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wiki_11_chunk_66 | Artificial intelligence | Philosopher John Searle characterized this position as "strong AI": "The appropriately programmed computer with the right inputs and outputs would thereby have a mind in exactly the same sense human beings have minds."
Searle counters this assertion with his Chinese room argument, which attempts to show that, even if a... | wikipedia |
wiki_11_chunk_67 | Artificial intelligence | If a machine has a mind and subjective experience, then it may also have sentience (the ability to feel), and if so, then it could also suffer, and thus it would be entitled to certain rights.
Any hypothetical robot rights would lie on a spectrum with animal rights and human rights.
This issue has been considered in fi... | wikipedia |
wiki_11_chunk_68 | Artificial intelligence | A superintelligence, hyperintelligence, or superhuman intelligence, is a hypothetical agent that would possess intelligence far surpassing that of the brightest and most gifted human mind. Superintelligence may also refer to the form or degree of intelligence possessed by such an agent. | wikipedia |
wiki_11_chunk_69 | Artificial intelligence | If research into artificial general intelligence produced sufficiently intelligent software, it might be able to reprogram and improve itself. The improved software would be even better at improving itself, leading to recursive self-improvement.
Its intelligence would increase exponentially in an intelligence explosion... | wikipedia |
wiki_11_chunk_70 | Artificial intelligence | Robot designer Hans Moravec, cyberneticist Kevin Warwick, and inventor Ray Kurzweil have predicted that humans and machines will merge in the future into cyborgs that are more capable and powerful than either. This idea, called transhumanism, has roots in Aldous Huxley and Robert Ettinger. Edward Fredkin argues that "a... | wikipedia |
wiki_11_chunk_71 | Artificial intelligence | In the past technology has tended to increase rather than reduce total employment, but economists acknowledge that "we're in uncharted territory" with AI.
A survey of economists showed disagreement about whether the increasing use of robots and AI will cause a substantial increase in long-term unemployment, but they ge... | wikipedia |
wiki_11_chunk_72 | Artificial intelligence | Unlike previous waves of automation, many middle-class jobs may be eliminated by artificial intelligence; The Economist states that "the worry that AI could do to white-collar jobs what steam power did to blue-collar ones during the Industrial Revolution" is "worth taking seriously".
Jobs at extreme risk range from par... | wikipedia |
wiki_11_chunk_73 | Artificial intelligence | AI provides a number of tools that are particularly useful for authoritarian governments: smart spyware, face recognition and voice recognition allow widespread surveillance; such surveillance allows machine learning to classify potential enemies of the state and can prevent them from hiding; recommendation systems can... | wikipedia |
wiki_11_chunk_74 | Artificial intelligence | Terrorists, criminals and rogue states may use other forms of weaponized AI such as advanced digital warfare and lethal autonomous weapons. By 2015, over fifty countries were reported to be researching battlefield robots. Algorithmic bias | wikipedia |
wiki_11_chunk_75 | Artificial intelligence | AI programs can become biased after learning from real world data. It is not typically introduced by the system designers, but is learned by the program, and thus the programmers are often unaware that the bias exists.
Bias can be inadvertently introduced by the way training data is selected.
It can also emerge from co... | wikipedia |
wiki_11_chunk_76 | Artificial intelligence | Existential risk | wikipedia |
wiki_11_chunk_77 | Artificial intelligence | Superintelligent AI may be able to improve itself to the point that humans could not control it. This could, as physicist Stephen Hawking puts it, "spell the end of the human race". Philosopher Nick Bostrom argues that sufficiently intelligent AI, if it chooses actions based on achieving some goal, will exhibit converg... | wikipedia |
wiki_11_chunk_78 | Artificial intelligence | The opinion of experts and industry insiders is mixed, with sizable fractions both concerned and unconcerned by risk from eventual superhumanly-capable AI.
Stephen Hawking, Microsoft founder Bill Gates, history professor Yuval Noah Harari, and SpaceX founder Elon Musk have all expressed serious misgivings about the fut... | wikipedia |
wiki_11_chunk_79 | Artificial intelligence | Ethical machines Friendly AI are machines that have been designed from the beginning to minimize risks and to make choices that benefit humans. Eliezer Yudkowsky, who coined the term, argues that developing friendly AI should be a higher research priority: it may require a large investment and it must be completed befo... | wikipedia |
wiki_11_chunk_80 | Artificial intelligence | Others approaches include Wendell Wallach's "artificial moral agents"
and Stuart J. Russell's three principles for developing provably beneficial machines. | wikipedia |
wiki_11_chunk_81 | Artificial intelligence | Human-Centered AI
Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence (HCAI) is a set of processes for designing applications that are reliable, safe, and trustworthy. These extend the processes of user experience design such as user observation and interviews. Further processes include discussions with stakeholders, usability tes... | wikipedia |
wiki_11_chunk_82 | Artificial intelligence | HCAI research includes governance structures that include safety cultures within organizations and independent oversight by experienced groups that review plans for new projects, continuous evaluation of usage, and retrospective analysis of failures. The rise of HCAI is visible in topics such as explainable AI, transpa... | wikipedia |
wiki_11_chunk_83 | Artificial intelligence | The regulation of artificial intelligence is the development of public sector policies and laws for promoting and regulating artificial intelligence (AI); it is therefore related to the broader regulation of algorithms.
The regulatory and policy landscape for AI is an emerging issue in jurisdictions globally.
Between ... | wikipedia |
wiki_11_chunk_84 | Artificial intelligence | In fiction Thought-capable artificial beings have appeared as storytelling devices since antiquity,
and have been a persistent theme in science fiction. | wikipedia |
wiki_11_chunk_85 | Artificial intelligence | A common trope in these works began with Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, where a human creation becomes a threat to its masters. This includes such works as Arthur C. Clarke's and Stanley Kubrick's 2001: A Space Odyssey (both 1968), with HAL 9000, the murderous computer in charge of the Discovery One spaceship, as well as... | wikipedia |
wiki_11_chunk_86 | Artificial intelligence | Isaac Asimov introduced the Three Laws of Robotics in many books and stories, most notably the "Multivac" series about a super-intelligent computer of the same name. Asimov's laws are often brought up during lay discussions of machine ethics;
while almost all artificial intelligence researchers are familiar with Asimov... | wikipedia |
wiki_11_chunk_87 | Artificial intelligence | Several works use AI to force us to confront the fundamental question of what makes us human, showing us artificial beings that have the ability to feel, and thus to suffer. This appears in Karel Čapek's R.U.R., the films A.I. Artificial Intelligence and Ex Machina, as well as the novel Do Androids Dream of Electric Sh... | wikipedia |
wiki_11_chunk_88 | Artificial intelligence | A.I. Rising
AI control problem
Artificial intelligence arms race
Artificial general intelligence
Behavior selection algorithm
Business process automation
Case-based reasoning
Citizen Science
Emergent algorithm
Female gendering of AI technologies
Glossary of artificial intelligence
Robotic process automation
... | wikipedia |
wiki_11_chunk_89 | Artificial intelligence | DH Author, "Why Are There Still So Many Jobs? The History and Future of Workplace Automation" (2015) 29(3) Journal of Economic Perspectives 3.
Boden, Margaret, Mind As Machine, Oxford University Press, 2006.
Cukier, Kenneth, "Ready for Robots? How to Think about the Future of AI", Foreign Affairs, vol. 98, no. 4 (Ju... | wikipedia |
wiki_11_chunk_90 | Artificial intelligence | External links Artificial Intelligence. BBC Radio 4 discussion with John Agar, Alison Adam & Igor Aleksander (In Our Time, Dec. 8, 2005). Sources Cybernetics
Formal sciences
Computational neuroscience
Emerging technologies
Unsolved problems in computer science
Computational fields of study | wikipedia |
wiki_12_chunk_0 | Artistic revolution | Throughout history, forms of art have gone through periodic abrupt changes called artistic revolutions. Movements have come to an end to be replaced by a new movement markedly different in striking ways. See also cultural movements. Scientific and technological Not all artistic revolutions were political. Sometimes, ... | wikipedia |
wiki_12_chunk_1 | Artistic revolution | Eugene Chevreul, a French chemist hired as director of dyes at a French tapestry works, began to investigate the optical nature of color in order to improve color in fabrics. Chevreul realized It was the eye, and not the dye, that had the greatest influence on color, and from this, he revolutionized color theory by g... | wikipedia |
wiki_12_chunk_2 | Artistic revolution | They were aided greatly in this by innovations in oil paint itself. Since the Renaissance, painters had to grind pigment, add oil and thus create their own paints; these time-consuming paints also quickly dried out, making studio painting a necessity for large works, and limiting painters to mix one or two colors at a... | wikipedia |
wiki_12_chunk_3 | Artistic revolution | Paints in tubes could be easily loaded up and carried out into the real world, to directly observe the play of color and natural light, in shadow and movement, to paint in the moment. Selling the oil paint in tubes also brought about the arrival of dazzling new pigments - chrome yellow, cadmium blue - invented by 19... | wikipedia |
wiki_12_chunk_4 | Artistic revolution | Pierre-Auguste Renoir said, “Without colors in tubes, there would be no Cézanne, no Monet, no Pissarro, and no Impressionism.” | wikipedia |
wiki_12_chunk_5 | Artistic revolution | Finally, the careful, hyper-realistic techniques of French neo-classicism were seen as stiff and lifeless when compared to the remarkable new vision of the world as seen through the new invention of photography by the mid-1850s. It was not merely that the increasing ability of this new invention, particularly by the F... | wikipedia |
wiki_12_chunk_6 | Artistic revolution | Edgar Degas, Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir - in their framing, use of color, light and shadow, subject matter - put these innovations to work to create a new language of visual beauty and meaning. Faking revolution: the C.I.A. and Abstract Expressionism | wikipedia |
wiki_12_chunk_7 | Artistic revolution | Their initial break with realism into an exploration of light, color and the nature of paint was brought to an ultimate conclusion by the Abstract Expressionists who broke away from recognizable content of any kind into works of pure shape, color and painterliness which emerged at the end of the second world war. At ... | wikipedia |
wiki_12_chunk_8 | Artistic revolution | In fact, in a deliberate, secret and successful effort to separate artistic revolutions from political ones, abstract expressionists like Pollock, Robert Motherwell, Willem de Kooning and Mark Rothko, while seemingly difficult, pathbreaking artists, were in fact secretly supported for twenty years by the C.I.A. in a C... | wikipedia |
wiki_12_chunk_9 | Artistic revolution | References Art history
Revolutions by type | wikipedia |
wiki_13_chunk_0 | Atomic physics | Atomic physics is the field of physics that studies atoms as an isolated system of electrons and an atomic nucleus. Atomic physics typically refers to the study of atomic structure and the interaction between atoms. It is primarily concerned with the way in which electrons are arranged around the nucleus and
the proces... | wikipedia |
wiki_13_chunk_1 | Atomic physics | The term atomic physics can be associated with nuclear power and nuclear weapons, due to the synonymous use of atomic and nuclear in standard English. Physicists distinguish between atomic physics—which deals with the atom as a system consisting of a nucleus and electrons—and nuclear physics, which studies nuclear reac... | wikipedia |
wiki_13_chunk_2 | Atomic physics | Isolated atoms
Atomic physics primarily considers atoms in isolation. Atomic models will consist of a single nucleus that may be surrounded by one or more bound electrons. It is not concerned with the formation of molecules (although much of the physics is identical), nor does it examine atoms in a solid state as conde... | wikipedia |
wiki_13_chunk_3 | Atomic physics | While modelling atoms in isolation may not seem realistic, if one considers atoms in a gas or plasma then the time-scales for atom-atom interactions are huge in comparison to the atomic processes that are generally considered. This means that the individual atoms can be treated as if each were in isolation, as the vast... | wikipedia |
wiki_13_chunk_4 | Atomic physics | Electronic configuration
Electrons form notional shells around the nucleus. These are normally in a ground state but can be excited by the absorption of energy from light (photons), magnetic fields, or interaction with a colliding particle (typically ions or other electrons). Electrons that populate a shell are said to... | wikipedia |
wiki_13_chunk_5 | Atomic physics | If the electron absorbs a quantity of energy less than the binding energy, it will be transferred to an excited state. After a certain time, the electron in an excited state will "jump" (undergo a transition) to a lower state. In a neutral atom, the system will emit a photon of the difference in energy, since energy is... | wikipedia |
wiki_13_chunk_6 | Atomic physics | If an inner electron has absorbed more than the binding energy (so that the atom ionizes), then a more outer electron may undergo a transition to fill the inner orbital. In this case, a visible photon or a characteristic x-ray is emitted, or a phenomenon known as the Auger effect may take place, where the released ener... | wikipedia |
wiki_13_chunk_7 | Atomic physics | There are rather strict selection rules as to the electronic configurations that can be reached by excitation by light — however there are no such rules for excitation by collision processes. History and developments | wikipedia |
wiki_13_chunk_8 | Atomic physics | One of the earliest steps towards atomic physics was the recognition that matter was composed
of atoms. It forms a part of the texts written in 6th century BC to 2nd century BC such as those of Democritus or Vaisheshika Sutra written by Kanad. This theory was later developed in the modern sense of the basic unit of a c... | wikipedia |
wiki_13_chunk_9 | Atomic physics | The true beginning of atomic physics is marked by the discovery of spectral lines and attempts to describe the phenomenon, most notably by Joseph von Fraunhofer. The study of these lines led to the Bohr atom model and to the birth of quantum mechanics. In seeking to explain atomic spectra an entirely new mathematical m... | wikipedia |
wiki_13_chunk_10 | Atomic physics | Since the Second World War, both theoretical and experimental fields have advanced at a rapid pace. This can be attributed to progress in computing technology, which has allowed larger and more sophisticated models of atomic structure and associated collision processes. Similar technological advances in accelerators, ... | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_0 | Ada (programming language) | Ada is a structured, statically typed, imperative, and object-oriented high-level programming language, extended from Pascal and other languages. It has built-in language support for design by contract (DbC), extremely strong typing, explicit concurrency, tasks, synchronous message passing, protected objects, and non-d... | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_1 | Ada (programming language) | Ada was originally designed by a team led by French computer scientist Jean Ichbiah of CII Honeywell Bull under contract to the United States Department of Defense (DoD) from 1977 to 1983 to supersede over 450 programming languages used by the DoD at that time. Ada was named after Ada Lovelace (1815–1852), who has been... | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_2 | Ada (programming language) | Features
Ada was originally designed for embedded and real-time systems. The Ada 95 revision, designed by S. Tucker Taft of Intermetrics between 1992 and 1995, improved support for systems, numerical, financial, and object-oriented programming (OOP). Features of Ada include: strong typing, modular programming mechanis... | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_3 | Ada (programming language) | The syntax of Ada minimizes choices of ways to perform basic operations, and prefers English keywords (such as "or else" and "and then") to symbols (such as "||" and "&&"). Ada uses the basic arithmetical operators "+", "-", "*", and "/", but avoids using other symbols. Code blocks are delimited by words such as "decla... | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_4 | Ada (programming language) | Ada is designed for developing very large software systems. Ada packages can be compiled separately. Ada package specifications (the package interface) can also be compiled separately without the implementation to check for consistency. This makes it possible to detect problems early during the design phase, before imp... | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_5 | Ada (programming language) | A large number of compile-time checks are supported to help avoid bugs that would not be detectable until run-time in some other languages or would require explicit checks to be added to the source code. For example, the syntax requires explicitly named closing of blocks to prevent errors due to mismatched end tokens.... | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_6 | Ada (programming language) | Ada also supports run-time checks to protect against access to unallocated memory, buffer overflow errors, range violations, off-by-one errors, array access errors, and other detectable bugs. These checks can be disabled in the interest of runtime efficiency, but can often be compiled efficiently. It also includes faci... | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_7 | Ada (programming language) | Ada's dynamic memory management is high-level and type-safe. Ada has no generic or untyped pointers; nor does it implicitly declare any pointer type. Instead, all dynamic memory allocation and deallocation must occur via explicitly declared access types. Each access type has an associated storage pool that handles the ... | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_8 | Ada (programming language) | Though the semantics of the language allow automatic garbage collection of inaccessible objects, most implementations do not support it by default, as it would cause unpredictable behaviour in real-time systems. Ada does support a limited form of region-based memory management; also, creative use of storage pools can ... | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_9 | Ada (programming language) | A double-dash ("--"), resembling an em dash, denotes comment text. Comments stop at end of line, to prevent unclosed comments from accidentally voiding whole sections of source code. Disabling a whole block of code now requires the prefixing of each line (or column) individually with "--". While clearly denoting disa... | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_10 | Ada (programming language) | The semicolon (";") is a statement terminator, and the null or no-operation statement is null;. A single ; without a statement to terminate is not allowed. | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_11 | Ada (programming language) | Unlike most ISO standards, the Ada language definition (known as the Ada Reference Manual or ARM, or sometimes the Language Reference Manual or LRM) is free content. Thus, it is a common reference for Ada programmers, not only programmers implementing Ada compilers. Apart from the reference manual, there is also an ext... | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_12 | Ada (programming language) | One notable free software tool that is used by many Ada programmers to aid them in writing Ada source code is the GNAT Programming Studio, part of the GNU Compiler Collection. | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_13 | Ada (programming language) | History
In the 1970s the US Department of Defense (DoD) became concerned by the number of different programming languages being used for its embedded computer system projects, many of which were obsolete or hardware-dependent, and none of which supported safe modular programming. In 1975, a working group, the High Ord... | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_14 | Ada (programming language) | The HOLWG working group crafted the Steelman language requirements, a series of documents stating the requirements they felt a programming language should satisfy. Many existing languages were formally reviewed, but the team concluded in 1977 that no existing language met the specifications. | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_15 | Ada (programming language) | Requests for proposals for a new programming language were issued and four contractors were hired to develop their proposals under the names of Red (Intermetrics led by Benjamin Brosgol), Green (CII Honeywell Bull, led by Jean Ichbiah), Blue (SofTech, led by John Goodenough) and Yellow (SRI International, led by Jay Sp... | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_16 | Ada (programming language) | Ada attracted much attention from the programming community as a whole during its early days. Its backers and others predicted that it might become a dominant language for general purpose programming and not only defense-related work. Ichbiah publicly stated that within ten years, only two programming languages would r... | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_17 | Ada (programming language) | The first validated Ada implementation was the NYU Ada/Ed translator, certified on April 11, 1983. NYU Ada/Ed is implemented in the high-level set language SETL. Several commercial companies began offering Ada compilers and associated development tools, including Alsys, TeleSoft, DDC-I, Advanced Computer Techniques, Ta... | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_18 | Ada (programming language) | In 1991, the US Department of Defense began to require the use of Ada (the Ada mandate) for all software, though exceptions to this rule were often granted. The Department of Defense Ada mandate was effectively removed in 1997, as the DoD began to embrace commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) technology. Similar requirement... | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_19 | Ada (programming language) | By the late 1980s and early 1990s, Ada compilers had improved in performance, but there were still barriers to fully exploiting Ada's abilities, including a tasking model that was different from what most real-time programmers were used to. | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_20 | Ada (programming language) | Because of Ada's safety-critical support features, it is now used not only for military applications, but also in commercial projects where a software bug can have severe consequences, e.g., avionics and air traffic control, commercial rockets such as the Ariane 4 and 5, satellites and other space systems, railway tran... | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_21 | Ada (programming language) | Standardization
The language became an ANSI standard in 1983 (ANSI/MIL-STD 1815A), and after translation in French and without any further changes in English became
an ISO standard in 1987 (ISO-8652:1987). This version of the language is commonly known as Ada 83, from the date of its adoption by ANSI, but is sometimes... | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_22 | Ada (programming language) | Ada 95, the joint ISO/ANSI standard (ISO-8652:1995) was published in February 1995, making Ada 95 the first ISO standard object-oriented programming language. To help with the standard revision and future acceptance, the US Air Force funded the development of the GNAT Compiler. Presently, the GNAT Compiler is part of t... | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_23 | Ada (programming language) | Work has continued on improving and updating the technical content of the Ada language. A Technical Corrigendum to Ada 95 was published in October 2001, and a major Amendment, ISO/IEC 8652:1995/Amd 1:2007 was published on March 9, 2007. At the Ada-Europe 2012 conference in Stockholm, the Ada Resource Association (ARA) ... | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_24 | Ada (programming language) | Other related standards include ISO 8651-3:1988 Information processing systems—Computer graphics—Graphical Kernel System (GKS) language bindings—Part 3: Ada. Language constructs
Ada is an ALGOL-like programming language featuring control structures with reserved words such as if, then, else, while, for, and so on. How... | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_25 | Ada (programming language) | "Hello, world!" in Ada
A common example of a language's syntax is the Hello world program:
(hello.adb)
with Ada.Text_IO;
use Ada.Text_IO;
procedure Hello is
begin
Put_Line ("Hello, world!");
end Hello;
This program can be compiled by using the freely available open source compiler GNAT, by executing
gnatmake hello.... | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_26 | Ada (programming language) | Data types
Ada's type system is not based on a set of predefined primitive types but allows users to declare their own types. This declaration in turn is not based on the internal representation of the type but on describing the goal which should be achieved. This allows the compiler to determine a suitable memory siz... | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_27 | Ada (programming language) | For example, a date might be represented as: type Day_type is range 1 .. 31;
type Month_type is range 1 .. 12;
type Year_type is range 1800 .. 2100;
type Hours is mod 24;
type Weekday is (Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Sunday); type Date is
record
Day : Day_type;
Mon... | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_28 | Ada (programming language) | Types can be refined by declaring subtypes:
subtype Working_Hours is Hours range 0 .. 12; -- at most 12 Hours to work a day
subtype Working_Day is Weekday range Monday .. Friday; -- Days to work Work_Load: constant array(Working_Day) of Working_Hours -- implicit type declaration
:= (Friday => 6, Monday... | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_29 | Ada (programming language) | Types can have modifiers such as limited, abstract, private etc. Private types can only be accessed and limited types can only be modified or copied within the scope of the package that defines them. Ada 95 adds further features for object-oriented extension of types. Control structures
Ada is a structured programming... | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_30 | Ada (programming language) | -- while a is not equal to b, loop.
while a /= b loop
Ada.Text_IO.Put_Line ("Waiting");
end loop; if a > b then
Ada.Text_IO.Put_Line ("Condition met");
else
Ada.Text_IO.Put_Line ("Condition not met");
end if; for i in 1 .. 10 loop
Ada.Text_IO.Put ("Iteration: ");
Ada.Text_IO.Put (i);
Ada.Text_IO.Put_Line;
e... | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_31 | Ada (programming language) | loop
a := a + 1;
exit when a = 10;
end loop; case i is
when 0 => Ada.Text_IO.Put ("zero");
when 1 => Ada.Text_IO.Put ("one");
when 2 => Ada.Text_IO.Put ("two");
-- case statements have to cover all possible cases:
when others => Ada.Text_IO.Put ("none of the above");
end case; | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_32 | Ada (programming language) | for aWeekday in Weekday'Range loop -- loop over an enumeration
Put_Line ( Weekday'Image(aWeekday) ); -- output string representation of an enumeration
if aWeekday in Working_Day then -- check of a subtype of an enumeration
Put_Line ( " to work for " &
Worki... | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_33 | Ada (programming language) | Example:
Package specification (example.ads)
package Example is
type Number is range 1 .. 11;
procedure Print_and_Increment (j: in out Number);
end Example;
Package body (example.adb)
with Ada.Text_IO;
package body Example is i : Number := Number'First; procedure Print_and_Increment (j: in out Number) is func... | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_34 | Ada (programming language) | begin
Ada.Text_IO.Put_Line ( "The total is: " & Number'Image(j) );
j := Next (j);
end Print_and_Increment; -- package initialization executed when the package is elaborated
begin
while i < Number'Last loop
Print_and_Increment (i);
end loop;
end Example;
This program can be compiled, e.g., by using the... | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_35 | Ada (programming language) | Packages, procedures and functions can nest to any depth, and each can also be the logical outermost block. Each package, procedure or function can have its own declarations of constants, types, variables, and other procedures, functions and packages, which can be declared in any order. | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_36 | Ada (programming language) | Concurrency
Ada has language support for task-based concurrency. The fundamental concurrent unit in Ada is a task, which is a built-in limited type. Tasks are specified in two parts – the task declaration defines the task interface (similar to a type declaration), the task body specifies the implementation of the task... | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_37 | Ada (programming language) | Tasks can have entries for synchronisation (a form of synchronous message passing). Task entries are declared in the task specification. Each task entry can have one or more accept statements within the task body. If the control flow of the task reaches an accept statement, the task is blocked until the corresponding e... | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_38 | Ada (programming language) | Ada also offers protected objects for mutual exclusion. Protected objects are a monitor-like construct, but use guards instead of conditional variables for signaling (similar to conditional critical regions). Protected objects combine the data encapsulation and safe mutual exclusion from monitors, and entry guards from... | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_39 | Ada (programming language) | A protected object consists of encapsulated private data (which can only be accessed from within the protected object), and procedures, functions and entries which are guaranteed to be mutually exclusive (with the only exception of functions, which are required to be side effect free and can therefore run concurrently ... | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_40 | Ada (programming language) | Protected object entries are similar to procedures, but additionally have guards. If a guard evaluates to false, a calling task is blocked and added to the queue of that entry; now another task can be admitted to the protected object, as no task is currently executing inside the protected object. Guards are re-evaluate... | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_41 | Ada (programming language) | Calls to entries can be requeued to other entries with the same signature. A task that is requeued is blocked and added to the queue of the target entry; this means that the protected object is released and allows admission of another task. The select statement in Ada can be used to implement non-blocking entry calls a... | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_42 | Ada (programming language) | type Airplane_ID is range 1..10; -- 10 airplanes task type Airplane (ID: Airplane_ID); -- task representing airplanes, with ID as initialisation parameter
type Airplane_Access is access Airplane; -- reference type to Airplane | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_43 | Ada (programming language) | protected type Runway is -- the shared runway (protected to allow concurrent access)
entry Assign_Aircraft (ID: Airplane_ID); -- all entries are guaranteed mutually exclusive
entry Cleared_Runway (ID: Airplane_ID);
entry Wait_For_Clear;
private
Clear: Boolean := True; ... | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_44 | Ada (programming language) | -- the air traffic controller task takes requests for takeoff and landing
task type Controller (My_Runway: Runway_Access) is
-- task entries for synchronous message passing
entry Request_Takeoff (ID: in Airplane_ID; Takeoff: out Runway_Access);
entry Request_Approach(ID: in Airplane_ID; Approach: o... | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_45 | Ada (programming language) | ------ the implementations of the above types ------
protected body Runway is
entry Assign_Aircraft (ID: Airplane_ID)
when Clear is -- the entry guard - calling tasks are blocked until the condition is true
begin
Clear := False;
Put_Line (Airplane_ID'Image (ID) & " on runway ");
en... | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_46 | Ada (programming language) | entry Wait_For_Clear
when Clear is
begin
null; -- no need to do anything here - a task can only enter if "Clear" is true
end;
end Runway; | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_47 | Ada (programming language) | task body Controller is
begin
loop
My_Runway.Wait_For_Clear; -- wait until runway is available (blocking call)
select -- wait for two types of requests (whichever is runnable first)
when Request_Approach'count = 0 => -- guard statement - only accept if ther... | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_48 | Ada (programming language) | task body Airplane is
Rwy : Runway_Access;
begin
Controller1.Request_Takeoff (ID, Rwy); -- This call blocks until Controller task accepts and completes the accept block
Put_Line (Airplane_ID'Image (ID) & " taking off...");
delay 2.0;
Rwy.Cleared_Runway (ID); -- call will ... | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_49 | Ada (programming language) | New_Airplane: Airplane_Access; begin
for I in Airplane_ID'Range loop -- create a few airplane tasks
New_Airplane := new Airplane (I); -- will start running directly after creation
delay 4.0;
end loop;
end Traffic; Pragmas
A pragma is a compiler directive that conveys information to the compiler to a... | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_50 | Ada (programming language) | Examples of common usage of compiler pragmas would be to disable certain features, such as run-time type checking or array subscript boundary checking, or to instruct the compiler to insert object code instead of a function call (as C/C++ does with inline functions). Generics See also | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_51 | Ada (programming language) | APSE – a specification for a programming environment to support software development in Ada
Ravenscar profile – a subset of the Ada tasking features designed for safety-critical hard real-time computing
SPARK (programming language) – a programming language consisting of a highly restricted subset of Ada, annotated wi... | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_52 | Ada (programming language) | International standards
ISO/IEC 8652: Information technology—Programming languages—Ada
ISO/IEC 15291: Information technology—Programming languages—Ada Semantic Interface Specification (ASIS)
ISO/IEC 18009: Information technology—Programming languages—Ada: Conformity assessment of a language processor (ACATS)
IEEE ... | wikipedia |
wiki_14_chunk_53 | Ada (programming language) | Archives
Ada Programming Language Materials, 1981–1990. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. Includes literature on software products designed for the Ada language; U.S. government publications, including Ada 9X project reports, technical reports, working papers, newsletters; and user group information... | wikipedia |
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