weight alcohols of industrial importance are produced by the addition of water to alkenes. Ethanol, isopropanol, 2-butanol, and tert-butanol are produced by this general method. Two implementations are employed, the direct and indirect methods. The direct method avoids the formation of stable intermediates, typically using acid catalysts. In the indirect method, the alkene is converted to the sulfate ester, which is subsequently hydrolyzed. The direct hydration using ethylene (ethylene hydration) or other alkenes from cracking of fractions of distilled crude oil.	wikipedia
wiki_7_chunk_22	Alcohol (chemistry)	Hydration is also used industrially to produce the diol ethylene glycol from ethylene oxide. Biological routes Ethanol is obtained by fermentation using glucose produced from sugar from the hydrolysis of starch, in the presence of yeast and temperature of less than 37 °C to produce ethanol. For instance, such a process might proceed by the conversion of sucrose by the enzyme invertase into glucose and fructose, then the conversion of glucose by the enzyme complex zymase into ethanol and carbon dioxide.	wikipedia
wiki_7_chunk_23	Alcohol (chemistry)	Several species of the benign bacteria in the intestine use fermentation as a form of anaerobic metabolism. This metabolic reaction produces ethanol as a waste product. Thus, human bodies contain some quantity of alcohol endogenously produced by these bacteria. In rare cases, this can be sufficient to cause "auto-brewery syndrome" in which intoxicating quantities of alcohol are produced.	wikipedia
wiki_7_chunk_24	Alcohol (chemistry)	Like ethanol, butanol can be produced by fermentation processes. Saccharomyces yeast are known to produce these higher alcohols at temperatures above . The bacterium Clostridium acetobutylicum can feed on cellulose to produce butanol on an industrial scale.	wikipedia
wiki_7_chunk_25	Alcohol (chemistry)	Substitution Primary alkyl halides react with aqueous NaOH or KOH mainly to primary alcohols in nucleophilic aliphatic substitution. (Secondary and especially tertiary alkyl halides will give the elimination (alkene) product instead). Grignard reagents react with carbonyl groups to secondary and tertiary alcohols. Related reactions are the Barbier reaction and the Nozaki-Hiyama reaction.	wikipedia
wiki_7_chunk_26	Alcohol (chemistry)	Reduction Aldehydes or ketones are reduced with sodium borohydride or lithium aluminium hydride (after an acidic workup). Another reduction by aluminiumisopropylates is the Meerwein-Ponndorf-Verley reduction. Noyori asymmetric hydrogenation is the asymmetric reduction of β-keto-esters.	wikipedia
wiki_7_chunk_27	Alcohol (chemistry)	Hydrolysis Alkenes engage in an acid catalysed hydration reaction using concentrated sulfuric acid as a catalyst that gives usually secondary or tertiary alcohols. The hydroboration-oxidation and oxymercuration-reduction of alkenes are more reliable in organic synthesis. Alkenes react with NBS and water in halohydrin formation reaction. Amines can be converted to diazonium salts, which are then hydrolyzed. The formation of a secondary alcohol via reduction and hydration is shown: Reactions	wikipedia
wiki_7_chunk_28	Alcohol (chemistry)	Deprotonation With aqueous pKa values of around 16–19, they are, in general, slightly weaker acids than water. With strong bases such as sodium hydride or sodium they form salts called alkoxides, with the general formula RO− M+.	wikipedia
wiki_7_chunk_29	Alcohol (chemistry)	The acidity of alcohols is strongly affected by solvation. In the gas phase, alcohols are more acidic than in water. In DMSO, alcohols (and water) have a pKa of around 29–32. As a consequence, alkoxides (and hydroxide) are powerful bases and nucleophiles (e.g., for the Williamson ether synthesis) in this solvent. In particular, RO– or HO– in DMSO can be used to generate significant equilibrium concentrations of acetylide ions through the deprotonation of alkynes (see Favorskii reaction).	wikipedia
wiki_7_chunk_30	Alcohol (chemistry)	Nucleophilic substitution The OH group is not a good leaving group in nucleophilic substitution reactions, so neutral alcohols do not react in such reactions. However, if the oxygen is first protonated to give , the leaving group (water) is much more stable, and the nucleophilic substitution can take place. For instance, tertiary alcohols react with hydrochloric acid to produce tertiary alkyl halides, where the hydroxyl group is replaced by a chlorine atom by unimolecular nucleophilic substitution. If primary or secondary alcohols are to be reacted with hydrochloric acid, an activator such as zinc chloride is needed. In alternative fashion, the conversion may be performed directly using thionyl chloride.[1]	wikipedia
wiki_7_chunk_31	Alcohol (chemistry)	Alcohols may, likewise, be converted to alkyl bromides using hydrobromic acid or phosphorus tribromide, for example: In the Barton-McCombie deoxygenation an alcohol is deoxygenated to an alkane with tributyltin hydride or a trimethylborane-water complex in a radical substitution reaction. Dehydration Meanwhile, the oxygen atom has lone pairs of nonbonded electrons that render it weakly basic in the presence of strong acids such as sulfuric acid. For example, with methanol:	wikipedia
wiki_7_chunk_32	Alcohol (chemistry)	Upon treatment with strong acids, alcohols undergo the E1 elimination reaction to produce alkenes. The reaction, in general, obeys Zaitsev's Rule, which states that the most stable (usually the most substituted) alkene is formed. Tertiary alcohols eliminate easily at just above room temperature, but primary alcohols require a higher temperature. This is a diagram of acid catalysed dehydration of ethanol to produce ethylene: A more controlled elimination reaction requires the formation of the xanthate ester.	wikipedia
wiki_7_chunk_33	Alcohol (chemistry)	Protonolysis Tertiary alcohols react with strong acids to generate carbocations. The reaction is related to their dehydration, e.g. isobutylene from tert-butyl alcohol. A special kind of dehydration reaction involves triphenylmethanol and especially its amine-substituted derivatives. When treated with acid, these alcohols lose water to give stable carbocations, which are commercial dyes.	wikipedia
wiki_7_chunk_34	Alcohol (chemistry)	Esterification Alcohol and carboxylic acids react in the so-called Fischer esterification. The reaction usually requires a catalyst, such as concentrated sulfuric acid: Other types of ester are prepared in a similar manner for example, tosyl (tosylate) esters are made by reaction of the alcohol with p-toluenesulfonyl chloride in pyridine. Oxidation	wikipedia
wiki_7_chunk_35	Alcohol (chemistry)	Primary alcohols () can be oxidized either to aldehydes (R-CHO) or to carboxylic acids (). The oxidation of secondary alcohols (R1R2CH-OH) normally terminates at the ketone (R1R2C=O) stage. Tertiary alcohols (R1R2R3C-OH) are resistant to oxidation.	wikipedia
wiki_7_chunk_36	Alcohol (chemistry)	The direct oxidation of primary alcohols to carboxylic acids normally proceeds via the corresponding aldehyde, which is transformed via an aldehyde hydrate () by reaction with water before it can be further oxidized to the carboxylic acid.	wikipedia
wiki_7_chunk_37	Alcohol (chemistry)	Reagents useful for the transformation of primary alcohols to aldehydes are normally also suitable for the oxidation of secondary alcohols to ketones. These include Collins reagent and Dess-Martin periodinane. The direct oxidation of primary alcohols to carboxylic acids can be carried out using potassium permanganate or the Jones reagent. See also Enol Ethanol fuel Fatty alcohol Index of alcohol-related articles List of alcohols Lucas test Polyol Rubbing alcohol Sugar alcohol Transesterification Citations General references Antiseptics Functional groups	wikipedia
wiki_8_chunk_0	Algebraically closed field	In mathematics, a field is algebraically closed if every non-constant polynomial in (the univariate polynomial ring with coefficients in ) has a root in .	wikipedia
wiki_8_chunk_1	Algebraically closed field	Examples As an example, the field of real numbers is not algebraically closed, because the polynomial equation x2 + 1 = 0 has no solution in real numbers, even though all its coefficients (1 and 0) are real. The same argument proves that no subfield of the real field is algebraically closed; in particular, the field of rational numbers is not algebraically closed. Also, no finite field F is algebraically closed, because if a1, a2, ..., an are the elements of F, then the polynomial (x − a1)(x − a2) ⋯ (x − an) + 1 has no zero in F. By contrast, the fundamental theorem of algebra states that the field of complex numbers is algebraically closed. Another example of an algebraically closed field is the field of (complex) algebraic numbers.	wikipedia
wiki_8_chunk_2	Algebraically closed field	Equivalent properties Given a field F, the assertion "F is algebraically closed" is equivalent to other assertions: The only irreducible polynomials are those of degree one The field F is algebraically closed if and only if the only irreducible polynomials in the polynomial ring F[x] are those of degree one.	wikipedia
wiki_8_chunk_3	Algebraically closed field	The assertion "the polynomials of degree one are irreducible" is trivially true for any field. If F is algebraically closed and p(x) is an irreducible polynomial of F[x], then it has some root a and therefore p(x) is a multiple of x − a. Since p(x) is irreducible, this means that p(x) = k(x − a), for some k ∈ F \ {0}. On the other hand, if F is not algebraically closed, then there is some non-constant polynomial p(x) in F[x] without roots in F. Let q(x) be some irreducible factor of p(x). Since p(x) has no roots in F, q(x) also has no roots in F. Therefore, q(x) has degree greater than one, since every first degree polynomial has one root in F.	wikipedia
wiki_8_chunk_4	Algebraically closed field	Every polynomial is a product of first degree polynomials The field F is algebraically closed if and only if every polynomial p(x) of degree n ≥ 1, with coefficients in F, splits into linear factors. In other words, there are elements k, x1, x2, ..., xn of the field F such that p(x) = k(x − x1)(x − x2) ⋯ (x − xn).	wikipedia
wiki_8_chunk_5	Algebraically closed field	If F has this property, then clearly every non-constant polynomial in F[x] has some root in F; in other words, F is algebraically closed. On the other hand, that the property stated here holds for F if F is algebraically closed follows from the previous property together with the fact that, for any field K, any polynomial in K[x] can be written as a product of irreducible polynomials.	wikipedia
wiki_8_chunk_6	Algebraically closed field	Polynomials of prime degree have roots If every polynomial over F of prime degree has a root in F, then every non-constant polynomial has a root in F. It follows that a field is algebraically closed if and only if every polynomial over F of prime degree has a root in F. The field has no proper algebraic extension The field F is algebraically closed if and only if it has no proper algebraic extension.	wikipedia
wiki_8_chunk_7	Algebraically closed field	If F has no proper algebraic extension, let p(x) be some irreducible polynomial in F[x]. Then the quotient of F[x] modulo the ideal generated by p(x) is an algebraic extension of F whose degree is equal to the degree of p(x). Since it is not a proper extension, its degree is 1 and therefore the degree of p(x) is 1. On the other hand, if F has some proper algebraic extension K, then the minimal polynomial of an element in K \ F is irreducible and its degree is greater than 1.	wikipedia
wiki_8_chunk_8	Algebraically closed field	The field has no proper finite extension The field F is algebraically closed if and only if it has no proper finite extension because if, within the previous proof, the term "algebraic extension" is replaced by the term "finite extension", then the proof is still valid. (Note that finite extensions are necessarily algebraic.) Every endomorphism of Fn has some eigenvector The field F is algebraically closed if and only if, for each natural number n, every linear map from Fn into itself has some eigenvector.	wikipedia
wiki_8_chunk_9	Algebraically closed field	An endomorphism of Fn has an eigenvector if and only if its characteristic polynomial has some root. Therefore, when F is algebraically closed, every endomorphism of Fn has some eigenvector. On the other hand, if every endomorphism of Fn has an eigenvector, let p(x) be an element of F[x]. Dividing by its leading coefficient, we get another polynomial q(x) which has roots if and only if p(x) has roots. But if q(x) = xn + an − 1xn − 1+ ⋯ + a0, then q(x) is the characteristic polynomial of the n×n companion matrix	wikipedia
wiki_8_chunk_10	Algebraically closed field	Decomposition of rational expressions The field F is algebraically closed if and only if every rational function in one variable x, with coefficients in F, can be written as the sum of a polynomial function with rational functions of the form a/(x − b)n, where n is a natural number, and a and b are elements of F. If F is algebraically closed then, since the irreducible polynomials in F[x] are all of degree 1, the property stated above holds by the theorem on partial fraction decomposition.	wikipedia
wiki_8_chunk_11	Algebraically closed field	On the other hand, suppose that the property stated above holds for the field F. Let p(x) be an irreducible element in F[x]. Then the rational function 1/p can be written as the sum of a polynomial function q with rational functions of the form a/(x – b)n. Therefore, the rational expression can be written as a quotient of two polynomials in which the denominator is a product of first degree polynomials. Since p(x) is irreducible, it must divide this product and, therefore, it must also be a first degree polynomial.	wikipedia
wiki_8_chunk_12	Algebraically closed field	Relatively prime polynomials and roots For any field F, if two polynomials p(x),q(x) ∈ F[x] are relatively prime then they do not have a common root, for if a ∈ F was a common root, then p(x) and q(x) would both be multiples of x − a and therefore they would not be relatively prime. The fields for which the reverse implication holds (that is, the fields such that whenever two polynomials have no common root then they are relatively prime) are precisely the algebraically closed fields.	wikipedia
wiki_8_chunk_13	Algebraically closed field	If the field F is algebraically closed, let p(x) and q(x) be two polynomials which are not relatively prime and let r(x) be their greatest common divisor. Then, since r(x) is not constant, it will have some root a, which will be then a common root of p(x) and q(x).	wikipedia
wiki_8_chunk_14	Algebraically closed field	If F is not algebraically closed, let p(x) be a polynomial whose degree is at least 1 without roots. Then p(x) and p(x) are not relatively prime, but they have no common roots (since none of them has roots).	wikipedia
wiki_8_chunk_15	Algebraically closed field	Other properties If F is an algebraically closed field and n is a natural number, then F contains all nth roots of unity, because these are (by definition) the n (not necessarily distinct) zeroes of the polynomial xn − 1. A field extension that is contained in an extension generated by the roots of unity is a cyclotomic extension, and the extension of a field generated by all roots of unity is sometimes called its cyclotomic closure. Thus algebraically closed fields are cyclotomically closed. The converse is not true. Even assuming that every polynomial of the form xn − a splits into linear factors is not enough to assure that the field is algebraically closed.	wikipedia
wiki_8_chunk_16	Algebraically closed field	If a proposition which can be expressed in the language of first-order logic is true for an algebraically closed field, then it is true for every algebraically closed field with the same characteristic. Furthermore, if such a proposition is valid for an algebraically closed field with characteristic 0, then not only is it valid for all other algebraically closed fields with characteristic 0, but there is some natural number N such that the proposition is valid for every algebraically closed field with characteristic p when p > N.	wikipedia
wiki_8_chunk_17	Algebraically closed field	Every field F has some extension which is algebraically closed. Such an extension is called an algebraically closed extension. Among all such extensions there is one and only one (up to isomorphism, but not unique isomorphism) which is an algebraic extension of F; it is called the algebraic closure of F. The theory of algebraically closed fields has quantifier elimination. Notes References Field (mathematics)	wikipedia
wiki_9_chunk_0	Algorithms for calculating variance	Algorithms for calculating variance play a major role in computational statistics. A key difficulty in the design of good algorithms for this problem is that formulas for the variance may involve sums of squares, which can lead to numerical instability as well as to arithmetic overflow when dealing with large values. Naïve algorithm A formula for calculating the variance of an entire population of size N is: Using Bessel's correction to calculate an unbiased estimate of the population variance from a finite sample of n observations, the formula is: Therefore, a naïve algorithm to calculate the estimated variance is given by the following: Let For each datum :	wikipedia
wiki_9_chunk_1	Algorithms for calculating variance	This algorithm can easily be adapted to compute the variance of a finite population: simply divide by N instead of n − 1 on the last line. Because and can be very similar numbers, cancellation can lead to the precision of the result to be much less than the inherent precision of the floating-point arithmetic used to perform the computation. Thus this algorithm should not be used in practice, and several alternate, numerically stable, algorithms have been proposed. This is particularly bad if the standard deviation is small relative to the mean. Computing shifted data	wikipedia
wiki_9_chunk_2	Algorithms for calculating variance	The variance is invariant with respect to changes in a location parameter, a property which can be used to avoid the catastrophic cancellation in this formula. with any constant, which leads to the new formula the closer is to the mean value the more accurate the result will be, but just choosing a value inside the samples range will guarantee the desired stability. If the values are small then there are no problems with the sum of its squares, on the contrary, if they are large it necessarily means that the variance is large as well. In any case the second term in the formula is always smaller than the first one therefore no cancellation may occur.	wikipedia
wiki_9_chunk_3	Algorithms for calculating variance	If just the first sample is taken as the algorithm can be written in Python programming language as	wikipedia
wiki_9_chunk_4	Algorithms for calculating variance	def shifted_data_variance(data): if len(data) < 2: return 0.0 K = data[0] n = Ex = Ex2 = 0.0 for x in data: n = n + 1 Ex += x - K Ex2 += (x - K) * (x - K) variance = (Ex2 - (Ex * Ex) / n) / (n - 1) # use n instead of (n-1) if want to compute the exact variance of the given data # use (n-1) if data are samples of a larger population return variance	wikipedia
wiki_9_chunk_5	Algorithms for calculating variance	This formula also facilitates the incremental computation that can be expressed as K = n = Ex = Ex2 = 0.0 def add_variable(x): global K, n, Ex, Ex2 if n == 0: K = x n += 1 Ex += x - K Ex2 += (x - K) * (x - K) def remove_variable(x): global K, n, Ex, Ex2 n -= 1 Ex -= x - K Ex2 -= (x - K) * (x - K)	wikipedia
wiki_9_chunk_6	Algorithms for calculating variance	def get_mean(): global K, n, Ex return K + Ex / n def get_variance(): global n, Ex, Ex2 return (Ex2 - (Ex * Ex) / n) / (n - 1) Two-pass algorithm An alternative approach, using a different formula for the variance, first computes the sample mean, and then computes the sum of the squares of the differences from the mean, where s is the standard deviation. This is given by the following code: def two_pass_variance(data): n = sum1 = sum2 = 0	wikipedia
wiki_9_chunk_7	Algorithms for calculating variance	for x in data: n += 1 sum1 += x mean = sum1 / n for x in data: sum2 += (x - mean) * (x - mean) variance = sum2 / (n - 1) return variance	wikipedia
wiki_9_chunk_8	Algorithms for calculating variance	This algorithm is numerically stable if n is small. However, the results of both of these simple algorithms ("naïve" and "two-pass") can depend inordinately on the ordering of the data and can give poor results for very large data sets due to repeated roundoff error in the accumulation of the sums. Techniques such as compensated summation can be used to combat this error to a degree.	wikipedia
wiki_9_chunk_9	Algorithms for calculating variance	Welford's online algorithm It is often useful to be able to compute the variance in a single pass, inspecting each value only once; for example, when the data is being collected without enough storage to keep all the values, or when costs of memory access dominate those of computation. For such an online algorithm, a recurrence relation is required between quantities from which the required statistics can be calculated in a numerically stable fashion.	wikipedia
wiki_9_chunk_10	Algorithms for calculating variance	The following formulas can be used to update the mean and (estimated) variance of the sequence, for an additional element xn. Here, denotes the sample mean of the first n samples , their biased sample variance, and their unbiased sample variance. These formulas suffer from numerical instability, as they repeatedly subtract a small number from a big number which scales with n. A better quantity for updating is the sum of squares of differences from the current mean, , here denoted : This algorithm was found by Welford, and it has been thoroughly analyzed. It is also common to denote and .	wikipedia
wiki_9_chunk_11	Algorithms for calculating variance	An example Python implementation for Welford's algorithm is given below.	wikipedia
wiki_9_chunk_12	Algorithms for calculating variance	# For a new value newValue, compute the new count, new mean, the new M2. # mean accumulates the mean of the entire dataset # M2 aggregates the squared distance from the mean # count aggregates the number of samples seen so far def update(existingAggregate, newValue): (count, mean, M2) = existingAggregate count += 1 delta = newValue - mean mean += delta / count delta2 = newValue - mean M2 += delta * delta2 return (count, mean, M2)	wikipedia
wiki_9_chunk_13	Algorithms for calculating variance	# Retrieve the mean, variance and sample variance from an aggregate def finalize(existingAggregate): (count, mean, M2) = existingAggregate if count < 2: return float("nan") else: (mean, variance, sampleVariance) = (mean, M2 / count, M2 / (count - 1)) return (mean, variance, sampleVariance)	wikipedia
wiki_9_chunk_14	Algorithms for calculating variance	This algorithm is much less prone to loss of precision due to catastrophic cancellation, but might not be as efficient because of the division operation inside the loop. For a particularly robust two-pass algorithm for computing the variance, one can first compute and subtract an estimate of the mean, and then use this algorithm on the residuals. The parallel algorithm below illustrates how to merge multiple sets of statistics calculated online. Weighted incremental algorithm The algorithm can be extended to handle unequal sample weights, replacing the simple counter n with the sum of weights seen so far. West (1979) suggests this incremental algorithm:	wikipedia
wiki_9_chunk_15	Algorithms for calculating variance	def weighted_incremental_variance(data_weight_pairs): w_sum = w_sum2 = mean = S = 0 for x, w in data_weight_pairs: w_sum = w_sum + w w_sum2 = w_sum2 + w * w mean_old = mean mean = mean_old + (w / w_sum) * (x - mean_old) S = S + w * (x - mean_old) * (x - mean)	wikipedia

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Civil War commemoration The American Civil War has been commemorated in many capacities ranging from the reenactment of battles to statues and memorial halls erected, to films being produced, to stamps and coins with Civil War themes being issued, all of which helped to shape public memory. This varied advent occurred in greater proportions on the 100th and 150th anniversary.

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Hollywood's take on the war has been especially influential in shaping public memory, as seen in such film classics as The Birth of a Nation (1915), Gone with the Wind (1939), and Lincoln (2012). Ken Burns's PBS television series The Civil War (1990) is especially well-remembered, though criticized for its historical accuracy.

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Technological significance Numerous technological innovations during the Civil War had a great impact on 19th-century science. The Civil War was one of the earliest examples of an "industrial war", in which technological might is used to achieve military supremacy in a war. New inventions, such as the train and telegraph, delivered soldiers, supplies and messages at a time when horses were considered to be the fastest way to travel. It was also in this war that aerial warfare, in the form of reconnaissance balloons, was first used. It saw the first action involving steam-powered ironclad warships in naval warfare history. Repeating firearms such as the Henry rifle, Spencer rifle, Colt revolving rifle, Triplett & Scott carbine and others, first appeared during the Civil War; they were a revolutionary invention that would soon replace muzzle-loading and single-shot firearms in warfare. The war also saw the first appearances of rapid-firing weapons and machine guns such as the Agar gun and the Gatling gun.

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In works of culture and art The Civil War is one of the most studied events in American history, and the collection of cultural works around it is enormous. This section gives an abbreviated overview of the most notable works.

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Literature When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd and O Captain! My Captain! (1865) by Walt Whitman, famous eulogies to Lincoln Battle-Pieces and Aspects of the War (1866) poetry by Herman Melville The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government (1881) by Jefferson Davis The Private History of a Campaign That Failed (1885) by Mark Twain Texar's Revenge, or, North Against South (1887) by Jules Verne An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge (1890) by Ambrose Bierce The Red Badge of Courage (1895) by Stephen Crane Gone with the Wind (1936) by Margaret Mitchell North and South (1982) by John Jakes

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Film

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The Birth of a Nation (1915, US) The General (1926, US) Operator 13 (1934, US) Gone with the Wind (1939, US) The Red Badge of Courage (1951, US) The Horse Soldiers (1959, US) Shenandoah (1965, US) The Good, the Bad and the Ugly (1966, Italy-Spain-FRG) The Beguiled (1971, US) The Outlaw Josey Wales (1976, US) Glory (1989, US) The Civil War (1990, US) Gettysburg (1993, US) The Last Outlaw (1993, US) Cold Mountain (2003, US) Gods and Generals (2003, US) North and South (miniseries) Lincoln (2012, US) 12 Years a Slave (2013, US) Free State of Jones (2016, US)

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Music Dixie Battle Cry of Freedom Battle Hymn of the Republic The Bonnie Blue Flag John Brown's Body When Johnny Comes Marching Home Marching Through Georgia The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down Video games

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North & South (1989, FR) Sid Meier's Gettysburg! (1997, US) Sid Meier's Antietam! (1999, US) American Conqest: Divided Nation (2006, US) Forge of Freedom: The American Civil War (2006, US) The History Channel: Civil War – A Nation Divided (2006, US) Ageod's American Civil War (2007, US/FR) History Civil War: Secret Missions (2008, US) Call of Juarez: Bound in Blood (2009, US) Darkest of Days (2009, US) Victoria II: A House Divided (2011, US) Ageod's American Civil War II (2013, US/FR) Ultimate General: Gettysburg (2014, UKR) Ultimate General: Civil War (2016, UKR)

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See also General reference American Civil War Corps Badges List of American Civil War battles List of costliest American Civil War land battles List of weapons in the American Civil War Second American Civil War Union Presidency of Abraham Lincoln Uniform of the Union Army Confederacy Central Confederacy Uniforms of the Confederate States Armed Forces Ethnic articles African Americans in the American Civil War German Americans in the American Civil War Irish Americans in the American Civil War Italian Americans in the American Civil War Native Americans in the American Civil War

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Topical articles Commemoration of the American Civil War Commemoration of the American Civil War on postage stamps Dorothea Dix Education of freed people during the Civil War Spies in the American Civil War Infantry in the American Civil War List of ships captured in the 19th century#American Civil War Slavery during the American Civil War National articles Canada in the American Civil War Foreign enlistment in the American Civil War Prussia in the American Civil War United Kingdom in the American Civil War State articles :Category:American Civil War by state

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Memorials List of Confederate monuments and memorials List of memorials and monuments at Arlington National Cemetery List of memorials to Jefferson Davis List of memorials to Robert E. Lee List of memorials to Stonewall Jackson List of monuments erected by the United Daughters of the Confederacy List of monuments of the Gettysburg Battlefield List of Union Civil War monuments and memorials Memorials to Abraham Lincoln Removal of Confederate monuments and memorials Other modern civil wars in the world Boxer Rebellion Chinese Civil War Finnish Civil War Mexican Revolution Russian Civil War Spanish Civil War Taiping Rebellion References Notes Citations Bibliography

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Beringer, Richard E., Archer Jones, and Herman Hattaway, Why the South Lost the Civil War (1986), influential analysis of factors; an abridged version is The Elements of Confederate Defeat: Nationalism, War Aims, and Religion (1988) Gallagher, Gary W. (2011). The Union War. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. . Gara, Larry. 1964. The Fugitive Slave Law: A Double Paradox in Essays on the Civil War and Reconstruction, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970 (originally published in Civil War History, X, No. 3, September 1964) Nevins, Allan. Ordeal of the Union, an 8-volume set (1947–1971). the most detailed political, economic and military narrative; by Pulitzer Prize-winner 1. Fruits of Manifest Destiny, 1847–1852 online; 2. A House Dividing, 1852–1857; 3. Douglas, Buchanan, and Party Chaos, 1857–1859; 4. Prologue to Civil War, 1859–1861; vols 5–8 have the series title War for the Union; 5. The Improvised War, 1861–1862; 6. online; War Becomes Revolution, 1862–1863; 7. The Organized War, 1863–1864; 8. The Organized War to Victory, 1864–1865 Sheehan-Dean, Aaron. A Companion to the U.S. Civil War 2 vol. (April 2014) Wiley-Blackwell, New York . 1232pp; 64 Topical chapters by scholars and experts; emphasis on historiography. Stoker, Donald. The Grand Design: Strategy and the U.S. Civil War (2010) excerpt Borrow book at: archive.org

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Further reading Bibliography of the American Civil War Bibliography of American Civil War naval history

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External links West Point Atlas of Civil War Battles Civil War photos at the National Archives View images from the Civil War Photographs Collection at the Library of Congress American Battlefield Trust – A non-profit land preservation and educational organization with two divisions, the Civil War Trust and the Revolutionary War Trust, dedicated to preserving America's battlefields through land acquisitions. Civil War Era Digital Collection at Gettysburg College – This collection contains digital images of political cartoons, personal papers, pamphlets, maps, paintings and photographs from the Civil War Era held in Special Collections at Gettysburg College. Civil War 150 – Washington Post interactive website on the 150th Anniversary of the American Civil War. Civil War in the American South – An Association of Southeastern Research Libraries (ASERL) portal with links to almost 9,000 digitized Civil War-era items—books, pamphlets, broadsides, letters, maps, personal papers, and manuscripts—held at ASERL member libraries The Civil War – site with 7,000 pages, including the complete run of Harper's Weekly newspapers from the Civil War "American Civil World" maps at the Persuasive Cartography, The PJ Mode Collection, Cornell University Library Civil War Manuscripts at Shapell Manuscript Foundation Statements of each state as to why they were seceding

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Rebellions against the United States Conflicts in 1861 Conflicts in 1862 Conflicts in 1863 Conflicts in 1864 Conflicts in 1865 19th-century conflicts Civil War 1860s in the United States Wars of independence Internal wars of the United States 1860s conflicts

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Advanced Chemistry

Advanced Chemistry is a German hip hop group from Heidelberg, a scenic city in Baden-Württemberg, South Germany. Advanced Chemistry was founded in 1987 by Toni L, Linguist, Gee-One, DJ Mike MD (Mike Dippon) and MC Torch. Each member of the group holds German citizenship, and Toni L, Linguist, and Torch are of Italian, Ghanaian, and Haitian backgrounds, respectively.

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Influenced by North American socially conscious rap and the Native tongues movement, Advanced Chemistry is regarded as one of the main pioneers in German hip hop. They were one of the first groups to rap in German (although their name is in English). Furthermore, their songs tackled controversial social and political issues, distinguishing them from early German hip hop group "Die Fantastischen Vier" (The Fantastic Four), which had a more light-hearted, playful, party image.

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Career Advanced Chemistry frequently rapped about their lives and experiences as children of immigrants, exposing the marginalization experienced by most ethnic minorities in Germany, and the feelings of frustration and resentment that being denied a German identity can cause. The song "Fremd im eigenen Land" (Foreign in your own nation) was released by Advanced Chemistry in November 1992. The single became a staple in the German hip hop scene. It made a strong statement about the status of immigrants throughout Germany, as the group was composed of multi-national and multi-racial members. The video shows several members brandishing their German passports as a demonstration of their German citizenship to skeptical and unaccepting 'ethnic' Germans.

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This idea of national identity is important, as many rap artists in Germany have been of foreign origin. These so-called Gastarbeiter (guest workers) children saw breakdance, graffiti, rap music, and hip hop culture as a means of expressing themselves. Since the release of "Fremd im eigenen Land", many other German-language rappers have also tried to confront anti-immigrant ideas and develop themes of citizenship. However, though many ethnic minority youth in Germany find these German identity themes appealing, others view the desire of immigrants to be seen as German negatively, and they have actively sought to revive and recreate concepts of identity in connection to traditional ethnic origins.

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Advanced Chemistry helped to found the German chapter of the Zulu nation.

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The rivalry between Advanced Chemistry and Die Fantastischen Vier has served to highlight a dichotomy in the routes that hip hop has taken in becoming a part of the German soundscape. While Die Fantastischen Vier may be said to view hip hop primarily as an aesthetic art form, Advanced Chemistry understand hip hop as being inextricably linked to the social and political circumstances under which it is created. For Advanced Chemistry, hip hop is a “vehicle of general human emancipation,”. In their undertaking of social and political issues, the band introduced the term "Afro-German" into the context of German hip hop, and the theme of race is highlighted in much of their music.

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With the release of the single “Fremd im eigenen Land”, Advanced Chemistry separated itself from the rest of the rap being produced in Germany. This single was the first of its kind to go beyond simply imitating US rap and addressed the current issues of the time. Fremd im eigenen Land which translates to “foreign in my own country” dealt with the widespread racism that non-white German citizens faced. This change from simple imitation to political commentary was the start of German identification with rap. The sound of “Fremd im eigenen Land” was influenced by the 'wall of noise' created by Public Enemy's producers, The Bomb Squad.

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Advanced Chemistry

After the reunification of Germany, an abundance of anti-immigrant sentiment emerged, as well as attacks on the homes of refugees in the early 1990s. Advanced Chemistry came to prominence in the wake of these actions because of their pro-multicultural society stance in their music. Advanced Chemistry's attitudes revolve around their attempts to create a distinct "Germanness" in hip hop, as opposed to imitating American hip hop as other groups had done. Torch has said, "What the Americans do is exotic for us because we don't live like they do. What they do seems to be more interesting and newer. But not for me. For me it's more exciting to experience my fellow Germans in new contexts...For me, it's interesting to see what the kids try to do that's different from what I know." Advanced Chemistry were the first to use the term "Afro-German" in a hip hop context. This was part of the pro-immigrant political message they sent via their music.

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Advanced Chemistry

While Advanced Chemistry's use of the German language in their rap allows them to make claims to authenticity and true German heritage, bolstering pro-immigration sentiment, their style can also be problematic for immigrant notions of any real ethnic roots. Indeed, part of the Turkish ethnic minority of Frankfurt views Advanced Chemistry's appeal to the German image as a "symbolic betrayal of the right of ethnic minorities to 'roots' or to any expression of cultural heritage." In this sense, their rap represents a complex social discourse internal to the German soundscape in which they attempt to negotiate immigrant assimilation into a xenophobic German culture with the maintenance of their own separate cultural traditions. It is quite possibly the feelings of alienation from the pure-blooded German demographic that drive Advanced Chemistry to attack nationalistic ideologies by asserting their "Germanness" as a group composed primarily of ethnic others. The response to this pseudo-German authenticity can be seen in what Andy Bennett refers to as "alternative forms of local hip hop culture which actively seek to rediscover and, in many cases, reconstruct notions of identity tied to cultural roots." These alternative local hip hop cultures include oriental hip hop, the members of which cling to their Turkish heritage and are confused by Advanced Chemistry's elicitation of a German identity politics to which they technically do not belong. This cultural binary illustrates that rap has taken different routes in Germany and that, even among an already isolated immigrant population, there is still disunity and, especially, disagreement on the relative importance of assimilation versus cultural defiance. According to German hip hop enthusiast 9@home, Advanced Chemistry is part of a "hip-hop movement [which] took a clear stance for the minorities and against the [marginalization] of immigrants who...might be German on paper, but not in real life," which speaks to the group's hope of actually being recognized as German citizens and not foreigners, despite their various other ethnic and cultural ties.

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Advanced Chemistry

Influences Advanced Chemistry's work was rooted in German history and the country's specific political realities. However, they also drew inspiration from African-American hip-hop acts like A Tribe Called Quest and Public Enemy, who had helped bring a soulful sound and political consciousness to American hip-hop. One member, Torch, later explicitly listed his references on his solo song "Als (When I Was in School):" "My favorite subject, which was quickly discovered poetry in load Poets, awakens the intellect or policy at Chuck D I'll never forget the lyrics by Public Enemy." Torch goes on to list other American rappers like Biz Markie, Big Daddy Kane and Dr. Dre as influences.

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Advanced Chemistry

Discography 1992 - "Fremd im eigenen Land" (12"/MCD, MZEE) 1993 - "Welcher Pfad führt zur Geschichte" (12"/MCD, MZEE) 1994 - "Operation § 3" (12"/MCD) 1994 - "Dir fehlt der Funk!" (12"/MCD) 1995 - Advanced Chemistry (2xLP/CD) External links Official Website of MC Torch Website of Toni L Official Website of Linguist Official Website DJ Mike MD (Mike Dippon) Website of 360° Records

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Advanced Chemistry

Bibliography El-Tayeb, Fatima “‘If You Cannot Pronounce My Name, You Can Just Call Me Pride.’ Afro-German Activism, Gender, and Hip Hop,” Gender & History15/3(2003):459-485. Felbert, Oliver von. “Die Unbestechlichen.” Spex (March 1993): 50–53. Weheliye, Alexander G. Phonographies:Grooves in Sonic Afro-Modernity, Duke University Press, 2005. References German hip hop groups

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Alcohol (chemistry)

In chemistry, an alcohol is a type of organic compound that carries at least one hydroxyl functional group (−OH) bound to a saturated carbon atom. The term alcohol originally referred to the primary alcohol ethanol (ethyl alcohol), which is used as a drug and is the main alcohol present in alcoholic drinks. An important class of alcohols, of which methanol and ethanol are the simplest members, includes all compounds for which the general formula is . Simple monoalcohols that are the subject of this article include primary (), secondary () and tertiary () alcohols.

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Alcohol (chemistry)

The suffix -ol appears in the IUPAC chemical name of all substances where the hydroxyl group is the functional group with the highest priority. When a higher priority group is present in the compound, the prefix hydroxy- is used in its IUPAC name. The suffix -ol in non-IUPAC names (such as paracetamol or cholesterol) also typically indicates that the substance is an alcohol. However, many substances that contain hydroxyl functional groups (particularly sugars, such as glucose and sucrose) have names which include neither the suffix -ol, nor the prefix hydroxy-.

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Alcohol (chemistry)

History The inflammable nature of the exhalations of wine was already known to ancient natural philosophers such as Aristotle (384–322 BCE), Theophrastus (c. 371–287 BCE), and Pliny the Elder (23/24–79 CE). However, this did not immediately lead to the isolation of alcohol, even despite the development of more advanced distillation techniques in second- and third-century Roman Egypt. An important recognition, first found in one of the writings attributed to Jābir ibn Ḥayyān (ninth century CE), was that by adding salt to boiling wine, which increases the wine's relative volatility, the flammability of the resulting vapors may be enhanced. The distillation of wine is attested in Arabic works attributed to al-Kindī (c. 801–873 CE) and to al-Fārābī (c. 872–950), and in the 28th book of al-Zahrāwī's (Latin: Abulcasis, 936–1013) Kitāb al-Taṣrīf (later translated into Latin as Liber servatoris). In the twelfth century, recipes for the production of aqua ardens ("burning water", i.e., alcohol) by distilling wine with salt started to appear in a number of Latin works, and by the end of the thirteenth century it had become a widely known substance among Western European chemists.

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Alcohol (chemistry)

The works of Taddeo Alderotti (1223–1296) describe a method for concentrating alcohol involving repeated fractional distillation through a water-cooled still, by which an alcohol purity of 90% could be obtained. The medicinal properties of ethanol were studied by Arnald of Villanova (1240–1311 CE) and John of Rupescissa (c. 1310–1366), the latter of whom regarded it as a life-preserving substance able to prevent all diseases (the aqua vitae or "water of life", also called by John the quintessence of wine).

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Alcohol (chemistry)

Nomenclature

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Alcohol (chemistry)

Etymology The word "alcohol" is from the Arabic kohl (), a powder used as an eyeliner. Al- is the Arabic definite article, equivalent to the in English. Alcohol was originally used for the very fine powder produced by the sublimation of the natural mineral stibnite to form antimony trisulfide . It was considered to be the essence or "spirit" of this mineral. It was used as an antiseptic, eyeliner, and cosmetic. The meaning of alcohol was extended to distilled substances in general, and then narrowed to ethanol, when "spirits" was a synonym for hard liquor.

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Alcohol (chemistry)

Bartholomew Traheron, in his 1543 translation of John of Vigo, introduces the word as a term used by "barbarous" authors for "fine powder." Vigo wrote: "the barbarous auctours use alcohol, or (as I fynde it sometymes wryten) alcofoll, for moost fine poudre."

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Alcohol (chemistry)

The 1657 Lexicon Chymicum, by William Johnson glosses the word as "antimonium sive stibium." By extension, the word came to refer to any fluid obtained by distillation, including "alcohol of wine," the distilled essence of wine. Libavius in Alchymia (1594) refers to "vini alcohol vel vinum alcalisatum". Johnson (1657) glosses alcohol vini as "quando omnis superfluitas vini a vino separatur, ita ut accensum ardeat donec totum consumatur, nihilque fæcum aut phlegmatis in fundo remaneat." The word's meaning became restricted to "spirit of wine" (the chemical known today as ethanol) in the 18th century and was extended to the class of substances so-called as "alcohols" in modern chemistry after 1850.

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Alcohol (chemistry)

The term ethanol was invented in 1892, blending "ethane" with the "-ol" ending of "alcohol", which was generalized as a libfix.

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Systematic names IUPAC nomenclature is used in scientific publications and where precise identification of the substance is important, especially in cases where the relative complexity of the molecule does not make such a systematic name unwieldy. In naming simple alcohols, the name of the alkane chain loses the terminal e and adds the suffix -ol, e.g., as in "ethanol" from the alkane chain name "ethane". When necessary, the position of the hydroxyl group is indicated by a number between the alkane name and the -ol: propan-1-ol for , propan-2-ol for . If a higher priority group is present (such as an aldehyde, ketone, or carboxylic acid), then the prefix hydroxy-is used, e.g., as in 1-hydroxy-2-propanone ().

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Alcohol (chemistry)

In cases where the hydroxy group is bonded to an sp2 carbon on an aromatic ring, the molecule is classified separately as a phenol and is named using the IUPAC rules for naming phenols. Phenols have distinct properties and are not classified as alcohols.

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Common names In other less formal contexts, an alcohol is often called with the name of the corresponding alkyl group followed by the word "alcohol", e.g., methyl alcohol, ethyl alcohol. Propyl alcohol may be n-propyl alcohol or isopropyl alcohol, depending on whether the hydroxyl group is bonded to the end or middle carbon on the straight propane chain. As described under systematic naming, if another group on the molecule takes priority, the alcohol moiety is often indicated using the "hydroxy-" prefix.

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Alcohol (chemistry)

Alcohols are then classified into primary, secondary (sec-, s-), and tertiary (tert-, t-), based upon the number of carbon atoms connected to the carbon atom that bears the hydroxyl functional group. (The respective numeric shorthands 1°, 2°, and 3° are also sometimes used in informal settings.) The primary alcohols have general formulas . The simplest primary alcohol is methanol (), for which R=H, and the next is ethanol, for which , the methyl group. Secondary alcohols are those of the form RR'CHOH, the simplest of which is 2-propanol (). For the tertiary alcohols the general form is RR'R"COH. The simplest example is tert-butanol (2-methylpropan-2-ol), for which each of R, R', and R" is . In these shorthands, R, R', and R" represent substituents, alkyl or other attached, generally organic groups.

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Alcohol (chemistry)

In archaic nomenclature, alcohols can be named as derivatives of methanol using "-carbinol" as the ending. For instance, can be named trimethylcarbinol. Applications

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Alcohols have a long history of myriad uses. For simple mono-alcohols, which is the focus on this article, the following are most important industrial alcohols: methanol, mainly for the production of formaldehyde and as a fuel additive ethanol, mainly for alcoholic beverages, fuel additive, solvent 1-propanol, 1-butanol, and isobutyl alcohol for use as a solvent and precursor to solvents C6–C11 alcohols used for plasticizers, e.g. in polyvinylchloride fatty alcohol (C12–C18), precursors to detergents Methanol is the most common industrial alcohol, with about 12 million tons/y produced in 1980. The combined capacity of the other alcohols is about the same, distributed roughly equally.

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Alcohol (chemistry)

Toxicity With respect to acute toxicity, simple alcohols have low acute toxicities. Doses of several milliliters are tolerated. For pentanols, hexanols, octanols and longer alcohols, LD50 range from 2–5 g/kg (rats, oral). Methanol and ethanol are less acutely toxic. All alcohols are mild skin irritants.

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Alcohol (chemistry)

The metabolism of methanol (and ethylene glycol) is affected by the presence of ethanol, which has a higher affinity for liver alcohol dehydrogenase. In this way methanol will be excreted intact in urine.

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Physical properties In general, the hydroxyl group makes alcohols polar. Those groups can form hydrogen bonds to one another and to most other compounds. Owing to the presence of the polar OH alcohols are more water-soluble than simple hydrocarbons. Methanol, ethanol, and propanol are miscible in water. Butanol, with a four-carbon chain, is moderately soluble.

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Alcohol (chemistry)

Because of hydrogen bonding, alcohols tend to have higher boiling points than comparable hydrocarbons and ethers. The boiling point of the alcohol ethanol is 78.29 °C, compared to 69 °C for the hydrocarbon hexane, and 34.6 °C for diethyl ether.

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Alcohol (chemistry)

Occurrence in nature Simple alcohols are found widely in nature. Ethanol is the most prominent because it is the product of fermentation, a major energy-producing pathway. Other simple alcohols, chiefly fusel alcohols, are formed in only trace amounts. More complex alcohols however are pervasive, as manifested in sugars, some amino acids, and fatty acids. Production Ziegler and oxo processes In the Ziegler process, linear alcohols are produced from ethylene and triethylaluminium followed by oxidation and hydrolysis. An idealized synthesis of 1-octanol is shown:

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Alcohol (chemistry)

The process generates a range of alcohols that are separated by distillation. Many higher alcohols are produced by hydroformylation of alkenes followed by hydrogenation. When applied to a terminal alkene, as is common, one typically obtains a linear alcohol: Such processes give fatty alcohols, which are useful for detergents.

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Alcohol (chemistry)

Hydration reactions Some low molecular weight alcohols of industrial importance are produced by the addition of water to alkenes. Ethanol, isopropanol, 2-butanol, and tert-butanol are produced by this general method. Two implementations are employed, the direct and indirect methods. The direct method avoids the formation of stable intermediates, typically using acid catalysts. In the indirect method, the alkene is converted to the sulfate ester, which is subsequently hydrolyzed. The direct hydration using ethylene (ethylene hydration) or other alkenes from cracking of fractions of distilled crude oil.

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Alcohol (chemistry)

Hydration is also used industrially to produce the diol ethylene glycol from ethylene oxide. Biological routes Ethanol is obtained by fermentation using glucose produced from sugar from the hydrolysis of starch, in the presence of yeast and temperature of less than 37 °C to produce ethanol. For instance, such a process might proceed by the conversion of sucrose by the enzyme invertase into glucose and fructose, then the conversion of glucose by the enzyme complex zymase into ethanol and carbon dioxide.

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Alcohol (chemistry)

Several species of the benign bacteria in the intestine use fermentation as a form of anaerobic metabolism. This metabolic reaction produces ethanol as a waste product. Thus, human bodies contain some quantity of alcohol endogenously produced by these bacteria. In rare cases, this can be sufficient to cause "auto-brewery syndrome" in which intoxicating quantities of alcohol are produced.

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Alcohol (chemistry)

Like ethanol, butanol can be produced by fermentation processes. Saccharomyces yeast are known to produce these higher alcohols at temperatures above . The bacterium Clostridium acetobutylicum can feed on cellulose to produce butanol on an industrial scale.

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Alcohol (chemistry)

Substitution Primary alkyl halides react with aqueous NaOH or KOH mainly to primary alcohols in nucleophilic aliphatic substitution. (Secondary and especially tertiary alkyl halides will give the elimination (alkene) product instead). Grignard reagents react with carbonyl groups to secondary and tertiary alcohols. Related reactions are the Barbier reaction and the Nozaki-Hiyama reaction.

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Alcohol (chemistry)

Reduction Aldehydes or ketones are reduced with sodium borohydride or lithium aluminium hydride (after an acidic workup). Another reduction by aluminiumisopropylates is the Meerwein-Ponndorf-Verley reduction. Noyori asymmetric hydrogenation is the asymmetric reduction of β-keto-esters.

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Alcohol (chemistry)

Hydrolysis Alkenes engage in an acid catalysed hydration reaction using concentrated sulfuric acid as a catalyst that gives usually secondary or tertiary alcohols. The hydroboration-oxidation and oxymercuration-reduction of alkenes are more reliable in organic synthesis. Alkenes react with NBS and water in halohydrin formation reaction. Amines can be converted to diazonium salts, which are then hydrolyzed. The formation of a secondary alcohol via reduction and hydration is shown: Reactions

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Deprotonation With aqueous pKa values of around 16–19, they are, in general, slightly weaker acids than water. With strong bases such as sodium hydride or sodium they form salts called alkoxides, with the general formula RO− M+.

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Alcohol (chemistry)

The acidity of alcohols is strongly affected by solvation. In the gas phase, alcohols are more acidic than in water. In DMSO, alcohols (and water) have a pKa of around 29–32. As a consequence, alkoxides (and hydroxide) are powerful bases and nucleophiles (e.g., for the Williamson ether synthesis) in this solvent. In particular, RO– or HO– in DMSO can be used to generate significant equilibrium concentrations of acetylide ions through the deprotonation of alkynes (see Favorskii reaction).

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Alcohol (chemistry)

Nucleophilic substitution The OH group is not a good leaving group in nucleophilic substitution reactions, so neutral alcohols do not react in such reactions. However, if the oxygen is first protonated to give , the leaving group (water) is much more stable, and the nucleophilic substitution can take place. For instance, tertiary alcohols react with hydrochloric acid to produce tertiary alkyl halides, where the hydroxyl group is replaced by a chlorine atom by unimolecular nucleophilic substitution. If primary or secondary alcohols are to be reacted with hydrochloric acid, an activator such as zinc chloride is needed. In alternative fashion, the conversion may be performed directly using thionyl chloride.[1]

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Alcohol (chemistry)

Alcohols may, likewise, be converted to alkyl bromides using hydrobromic acid or phosphorus tribromide, for example: In the Barton-McCombie deoxygenation an alcohol is deoxygenated to an alkane with tributyltin hydride or a trimethylborane-water complex in a radical substitution reaction. Dehydration Meanwhile, the oxygen atom has lone pairs of nonbonded electrons that render it weakly basic in the presence of strong acids such as sulfuric acid. For example, with methanol:

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Alcohol (chemistry)

Upon treatment with strong acids, alcohols undergo the E1 elimination reaction to produce alkenes. The reaction, in general, obeys Zaitsev's Rule, which states that the most stable (usually the most substituted) alkene is formed. Tertiary alcohols eliminate easily at just above room temperature, but primary alcohols require a higher temperature. This is a diagram of acid catalysed dehydration of ethanol to produce ethylene: A more controlled elimination reaction requires the formation of the xanthate ester.

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Alcohol (chemistry)

Protonolysis Tertiary alcohols react with strong acids to generate carbocations. The reaction is related to their dehydration, e.g. isobutylene from tert-butyl alcohol. A special kind of dehydration reaction involves triphenylmethanol and especially its amine-substituted derivatives. When treated with acid, these alcohols lose water to give stable carbocations, which are commercial dyes.

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Alcohol (chemistry)

Esterification Alcohol and carboxylic acids react in the so-called Fischer esterification. The reaction usually requires a catalyst, such as concentrated sulfuric acid: Other types of ester are prepared in a similar manner for example, tosyl (tosylate) esters are made by reaction of the alcohol with p-toluenesulfonyl chloride in pyridine. Oxidation

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Alcohol (chemistry)

Primary alcohols () can be oxidized either to aldehydes (R-CHO) or to carboxylic acids (). The oxidation of secondary alcohols (R1R2CH-OH) normally terminates at the ketone (R1R2C=O) stage. Tertiary alcohols (R1R2R3C-OH) are resistant to oxidation.

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Alcohol (chemistry)

The direct oxidation of primary alcohols to carboxylic acids normally proceeds via the corresponding aldehyde, which is transformed via an aldehyde hydrate () by reaction with water before it can be further oxidized to the carboxylic acid.

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Alcohol (chemistry)

Reagents useful for the transformation of primary alcohols to aldehydes are normally also suitable for the oxidation of secondary alcohols to ketones. These include Collins reagent and Dess-Martin periodinane. The direct oxidation of primary alcohols to carboxylic acids can be carried out using potassium permanganate or the Jones reagent. See also Enol Ethanol fuel Fatty alcohol Index of alcohol-related articles List of alcohols Lucas test Polyol Rubbing alcohol Sugar alcohol Transesterification Citations General references Antiseptics Functional groups

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Algebraically closed field

In mathematics, a field is algebraically closed if every non-constant polynomial in (the univariate polynomial ring with coefficients in ) has a root in .

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Algebraically closed field

Examples As an example, the field of real numbers is not algebraically closed, because the polynomial equation x2 + 1 = 0 has no solution in real numbers, even though all its coefficients (1 and 0) are real. The same argument proves that no subfield of the real field is algebraically closed; in particular, the field of rational numbers is not algebraically closed. Also, no finite field F is algebraically closed, because if a1, a2, ..., an are the elements of F, then the polynomial (x − a1)(x − a2) ⋯ (x − an) + 1 has no zero in F. By contrast, the fundamental theorem of algebra states that the field of complex numbers is algebraically closed. Another example of an algebraically closed field is the field of (complex) algebraic numbers.

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Algebraically closed field

Equivalent properties Given a field F, the assertion "F is algebraically closed" is equivalent to other assertions: The only irreducible polynomials are those of degree one The field F is algebraically closed if and only if the only irreducible polynomials in the polynomial ring F[x] are those of degree one.

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Algebraically closed field

The assertion "the polynomials of degree one are irreducible" is trivially true for any field. If F is algebraically closed and p(x) is an irreducible polynomial of F[x], then it has some root a and therefore p(x) is a multiple of x − a. Since p(x) is irreducible, this means that p(x) = k(x − a), for some k ∈ F \ {0}. On the other hand, if F is not algebraically closed, then there is some non-constant polynomial p(x) in F[x] without roots in F. Let q(x) be some irreducible factor of p(x). Since p(x) has no roots in F, q(x) also has no roots in F. Therefore, q(x) has degree greater than one, since every first degree polynomial has one root in F.

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Algebraically closed field

Every polynomial is a product of first degree polynomials The field F is algebraically closed if and only if every polynomial p(x) of degree n ≥ 1, with coefficients in F, splits into linear factors. In other words, there are elements k, x1, x2, ..., xn of the field F such that p(x) = k(x − x1)(x − x2) ⋯ (x − xn).

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Algebraically closed field

If F has this property, then clearly every non-constant polynomial in F[x] has some root in F; in other words, F is algebraically closed. On the other hand, that the property stated here holds for F if F is algebraically closed follows from the previous property together with the fact that, for any field K, any polynomial in K[x] can be written as a product of irreducible polynomials.

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Polynomials of prime degree have roots If every polynomial over F of prime degree has a root in F, then every non-constant polynomial has a root in F. It follows that a field is algebraically closed if and only if every polynomial over F of prime degree has a root in F. The field has no proper algebraic extension The field F is algebraically closed if and only if it has no proper algebraic extension.

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If F has no proper algebraic extension, let p(x) be some irreducible polynomial in F[x]. Then the quotient of F[x] modulo the ideal generated by p(x) is an algebraic extension of F whose degree is equal to the degree of p(x). Since it is not a proper extension, its degree is 1 and therefore the degree of p(x) is 1. On the other hand, if F has some proper algebraic extension K, then the minimal polynomial of an element in K \ F is irreducible and its degree is greater than 1.

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The field has no proper finite extension The field F is algebraically closed if and only if it has no proper finite extension because if, within the previous proof, the term "algebraic extension" is replaced by the term "finite extension", then the proof is still valid. (Note that finite extensions are necessarily algebraic.) Every endomorphism of Fn has some eigenvector The field F is algebraically closed if and only if, for each natural number n, every linear map from Fn into itself has some eigenvector.

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An endomorphism of Fn has an eigenvector if and only if its characteristic polynomial has some root. Therefore, when F is algebraically closed, every endomorphism of Fn has some eigenvector. On the other hand, if every endomorphism of Fn has an eigenvector, let p(x) be an element of F[x]. Dividing by its leading coefficient, we get another polynomial q(x) which has roots if and only if p(x) has roots. But if q(x) = xn + an − 1xn − 1+ ⋯ + a0, then q(x) is the characteristic polynomial of the n×n companion matrix

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Decomposition of rational expressions The field F is algebraically closed if and only if every rational function in one variable x, with coefficients in F, can be written as the sum of a polynomial function with rational functions of the form a/(x − b)n, where n is a natural number, and a and b are elements of F. If F is algebraically closed then, since the irreducible polynomials in F[x] are all of degree 1, the property stated above holds by the theorem on partial fraction decomposition.

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On the other hand, suppose that the property stated above holds for the field F. Let p(x) be an irreducible element in F[x]. Then the rational function 1/p can be written as the sum of a polynomial function q with rational functions of the form a/(x – b)n. Therefore, the rational expression can be written as a quotient of two polynomials in which the denominator is a product of first degree polynomials. Since p(x) is irreducible, it must divide this product and, therefore, it must also be a first degree polynomial.

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Relatively prime polynomials and roots For any field F, if two polynomials p(x),q(x) ∈ F[x] are relatively prime then they do not have a common root, for if a ∈ F was a common root, then p(x) and q(x) would both be multiples of x − a and therefore they would not be relatively prime. The fields for which the reverse implication holds (that is, the fields such that whenever two polynomials have no common root then they are relatively prime) are precisely the algebraically closed fields.

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If the field F is algebraically closed, let p(x) and q(x) be two polynomials which are not relatively prime and let r(x) be their greatest common divisor. Then, since r(x) is not constant, it will have some root a, which will be then a common root of p(x) and q(x).

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If F is not algebraically closed, let p(x) be a polynomial whose degree is at least 1 without roots. Then p(x) and p(x) are not relatively prime, but they have no common roots (since none of them has roots).

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Other properties If F is an algebraically closed field and n is a natural number, then F contains all nth roots of unity, because these are (by definition) the n (not necessarily distinct) zeroes of the polynomial xn − 1. A field extension that is contained in an extension generated by the roots of unity is a cyclotomic extension, and the extension of a field generated by all roots of unity is sometimes called its cyclotomic closure. Thus algebraically closed fields are cyclotomically closed. The converse is not true. Even assuming that every polynomial of the form xn − a splits into linear factors is not enough to assure that the field is algebraically closed.

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If a proposition which can be expressed in the language of first-order logic is true for an algebraically closed field, then it is true for every algebraically closed field with the same characteristic. Furthermore, if such a proposition is valid for an algebraically closed field with characteristic 0, then not only is it valid for all other algebraically closed fields with characteristic 0, but there is some natural number N such that the proposition is valid for every algebraically closed field with characteristic p when p > N.

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Every field F has some extension which is algebraically closed. Such an extension is called an algebraically closed extension. Among all such extensions there is one and only one (up to isomorphism, but not unique isomorphism) which is an algebraic extension of F; it is called the algebraic closure of F. The theory of algebraically closed fields has quantifier elimination. Notes References Field (mathematics)

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